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1
PROJECT ON
TYPES OF BEHAVIOUR
Submitted by
Ms. SONALI D. MITHBAWKAR
ROLL NO. 11
M.COM-II (Business Management)
SUBMITTED TO
University of Mumbai
PROJECT GUIDE
Prof. Mrunmayee R.Thatte
VPMs
K. G. Joshi College of Arts
& N. G. Bedekar College of Commerce
Chendani Bunder Road, Thane (W) 400601.
Tel. No. 022-25332412
Academic Year
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2013-2014
CERTIFICATE
Miss. Sonali Dhairyadhar Mithbawkar of M.Com (Business Management) Semester
3rd Roll No.11 has undertaken & completed the project work titled Types of Behaviors
during the academic year 2013-14 under the guidance of Prof. Mrunmayee R. Thatte
submitted on K. G. Joshi to this college in fulfillment of the curriculum of MASTER OF
COMMERCE (BUSINESS MANAGEMENT) UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI.
This is bonafide project work & the information presented is True & original to the
best of our knowledge & belief.
Project Guide External Examiner
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In brief, this project has taught me basic fundamentals of Types of Behaviors. I
take this opportunity to thank the people who have helped me in preparing my
project.
It gives me immense pleasure in expressing my post-graduate to my project guide
Prof. Mrs. Mrunmayee R. Thatte for giving her precious time & helped me in
completing my project.
I would also like to thankProf. Mr. Murdeshwar Sir our Principal Dr. Mrs. S.
A. Singh for their valuable suggestions & support provided during the project &
also the library staff for providing the books whenever demanded by us.
I thank them for being informative & tolerant. I would not have been able to
complete to my project without sincere guidance & effort of above. Mentionedpeople, where presence was blessing in disguise for me, which motivated me to
complete my project on time.
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DECLARATION
I Sonali D. Mithbawkar the student of Joshi- Bedekar College presently
studying in M-Com (Business Management) Semester 3rd
hereby declare that, I
have completed this project on Types of Behaviors in Academic year2013-14.
The information submitted is true & original to the best of my knowledge.
Place: Thane
Date:
[ Sonali D. Mithbawkar ]
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INDEX
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SR. NO PARTICULARS PG. NO.
1 Behavior 6
2 Organizational Behavior 7
3 Nature of OB 8
4 History 9
5 Methods used in organizational studies 12
6 Theories & Models 13
7 Elements of OB 17
8 Importance of OB 17
9 Group Behavior 20
10 Defining Characteristics of Groups 21
11 Types of groups 22
12 Group structure 22
13 Stages of group development 23
14 Consequences of intergroup relations 26
15 Human Behavior 32
16 Consumer Behavior 35
17 Evaluation of alternatives 37
18 Conclusion 39
19 Bibliography 40
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Behavior
Behavior or behaviour is the range of actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems,
orartificial entities in conjunction with their environment, which includes the other systems or
organisms around as well as the physical environment.
It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or
external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.
Organization as a purposeful system with several subsystems where individuals and activities are
organized to achieve certain predetermined goals through division of labor and coordination of
activities. Division of labor refers to how the work is divided among the employees and
coordination refers to how all the various activities performed by the individuals are integrated or
brought together to accomplish the goals of the organization. The term organizing is used to
denote one aspect of the managerial activities when he or she is preparing and scheduling the
different tasks that need to be completed for the job to be done.
It is the behavior of the people working in an organization to achieve common goals or
objectives. Organization comprises of people with different attitudes, cultures, beliefs, norms and
values.
So let us understand organizational behavior and what it exactly it means. Organizational
Behavior can be defined as the study of what people think, feel, and do in and around
organizations. The study of Organizational Behavior facilitates the process of explaining,
understanding) predicting, maintaining, and changing employee behavior in an organizational
setting.
The value of organizational behavior is that: it isolates important aspects of the managers job
and offers specific perspective on the human side of management:
People as organizations, People as resources, People as people
In other words, it involves the understanding, prediction and control of human behavior and
factors affecting their performance and interaction among the organizational members. And
because organizational behavior is concerned specifically with employment related situations,
you should not be surprised to find that it emphasizes behavior as related- to concerns such as
jobs, work, absenteeism, employment turnover, productivity, human performance and
management
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_Intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism -
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Organizational behavior
Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups
and structures have on behavior within an organization for the purpose of applying such
knowledge towards improving an organization's effectiveness. It is an interdisciplinary field that
includes sociology, psychology, communication, and management; and it complements theacademic studies oforganizational theory (which is focused on organizational and intra-
organizational topics) and human resource studies (which is more applied and business-oriented).
It may also be referred to as organizational studies or organizational science. The field has its
roots in industrial and organizational psychology.
Organizational Behavior is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and
structure have on behavior within organization. It is the study and application of knowledge
about how people act within organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit. It applies
broadly to the behavior of people in all types of organizations, such as business, government,
schools and services organizations. It covers three determinants of behavior in organizations:individuals, groups, and structure. OB is an applied field. It applies the knowledge gained about
individuals, and the effect of structure on behavior, in order to make organizations work more
effectively. OB covers the core topics of motivation, leadership behavior and power,
interpersonal communication, group structure and process, learning, attitude development and
perception, change process, conflict, job design and work stress.
Overview
Organizational studies encompass the study of organizations from multiple viewpoints, methods,
and levels of analysis. For instance, one textbook divides these multiple viewpoints into three
perspectives: modern, symbolic, and postmodern. Another traditional distinction, present
especially in American academia, is between the study of "micro" organizational behaviour
which refers to individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting and "macro"
strategic management and organizational theory which studies whole organizations and
industries, how they adapt, and the strategies, structures and contingencies that guide them. To
this distinction, some scholars have added an interest in "meso" scale structures - power, culture,
and the networks of individuals and i.e. ronit units in organizationsand "field" level analysiswhich study how whole populations of organizations interact.
Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors come into play. Modern organizational
studies attempt to understand and model these factors. Like all modernist social sciences,
organizational studies seek to control, predict, and explain. There is some controversy over the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resource_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_(management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_(management)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_dynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resource_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_theory -
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ethics of controlling workers' behavior, as well as the manner in which workers are treated (see
Taylor's scientific management approach compared to the human relations movement of the
1940s). As such, organizational behaviour or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at
times been accused of being the scientific tool of the powerful. Those accusations
notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in organizational development, enhancing
organizational performance, as well as individual and group performance / satisfaction /
commitment.
One of the main goals of organizational theorists is, according to Simms (1994), "to revitalize
organizational theory and develop a better conceptualization of organizational life." An
organizational theorist should carefully consider levels assumptions being made in theory, and is
concerned to help managers and administrators.
Nature of Organizational Behavior (OB)
Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral science that is built on contributions from a
number of behavioral disciplines such as psychology, sociology, social psychology,
anthropology and economics.
Psychology
Psychology is the study of human behavior which tries to identify the characteristics of
individuals and provides an understanding why an individual behaves in a particular way.
This thus provides us with useful insight into areas such as human motivation, perceptual
processes or personality characteristics.
Sociology
Sociology is the study of social behavior, relationships among social groups and
societies, and the maintenance of social order. The main focus of attention is on the social
system. This helps us to appreciate the functioning of individuals within the organization
which is essentially a socio-technical entity.
Social psychology
Social psychology is the study of human behavior in the context of social situations. This
essentially addresses the problem of understanding the typical behavioral patterns to be
expected from an individual when he takes part in a group.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the science of mankind and the study of human behavior as a whole. The
main focus of attention is on the cultural system, beliefs, customs, ideas and values
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within a group or society and the comparison of behavior among different cultures. In the
context of todays organizational scenario. It is very important to appreciate the
differences that exist among people coming from different cultural backgrounds as
people are often found to work with others from the other side of the globe.
Economics
Any organization to survive and sustain must be aware of the economic viability of their
effort. This applies even to the non-profit and voluntary organizations as well-technical
entity.
Political Science
Although frequently overlooked, the contributions of political scientists are significant to
the understand arrangement in organizations. It studies individuals and groups within
specific conditions concerning the power dynamics. Important topics under here include
structuring of conflict, allocation of power and how people manipulate power for
individual self-interest etc.
History
While Classical philosophies rarely took upon a task of developing a specific theory of
organizations, some had used implicit conceptions of general organization in construct views on
politics and virtue; the Greek philosopher Plato, for example, wrote about the essence of
leadership, emphasized the importance of specialization and discussed a primordial form of
incentive structures in speculating how to get people to embody the goal of the just city in TheRepublic. Aristotle also addressed such topics as persuasive communication. The writings of
16th century Italian philosopher Niccol Machiavelli laid the foundation for contemporary work
on organizational power and politics. In 1776, Adam Smith advocated a new form of
organizational structure based on the division of labour. One hundred years later, German
sociologist Max Weber wrote about rational organizations and initiated discussion of charismatic
leadership. Soon after, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal setting
and rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920s, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton
Mayo and his colleagues conducted productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in
the United States.
Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies began as an
academic discipline with the advent of scientific management in the 1890s, with
Taylorism representing the peak of this movement. Proponents of scientific management held
that rationalizing the organization with precise sets of instructions and time-motion studies
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would lead to increased productivity. Studies of different compensation systems were carried
out.
After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to how human factors and
psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the identification of
the Hawthorne Effect. This Human Relations Movement focused on teams, motivation, and the
actualization of the goals of individuals within organizations.
Prominent early scholars included Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham
Maslow, David McClelland, and Victor Vroom.
The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale logistics
and operations research led to a renewed interest in rationalist approaches to the study of
organizations. Interest grew in theory and methods native to the sciences, including systems
theory, the study of organizations with a complexity theory perspective and complexity strategy.
Influential work was done by Herbert Alexander Simon and James G. March and the so-called
"Carnegie School" of organizational behavior.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology and the emphasis
in academic study was on quantitative research. An explosion of theorizing, much of it at
Stanford University and Carnegie Mellon, produced Bounded Rationality, Informal
Organization, Contingency Theory, Resource Dependence, Institutional Theory, and
Organizational Ecology theories, among many others.
Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and change became an important
part of study. Qualitative methods of study became more acceptable, informed by
anthropology, psychology and sociology. A leading scholar was Karl Weick.
Elton Mayo -
Elton Mayo, an Australian national, headed the Hawthorne Studies at Harvard. In his
classic writing in 1931, Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, he advised
managers to deal with emotional needs of employees at work.
Mary Parker Follett -
Mary Parker Follett was a pioneer management consultant in the industrial world. As a
writer, she provided analyses on workers as having complex combinations of attitude,
beliefs, and needs. She told managers to motivate employees on their job performance, a
"pull" rather than a "push" strategy.
Douglas McGregor -
Douglas McGregor proposed two theories/assumptions, which are very nearly the
opposite of each other, about human nature based on his experience as a management
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consultant. His first theory was "Theory X", which is pessimistic and negative; and
according to McGregor it is how managers traditionally perceive their workers. Then, in
order to help managers replace that theory/assumption, he gave "Theory Y" which takes a
more modern and positive approach. He believed that managers could achieve more if
they start perceiving their employees as self-energized, committed, responsible and
creative beings. By means of his Theory Y, he in fact challenged the traditional theorists
to adopt a developmental approach to their employees. He also wrote a book, The Human
Side of Enterprise, in 1960; this book has become a foundation for the modern view of
employees at work.
Current state of the field
Organizational behavior is a growing field. Organizational studies departments generally form
part of business schools, although many universities also have industrial psychology andindustrial economics programs.
The field is highly influential in the business world with practitioners such as Peter
Drucker and Peter Senge, who turned the academic research into business practices.
Organizational behaviour is becoming more important in the global economy as people with
diverse backgrounds and cultural values must work together effectively and efficiently. It is also
under increasing criticism as a field for its ethnocentric and pro-capitalist assumptions.
During the last 20 years, organizational behavior study and practice has developed and expanded
through creating integrations with other domains:
Anthropology became an interesting prism to understanding firms as communities, by
introducing concepts like Organizational culture, 'organizational rituals' and 'symbolic
acts' enabling new ways to understand organizations as communities.
Leadership Understanding: the crucial role of leadership at various levels of an
organization in the process of change management.
Ethics and their importance as pillars of any vision and one of the most important driving
forces in an organization.
Aesthetics: Within the last decades a field emerged that focuses on the aesthetic sphere of
our existence in organizations, drawing on interdisciplinary theories and methods from
the humanities and disciplines such as theatre studies, literature, music, visual studies and
many more.
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Methods used in Organizational Studies
A variety of methods are used in organizational studies, many of which are found in other social
sciences.
I. Quantitative methods
a. Multiple Regressionb. Non-Parametric Statisticsc. Time Series Analysisd. Meta-Analysise. ANOVA
II. Computer simulationComputer simulation is a prominent method in organizational studies and strategic
management. While there are many uses for computer simulation (including the
development of engineering systems inside high-technology firms), most academics in
the fields of strategic management and organizational studies have used computer
simulation to understand how organizations or firms operate. More recently, however,
researchers have also started to apply computer simulation to understand organizational
behaviour at a more micro-level, focusing on individual and
interpersonal cognition and behavior such as team working.
While the strategy researchers have tended to focus on testing theories of firm
performance, many organizational theorists are focused on more descriptive theories, the
one uniting theme has been the use of computational models to either verify or extend
theories. It is perhaps no accident that those researchers using computational simulation
have been inspired by ideas from biological modeling, ecology, theoretical
physics and thermodynamics, chaos theory, complexity theory and organization
studies since these methods have also been fruitfully used in those areas.
III. Qualitative methods
a. Ethnography, Which Involves Direct Participant Observationb. Single And Multiple Case Analysisc. Grounded Theory Approachesd. Other Historical Methods
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participant_observationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounded_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Participant_observation -
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Theories and Models
Current theories of organization can be divided into two broad categories:
Organizational Behavior - focusing on the behavior of individuals within organizations
Organization Theory - focusing on the behavior of organizations and populations oforganizations
I. Organizational Behavior
Chester Barnard recognized that individuals behave differently when acting in their
organizational role than when acting separately from the organization. Organizational behavior
studies these differences to describe and model the behavior of individuals and groups in
organizations.
Organizational Behavior draws most heavily on psychology and social psychology.
Motivation in Organizations
Motivation the forces either internal or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and resistance
to pursue a certain course of action.
According to Baron etal. (2008): "Although motivation is a broad and complex concept,
organizational scientists have agreed on its basic characteristics. Drawing from various social
sciences, we define motivation as the set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain human
behavior toward attaining some goal"
II. Organization Theory
Organizational Theory studies the organization as a whole or populations of organizations. The
focus of organizational theory is to understand the structure and processes of organizations andhow organizations interact with industries and societies.
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Systems theory
The systems framework is also fundamental to organizational theory as organizations are
complex dynamic goal-oriented processes. One of the early thinkers in the field was Alexander
Bogdanov, who developed his Tectology, a theory widely considered a precursor of Bertalanffy's
General Systems Theory, aiming to model and design human organizations. Kurt Lewin wasparticularly influential in developing the systems perspective within organizational theory and
coined the term "systems of ideology", from his frustration with behavioral psychologies that
became an obstacle to sustainable work in psychology (see Ash 1992: 198-207). The complexity
theory perspective on organizations is another systems view of organizations. German
sociologist Niklas Luhmann (1927 - 1998) developed asociological system theory and
describes organizations - alongside interactions and society - as one of three main entities.
The systems approach to organizations relies heavily upon achieving negative
entropy through openness and feedback. A systemic view on organizations is transdisciplinary
and integrative. In other words, it transcends the perspectives of individual disciplines,integrating them on the basis of a common "code", or more exactly, on the basis of the formal
apparatus provided by systems theory. The systems approach gives primacy to the
interrelationships, not to the elements of the system. It is from these dynamic interrelationships
that new properties of the system emerge. In recent years, systems thinking has been developed
to provide techniques for studying systems in holistic ways to supplement
traditional reductionistic methods. In this more recent tradition, systems theory in organizational
studies is considered by some as a humanistic extension of the natural sciences.
Organization Structures and Dynamics
Incentive theory is a concept ofhuman resources ormanagement theory. In the corporate sense,
it states that firm owners should structure employee compensation in such a way that the
employees' goals are aligned with owners' goals. As it applies to the operations of firms, it is
more accurately called the principalagent problem.
Complexity theory and organizations
Contingency theory French & Raven's Five bases of Power
Hybrid organization
Informal Organization
Merger integration
Model of Organizational Citizenship behaviour
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal%E2%80%93agent_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal%E2%80%93agent_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal%E2%80%93agent_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal%E2%80%93agent_problemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resources -
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Model of Organizational Justice Model of Organizational Misbehavior Resource dependence theory Mintzberg's Organigraph
Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is most commonly attributed to Max Weber. Weber argued that bureaucracy was
the application of rational-legal authority to the organization of work: through the application of
rationality, bureaucracy was the most technically efficient form of organization. Charles
Perrow has extended this work, showing the continuing application of bureaucratic concepts to
the study of organizations. Perrow argues that all organizations can be understood in terms of
bureaucracy and that organizational failures are more often a result of insufficient application of
bureaucratic principals.
Weber's principals of bureaucratic organization:
A formal organizational hierarchy
Management by rules
Organization by functional specialty and selecting people based on their skills and
technical qualifications
An "up-focused" (to organization's board or shareholders) or "in-focused" (to the
organization itself) mission
Purposefully impersonal to apply the same rules and structures to all people.
Organizational Ecology
Organizational Ecology models apply concept from evolutionary theory to the study of
populations of organizations, focusing on birth (founding), growth and change, and death (firm
mortality). In this view, organizations are 'selected' based on their fit with their operating
environment.
Economic Theories of Organization
Theory of the Firm
Transaction Cost Economics
Agency Theory
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_the_Firmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_Cost_Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_Cost_Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_the_Firmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_theory -
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Organizational Culture
There are two broad approaches of organizational culture.
The first studies the impact of regional and national cultures on the organization. In this school
of thought, the regional or national culture has a significant impact on all aspects of
organizational behavior. Understanding these differences is important for both working with
other organizations from other cultures and in structuring organizations for and managing people
from other cultures. This is exemplified by Geert Hofstede's Hofstede's cultural dimensions
theory. In an ongoing research program, Hofstede has surveyed a large number of cultures and
identified six dimensions of national culture that effect the behavior of individuals in
organizations:
Power Distance
Individualism
Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity
Long Term Orientation
The second approach to organizational culture emphasizes the culture of the organization itself.
This approach presumes that organizations can be characterized by cultural dimensions such as
beliefs, values, rituals, symbols, and so forth. Within this approach, the approaches generally
consist of either developing models for understanding organizational culture or developing
typologies of organizational culture. Edgar Schein developed a model for understanding
organizational culture and identified three levels of organizational culture:
Artifacts and Behaviors
Espoused Values
Shared Basic Assumptions
Schein argued that if any of these three levels were divergent tension would result: if, for
example, espoused values or desired behaviors were not consistent with the basic assumptions of
an organization it is unlikely that these values or behaviors would be rejected.
Typologies of organizational culture identified specific organizational culture and related thesecultures to performance or effectiveness of the organization.
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ELEMENTS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
The key elements in the organizational behaviour are people, structure, technology and the
environment in which the organization operates.
People:People make up the internal and social system of the organization. They
consist of individuals and groups. The groups may be big or small; formal or
informal; official or unofficial. Groups are dynamic and they work in the organization
to achieve their objectives.
Structure:Structure defines the formal relationships of the people in organizations.
Different people in the organization are performing different type of jobs and they
need to be (elated in some structural way so that their work can be effectively co-
ordinated.
Technology: Technology such as machines and work processes provide theresources with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform. The
technology used has a significant influence on working relationships. It allows people
to do more and work better but it also restricts people in various ways.
Environment:All organizations operate within an external environment. It is the part
of a larger system that contains many other elements such as government, family and
other organizations. All of these mutually influence each other in a complex system
that creates a context for a group of people.
IMPORTANCE OF Organizational behaviour
Organizational behaviour offers several ideas to management as to how human factor should be
properly emphasized to achieve organizational objectives. Barnard has observed that an
organization is a conscious interaction of two or more people. This suggests that since an
organization is the interaction of persons, they should be given adequate importance in managing
the organization. Organizational behaviour provides opportunity to management to analyze
human behaviour and prescribe means for shaping it to a particular direction.
Understanding Human Behaviour Organizational behaviour provides understanding the human
behaviour in all directions in which the human beings interact. Thus, organizational behaviour
can be understood at the individual level, interpersonal level, group level and inter-group level.
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Organizational behaviour helps to analyze why and how an individual behaves in a particular
way. Human behaviour is a complex phenomenon and is affected by a large number of factors
including the psychological, social and cultural implications.
Organizational behaviour integrates these factors to provide simplicity in understanding the
human behaviour.
I nterpersonal Level:Human behaviour can be understood at the level of
interpersonal interaction. Organizational behaviour provides means for
understanding the interpersonal relationships in an organization. Analysis of
reciprocal relationships, role analysis and transactional analysis are some of the
common methods, which provide such understanding.
Group Level:Though people interpret anything at their individual level, they are
often modified by group pressures, which then become a force in shaping human
behaviour, thus, individuals should be studied in groups also... Research in groupdynamics has contributed vitally to organizational behaviour and shows how a
group behaves in its norms, cohesion, goals, procedures, communication pattern
and leadership. These research results are advancing managerial knowledge of
understanding group behaviour, which is very important for organizational morale
and productivity.
I nter-group Level:The organization is made up of many groups that develop
complex relationships to build their process and substance. Understanding the
effect of group relationships is important for managers in todays organization.
Inter-group relationship may be in the form of co-operation or competition.
The co-operative relationships help the organization in achieving its objectives.
Organizational behaviour provides means to understand and achieve co-operative group
relationships through interaction, rotation of members among groups, avoidance of win-lose
situation and focusing on total group objectives.
Controlling and Directing Behaviour:After understanding the mechanism of
human behaviour, managers are required to control and direct the behaviour so
that it conforms to the standards required for achieving the organizational
objectives. Thus, managers are required to control and direct the behaviour at all
levels of individual interaction. Therefore, organizational behaviour helps
managers in controlling and directing in different areas such as use of power and
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sanction, leadership, communication and building organizational climate
favorable for better interaction.
Use of Power and Sanction:Thebehaviors can be controlled and directed by the
use of power and sanction, which are formally defined by the organization. Power
is referred to as the capacity of an individual to take certain action and may be
utilized in many ways. Organizational behaviour explains how various means of
power and sanction can, be utilized so that both organizational and individual
objectives are achieved simultaneously.
Leadership:Organizational behaviour brings new insights and understanding to
the practice and theory of leadership. It identifies various leadership styles
available to a manager and analyses which style is more appropriate in a given
situation. Thus, managers can adopt styles keeping in view the various
dimensions of organizations, individuals and situations.
Communication:Communication helps people to come in contact with each
other. To achieve organizational objectives, the communication must be effective.
The communication process and its work in inter-personal dynamics have been
evaluated by organizational behaviour.
Organi zational Climate:Organizational climate refers to the total organisational
situations affecting human behaviour. Organisational climate takes a system
perspective that affect human behaviour. Besides improving the satisfactory
working conditions and adequate compensation, organisational climate includes
creation of an atmosphere of effective supervision; the opportunity for therealization of personal goals, congenial relations with others at the work place and
a sense of accomplishment.
Organisational Adaptation:Organisations, as dynamic entities are characterised
by pervasive changes. Organisations have to adapt themselves to the
environmental changes by making suitable, internal arrangements such as
convincing employees who normally have the tendency of resisting any changes.
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Group behaviour
Group behaviour sociology refers to the situations where people interact in large or small groups.
The field of group dynamics deals with small groups that may reach consensus and act in a
coordinated way. Groups of a large number of people in a given area may act simultaneously to
achieve a goal that differs from what individuals would do acting alone (herd behaviour). A largegroup (a crowd or mob) is likely to show examples of group behaviour when people gathered in
a given place and time act in a similar wayfor example, joining a protest or march,
participating in a fight or acting patriotically.
Special forms of large group behaviour are:
Crowd "hysteria" Spectators - when a group of people gathered together on purpose to participate in an
event like theatreplay, cinema movie, football match, a concert, etc.
Public - exception to the rule that the group must occupy the same physical place. Peoplewatching same channel on television may react in the same way, as they are occupying
the same type of place - in front of television - although they may physically be doing
this all over the world.
Group behaviour differs from mass actions, which refers to people who behave similarly on a
more global scale (for example, shoppers in different shops), while group behaviour refers
usually to people in one place. If the group behaviour is coordinated, then it is called group
action.
Swarm intelligence is a special case of group behaviour where group members interact to fulfill a
specific task. This type of group dynamics has received much attention by the soft computing
community in the form of the particle swarm optimization family of algorithms.
Why do people join groups
People join groups for a multitude of reasons. A major reason is that group membership often
results in some form of need satisfaction on the part of the individual. Membership in a group
can fulfill numerous needs, including some that group members may not realize they benefit
from:
Companionshipgroups provide members to simply be in the company of other people. Survival and securityFrom a historic or evolutionary perspective our ancestors would
partake in group experiences for hunting and defence.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_hysteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie_theaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footballhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_publichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_action_%28sociology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_action_%28sociology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_action_%28sociology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm_intelligencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_action_%28sociology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_action_%28sociology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_action_%28sociology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_publichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footballhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movie_theaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_hysteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd -
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Affiliation and statusmembership into various groups can provide individuals withcertain socials status' or security.
Power and controlwith group membership comes the opportunity for leadership roles;individuals who feel they need to exert their power and opinions over others can have
such experiences within group settings.
Achievementgroups have the capability to achieve more than individuals acting alone.Organizations typically form groups to accomplish work related tasks. However, a member of a
work group may unintentionally reap numerous benefits that are independent of the original
group construct.
Defining characteristics of groups
Currently, no universal definition describes what constitutes a group. Groups can have varying
numbers of members, communication styles, and structures. Research identifies a few common
requirements that contribute to recognition of individuals that work in a collaborative
environment considered a "group":
Interdependence: For an individual of the collective to accomplish their part in theassigned task, they depend, to some degree, on outputs of other collective members.
Social interaction: To accomplish the goal requires some form of verbal or nonverbalcommunication amongst members of the collective.
Perception of a group: All members of the collective must agree they are, in fact, part ofa group.
Commonality of purpose: All the members of the collective come together to serve orattain a common goal.
Favoritism: Members of the same group tend to be positively prejudiced toward othermembers and tend to discriminate in their favor.
Some researchers suggest additional characteristics must be identified to categorize a collective
of individuals as a group such as: working the same shifts, shared physical work locations, and
reporting to the same manager. However the commonalities of the multiple definitions reviewed
suggest that the definition of a group is based on the interdependence of people who come
together to accomplish a common goal.
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Types of groups
Group types are routinely distinguished by the work that the groups do:
Production groups consist of front line employees who produce some tangible output.Autonomous production groups are self-directed or self-managing while semi-
autonomous production groups typically have a dedicated supervisor who oversees alloperations.
Service groups consist of employees that work with customers on a repeated basis, suchas airline teams, maintenance groups, sales groups, call centres, etc.
Management groups consist of an executive or senior manager along with managers thatreport directly to him/her. Management groups are often able to organize themselves
towards goals such as policy making, budgeting, staffing, and planning.
Project groups are generally cross-function groups of individuals brought together forthe duration of a specific, time-limited project. Project groups are usually disbanded once
the project is complete.
Action and performing groups are groups that typically consist of expert specialistswho conduct complex, time-limited performance events. Examples include musical
bands, military crews, surgery teams, rescue units or professional music groups.
Advisory groups consist of employees that work outside of, but parallel with, productionprocesses. Examples include quality circles, selection committees, or other advisory
groups pulled together to make recommendations to an organization.
Group structure
A group's structure is the internal framework that defines members' relations to one another over
time. The most important elements of group structure are roles, norms, values, communication
patterns, and status differentials.
A role can be defined as a tendency to behave, contribute and interrelate with others in a
particular way. Roles may be assigned formally, but more often are defined through the process
of role differentiation. Role differentiation is the degree to which different group members have
specialized functions. Functional (task) roles are generally defined in relation to the tasks the
team is expected to perform. Other types of roles are the socio-emotional role, which helpsmaintain the social fabric of the group, the individual role and the leader role.
Group norms are the informal rules that groups adopt to regulate members' behaviour. Norms
refer to what should be done and represent value judgments about appropriate behaviour in social
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situations. Although they are infrequently written down or even discussed, norms have powerful
influence on group behaviour.
Group values are goals or ideas that serve as guiding principles for the group. Like norms, values
may be communicated either explicitly or on an ad hoc basis. Values can serve as a rallying point
for the team. However, some values (such as conformity) can also be dysfunction and lead to
poor decisions by the team.
Communication patterns describe the flow of information within the group and they are
typically described as either centralized or decentralized. With a centralized pattern,
communications tend to flow from one source to all group members. Centralized
communications allow consistent, standardization information but they may restrict the free flow
of information. Decentralized communications make it easy to share information directly
between group members. When decentralized, communications tend to flow more freely, but the
delivery of information may not be as fast or accurate as with centralized communications.
Another potential downside of decentralized communications is the sheer volume of information
that can be generated, particularly with electronic media.
Status differentials are the relative differences in status among group members. Status can be
determined by a variety of factors, including expertise, occupation, age, gender or ethnic origin.
Status differentials may affect the relative amount of pay among group members and they may
also affect the group's tolerance to violation of group norms (i.e., people with higher status are
given more freedom to violate group norms).
Stages of Group Development
Group development focuses on the somewhat unique way groups are formed and the way they
may change over time. There are a variety of development theories and some suggest that groups
develop through a series of phases culminating in effective performance. The most common of
these models is Tuckman's (1965) Stage Model.
It breaks group development into the following five stages:
I. Forming: As the group convenes, conflict is usually low to non-existent as everyonetries to determine their individual role and the personalities of fellow team members.
This stage is often marked by agreeable neutrality while the group takes form and
begins to navigate the unknown.
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II. Storming: Storming occurs after the group overcomes the sense of uncertainty andbegins to actively explore roles and boundaries. Chaos, pronounced efforts to influence
others, and instances of conflict and/or enthusiasm are common.
III. Norming: Norming in groups indicate that norms and role ownership are emerging.Generally this means that conflict and chaos is decreasing or has ended.
IV. Performing: Originally noted as the final stage, performing occurs when the teamcompletes their primary task(s).
V. Adjourning: Tuckman (1977) refined the model to include a fifth stage to address howthe group begins to disengage and move on to new tasks potentially beyond the team.
While Tuckman's (1965) model is useful in describing developmental processes, there are
instances when groups do not strictly adhere to the exact sequence. Additionally, the storming
stage may decrease but not fully dissipate and continue across other stages.
Intergroup dynamics and behaviour
Intergroup behaviour, or the way groups interact with other groups, is best examined in terms of
the frequency and interaction type the groups engage in. Thomas (1976) elaborated on this
concept by noting that the nature of intergroup interactions depends largely on the degree to
which groups must interact to achieve their goals, and the degree of compatibility between the
goals of different groups.
Accommodation interaction is based on groups having similar goals and taking part inminimal to moderate mutual concession and cooperation to achieve them.
Avoidance interaction is found between groups where there are different or conflictinggoals and even minimal collaboration is not warranted. Both of these interactions are
viewed as having no to low impact on successfully achieving each group's goals.
Collaboration interaction is necessary when the goals of two groups are largelycompatible and partnership is required for successful goal accomplishment.
Competition interaction usually occurs when two groups must interact to meet specificgoals that are vastly incompatible.
Compromise interaction occurs when two groups have a moderate need to interact tomeet specific goals that are moderately compatible. In this interaction, the two groups
may work together on a semi-regular basis to ensure they are on track to meet theoverlapping goals.
Deindividuation is a phenomenon that occurs when individuals of a group become lessaware of their values.
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Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for group members to feel diminishedresponsibility for their actions when surrounded by others who are behaving in a similar
manner.
Intergroup behaviour is influenced by factors beyond interaction types. Examples of theseinclude Interdependence, Organizational Culture, Past History, and Organizational Social
Networks.
Interdependence is the degree to which group depend on each other and is determinedby the type of group tasks (i.e., simple versus complex), organization structure, and the
organizational authority system). Interdependence may occur in one of three common
forms:
o Pooled interdependence: The combined efforts of largely separate groupspositively contribute to the organization.
o Sequential interdependence: The effort or output of one group is used as theinput for another group.
o Reciprocal interdependence: A series of mutual exchanges between groups,requiring a high degree of continuous interactions.
Organizational culture and its shared norms, values, and power structure, often dictatethe frequency and degree to which intergroup interactions and collaborations occur.
Past history with intergroup relationships also impact interdependence behaviour. Theinfluence of this factor is directly connected to the past interaction experience between
groups. Whether the interaction was positive or negative, new group members may be
influenced in the direction of the group's previous experience.
Social networks in organizations are another vital factor when considering intergroupbehaviour. Cordial individual group member interaction is believed to greatly impact the
quality of intergroup relationships.
Intergroup conflict
Intergroup conflict may be caused by competition for resources, goal incompatibility, time
incompatibility, and contentious influence tactics. There are activities that organizations can
participate in to reduce or prevent competition between groups.
Resources: Resources (e.g., budgets, personnel, physical space) are generally limitedwithin organizations so that competition for resources between groups is oftenunavoidable.
Goal Incompatibility: Goal incompatibility occurs when the goals of two or moregroups are in direct opposition such that one group achieves its goal while the other
group cannot meet their goal. Goal incompatibility may be distinguished between real
goal incompatibility and perceived goal incompatibility.
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Time Incompatibility: Work groups perform different tasks, have different goals, andinteract with different customers, such that groups operate under different deadlines.
Contentious Influence Tactics: Contentious influence tactics (e.g., threats, demands,and other negative behaviour) may be used to try to influence members of another group,
creating cycles of retaliation and influencing opinions of those within their own group
(e.g., creating bad reputations).
Consequences of intergroup conflict
Effects related to conflict between groups may be either negative or positive.
Group members' perceptions of one another change in a negative manner where adistinction is made between "in-group" and "out-group".
Members of groups in conflict develop an "us versus them" mentality and view membersof the other group as fundamentally different from themselves but similar to each other.
Group members become more cohesive to compete against a "common enemy". Quality of intergroup interactions (e.g., communication) may decline among groups in
conflict, which in turn may decrease the quality of work.
Negative perceptions of the other group may be transferred to incoming group members. Conflict may create discrepancies between the goals of the group and the goals of the
organization.
Improving the quality of intergroup relations
Superordinate goals are goals that are approved by all groups and that may require the groups
to interact in a cooperative manner to achieve the goals (e.g., produce a product, prepare a report,
and complete a service to customers). Superordinate goals may also be used to create a "common
enemy" that increases the cohesion among group members to defeat the enemy.
Negotiation may facilitate communication of issues that cause conflict between groups so that
groups can form a resolution suitable to everyone.Principled negotiation is a style of negotiation
where members try to problem-solve until they reach a resolution, rather than focus on individual
positions. (Fischer and Ury, 1981)
Member exchanges allow group members to exchange roles with those of the other group
members. These exchanges are intended to provide a new perspective.
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Intergroup Team Development may be used to improve relations for members within the same
group or between groups. One intervention developed by Blake, Shephard, and Mouton (1964)
has members of both groups generate one list about how the group perceives the other group and
one list that describes how they think the other group describes them. The groups share the lists
to reduce misperceptions.
Reducing the need for intergroup interaction may be necessary for work groups that cannotwork well together. A "coordinating group" may be used as an intermediary between groups so
that each group would communicate through the "coordinating group". Organizations may create
slack resources by adding additional inventory so that groups do not have to interact as
frequently. Organizations may also reduce task interdependence between those groups that
function under different time frames and deadlines (i.e., physically separate the groups).
The resource allocation process should be fair so that all groups have access to the process and
political considerations between groups are minimized. Organizations should first reexamine the
process to determine that groups have the resources needed to be effective.
Ethical behaviour is intrinsic to the way we conduct our business and is part of our legacy from
the founder of the Tata Group, Jamsetji Tata, who believed that business must operate in a way
that respects the rights of all its stakeholders and creates an overall benefit for society.
Tata Steel believes in adopting the best practices in terms of corporate governance that have been
and continue to be developed. The company conducts all aspects of its business with full
transparency and accountability.
Risk management
The Group regularly reviews and updates its risk
management system to address the complex
risks faced across our global business.
Our risk management process is assured through
the Groups corporate assurance and risk
management function with reporting to the
Group chief financial officer and reports and
recommendations made to the audit committee
of the Board.
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Business Ethics and our code of conduct
We do not tolerate corrupt or fraudulent practices. We expect honesty, integrity and transparency
in all aspects of our business from our employees, contractors and other business counterparts.
Our ethical principles are clearly and unambiguously articulated in the Tata Code of Conduct, to
which all Tata Group companies subscribe. Originally written in 1998, the Code was updated in2008 to better reflect changing expectations within society and the increasingly global scale of
the Groups activities.
Human rights
The Tata Steel Group is proud of its longstanding reputation as a fair and caring employer, and
respects all human rights both within and outside the workplace. The Tata Code of Conduct
stipulates that all employees have a personal responsibility to help preserve the human rights ofeveryone at work and in the wider community.
Ethical tin sourcing
Our European packaging business produces tinplate for a global market. We include ethical
sourcing protocols in our tin supplier contracts and make a constant effort to have reliable and
auditable information concerning the origin of the acquired minerals so we can avoid the use of
conflict minerals.
We are cooperating in the tin supply chain with the International Tin Research Institute (ITRI)
and are also involved in activities led by the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH). We also
work with NGOs such as the Dutch Friends of the Earth.
Getting started on business ethics
Best practices in corporate governance can only emerge when informed by an established set of
business principles and a defined approach towards organizational behaviour, says management
consultant Anil Chopra.
The fall of many US corporations in the early years of the 21st century brought one clear
message to the fore: ethics matters in business. You can fool some people all the time, or all
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people some of the time, but ultimately you cannot fool all the people all the time. If you are not
running an ethical enterprise, it will cost you dearly at some point or the other. Business leaders,
thus, need to bring ethical conduct to the core of their agenda, if they have not already done so.
But how does a company go about doing this? To share experiences and look for answers, four
business ethics organizations joined forces in early 2004 to create the first European conference
for ethics and compliance practitioners. The conference, called Ideas and Best Practices inBusiness Ethics, was held in France and around 100 corporate ethics practitioners from nine
countries attended it. The meeting provided them an opportunity to meet their counterparts, share
ideas and best practices, and create a forum for continuous dialogue among ethics and
compliance professionals in organizations. The participants came from a range of industries,
including information technology, telecommunications, oil and gas, defence, banking and
finance, utilities, automotive, retail and healthcare. The overwhelming majority of the delegates
gave the event a high rating and voted in favour of having another conference this year.
The main take away from the conference is simple: the sooner companies begin discussing and
enacting processes for managing integrity standards within their organizations, the better. InIndia senior business leaders have to start giving more thought to this area of organizational
behaviour, start framing their beliefs on integrity standards, circulate these among their
employees and get their conference and affirmation on adherence to these standards.
More important, senior leaders must create communication platforms that encourage employees
(and other associates of the company) to raise concerns related to possible or actual deviations
from integrity standards especially those that could damage the reputation of the organization.
All such platforms and processes must get institutionalized in due course.
Kenneth E. Goodpaster, professor of business ethics at the University of St. Thomas,
Minneapolis, USA, emphasizes that "business leaders are the principal architects of corporate
conscience. They are the ones who must manage the challenges associated with pursuing profit
while maintaining integrity. They are the ones most responsible for delivering on the moral
agenda of the corporation. That agenda includes three broad imperatives: orienting,
institutionalizing and sustaining ethical values within the corporate culture."
Given the high competitive pressures, it is easy for business leaders to say that enforcing ethical
conduct is difficult, but this is not an excuse they can use. As Jeffrey E. Garten, dean of the Yale
School of Management, wrote in his book, The Politics of Fortune: A New Agenda for Business
Leaders, "The essential point should not be lost: the more complex the markets become, the more
the integrity of its leaders matters, and the less likely that higher prescriptive laws and
regulations will really matter."
Thomas W. Dunfee of the Wharton School, who holds the Kolodny Chair of Social
Responsibility in Business, even has a tool the C2 Principles for Combating Corruption that
business leaders can use as a starting point for framing their own ethical standards.
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Among the first issues that need discussing in organizations that want to be seen as ethical are
the following:
Creating the post of ethics practitioner or counselor, with a specific description of the job
and its responsibilities.
Discussion of ways and means of embedding values in an organization.
Route map for implementing a code of conduct and establishing a clearly stated set ofintegrity standards.
Working out the relationship between ethics and other business functions, and aligning
company policies with the code.
Planning for ethics training and communication to employees.
Creating a structure for ethics monitoring, compliance auditing and whistle blowing.
Best practices in corporate governance can emerge when informed by an established set of
business principles and a defined approach towards organizational behaviour. Without such
business ethics, governance stands bereft of a well-reasoned rationale. Left to itself, corporate
governance runs the real risk of becoming a mere form-filling exercise, dedicated to observingform. The roadmap, thus, needs to be based on substance, which means adhering to a dedicated
code of behavioural norms in its spirit.
My past employers, the Tatas, have used the maxim 'leadership with trust' to promote ethical
conduct throughout the group, and this is borne out by its longevity. The group's embedded
values have been unity, integrity, excellence, responsibility and understanding. Since 1999, the
group has circulated to all its employees a document called the 'Tata code of conduct', which is
simple, easy to understand and easy to follow. In its journey towards institutionalization, the
substance of the code is constantly communicated at all levels of the organization, apart from
parties with whom the Tatas do business.
The content of the code covers such areas as commitment towards national interest, maintaining
harmonious relations with employees, abhorrence of bribery and corruption, avoidance of
conflicts of interest, and emphasis on corporate social responsibility. The Tata code enhances
internal and external trust and confidence.
The key pitfall to avoid while drawing up such codes is that the contents should not give
employees a feeling that these are a set of dos and don'ts, or that they are too complex. In fact,
whenever employees are faced with ethical dilemmas, the code should offer clear integrity
standards to follow. The organization (through its senior leadership) should communicate often
that it has formally adopted a specific position or set of beliefs regarding these fundamental
values or principles and that it expects (and wants) employees to use them as the basis for
business decision-making.
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A code's credibility depends largely on setting up an effective compliance programme, the key
elements of which should include:
Clear, established standards, policies and procedures that are reasonably capable of
reducing the likelihood of violations of the code.
Assigned supervision to high-level personnel. Each CEO should be the principal
ethics officer, with the process being delegated, top down, to credible individuals ineach company.
A clearly designated ethics counselor / officer. At Tatas the role of the ethics
counselor is well defined.
Encouragement to whistleblowers to report violations, or possible violations, to the
ethics counselor.
Communication and training to all employees. This is the ultimate guarantee of the
success of the ethics code.
Establishment of an advisory channel so that employees can obtain advice regarding
possible ethics dilemmas.
Establishment of uniform disciplinary actions in case of violations and taking
preventive steps to head off future violations, after understanding the 'root' causes of
such violations; for example, by forming appropriate organizational policies.
At company management conferences, the CEO, as the principal ethics officer, could facilitate
occasional 'breakout sessions' to discuss subjects like payment of facilitation and speed money,
handling letters received in anonymity, board oversight of the process for driving ethical
behaviour and so on.
The Sarbanes-Oxley Act stipulates that any company whose securities are registered or traded inthe US has to adopt a code of ethics. Calpers (the California Public Employees' Retirement
System), one of largest US pension funds, is a prominent crusader for reform in corporate
governance and its fund managers may well adopt reality tests on whether processes for
managing business ethics are in place to safeguard the interests of its shareholders, that is, US
pensioners.
While economists and managers know how to measure efficiency, we also need to define and
find acceptable measures of fairness. Tools have been developed to capture the perceptions of
employees in organizations that have developed robust ethical standards per se. Moving forward,
companies need to collaborate to weed out corrupt practices. At the macro level, though,effective corporate governance would largely depend on reforms related to robust corporate law,
accounting standards, strong regulations, an efficient judicial system, and determined efforts to
establish integrity standards within companies by clamping down on corruption and preventing
violations. .
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In India, the Department of Company Affairs, the Securities and Exchange Board and
organizations such as the Central Vigilance Commission need to start a dialogue with
international bodies like the Ethics Officers Association, the Conference Board, USA, and
Transparency International, Berlin, among others. This will help put in place appropriate
processes for managing ethics, implementing codes of integrity standards and business principles
for countering bribes, dissuading corrupt practices and the like.
*Anil Chopra is a management consultant and was till recently a senior consultant on the
management of business ethics at Tata Quality Management Services. This article has been taken
from the February 2005 issue of Indian Management, a publication from the Business Standard
group.
Human behavior
Human behavior refers to the range ofbehaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced
by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis,persuasion, coercion a
nd/orgenetics.
The behavior of people (and otherorganisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with
some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable
limits. In sociology, behavior in general is considered as having no meaning, being not directed
at other people, and thus is the most basic human action. Behavior in this general sense should
not be mistaken with social behavior, which is a more advanced action, as social behavior is
behavior specifically directed at other people. The acceptability of behavior is evaluated relativeto social norms and regulated by various means ofsocial control.
The behavior of humans is studied by the academic disciplines ofpsychiatry, psychology, social
work, sociology, economics, and anthropology.
Human behaviour is experienced throughout an individuals entire lifetime. It includes the way
they act based on different factors such as genetics, social norms, core faith, and attitude.
Behaviour is impacted by certain traits each individual has. The traits vary from person to person
and can produce different actions or behaviour from each person. Social norms also impact
behaviour. Humans are expected to follow certain rules in society, which conditions the way
people behave. There are certain behaviors that are acceptable or unacceptable in different
societies and cultures. Core faith can be perceived through the religion and philosophy of that
individual.
It shapes the way a person thinks and this in turn results in different human behaviors. Attitude
can be defined as "the degree to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_deviancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_deviancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_actionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_disciplinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_disciplinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_behaviorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_actionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_deviancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_deviancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavior -
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the behavior in question." Your attitude highly reflects the behaviour you will portray in specific
situations. Thus, human behavior is greatly influenced by the attitudes we use on a daily basis.
Factors.
i. Genetics
Human behavior can be affected in many ways, one of which is genetics. Everyone has
different traits such as intelligence and shyness which they inherit through heredity.
These traits impact human behavior and there are indications that behavior is affected by
genetics.
First, behavior can be different in different species. People behave differently from how a
chickadee behaves for example.
Second, behavior can be reproduced in consecutive generations of humans. In eachgeneration of people there will be similar behaviors that occur.
Third, biological structures can be alternated resulting in behavior changes.
For example, if one develops a brain injury, one can change from behaving politely to
being aggressive. Another way behavior can be affected is by behaviors that are brought
up in families.
For example, certain behaviors that can occur from a mental illness that runs in the
family.
Fourth, evolutionary history of genetics has a big impact on behavior. All species haveDNA which can bind them all together. Geneticists are now able to introduce or exclude
specific genes, resulting in different traits and behaviors arising from those traits. One
gene does not create behavior. Behaviors result from a combination of genes, and these
genes can be affected by different factors. Factors such as genes and environment are
included in the growth of any trait. Genes can be manipulated and modified and the
environment can increase certain outcomes of genes. Understanding genetics in relation
to behavior is difficult and there are many things still being studied about this.
ii. Social norms
Social norm. Individuals behavior changes according to the group they go into, whichallows norms to provide an order in society. Without social norms, it would be difficult
for human society to function; humans beings need norms in order to guide and direct
their behaviors. Norms are used to create roles in society, which allows people to
function properly in different social class structures. These are some of the reasons why
people, believe that social norms are crucial to human behavior.
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iii. Core faith and culture
Another important factor of human behavior is their corefaith. This faith can be
through religion, philosophy, culture, or personal belief and often affects the way a
person can behave. 80% of the United States public claims some sort of belief in a higher
power, which makes religion a large importance in society. It is only natural for
something that plays such a large role in society to have an effect on human behavior.
For example, when a lesbian couple was featured on the JC Penney Mother's
Day advertisement in 2012, thousands ofChristian mothers boycotted the pro-gay
marriage company. Morals are another factor of core faith that affects the way a person
behaves. Emotions connected to morals including shame, pride, and discomfort and these
can change the way a person acts. Most importantly, shame and guilt have a large impact
on behavior. Lastly, culture highly affects human behavior. The beliefs of certain cultures
are taught to children from such a young age that they are greatly affected as they grow
up. These beliefs are taken into consideration throughout daily life, which leads to people
from different cultures acting differently. These differences are able to alter the way
different cultures and areas of the world interact and act.
iv. Attitude
An attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor toward a person, place, thing, or
event. The interesting thing about an attitude and human beings is that it alters between
each individual. Everyone has a different attitude towards different things. A main factor
that determines attitude is likes and dislikes. The more one likes something or someone
the more one is willing to open up and accept what they have to offer. When one doesnt
like something, one is more likely to get defensive and shut down. An example of how
one's attitude affects one's human behavior could be as simple as taking a child to thepark or to the doctor. Children know they have fun at the park so their attitude becomes
willing and positive, but when a doctor is mentioned, they shut down and become upset
with the thought of pain. Attitudes can sculpt personalities and the way people view who
we are. People with similar attitudes tend to stick together as interests and hobbies are
common. This does not mean that people with attitudes do not interact, because they do.
What it means is that specific attitudes can bring people together (e.g., religious groups).
Attitudes have a lot to do with the mind which highly relates to Human behavior. The
way a human will behave depends a lot on how they look at the situation and what they
expect to gain from it. Positive attitudes are better than negative ones as negativity can
bring on negative emotions that most of the time can be avoided. It is up to humans to
make sure their attitudes positively reflect the behaviors they want to show. This can be
done by assessing their attitudes and properly presenting them in society.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbian_couplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JC_Penneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother%27s_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother%27s_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boycotthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moralshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boycotthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother%27s_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother%27s_Dayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JC_Penneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lesbian_couple -
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Consumer Behaviour
Consumer behaviour is the study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they
use to select, secure, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and
the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society.
It blends elements from psychology, sociology, social anthropology and economics. It attempts
to understand the decision-making processes of buyers, both individually and in groups. It
studies characteristics of individual consumers such as demographics and behavioural variables
in an attempt to understand people's wants. It also tries to assess influences on
the consumerfrom groups such as family, friends, reference groups, and society in general.
Customer behaviour study is based on consumer buying behaviour, with the customer playing
the three distinct roles of user, payer and buyer. Research has shown that consumer behaviour is
difficult to predict, even for experts in the field. Relationship marketing is an influential asset for
customer behaviour analysis as it has a keen interest in the re-discovery of the true meaning of
marketing through the re-affirmation of the importance of the customer or buyer. A greaterimportance is also placed on consumer retention, customer relationship management,
personalization, customization and one-to-one marketing. Social functions can be categorized
into social choice and welfare functions.
Each method for vote counting is assumed as social function but ifArrows possibility
theorem is used for a social function, social welfare function is achieved. Some specifications of
the social functions are decisiveness, neutrality, anonymity, monotonicity, unanimity,
homogeneity and weak and strong Pareto optimality. No social choice function meets these
requirements in an ordinal scale simultaneously. The most important characteristic of a social
function is identification of the interactive effect of alternatives and creating a logical relationwith the ranks. Marketing provides services in order to satisfy customers. With that in mind the
productive system is considered from its beginning at the production level, to the end of the
cycle, the consumer (Kioumarsi et al., 2009).
Black box model
The black box model shows the interaction of stimuli, consumer characteristics, and decision
process and consumer responses. It can be distinguished between interpersonal stimuli (between
people) or intrapersonal stimuli (within people). The black box model is related to the black box
theory ofbehaviorisms, where the focus is not set on the processes inside a consumer, but
the relation between the stimuli and the response of the consumer. The marketing stimuli are
planned and processed by the companies, whereas the environmental stimuli are given by social
factors, based on the economical, political and cultural circumstances of a society. The buyers
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black box contains the buyer characteristics and the decision process, which determines the
buyers response.
Environmental factors Buyer's black boxBuyer's
responseMarketing
Stimuli
Environmental
Stimuli
Buyer
CharacteristicsDecision Process
Product
Price
Place
Promotion
Economic
Technological
Political
Cultural
Demographic
Natural
Attitudes
Motivation
Perceptions
Personality
Lifestyle
Knowledge
Problemrecognition
Information
search
Alternative
evaluation
Purchase decision
Post-purchase
behaviour
Product
choice
Brand choice
Dealer choice
Purchase
timing
Purchase
amount
The black box model considers the buyers response as a result of a conscious, rational decision
process, in which it is assumed that the buyer has recognized the problem. However, in reality
many