Tree species used for low-intensity production of charcoal and...

Tree species used for low-intensity production of charcoal and wood-tar in the 18th-century Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland

by Tomasz SAMOJLIK, Bogumiła JĘDRZEJEWSKA, Białowieża, Poland, Maria MICHNIEWICZ, Dariusz KRASNODĘBSKI, Marek DULINICZ, Hanna OLCZAK, Warsaw, Poland, Andrzej KARCZEWSKI, Białowieża, Poland & Ian D. ROTHERHAM, Sheffi eld, United Kingdom

with 3 fi gures and 4 tables

Abstract: Despite being one of the best preserved temperate forest of the European lowlands, the Białowieża Primeval Forest (eastern Poland) has a long history of human use. We described the areal extent, and habitat features related to 18th-century char-coal and wood-tar production in this forest. Based on anthracological analysis of charcoal samples collected in production sites we determined the tree taxa used in production and discussed the possible impact of this exploitation on tree stands.

Eight charcoal and nine wood-tar production sites were found in the area which covered over 300 km2. The density of charcoal hearths was estimated at 2–4 sites per 100 km2, and that of wood-tar kilns at 2–6 sites per 100 km2. Contemporary habitat features in the 500-m zones around production sites were compared with those around thirteen random points. As expected, charcoal hearths were located signifi cantly closer to streams and more frequently in wet and deciduous forests, whereas wood-tar kilns were closer to water than random points. Archaeological excavation was carried out on the remains of one charcoal hearth (dated to the second half of the 18th century), and revealed its construction features with a layer of stones on the bottom and a wooden truss. The tree species used in production were related to tree stand composition reconstructed from published palynological studies. In total, ten taxa were discovered in samples from charcoal hearths and two in samples from wood-tar kilns. Hornbeam Carpinus betulus (52.3% of samples), birch Betula sp. (17.5%) and small-leaved lime Tilia cordata (14.0%) were most often used in charcoal production, while Scots pine Pinus sylvestris (98.7% of samples) was almost exclusively the species used for manufacturing wood-tar. Comparison with published palynological data suggested selective exploitation of hornbeam for charcoal production. In con-clusion, charcoal and tar burning was not of great importance in BPF in the past (due to low site density and short period of activ-ity), therefore the direct infl uence of these activities on the forest development was very limited.

Keywords: forest history, environmental history, forest utilisation, anthropogenic impact, wood products

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Introduction

In Europe, charcoal production has been recorded in pre-historic fi nds dating back to some six thousand years ago (MASSENGALE 2006). It became especially important as a smelting fuel in bronze and iron ages (JOOSTEN et al. 1998, KELLEY 2002). However, it was the rapid development of the iron industry during the 17th and 18th centuries, that demanded great supply of charcoal and had a pervasive infl uence on European and North American forests (MI-KAN & ABRAMS 1996). Other industrial extractions also affected the European forest and another example of such historic forest exploitation was that of wood-tar produc-tion. In Central and Eastern Europe, this has been re-corded since the middle of the third millennium BC (KOŚKO & LANGER 1997). Wood-tar had many uses, such as providing a universal source of grease and glue, insula-tion for building and ship hulls, skin and wood preserva-tive, and traditional medicines (SURMIŃSKI 2002).

According to historical descriptions of the process of charcoal production in Poland from the beginning of the 19th century (DUNIN 1828), it was already then known

that the effi ciency of production depended highly on the tree species used. This source suggests the following list of preferred tree species for charcoal burning (with the relative estimated percentage of production effi ciency): beech Fagus sp. (100%), hornbeam Carpinus sp. (100%), ash Fraxinus sp. (95%), maple Acer sp. (90%), birch Bet-ula sp. (88%), elm Ulmus sp. (86%), oak Quercus sp. (84%), larch Larix sp. (83%), pine Pinus sp. (80%), fi r Abies sp. (78%), spruce Picea sp. (75%), aspen Populus tremula (60%), alder Alnus sp. (59%), lime Tilia sp. (56%), poplar Populus sp. (42%), common osier Salix viminalis (50%), and other willows Salix sp. (40%). As for wood-tar, the material used for its production in Po-land was mainly pine (CZOPEK 1997).

Studies describing the species used in past charcoal production have been carried out for a number of Euro-pean and North American forests. That conducted in the Ligurian Apennines (north-western Italy) by MONTAN-ARI et al. (2000) was aimed at reconstructing forest species composition and diversity based on sampling charcoal hearths remains from different times. LUDEMANN (2002, 2003) and LUDEMANN et al. (2004) analysed macrofossil

Phytocoenologia Vol. 43 (2013), Issue 1-2, 1–12 ArticleStuttgart, June 2013

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2 Samojlik et al.

samples from charcoal kiln sites and considered recent ecological conditions in the vicinity of sites in Southern Black Forest (south-western Germany). This was to de-termine, if species selection for charcoal burning oc-curred and whether this could be evidenced from the re-mains. Charcoal samples from those kiln sites refl ected the tree species pattern expected for the natural condi-tions of the studied area and so there was no positive se-lection apparent. NELLE (2003) also analysed charcoal kiln sites but in this case in the Lower Bavarian Forest (south-eastern Germany) and used the fi ndings to recon-struct the historical uses of the landscape. The results of this study showed that charcoal burners did not select tree species for burning, and that since the 14th century, there was a specifi c land-use pattern present and identifi -able in the area. The latter refl ected the relatively inten-sive use of the more accessible parts of the forest with a resulting depletion of potential fuel sources (coppice). Then less accessible slopes were under reduced pressure. A similar approach to the reconstruction of an historical landscape underpinned the study by NÖLKEN (2005). This used anthracological analysis of charcoal hearth re-mains in the Vosges area (north-eastern France). Again, there was no evidence of the selective use of tree species for burning.

The above studies give us a good description of char-coal production and the species selected for this produc-tion in Europe. However, little is known about the long-term impact these activities had on forest dynamics, for example via more frequent forest fi res. For instance, SCHNEIDER (1996) used pollen analysis to study the envi-ronmental effects of charcoal production, among other land uses, in the Chesapeake Bay (Maryland, USA). The conclusion was that increased forest fi res connected with charcoal burning led to an increase of relatively fi re re-sistant oak Quercus sp. dominance.

The Białowieża Primeval Forest in eastern Poland is regarded as the best-preserved temperate lowland wood-land in Europe. However, it also has a long history of low-intensity human exploitation (SAMOJLIK 2007, 2010, 2013). As the available palynological data, although spa-tially limited (MITCHELL & COLE 1998) offer an insight into tree species composition of the forest in the period when wood-tar and charcoal production took place, the long-term impact of both kinds of activities on the forest can be explored.

In this study conducted in the ancient forest, the aims were to: (1) Determine the tree species used in the forest in charcoal and wood-tar burning processes in the 18th century; (2) Relate the distribution of charcoal and wood-tar production sites to the contemporary forest habitat features: distance to rivers and streams and type of forest; (3) Assess the impact of charcoal and wood-tar produc-tion on the forest based on available, published palyno-logical data (MITCHELL & COLE 1998).

Material and methods

Study area

The study was conducted in the Polish part of Białowieża Primeval Forest (= BPF, 52˚30´-53˚ N, 23˚30´-24˚15´ E), the best preserved European temperate lowland forest, covering 1500 km2. BPF straddles the Polish-Belarussian border, with 40% of the forest area on the Polish side. The Polish part of BPF (635 km2) consists of Białowieża National Park (105 km2), with tree stands on average older than 100 years, and 530 km2 of exploited forests under State Forestry management with tree stands aver-aging 80 years (JĘDRZEJEWSKA & JĘDRZEJEWSKI 1998). Open areas, including settlements, arable land, rivers and valleys, cover over 30 km2. The rest of the Polish part of BPF area is covered mainly by deciduous and mixed de-ciduous stands dominated by common oak Quercus robur, small-leaved lime Tilia cordata, and hornbeam Carpinus betulus (61%). Coniferous and mixed coni-feron tree stands dominated by Scots pine Pinus sylvestris and Norway spruce Picea abies cover 25% of the forest. Wet forests with black alder Alnus glutinosa and ash Fraxinus excelsior cover 14% of the area, mainly along-side river valleys (SOKOŁOWSKI 2004). The climate is tran-sitional between continental and Atlantic type with a mean annual temperature of 8.0°C and annual precipita-tion of 583 mm (calculated for the period 1995–2005).

Due to BPF’s status of the royal forest and monarchs’ hunting ground (since the 14th century), commercial production of wood-tar and charcoal was introduced here signifi cantly later than in other woodlands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (HEDEMANN 1939; SAMOJLIK 2006, 2010). Wood-tar and birch tar production in BPF were fi rst mentioned in documents from 1696, and the largest numbers of wood-tar kilns were built in the second half of the 18th century. In 1796, a forest in-ventory noted 82 wood-tar kilns, though most were al-ready inactive (HEDEMANN 1935, 1939). Charcoal burn-ing started in the late 17th century, but it was most inten-sive in the second half of the 18th century, and survived here in the traditional form for only a few more decades. The process of charcoal manufacture used traditional earth hearths (DUNIN 1828; SURMIŃSKI 2003; SZWARC 1923).

Analysis of remains of old forest production sites

In 2003–2006, a systematic search for the remains of charcoal hearths and wood-tar kilns was undertaken in the Polish part of BPF. The search was based on existing inventories of earth mounds in BPF (GÖTZE 1929; GÓR-SKA 1976; FALIŃSKI 1981; OSZMIAŃSKI undated manu-script), personal communications from dwellers of forest


Tree species used for low-intensity production of charcoal and wood-tar 3

villages, and a questionnaire survey conducted among the forest service of the three forest districts of the BPF (Białowieża, Browsk, and Hajnówka) and Białowieża National Park.

Remains of charcoal hearths were easy to identify in the forest, distinguished as groups of large mounds (up to 1.8 m high, with diameter usually larger than 3 m) with partially exposed soil surfaces of a distinct black colour (charcoal accumulation, mainly in the form of charcoal dust). Similarly, the remains of wood-tar kilns were iden-tifi ed by visible features of their construction – a round soil embankment (up to 1 m high, 5–15 m in diameter) with the remains of tar drain (made of clay or bricks, in some cases still covered with wood-tar). In total, eight charcoal hearths and nine wood-tar kilns were identifi ed (Fig. 1). Most of the features (six hearths and fi ve kilns)

were searched for samples of charcoal. Samples ranging from 0.6 to 205.9 cm3 were collected by hand from three to twelve randomly selected points within a hearth or kiln. At each point, a small pit up to 0.5 m deep was dug to extract fragments of charcoal. In total, 202 samples, including 492 fragments of charcoal (on average 2.4 frag-ments per sample) were collected. The overall volume of samples from charcoal hearths amounted to 1,663 cm3 and that from wood-tar kilns to 1,026 cm3.

Anthracological analysis was conducted at the labora-tory of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. Charred macro-remains were identifi ed to genus or species based on ana-tomical features at transversal and longitudinal fracture surfaces using a stereoscope with 20–70 × magnifi cation and microscope with 200–400 × magnifi cation. The bo-

Fig. 1. Location of remains of the late 17th–18th century charcoal hearths and wood-tar kilns discovered in the Polish part of Białowieża Primeval Forest (BPF) and the location of random sites for environmental analyses. C4 – charcoal hearth excavated in September 2004.


4 Samojlik et al.

tanical keys (BRAZIER & FRANKLIN 1961; GALEWSKI & KORZENIOWSKI 1959; SCHWEINGRUBER 1978) and the re-searchers’ own collections of comparative microscopic materials were used. The share of taxa among charcoal samples was calculated as the proportion of obtained charcoal fragments (in total n = 492). The species-level identifi cation was based on the assumption that only lo-cally occurring tree species were utilised in charcoal and wood-tar manufacturing in the BPF. This is confi rmed by the historical sources concerning management of the for-est in the 18th century. None of the available sources mentioned the import of raw material to the BPF.

Archaeological excavation was carried out on one of the charcoal hearths (C4, see Fig. 1) in September 2004. The aim of that exploratory excavation was to reveal the form of charcoal production sites. It was hoped to confi rm the dates of utilisation suggested by written sources. A trench 2 × 4 m was opened in one of the mounds and charcoal samples were collected for anthracological analysis.

Based on the Survey map of forest habitats of Białowieża, Browsk and Hajnówka Forest Districts (2002, scale 1:20,000) and Map of forest habitats of Białowieża National Park (2001, scale 1:20,000; in: MICHALCZUK 2001), contemporary habitats were ana-lysed. It seems justifi ed in the light of the fact that many habitat features, like streams and rivers, have not changed in the BPF since the 18th century. Though the tree spe-cies composition has undoubtedly changed throughout centuries, the soil types are the main determinant for for-est types, and contemporary habitat maps based on soil types can be used as a good indication of the distribution of the forest types in the past. The circular buffer zones extending 500 m around each of eight charcoal hearths, nine wood-tar kilns, and thirteen random points were drawn on the habitat maps. The longitude and latitude of random points were determined using the random selec-tion tool in Microsoft Excel. Random points that were located in settlements or rivers and those that were < 1 km from the charcoal hearths or wood-tar kilns were omitted. The forest type in which the point (hearths, kilns, and random points) was located was noted, and the share of forest habitats (coniferous, mixed, deciduous, and ash-alder) was calulated as the percentage of the area of each buffer zone. Additionally, the distance between the point and the nearest stream was measured and the total length of stream in buffer zone was calculated.

There is only one recent palynological study with ra-diocarbon dating available from the area of BPF. MITCH-ELL & COLE (1998) sampled pollen profi les from two sites located 0.3 km apart in forest compartment 256 in the northern part of the Białowieża National Park. The fi rst site was located in mixed coniferous forest Pino-Quercetum, the second in deciduous forest Tilio-Carpi-netum. The data from MITCHELL & COLE (1998) were used as proxies of tree stand composition of the forest in the period of charcoal and wood-tar production. The

calibrated time scale based on four radiocarbon dates from both sites spanning back to 1290 ± 60 BP from this work and the conventional date 1990 at profi le depth 0 cm were used to relate depths of the sampled profi le to the time of pollen deposition using the best fi t quadratic equation (r2 = 0.999). Then the tree species composition was determined based on reconstructed vegetation data (Figs. 2 and 4 in MITCHELL & COLE 1998) at depths re-lated to years 1730–1810 (for Site 1 – depths 20.5, 19.5 and 18.5 cm and for Site 2 – 8 and 6 cm), to compare them with the charcoal composition in charcoal hearths and wood-tar kilns. For full data on the palynological profi les used here for comparison, see MITCHELL & COLE (1998).

Jacobs’ selectivity index D (JACOBS 1974), was applied to assess the selection of tree species used in those objects for production: D = (r – p) / (r + p – 2rp). For the calcula-tion r is the fraction of species present in a whole sample of identifi ed charcoal, and p is the fraction of species in the forest estimated for the period 1730–1810 based on Mitchell and Cole (1998). D values indicate the range from total avoidance (–1), through selection proportional to species occurrence (0), to strong positive selection (1). The strength of the selection was calculated using Mann-Whitney U test.

Results

Distribution and contemporary habitat correlates of charcoal and wood-tar production sites

The nearest neighbour distances (NND, straight-line dis-tances) between the hearths varied from 1.3 to 11.6 km (Fig. 1), on average 5.8 km (SE 1.6). The total area in which charcoal hearths occurred varied from 211 km2 to 380 km2. The latter estimate is a minimum convex poly-gon encompassing all hearths and a buffer zone 2.9 km wide (= 0.5 NND). Thus, we recorded one hearth in every 26.4 km2 to 47.5 km2 of forest. All hearths were located close to streams or small rivers, on average 12 m away (Table 1), whereas random sites were on average 1.5 km from water sources (p < 0.0005, Mann-Whitney U-test). Deciduous and wet (riverside) forests, which provided the main tree species for charcoal production (see below) were more frequent around hearths than around random sites (Table 1), but the differences were not signifi cant (wet forests: U = 75.5, p = 0.089; decidu-ous: U = 59.0, p = 0.61, Mann-Whitney U-test).

Wood-tar kilns were located 2.1–9.6 km (mean 5.6, SE 0.9) away from each other (nearest neighbour distance) (Fig. 1). The total area in which nine wood-tar produc-tion sites occurred covered 150–362 km2 (the latter esti-mate included buffer zones 2.8 km wide i.e. 0.5 NND), so one kiln per 16.7–40.2 km2 of forest was recorded. Kilns



were located closer to streams (on average 0.58 km) than random sites (U = 22, p = 0.01, Mann-Whitney U-test), and were predominantly in places dominated by conifer-ous and mixed forests (Table 1). However, the forest composition around kilns and random sites was not sig-nifi cantly different (U = 35.0 to 72.0, p = 0.12 to 0.74).

From the point of view of contemporary forest habi-tats, it seems that very distinct localities and habitats were selected for constructing hearths and wood-tar kilns: these two types of production sites differed signifi cantly in distance from stream (p < 0.0005), proportion of coni-

ferous and mixed forests (p = 0.034), and proportion of wet forests (p = 0.007, Mann-Whitney U-test).

Archaeological excavations in a charcoal hearth C4

The remains of the hearth comprised seven mounds of different sizes (Fig. 2). The trench was localised in the largest mound. The embankment was up to 1.8 m deep and was made of soil mixed with layers of charcoal pow-

Fig. 2. Remains of a charcoal-hearth in Berezowo Glade (Białowieża Forest District, BPF) excavated archaeologically in 2004: (1) plan of the remains of the hearth with the excavated trench, (2) plan of the trench with the remains of the construction pole (A) and the layer of stones at the bottom (B), (3) the construction of the charcoal hearth according to Dunin (1828), (4) overview photograph of the remains of the hearth, (5) photograph of the bottom of the hearth. Photographs by T. Samojlik (4, 5), drawings by T. Samojlik (1) and H. Olczak (2).


6 Samojlik et al.

Table 1. Distribution and contemporary habitat correlates of charcoal and wood-tar production sites in the Polish part of Białowieża Pri-meval Forest (BPF) compared to random sites. Symbols as in Fig. 1.

Charcoal hearths (C), wood-tar kilns (K), and random sites (R)

Distance from stream (metres)

Forest types in the buffer zone with a 500-metre radius (% area)

Coniferous and mixed Deciduous Wet

Random sites

R1 275 18.1 66.8 15.1

R2 1250 69.0 30.9 0.1

R3 2750 87.9 3.5 8.6

R4 325 75.9 3.9 20.2

R5 1950 100.0 0 0

R6 325 2.0 83.6 14.4

R7 2000 0.0 89.3 10.7

R8 2325 2.7 81.6 15.7

R9 1950 12.4 59.2 28.4

R10 1925 30.2 49.8 20.0

R11 500 25.0 65.9 9.1

R12 1875 78.0 5.8 16.2

R13 1100 73.5 5.0 21.5

Mean ± SE 1427 ± 245 44.2 ± 10.6 42.0 ± 10.0 13.8 ± 2.4

Charcoal hearths

C1 10 49.8 17.5 32.7

C2 10 30.0 62.8 7.2

C3 10 15.2 71.5 13.3

C4 25 32.0 28.6 39.4

C5 10 2.3 43.9 53.8

C6 10 10.8 69.0 20.2

C7 10 3.8 81.2 15.0

C8 10 39.5 22.1 38.4

Mean ± SE 12 ± 1.9 22.9 ± 6.2 49.6 ± 8.8 27.5 ± 5.7

Wood-tar kilns

W1 500 32.3 46.1 21.6

W2 250 51.6 25.6 22.8

W3 1250 99.7 0.0 0.3

W4 500 71.4 28.5 0

W5 1500 94.4 3.4 2.2

W6 500 7.5 92.5 0

W7 250 20.7 74.9 4.4

W8 250 34.8 59.5 5.7

W9 250 83.0 12.1 4.9

Mean ± SE 583 ± 156 55.0 ± 11.2 38.1 ± 10.8 6.9 ± 3.0

der and macro-charcoal pieces. At the bottom of the hearth, a layer of stones on sand and remains of a pine trunk with 40 cm diameter were discovered (Fig. 2). The trunk were probably originally the truss of the woodpile, which matches the type of hearth construction described by DUNIN (1828) (Fig. 2).

Since a particular location was used several times for charcoal burning, the current state of the hearth is a result

of repeated raking out after each production cycle and cleaning it for the next cycle. The dating of the hearth to the second half of the 18th century was supported by the discovery of a coin dated 1764.

Wood-tar kilns were not excavated but they were ex-amined in situ and mapped (Fig. 3). The remains of tar (lumps of soil glued together with tar with a characteristic, still perceivable smell) were found in some of the kilns.



was predominant (99%), while spruce charcoal was scarce (Table 3).

The comparison of forest composition deduced for the period of 1730–1810 from pollen analysis (conducted by MITCHELL & COLE, 1998, in the contemporary mixed Pino-Quercetum and deciduous Tilio-Carpinetum forest sites), and the percentage of taxa found in charcoal hearths, indicated that hornbeam was strongly positively selected (Table 4). It was used in signifi cantly higher proportions than would be expected from its contribution to the tree stands (Mann-Whitney U-test, p = 0.006). The percentages of birch, lime and alder in samples from charcoal hearths were not signifi cantly different from their shares in the forest composition at that period. Spruce, oak and pine were avoided (Mann-Whitney U-test, spruce: p = 0.006; oak: p = 0.005; pine = 0.054) (Table 4). In the case of wood-tar kilns, the percentage of pine in samples was almost eight times higher than its share in the tree stands. This species was strongly positively selected for wood-tar pro-duction, and the spruce was avoided (Mann-Whitney U-test, pine: p = 0.008; spruce: p = 0.008).

Discussion and conclusions

This study showed that the eight discovered charcoal hearths remains were located in the close vicinity of wa-ter (rivers, streams) and most often in deciduous and wet forests. The remains of nine wood-tar production sites were located in coniferous and mixed forests. Hornbeam was the species most often observed in the charcoal sam-ples from the remains of charcoal hearths, followed by birch and lime, whereas pine was found to be almost ex-clusively used in wood-tar production.

Intensity of forest production

The distribution of charcoal hearth and wood-tar kiln re-mains in the contemporary BPF shows that they were located in different habitats (hearths predominantly in wet and deciduous forest, kilns in coniferous and mixed forests). Places for charcoal burning were found to be close to rivers.

According to the historical sources (HEDEMANN 1939), in 1795, there were up to 82 wood-tar kilns in the BPF (with the majority of them already non-operational). The total area of the BPF in that period covered 1467 km2 (MIKUSIŃSKA et al. 2013), so the maximum density was one wood-tar kiln per 17.9 km2. Thus, this research, con-fi ned to the Polish part of BPF (635 km2) found about 26% of the wood-tar production sites expected to be pre-sent in the study area. No written historical accounts of charcoal burning sites are available from that period. However, a hand written document ‘The annual accounts of... Białowieża Forest District from 1 July 1782 to the end

Fig. 3. Schematic plan of remains of a wood-tar kiln W9 (1), and photo of a kiln W5 (see Fig. 1 for locations) with visible fragments of dried wood-tar (2). Drawing and photograph by T. Samojlik.

Tree species used for charcoal and wood-tar production compared to species structure of the forest

In charcoal fragments (n = 342) collected from six char-coal hearths, ten woody taxa were discovered (Table 2). These were (in decreasing frequency): hornbeam, birch (not identifi ed to species), small-leaved lime, black alder, Scots pine, spruce, ash, elm (not identifi ed to species), Norway maple (Acer platanoides), and common oak. Hornbeam was the most frequently occurring species (52%), followed by birch (17%) and lime (14%). These three taxa jointly constituted over 83% of all samples. Charcoal composition at all studied hearths was non-differentiable as the three mentioned taxa dominated in all of them (Table 2). In the case of charcoal fragments analysed from the wood-tar kilns (n = 150), Scots pine


8 Samojlik et al.

Table 2. Species composition in charcoal fragments (n = 342) obtained from six charcoal hearths dated to the late 17th and 18th century in the Polish part of BPF. Charcoal hearth numbering is the same as in Table 1.

Species Number of samples identified from charcoal hearth Total

C1 C2 C4 C5 C6 C8*

N % N % N % N % N % N % N %

Carpinus betulus 15 65.2 7 21.2 38 48.7 29 55.8 62 61.4 28 50.9 179 52.3

Tilia cordata 1 4.3 9 27.3 15 19.2 2 3.8 15 14.8 6 10.9 48 14.0

Betula sp. – – 8 24.3 10 12.8 11 21.2 20 19.8 11 20.0 60 17.5

Alnus glutinosa 1 4.3 5 15.2 2 2.6 – – 1 1.0 4 7.3 13 3.8

Pinus sylvestris 1 4.4 1 3.0 3 3.8 4 7.7 1 1.0 1 1.8 11 3.2

Picea abies 2 8.7 1 3.0 5 6.5 – – 1 1.0 – – 9 2.6

Fraxinus excelsior 2 8.7 1 3.0 1 1.3 2 3.8 – – 1 1.8 7 2.1

Acer platanoides 1 4.4 1 3.0 – – – – 1 1.0 3 5.5 6 1.8

Quercus robur – – – – 1 1.3 – – – – 1 1.8 2 0.6

Ulmus sp. – – – – 3 3.8 4 7.7 – – – – 7 2.1

Sum 23 100 33 100 78 100 52 100 101 100 55 100 342 100

* Among samples from this charcoal hearth one occurrence of juniper Juniperus communis was noted. It was most probably an interjection, used to kindle the fire.

Table 3. Species composition in charcoal fragments (n=150) obtained from fi ve wood-tar kilns dated to the late 17th and 18th centuries in the Polish part of BPF. Wood-tar kiln numbering is the same as in Table 1.

Species Number of samples identified from wood-tar kiln Total

W1 W2 W6 W7 W9

N % N % N % N % N % N %

Pinus sylvestris 14 100 28 96.6 55 100 35 100 16 94.1 148 98.7

Picea abies – – 1 3.4 – – – – 1 5.9 2 1.3

Sum 14 100 29 100 55 100 35 100 17 100 150 100

Table 4. Species composition in charcoal samples from six charcoal hearths dated to the late 17th–18th centuries in the Polish part of BPF compared to the share of tree species in tree stands in the similar period based on palynological studies (mean ± SE, based on reconstructed vegetation data at fi ve depths related to years 1730–1810 from two pollen cores published by MITCHELL & COLE 1998).

Tree species Estimated percentage share in tree stand in

1730–1810

Wood samples from charcoal hearths (%)

Selectivity index D

Wood samples from wood-tar

kilns (%)

Selectivity index D

Pinus sylvestris 12.6 ± 3.2 3.2 –0.627# 98.7 0.996**

Picea abies 18.6 ± 2.0 2.6 –0.791** 1.3 –0.891**

Quercus robur 20.0 ± 9.1 0.6 –0.953** – –

Betula sp. 11.2 ± 3.0 17.5 0.254 – –

Carpinus betulus 6.0 ± 0.6 52.3 0.890** – –

Tilia cordata 16.8 ± 2.8 14.0 –0.107 – –

Acer platanoides 0 1.8 – – –

Alnus glutinosa 11.6 ± 2.8 3.8 –0.537 – –

Fraxinus excelsior 0.3 ± 0.2 2.1 – – –

Ulmus sp. 0.2 ± 0.1 2.1 – – –

Note: Only depths related to chronological period of charcoal production were selected from palynological profiles (estimated error in radiocar-bon dates of samples ranges from 50 to 80 years) – for full data see Mitchell and Cole (1998). Selectivity index D after Jacobs (1974). Bolds mark si-gnificant (positive or negative) selection (calculated with Mann-Whitney test); dashes mark the cases when the sample was too small for calculating D index. ** p < 0.01, # p = 0.054.



of June 1783’ from the Central State Historical Archive of Ukraine in Lviv (Record Group 181, Series 2, File 1172) confi rms that charcoal burning was not an impor-tant source of income to the treasure of Białowieża For-est District in 1782–1783, suggesting that hearths were probably not numerous in the forest. In the total income of 16 145 Polish złotys, charges from charcoal burners amounted to 72 Polish złotys (0.4%). Furthermore, since charcoal hearths are very conspicuous, clearly visible structures in the forest, we believe that our survey lo-cated the majority of them in the study area. The same document brings information on the total income from wood-tar and birch tar burners, which amounted to 1832 Polish złotys (11.3% of the total income).

It is important to stress that the BPF had, for very long periods, a special protection status that resulted in a sig-nifi cant delay, compared to other woodlands in the re-gion and across Europe, in introducing what was often destructive forest exploitation (SAMOJLIK 2005). Thus, when both wood-tar making and charring were fi rst in-troduced in the late 17th–18th centuries, the forest was still in a very good condition.

Charcoal and wood-tar manufacture in the BPF was relatively short-lived and the production was localized. We estimated the density of charcoal hearths to range be-tween 2–4 sites per 100 km2. This is by one to two orders of magnitude lower density compared to other studies. In Southern Black Forest and Baar Region, Germany, the density of charcoal hearths was recorded by fi eld survey at 40/km2 (LUDEMANN 2003; LUDEMANN et al. 2004) or even exceeding 150/km2 (LUDEMANN 2011, 2012). In the Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site in Pennsylva-nia, USA, 39.7 hearths per km2 were recorded (MIKAN & ABRAMS 1995). The 130-ha Ecclesall Woods in the United Kingdom contain over 450 charcoal hearths and 150 whitecoal pits with an overall density of 4.6 hearths or pits per hectare (ARDRON & ROTHERHAM 1999). Further-more, these were used continuously over several centu-ries, each coppice compartment of the wood supplying fuel to its hearths on a rotation period of 15–25 years. The consequence of the extraordinary level of activity was the total removal of topsoil and litter, and its replace-ment with several centimetres of pure charcoal dust over-lying a B-horizon soil.

Possible impact on forest

Species used for charcoal production were mainly horn-beam, birch, and lime, whereas the wood-tar was pro-duced almost exclusively from pine wood. We have used available palynological data to compare this result with the forest composition in the period, when charcoal and wood-tar production was present in the BPF. Although palynological studies have been carried out in the BPF for over fi fty years, only the paper by MITCHELL & COLE

(1998) meets contemporary standards of high frequency analysis and radiocarbon dating of samples. Pollen cores used by MITCHELL & COLE (1998) were extracted from two small hollows in forest compartment located in the central part of the BPF and so the degree to which their data are representative when extrapolated to the entire forest is arguable. Nevertheless, the fact that the studied site re-presents both the mixed and the deciduous forest communities that today constitute a signifi cant part of the present BPF (KWIATKOWSKI 1994; SOKOŁOWSKI 2004), justifi es the comparison drawn in the paper. The com-parison between the percentage share of tree species in the BPF from pollen-data and the percentage of tree spe-cies in charcoal samples illustrates selective exploitation of hornbeam in charcoal production and pine in wood-tar manufacturing (yet the latter was expected, as pine is by defi nition the material for wood-tar production).

The majority of anthracological analyses of charcoal hearths conducted so far have showed no or little evi-dence of the preference of timber for charring (LUDE-MANN 2002, 2003, 2010; LUDEMANN et al. 2004; MONTAN-ARI et al. 2000; NELLE 2003; NÖLKEN 2005). In the Black Forest area (south-western Germany), the dominant spe-cies among charcoal samples was beech Fagus sylvatica (47%), accompanied by silver fi r Abies alba (27%), and Norway spruce (23%) (LUDEMANN 2010; LUDEMANN et al. 2004). For samples from the charcoal hearths of Lower Bavarian Forest (south-eastern Germany), beech was again the dominant species with the share of 30%, with birch Betula pendula (25%), alder (19%), spruce (1 3%), and silver fi r (12%). In the Vosges area (north-eastern France), the beech predomination was even more appar-ent at 75%, while silver fi r occurred in 16% of samples, and maple in 5%. Other taxa shares were less than 1%.

In all these studies, the distribution of tree species in charcoal samples from production places was explained by natural differences in forest vegetation in the studied places. In this light, the study in the BPF, evidencing se-lective exploitation of tree species for charring, leads to a different conclusion. In the 18th century, hornbeam was notably less common in the BPF than its share in samples from charcoal hearths indicated. The strong preference for hornbeam becomes more understandable after taking into account the mentioned guidelines for charcoal pro-duction (DUNIN 1828), in which this species was rated as the most effi cient for charring. In addition, birch is highly rated (with 88% charring effi ciency) in this historical source. The same guidelines, however, advise against us-ing lime wood in production and estimate its effi ciency at only 56%. Nevertheless, both lime and birch reach simi-lar proportions in pollen data from MITCHELL & COLE (1998) and from our charcoal analysis, and there is no evidence for their selection or avoidance.

On the other hand, taxa occurring in high volumes in palynological data (e.g. pine and oak), are very poorly represented in charcoal samples, and even avoided. In the


10 Samojlik et al.

case of oak, this could result from a special status of the species, whereby it might have been excluded from a par-ticular use in the BPF in the second half of the 18th cen-tury, or reserved only for timber felling (SAMOJLIK 2010). Coniferous wood (spruce and pine) was avoided by the charcoal burners. Possibly, the overall pressure of char-coal production on hornbeam could have to a decrease of its proportion in the tree stands, especially closed to the production sites. Although pine was practically the only species used for wood-tar production, the effect of wood-tar manufacturing alone on tree stand composition is less clear. Manufacturers could have mainly used the roots of pine (see SZWARC 1923; p. 10) that had been logged for other purposes.

The other possible impact of charcoal and wood-tar production, apart from timber felling, is the change of soil composition in the production places (OGUNTUNDE et al. 2004). As evidenced for charcoal hearths in North America by MIKAN & ABRAMS (1995), charcoal burning sterilized the hearths area by applying high temperature that killed the soil seed-bank and created persistent, unfa-vourable chemical changes in soil. Together with the layer of ash and charcoal dust, it prevented the recoloni-sation of the area by trees for a prolonged period after the place was abandoned. This was the case even though the hearth and its vicinity was an open gap in forest. A fur-ther impact was through the use of topsoil, litter and veg-etation to cover the charcoal burn. This can progressively deplete surrounding soils, which are then replaced by a thin surface layer of charcoal dust placed directly on the disjunct underlying soil profi le. This impact was fi rst re-ported from Ecclesall Woods in Sheffi eld, England (ROTHERHAM & DORAM 1990), and then described for other woods across South Yorkshire and North Derby-shire by ARDRON & ROTHERHAM (1999). However, whilst this undoubtedly occurred in the areas surrounding the sampled sites here, the impact grows with time and the density of the charcoal hearths. In the case of the BPF, such impact was probably small due to very low site den-sity.

In conclusion, charcoal and tar burning was not of great importance in the BPF in the past (due to low site density and short period of activity) so its direct infl u-ence on the forest development was very limited.

Directions for future research

The results of this study open new questions that may be addressed in the future research. Firstly, a comparative, pan-European study on the construction features of hearths and, in connection with that, methods of tradi-tional charcoal burning, would help to explain signifi cant differences between the structures found currently in Polish, German, French, Italian, Spanish, and English forests and woods. Secondly, an in-depth analysis of soil

properties in the places of past charring and wood-tar production combined with the study of the features of current vegetation could lead to new conclusions con-cerning the long-lasting environmental impact of these ways of utilisation, as it has already been suggested (e.g. by ROTHERHAM & DORAM 1990). HUNTER & SCHUCK (2002) suggested the idea of the current condition of Eu-ropean forests being a result of historic management and utilisation, and noted that these have now largely ceased. They discussed the possible causes of recent increases in growth rates of Scots pine, Norway spruce and beech in Europe. The conclusion was that the growth was proba-bly a result of cumulative combination of factors, with recovery of forests from past utilisation, mainly charcoal burning and grazing. It is therefore suggested that there is a great need for further studies on traditional forest uses. It seems that without the historical component more ef-fectively considered, it is not possible to fully understand the current ecological processes in European forests.

Acknowledgements: The authors wish to thank forest dis-trict managers of Forest Districts Białowieża, Browsk, and Hajnówka, and the director of the Białowieża National Park for their kind help in search for past forest exploitation sites. We also thank Bernadetta Zawadzka and Barbara Bańka for their technical help in analysis of vegetation maps. The re-search was supported by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (grant No. 2 P06L 034 28), by the Marie Curie Transfer of Knowledge project BIORESC within the European Commission’s 6th Framework Programme (Con-tract No. MTKD-CT-2005-029957), and by the own sourc-es of the Mammal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences in Białowieża. We would also like to thank PD Dr. Thomas Ludemann and one anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments and detailed corrections, which helped to improve the man-uscript.

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Addresses of the authorsTomasz Samojlik, Bogumiła Jędrzejewska, Mammal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Waszkiewicza 1c, 17-230 Białowieża, PolandMaria Michniewicz, Dariusz Krasnodębski, Marek Dulinicz, Hanna Olczak, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Solidarnosci 105, 00-140 Warszawa, PolandAndrzej Karczewski, Białowieża National Park, 17-230 Białowieża, PolandIan D. Rotherham, Faculty of Development and Society, Shef-fi eld Hallam University, Pond Street, Sheffi eld S1 1WB, UKCorresponding author: [email protected]

One the authors, Professor Marek Duknicz (1957–2010), was a Polish historian, archaeologist and deputy director of the Insti-tute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences who was involved in the archaeological study of the Białowieża Primeval Forest. He died before the submission of this paper.


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