Training vs Learning Different types and methods Universität Hildesheim Institut für Angewandte...

Training vs LearningTraining vs Learning

Different types and methods

Universität HildesheimInstitut für Angewandte Sprachwissenschaft

Fachbereich III – Sprachen und Technik

Lecturer: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Beneke

Students: Dirk Duppré,Björn NahlerTimo Winkelbach

27.11.2001

27.11.2001 Dirk Duppré Björn Nahler Timo Winkelbach

Training vs Learning

Training vs LearningTraining vs Learning1. Introduction2. Learning 2.1 Definition 2.2 Learning Theories 2.3 Learning Styles3. Training 3.1 The use of training 3.2 Definition 3.3 Methods of intercultural training (examples)4. The effect and the effectiveness of cross-cultural training

(CCT) 4.1 Social Learning Theory and Cross-Cultural Training 4.2 Rehearsal



Definition of learningDefinition of learning

In your opinion, how could learning be defined ?

Public opinion:

In everyday language the term of learning is often connected with school

and most people think of it as a mere acquisition of knowledge or abilities.



Definition according to Definition according to Webster‘s DictionaryWebster‘s Dictionary

learning, n.

1. knowledge acquired by systematic study in any field or fields of scholarly application.

2. the act or process of acquiring knowledge or skill.

3. Psychol. the modification of behavior through practice, training, or experience.



Definition of learningDefinition of learning

Scientific view:

In general, learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience.



Perspectives on learningPerspectives on learning

• Behavioural : Learning must be observable change in behaviour

• Cognitive : Learning is an internal processs and cannot be observed directly



Learning TheoriesLearning Theories

• Classical Conditioning Pavlov

• Operant Conditioning Thorndike/Skinner

• Social learning theory Bandura in particular observational learning

• Cognitive Learning Köhler / Tolman



Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)(Pavlov)

• Refers to the process of learning associations between stimuli

• Involves reflexive (automatic) behaviours (innate reflexes)

most well-known example: salivation reflex of dogs



Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning (Skinner)(Skinner)

We behave and receive feedback from our environment.

• Every individual acts deliberately

• Reinforcement (positive vs negative) examples: praise and rewards

• Punishment (introduction of an aversive stimulus after responding)

• Shaping



Observational learning Observational learning (Bandura)(Bandura)

Learning occurs through observation of others (models).

• Attention

• Retention

• Reproduction

• Motivation and reinforcement



Cognitive Learning Cognitive Learning (Köhler/Tolman)(Köhler/Tolman)

• Trial-and-error may be replaced by a sudden understanding (insight)

• Latent Learning



Learning StylesLearning Styles

• Visual learners (about 65% of the population)

• Auditory learners (about 30% of the population)

• Kinesthetic learners (about 5% of the population)

No-one uses one of the styles exclusively, and there is usually significant overlap in learning styles.

The way how an individual takes in information most effectively.



Definition of training according Definition of training according to Webster`s Dictionaryto Webster`s Dictionary

train \tran\ (verb) was first used to describe someone who was betraying another, as in "traitor"--scheming or tricking. Another origin cited its use as a noun which meant "something that is trailed or dragged behind," such as the train of a wedding gown. It is also used as a verb in reference to what is "done to" animals in captivity. In companies, it refers to what is done to employeesto prepare them--to make them fit, qualified or proficient to work in the position they were hired into.



Some important factsSome important facts

• 70 per cent of the US expatriates are sent overseas without any cross-cultural training

• 90 per cent of their families are sent overseas without any cross cultural trainings

• 16- 40 per cent of all expatriate managers sent on foreign assignments return before they are supposed to

All results are based on studies by Baker and Ivancevich (1971), Black and Stephens (!988/89), Dunbar and Ehrlich (1986), Runzheimer (1984), Tung (1981)



• People, who work in foreign countries (Manager, soldiers, councillors, experts or peacecorps)

• People, who have to stay in a foreign country for personal reasons (family members or tourists)

• People who take part in exchange (exchange with youths, students, artists, scientists)

• People who take care of foreigners in their own country (students, migrants, tourists)

• People who work for an international operating company (multinational companies, international organisations, religious organisations)

WhoWho needs intercultural needs intercultural training ?training ?



Methods of intercultural Methods of intercultural trainingtraining

• Simulations (Robert Alley)

• Role-playing (Paul Barnack)

• Case Studies (Robert Ross / Henry Holmes / Stephen Guild)

• The Cultural Assimilator (Henry Holmes / Stephen Guild)

• Critical Incidents (Paul Barnack)

• Area Studies (Robert Kohls)



What is the case study method ?What is the case study method ?

Henry Holmes and Stephen GuildHenry Holmes and Stephen Guild • description of a specific situation as close to reality as possible

• focus is on experiences where action/decision can be made

• discussion on this actual, multi-faceted situation

• emphasises the particular rather than the general as much as possible

• participants have to feel that they have had the experience that the case study describes

• therefore it must be of interest so that the student can “get into it”

• The reader do the decision-making. (no observers or spectators: participants have to feel that they have had the experience that the case study describes in the group)

• the decision-making process can be analysed itself as the group moves toward solution

• ideally, the case study method gets the participant in the habit of making decisions



Cultural assimilatorCultural assimilator

A special form of the case study method is the cultural assimilator. There are 2 important points that are different to normal case studies:

• No need for own conclusions. These are given by the author of the text.

• After this discussion, the participants get the right answer.



ExampleExample

An Arab student asked his co-workers on his lab assistantship if they wanted to go to lunch with him at the student union. They agreed, adding that it was time to eat, and they all chatted as they went to the Union where they got in line at the cafeteria. When they reached the cashier’s station, the Arab student, who was first in line, paid for all of them. When the group got to their table, his co-workers insisted on giving the Arab student the money for their lunches. The Arab refused it, but the Americans insisted; and the one sitting beside him swept the money off the table and dumped it into the foreign student’s jacket pocket. Later, the Americans commented that the Arab student had been unusually quiet and reserved while he ate lunch.



If the Americans had analysed this incident correctly they probably would settle on

which one of the following explanations for the Arab’s behaviour during lunch?

1. The Arab student must have had an upset stomach.

2. It is the Arab custom not to talk during their meals.

3. The Arab student had wanted to pay for their lunches and he was hurt that they wouldn’t let him.

4. The Arab student felt the Americans thought he was too poor to pay.

5. When he was away from the lab, the Arab had nothing to make conversation about.



SimulationsSimulationsSpecial form: roleplaysSpecial form: roleplays

Role-playing as a training technique can accomplish or facilitate the following objectives:

• to provide practice in intercultural communication skills

• to provide practise in the execution of individual actions or solutions

• to explore situations in which the reactions and feelings of individuals are involved

• to stimulate participation and involvement

• to develop a better understanding of the points of view of others



ExampleExample

Majorits Minorits

Two groups of people – let’s call them majorits and minorits – come together because of the negotiation for the selling of a house. Both come from different cultures and have their own characteristics. Here there are 5 differences:

• straight and say directly what they want

• love to talk about things before they start to negotiate.

• ”yes” means “I agree and ”no” I disagree”

• ”yes” means ”I understand what you saying and in principal they don’t say ”no”, but use another way to describe this.• Being honest is more important

than being polite • being polite is more important than being honest.• All members of are equal

members and have the right to say what they are thinking

• only one spokesman that reflects the points of view of his group’s members

• men and women are equal • only men are allowed to speak



The effects of cross-cultural The effects of cross-cultural training on management and worktraining on management and work

• The setting is clear and realistic • Goal specificity is contrary to cultural norms

The assumption is that good management is good managment, and therefore, an effective manager in New York or Los Angeles will do fine in Hong Kong or Tokyo (Miller 1973)

• Difficult goals with specific time-lines

• Individuals who achieve the goals on time are rewarded

• People will be motivated if they believe to know what is expected, believe they can achieve the goal and believe they will be rewarded

USA Japan

• The rewarding of an idividual for personal achievement can often result in decreased motivation

• Individuals would not want to stand out from or above the group



The effectiveness of cross-The effectiveness of cross-cultural-training (CCT)cultural-training (CCT) (Black and (Black and Mendenhall, 1990)Mendenhall, 1990)

• 9 out of 10 studies found a positive relationship between CCT and self-confidence concerning one‘s ability to function effectively in cross-cultural situations

• Cross-cultural skill development

• 19 out of 19 studies found a positive relationship between CCT and increased cross-cultural relational skills

• 16 out of 16 studies found a positive relationsship between CCT and cross-cultural perceptions



• Cross-cultural adjustment

• 9 out of 9 studies found a positive relationship between CCT and cross-cultural adjustment

• Job performance

• 11 out of 15 studies found a positive relationsship between CCT and job performance in the cross-cultural situations



DiscussionDiscussion

What comes first, training or learning ?



Training and learning in symbiosisTraining and learning in symbiosisSocial Learning Theory and Cross-cultural TrainingSocial Learning Theory and Cross-cultural Training

Based on the framework of the Social Learning Theory (SLT) there are two models which have to be realized as a model by the participants of a cross-cultural training (CCT).

symbolic participative

• Learner or trainee observes modeled behaviours

- Hearing it and translating the verbal into images in his mind (e.g. CCT based on books or lectures)

- Seeing visually the modeled behaviour that means the trainee sees and retains a cognitive image because he/she is more involved (e.g. CCT based on films or demonstrations)

• Learner or trainee takes part in modeled behaviours

- Verbal participation: the trainee describes verbally what he/she would do (e.g. CCT based on case studies or cultural assimilators)

- Physical participation: the trainee takes physically part in modeled behaviours (e.g. CCT based on field trips or roleplays), that means he/she is cognitively more involved



How to keep the learned or How to keep the learned or trained modeled behaviours in trained modeled behaviours in

your mindyour mindSolution: Rehearsal

Cognitive Rehearsal Behavioural Rehearsal

e.g.:You imagine how you eat with chop sticks

e.g.:imagining and actually eating with chop sticks

Actually doing it is a way how you can transform your knowledge into skills !

(learning by doing)



Efficiency of different training methodsEfficiency of different training methods

Train

ing

Meth

ods

High

Low

TrainingRigor

Factual

Analytical

Experiential

Books Lectures Area Briefings

Sensitivity Training Culture Assimilators Case StudiesClassroom Language Training

Simulations Field Trips Role PlaysInteractive Language Training

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