U.S. Antarctic Program1999-2000

National Science FoundationNational Science FoundationThis document has been archived.

National Science Foundation

U.S. Antarctic Program1999-2000

U.S. Antarctic Program, 1999-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

Aeronomy and Astrophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Biology and Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Antarctic Pack Ice Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Long-term ecological research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Environmental Monitoring Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Geology and Geophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Cape Roberts International Drilling Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Glaciology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Siple Dome Ice Coring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Ocean and Climate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

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During the 1999-2000 austral summer and the2000 austral winter, the U.S. Antarctic Programwill support more than 800 researchers andother participants in the U.S. Antarctic Programat three year-round stations (McMurdo,Amundsen-Scott South Pole, and Palmer),aboard two research ships (Laurence M. Gouldand Nathaniel B. Palmer) in the Ross Sea and inthe Antarctic Peninsula region, at remote fieldcamps, and in cooperation with the nationalantarctic programs of the other Antarctic Treatynations. These projects, funded and managedby the National Science Foundation (NSF), arepart of the international effort to understandthe Antarctic and its role in global processes.NSF also supports research that can be best oronly performed in Antarctica.

The scientists who will conduct the proj-ects described in this book come primarilyfrom U. S. universities and have won NSFsupport in response to Antarctic ResearchProgram Announcement and Proposal Guide(NSF 99-93; http://www.nsf.gov/cgi-bin/get-pub?nsf9993). Operational resources inAntarctica also are used to support scientistsfrom other Federal agencies.

Highlights of this year's austral summerresearch include:

the first year of the 5-year multi-disciplinaryInternational Trans-Antarctic Expedition,which integrates meteorology, remote sens-ing, ice coring, glaciology, and geophysicsto learn more about West Antarctica's rolein the global change

a 52-day Antarctic Pack Ice Seal researchcruise to study how changes in the environ-ment cause fluctuations in the abundance,growth patterns, life histories, and behavior

a study of microbes found in snow samplesfrom the South Pole to determine if they areindigenous to the interior of Antarctica and tolearn more about their biology and ecology

continued support of the Center for Astro-physical Research in Antarctica at the geo-graphic South Pole

measuring, monitoring, and studying atmos-pheric trace gases associated with the annualdepletion of the ozone layer above Antarctica.

the third year of drilling and related geolog-ical work at Cape Roberts near McMurdo

Station by a team of scientists from theUnited States, New Zealand, Italy, Australia,the United Kingdom, and Germany

long-term ecological research in theMcMurdo Dry Valleys and in the PalmerStation region of the Antarctic Peninsula

Science teams also will use networks ofautomatic weather stations, automated geo-physical observatories, ultraviolet-radiationmonitors, and a high-altitude, long-durationballoon that will circumnavigate the continentand carry instruments for an optical investiga-tion of solar activity.

Eight teachers from U.S. elementary, mid-dle, and high schools will join researchers oneight projects this austral summer as part ofNSFs Teachers Experiencing Antarctica (TEA)project. TEA immerses teachers in research aspart of their professional development and tocreate a polar learning community of teachers,students, school districts, and researchers.U.S. Antarctic Program investigators volunteerto include TEA participants in their field par-ties; NSF selects the teachers competitively.

The Antarctic Artists and Writers Programprovides opportunities for painters, photogra-phers, writers, and others to use serious writ-ing and the arts to increase understanding ofthe Antarctic and America's heritage there. The1999-2000 austral summer includes a novel onscience and scientists for middle-grade chil-dren; a photographic book; natural soundrecordings; and underwater photography inMcMurdo Sound.

Logistics to support these projectsincludes heavy-lift, ski-equipped C-130 air-planes operated by the New York Air NationalGuard, ski-equipped Twin Otter airplaneschartered from a Canadian firm, and C-141and C-5 air-planes provided by the U.S. AirForce between New Zealand and McMurdoStation. Contract helicopters are headquar-tered at McMurdo to provide operational and close science support. Ground vehiclesoperated and maintained by an NSF contrac-tor, provide specialized science support andother services. Annually, a U.S. Coast Guardicebreaker opens a channel to McMurdo andprovides science support. A tanker and acargo ship, operated by the Military Sealift

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Command, bring fuel, cargo, and equipmenteach January.

Continuing the modernization and improve-ment of Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station,crews will prepare the foundations for areplacement laboratory that will be built onsupports above the icey plateau and willbegin the exterior of a new power plant, the interior of which will be completed overthe austral winter. The South Pole Safety and Environmental Project (a $25-millionundertaking) and the South Pole StationModernization Project (a $128-million initiative) will replace the existing 24-year-old station by 2005.

This book is arranged by scientific discipline,except for sections focused on multi-investigator,multi-disciplinary research projects and a shortlist of technical projects in the table below. Theorder reflects the organization of the AntarcticSciences Section of NSF's Office of PolarPrograms, which funds projects in biology,medical research, ocean sciences, climatestudies, geology and geophysics, glaciology,aeronomy, astronomy, and astrophysics.

Related information products that are pro-duced or funded by NSF include:

Press releases issued by the FoundationsPublic Affairs Office to describe specificresearch progress. See the NSF World WideWeb page at http://www.nsf.gov or call703-306-1070.

Antarctic Journal of the United States reviewissues, which contain short reports by inves-tigators about research recently performedin Antarctica. These issues are online(http://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/jour-nal) and are available in print from the Officeof Polar Programs (dfriscic@nsf.gov).

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Technical projects supporting the 1999-2000 USAP antarctic field program

Project title Project manager, affiliation

Polar Ice Coring Office(PICO)Hot-water drilling at the South Pole for Karl Kuivinen, the AMANDA project (TA-150-A) University of Nebraska

Karl Kuivinen,PICO ice-core drilling at Siple Dome (TI-150-B) University of Nebraska

Automatic Geophysical Observatory (AGO) Jay Burnside,servicing and installation (TO-296-O) Antarctic Support Associates

Steve Currier,Synthetic Aperture Radar project; (TO-308-O) NASA Wallops Flight Facility

Robert Whritner,McMurdo Sound Metsat Station Arctic and Antarcticrefurbishment of Terascan satellite reception & Research Center, Scripps processing system at Palmer Station (TO-312-O) Institution of Oceanography

Charles Booth, UV-monitoring network (TO-513-O) Biospherical Instruments, Inc.

Artists and Writers Program projects, 1999-2000 U.S. Antarctic Program

Project title Participant

Novel for middle-grade children on Lucy Jane Bledsoe,science and scientists (WO-007-O) Berkeley, California

Photography book documenting the Stuart Klipper,U.S. Antarctic Program (WO-009-O) Minneapolis, Minnesota

Douglas Quinn,Natural sound recordings (WO-004-O) Petaluma, California

Underwater photography, Norbert Wu,McMurdo Sound (WO-317-O) Pacific Grove, California

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U.S. Antarctic Program, 1999-2000Sites of major activities

Number of projects to be supportedduring 1999-2000

AERONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICSThe polar regions have been called Earthswindow to outer space. Originally, this termapplied to aurora and other dynamic eventsstaged as incoming solar plasmas encoun-tered the Earths geomagnetic fields.Because of its unique properties, the polarupper atmosphere becomes a virtual screenon which the results of such interactions canbe viewed (and through which evidence ofother processes can pass). More recently,this concept has been extended to refer tothe ozone hole in the polar atmosphere. As scientists have verified an annual loss ofozone in the polar stratosphere, a windowpreviously thought closed (stratified ozoneblocking the suns ultraviolet rays) is nowknown to open in certain seasons.

For astronomers and astrophysicists, theSouth Pole presents unique opportunities.Thanks to the relative lack of environmentalpollution and anthropogenic noise, theunique pattern of light and darkness, and thegeomagnetic force field properties, scientistsstaging their instruments here can probe thestructure of the sun and the universe withunprecedented precision. Studies supportedby the Aeronomy and Astrophysics programprobe three regions:

The stratosphere and the mesosphere: In these lower regions, current researchfocuses on stratospheric chemistry andaerosols, particularly those implicated in the ozone cycle.

The thermosphere, the ionosphere, andthe magnetosphere: These higher regionsderive many characteristics from the inter-play between energetically-charged parti-cles (ionized plasmas in particular) andgeomagnetic/geoelectric fields. The upperatmosphere, particularly the ionosphere, is the ultimate sink of solar wind energytransported into the magnetosphere justabove it. This region is energeticallydynamic, with resonant wave-particle interactions, and Joule heating from currents driven by electric fields.

The universe beyond, for astronomical andastrophysical studies: Many scientific ques-tions extend outside the magnetosphere,

including a particular interest in the sunand cosmic rays. Astrophysical studies areprimarily conducted at Amundsen-ScottSouth Pole Station or on long-duration balloon flights launched from McMurdo.

Virtually all research projects sponsored by this program benefit from (indeed mostrequire) the unique physical conditions foundonly in the high latitudes, yet their ramifica-tions extend far beyond Antarctica. High-latitude astrophysical research contributes to the understanding of Antarcticas role inglobal environmental change, promotes inter-disciplinary study of geosphere/biosphereinteractions in the middle and upper atmos-phere, and improves understanding of thecritical processes of solar energy in theseregions. Life exists on earth in a balance notonly because of the critical distance from thesun but also because of numerous chemi-cal and atmospheric phenomena peculiar toour atmosphere. The 20th century expansionof traditional astronomy to the science ofastrophysics, coupled with the emerging discipline of atmospheric science (See alsothe Ocean and Climate Systems program), isnowhere better exemplified than in Antarctica.

AMANDAAntarctic Muon andNeutrino Detector Array.Robert Morse, University of Wisconsin.

Neutrinos are elementary particles: With noelectrical charge, and believed to have verylittle or no mass, they can take any of threeforms. Coursing through the universe, theyinteract only rarely with other particles.AMANDAs primary objective is to discoverthe sources both within our galaxy andbeyond of the shower of very-high-energyneutrinos descending on (and usually pass-ing through) the Earth.

AMANDA uses an array of photomultipliertubes embedded between 1 and 2 kilometersin the ice near the South Pole to create aCherenkov detector out of the natural ice.This system will detect high-energy neutrinosoriginating off the planet that have passedthrough Earth. Such sources of origin couldbe diffuse, made up of contributions from

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many active galactic nuclei (AGNI); or theycould be point sources of neutrinos comingfrom supernova remnants (SNRs), rapidlyrotating pulsars, neutron stars, individualblazars, or other extragalactic point sources.

Recently, new sources of high-energygamma rays have been discovered, such asthe source Mrk-421 discovered by NASAsCompton Gamma-Ray Observatory (CGRO)and Mt. Hopkins Observatory. AMANDA isdesigned to study just such objects, whichare believed to emit high-energy neutrinoscopiously. To date, neutrino astronomy hasbeen limited to the detection of solar neutri-nos, plus one brief, spectacular burst fromthe supernova that appeared in the LargeMagellanic Cloud in February 1987 (SN-1987a). Only now is it becoming technicallyfeasible to build large neutrino telescopes. As one of the first-generation detectors, AMAN-DA promises to make seminal contributions tothis new branch of neutrino astronomy.(AA-130-O)

South Pole Air Shower Experiment2. Thomas Gaisser, University of Delaware.

As cosmic rays from space arrive at theEarths upper atmosphere, molecules begin to feel the impact. The South Pole Air ShowerExperiment-2 (SPASE-2) deploys a sparselyfilled array of 120 scintillation detectors over15,000 square meters at South Pole. Thisinstrument array detects energetic charged particles (primarily electrons) that are producedin the upper atmosphere by cosmic rays. Todetect the Cherenkov radiation produced in thehigh atmosphere by the same showers, a sub-array called VULCAN has been constructed ofnine photodetectors. The SPASE array is locat-ed less than half a kilometer from the top ofAMANDA; this low-energy collector is designedto complement AMANDAs neutrino detectingcapacity. [Described in the previous projectsummary (AA-130-O)]

SPASE-2 has two goals:

To investigate the high-energy primary cos-mic radiation, by determining the relativecontribution of different groups of nuclei at

energies above approximately 100 teraelec-tronvolts. This can be done by analyzingcoincidences between SPASE and AMAN-DA. Such coincident events are producedby high energy cosmic-ray showers withtrajectories that pass through SPASE (onthe surface) and AMANDA (buried 1.5 to 2kilometers beneath it). AMANDA detectsthe high energy, penetrating muons inthose same showers for which SPASEdetects the low energy electrons arriving atthe surface. This is meaningful because theratio of muons to electrons depends on themass of the original primary cosmic raynucleus. VULCAN adds two other ratios thatalso depend on primary mass in readingsfrom the showers it detects.

To use the coincident events as a taggedbeam, which will permit investigation andcalibration of certain aspects of the AMANDAresponse. This project cooperates with theUniversity of Leeds in the United Kingdom.

(AO-109-O)

Magnetometer data acquisition atMcMurdo and Amundsen-ScottSouth Pole Stations.Louis Lanzerotti, AT&T Bell Laboratories, andAlan Wolfe, New York City Technical College.

The magnetosphere is that region of spacesurrounding a celestial object (such as theEarth or the Sun) where the objects magneticfield is strong enough to trap charged parti-cles. Magnetometers have been installed atselected sites in both polar regions to meas-ure changes in the magnitude and direction ofEarths magnetic field (in the frequency rangefrom 0 to about 0.1 hertz). The unique climaticconditions in Antarctica also permit scientiststo view the atmosphere optically and to corre-late such hydromagnetic-wave phenomenawith particle-precipitation measurements.

In this project we are measuring such varia-tions with magnetometers installed at conju-gate sites in both hemispheres; at McMurdoand Amundsen-Scott South Pole Stations,Antarctica, and at Iqaluit, in the NorthwestTerritories in Canada. Our data are also beinganalyzed and associated with similar data

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acquired from several automatic geophysicalobservatories comprising the PENGUIN program[polar experiment network for geophysicalupper-atmosphere investigations, (AO-112-O)].

Using all of these systems, we are derivinginformation about the causes and propaga-tion of low-frequency hydromagnetic wavesin the magnetosphere, as well as the cou-pling of the interplanetary medium into thedayside magnetosphere.(AO-101-O)

An investigation of magnetosphericboundaries using ground-basedinduction magnetometers operatedat manned stations as part of anextensive ground array. Roger Arnoldy, University of New Hampshire.

The poles of the Earth the points markingthe axis around which the planet rotates experience unique magnetic phenomena. By measuring magnetic pulsations at thesehigh geomagnetic latitudes, scientists canstudy the plasma physics of some of theimportant boundaries of the magnetosphere.Geophysicists refer to the continuous streamof highly-charged particles emitted by theSun as the solar wind. Two of the importantareas of the magnetosphere are the areathrough which the solar wind enters and thearea where its energy is transferred to theEarths atmosphere in the form of aurora andsimilar phenomena.

This study employs an array of induction-coilmagnetometers located at high geomagneticlatitudes in both north and south polar regions;in the Arctic at Sondre Stromfjord, Greenland,and Iqaluit, Northwest Territories, Canada, andin the Antarctic at Amundsen-Scott South Poleand McMurdo Stations. The data collected hereis also being analyzed in the context of thatfrom similar magnetometers in the U.S. andBritish automatic geophysical observatory(AGO) networks and the MACCS array inCanada. (The project is jointly supported by the U.S. Arctic and Antarctic Programs.) (AO-102-O)

Antarctic auroral imaging.Stephen Mende, Lockheed Palo AltoResearch Laboratory.

Scientists are only beginning to try to performquantitative studies on the dynamic behaviorof the magnetosphere. In the past, detail-ori-ented explorations by space satellites haveenabled them to map the average distributionof magnetospheric energetic particle plasmacontent. But the dynamics of auroral phenom-ena when particles from the magnetosphereprecipitate into the atmosphere, producingfluorescence have been hard to quantifythrough optical means. Amundsen-ScottSouth Pole Station is uniquely situated toobserve aurora because the darkness of polarwinter permits continuous optical monitoring;in most other sites, the sky becomes toobright near local mid-day.

The aurora can actually be regarded as a two-dimensional projection of the three-dimensional magnetosphere because parti-cles tend to travel along the magnetic fieldline. By observing the dynamics and the morphology of the aurora, scientists get areliable glimpse into the dynamics of theregion of the three-dimensional magnetos-phere associated directly with it. Thismethod relies on knowledge relating the typeof aurora to specific energies of precipitationand to specific regions of the magnetosphere.

In this study, an intensified optical, all-skyimager, operating in two parallel wavelengthchannels 4,278 and 6,300 ngstroms willbe used to record digital and video images ofaurora. These wavelength bands allow us todiscriminate between more- and less-energeticelectron auroras and other precipitation. TheSouth Pole Station observations of the polarcap and cleft regions entail measuring auroral-precipitation patterns and then interpretingthe results in terms of the coordinated obser-vations of (magnetic) radio-wave absorptionimages as well as (high-frequency) coherent-scatter radar measurements.

This work should provide insight into thesources and energization mechanisms of

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auroral particles in the magnetosphere, aswell as other forms of energy inputs into thehigh-latitude atmosphere.(AO-104-O)

A study of very high latitude geomagnetic phenomena. Vladimir Papitashvili, University of Michigan.

This project continues a joint U.S./Russianprogram to operate an Antarctica-basedarray of automated magnetometers. As theonly land mass at very high latitudes, theantarctic continent is uniquely suited tothese instruments, providing an excellentand stable location for magnetometric investigations of the polar cap current systems in the Earths magnetosphere.

Such studies are particularly important to the understanding of how the energy andmomentum from the solar wind becomescoupled to the magnetosphere, ionosphere,and upper atmosphere. They also provide an excellent point of reference for othersatellite-based experiments (both currentlyin progress and planned for the near future).

The specific tasks to be undertaken includedesign improvements in the digital geomag-netic data-acquisition systems at Vostok andMirnyy, as well as continued operation andmaintenance of autonomous stations alongthe Russian traverse route to Vostok. Oneaspect of the study that should enhance ourresults is the new satellite data-transmissioncapability at Vostok. This will provide a near-real-time polar cap magnetic index for space,weather and research applications.(AO-105-O)

Global thunderstorm activity and itseffects on the radiation belts and thelower ionosphere.Umran Inan, Stanford University.

Tracking dynamic storms is a challenge, butlightning associated with thunderstorms canprovide scientists an indirect way of monitor-ing global weather. This project employs

very-low-frequency (VLF) radio receivers at Palmer Station, Antarctica, operated in collaboration with the British and BrazilianAntarctic Programs, both of which operatesimilar receivers. All are contributors to theGlobal Change Initiative.

The VLF receivers measure changes in theamplitude and phase of signals received fromseveral distant VLF transmitters. These changesfollow lightning strokes because radio (whistler)waves from the lightning can cause very ener-getic electrons from the Van Allen radiationbelts to precipitate into the upper atmosphere.This particle precipitation then increases ioniza-tion in the ionosphere, through which the prop-agating VLF radio waves must travel. Becausethe orientations to the VLF transmitters areknown, it is possible to triangulate the lightningsources that caused the changes, and thus totrack remotely the path of the thunderstorms.(AO-106-O)

Study of polar stratospheric cloudsby lidar.Guido Di Donfrancesco, Instituto De FisicaDellAtmosfere, Rome, Italy.

The appearance each spring of the stratos-pheric ozone hole above Antarctica is drivenby chlorine compounds interacting on the sur-faces of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) thatformed the previous polar winter. This is oneexplanation for why ozone depletion is muchmore severe in polar regions than elsewhere.

This project uses light detection and rangefinding (lidar) to study the polar stratosphericclouds (PSCs), stratospheric aerosol, and thethermal behavior and dynamics of the atmos-phere above McMurdo Station. Continuouslidar observations provide insight on PSC for-mation, evolution, and other peculiar charac-teristics. These data will provide a comple-ment to the information gained from balloon-borne instruments in project AO-131-O, andthus collaborative activities will be coordinat-ed with the University of Wyoming.(AO-107-O)

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Extremely-low-frequency/very-low-frequency (ELF/VLF) waves at the South Pole. Umran S. Inan, Stanford University.

Atmospheric scientists orient their studiesaround different strata, or regions, and theboundaries and interactions between theseregions are of particular interest. How are theupper atmospheric regions coupled electro-dynamically? What can we learn by measuringthe energy that is being transported betweenthe magnetosphere and the ionosphere?These are but two of the questions the U.S.Antarctic Programs automatic geophysicalobservatory program is designed to explore.

Plasmas occur in the magnetosphere andthe ionosphere, and can be transported andaccelerated by a variety of different wave-particle interactions. One important dynamicin this system is particle precipitation that is driven by extra-low-frequency/very-low-frequency (ELF/VLF) waves. Thus, measuringELF/VLF waves from multiple sites provides a powerful tool for remote observations ofmagnetosphere processes.

This project maintains a system at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station to measure magnetos-pheric ELF/VLF phenomena, and to correlate thedata with measurements made by the automat-ic geophysical observatory system. (AO-108-O)

High-latitude antarctic neutralmesospheric and thermosphericdynamics and thermodynamics.Gonzalo Hernandez, University ofWashington.

The antarctic region attracts atmospheric scientists for a number of reasons; a basic one is that measurements taken at the Earthsrotational axis are largely unaffected by plan-etary magnetic waves. This simplifies the studyof the large-scale dynamics of the atmosphere.

For example, how do scientists measurethe temperature and windspeed of the atmos-phere? One primary method is by deduction,based on the emission spectra of certaintrace gases as they are borne along in cur-

rents at predictable heights. Hydroxyl radicals(OH), for example, are confined to a fairly nar-row band near 90 kilometers altitude.

This study uses a Fabry-Perot infrared inter-ferometer (located at Amundsen-Scott SouthPole Station, Antarctica) to make orthogonalobservations of the band spectra of severaltrace species most importantly the hydroxylradical (OH). The doppler shift of the bandlines provides an algorithm for researchers tomeasure the windspeed. The brightness andline ratios within the bands provide densityand temperature information.(AO-110-O)

Riometry in Antarctica and conjugateregions. Theodore J. Rosenberg and Allan T. Weatherwax,University of Maryland at College Park.

The University of Maryland continues toconduct research into upper atmosphericprocesses; using photometry to take auroralluminosity measurements and riometry tomake high-frequency cosmic noise absorp-tion measurements. A primary focus of ouranalysis activities over the next several yearswill include coordinated ground- and satellite-based studies and Sun-Earth comparisons.

The latest work also involves extensive collaboration with other investigators usingcomplementary data sets. Continuation ofscience activities into the 1998-2001 timeframe will enable us to participate in, andcontribute to, several major science initia-tives, including the GEM, CEDAR, ISTP/GGS,and National Space Weather programs as we enter the next solar maximum period.

Riometers measure the relative opacity of theionosphere. This work employs a new imagingriometer system called IRIS (imaging riometerfor ionospheric studies). The first two IRISswere installed at Amundsen-Scott South PoleStation and Sondre Stromfjord, Greenland. A third IRIS has been installed at Iqiluit,Northwest Territories, Canada the magneticconjugate to South Pole. Broadbeam riometersalso operate at several frequencies at SouthPole, McMurdo, and Iqiluit; auroral photome-ters operate at South Pole and McMurdo. This

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array of instruments constitutes a unique net-work for the simultaneous study of auroraleffects in both magnetic hemispheres.

The focus of all of this work is to enhanceunderstanding of the relevant physicalprocesses and forces that drive the observedphenomena; this includes both internal (suchas magnetospheric/ionospheric instabilities)and external forces, such as solar wind/IMFvariations. From such knowledge may emergean enhanced capability to forecast; manyatmospheric events can have negative tech-nological or societal impact, and accurateforecasting could ameliorate these impacts.(AO-111-O)

Polar experiment network for geo-physical upper-atmosphere investi-gations (PENGUIN).Theodore Rosenberg, University of Marylandat College Park.

The data obtained from automatic geophysi-cal observatories (AGOs) help researchersunderstand the Suns influence on the struc-ture and dynamics of the Earths upperatmosphere. The ultimate objective of thisresearch into how the solar wind coupleswith the Earths magnetosphere, ionosphere,and thermosphere is to be able to predictsolar-terrestrial interactions that can inter-fere with long-distance phone lines, powergrids, and satellite communications.

A consortium of U.S. and Japanese scien-tists will use a network of six AGOs, estab-lished on the east antarctic polar plateau andequipped with suites of instruments to meas-ure magnetic, auroral, and radiowave phe-nomena. The AGOs are totally autonomous,operate year round and require only annualaustral summer service visits.

When combined with measurements made atselect manned stations, these arrays facilitatestudies on the energetics and dynamics of thehigh-latitude magnetosphere on both large andsmall scales. The research will be carried outalong with in situ observations of the geospaceenvironment by spacecraft, in close coopera-tion with other nations working in Antarctica

and in cooperation with conjugate studies performed in the Northern Hemisphere.(AO-112-O)

All-sky-camera measurements of theaurora australis from Amundsen-ScottSouth Pole Station.Masaki Ejiri, National Institute of PolarResearch, Japan.

Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, locatedat the south geographic pole, is a uniqueplatform from which to undertake measure-ments of the polar ionosphere, situated insuch a way that dayside auroras can beviewed for several hours each day. Researchhas shown these auroras come from the pre-cipitation of low-energy particles enteringthe magnetosphere in the solar wind.

Since 1965, data have been acquired at theSouth Pole using a film-based, all-sky-camerasystem. Using advanced technology, we cannow digitize photographic images and processlarge amounts of information automatically.As this project continues to acquire 35-mil-limeter photographic images, American andJapanese researchers will collaborate indeploying a new all-sky-camera processingsystem developed at Japans National Instituteof Polar Research. This system displays datain a geophysical coordinate framework, andanalyzes series of images over short and longintervals thus enhancing observations overdiscrete, individual photographs.

These studies should provide furtherinsight into the physics of the magnetos-phere, the convection of plasma in the polarcap, and solar winds in the thermosphere;specifically dayside auroral structure, night-side substorm effects, and polar-cap arcs.(AO-117-O)

Solar and heliosphere studies withantarctic cosmic-ray observations.John Bieber, University of Delaware.

Cosmic rays penetrating atomic nuclei fromouter space that move at nearly the speed oflight continuously bombard the Earth.

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Neutron monitors deployed in Antarctica pro-vide a vital three-dimensional perspective onthis shower and how it varies along all threeaxes. Accumulated neutron-monitor records(begun in 1960 at McMurdo Station and in1964 at South Pole Station) provide a long-term historical record that supports efforts tounderstand the nature and causes of cosmic-ray and solar-terrestrial variations occurringover the 11-year sunspot cycle, the 22-yearHale cycle, and even longer timescales.

This project continues a series of year-roundobservations at McMurdo and Amundsen-Scott South Pole Stations, recording cosmicrays with energies in excess of 1 billion elec-tronvolts. These data will advance our under-standing of a number of fundamental plasmaprocesses occurring on the Sun and in inter-planetary space. At the other extreme, we willstudy high time-resolution (10-second) cos-mic-ray data to determine the three-dimen-sional structure of turbulence in space, and toelucidate the mechanism by which energeticcharged particles scatter in this turbulence. (AO-120-O)

Rayleigh and sodium lidar studies ofthe troposphere, stratosphere, andmesosphere at McMurdo andAmundsen-Scott South Pole Stations.Jim Abshire, National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, Goddard Space Flight Center.

Each austral winter, polar stratosphericclouds (PSCs) form in the extremely coldpolar stratosphere. Each spring, as thestratospheric ozone begins to degrade, oneparticular form of these PSCs, the Type 1,appear to have a particular role. This projectsprimary science mission is to detect, monitorand profile these Type 1 PSCs with the auto-mated geophysical observatory (AGO) lidar.This is an ongoing, National Aeronautics andSpace Administration (NASA)-funded projectto develop and demonstrate a compact, low-power, and autonomous atmospheric lidarsystem for operation throughout the AGOsthat have been established in Antarctica bythe U.S. Antarctic Program.

Type 1 PSCs depolarize incident radiation.Because the laser transmitters in AGO lidarproduce light that is highly linearly polarized,they can generate a depolarization signal ofup to several percent. These data are storedin the lidar instruments and, at least once aday, AGO lidar transmits an atmospheric pro-file back to NASAs Goddard Space FlightCenter in Greenbelt, Maryland.

This project also conducts continuous,long-term monitoring of atmospheric trans-mission and backscatter from the surface.These data are being compiled for use by theGeoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS),which produces specialized information onatmospheric conditions.(AO-126-O)

Rayleigh and sodium lidar studies ofthe troposphere, stratosphere, andmesosphere at the Amundsen-ScottSouth Pole Station. George Papen, University of Illinois.

The Earths atmosphere is described by sever-al stratified layers, each with distinctive struc-ture, dynamics and characteristics. The strat-osphere begins about 11 kilometers (km)above the surface; the mesosphere runs fromabout 50 km to its upper boundary, themenopause, where atmospheric temperaturereaches its lowest point (about 80C), beforebeginning to rise with increasing altitudethrough the outer layer, the thermosphere,which runs from 80 km to outer space.

This research deploys a sodium-resonancelidar at the South Pole to study the atmos-pheres vertical structure and dynamics, fromthe lower stratosphere up to the menopause.As the project enters its third year, scientistswill add an iron-resonance lidar, extendingtheir ability to measure the air dynamics andtemperature structure even higher, to about100 kilometers. Another addition, an airglowimaging camera, will be used to study hori-zontal structure.

This final complement of instrumentation,used in conjunction with the normal balloon-borne radiosondes flown regularly fromSouth Pole, will provide extensive data on:

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the temperature structure from the surfaceto 100 kilometers altitude;

the nature of the polar stratosphericclouds (PSCs), which are important toozone chemistry;

the variability and frequency of occurrenceof metallic layers in the mesosphere, whichplay roles in communications as well asatmospheric chemistry;

atmospheric gravity waves; and many other phenomena, some of which are

unique to the South Pole. (AO-127-O)

High-latitude electromagnetic wavestudies using antarctic automaticgeophysical observatories. James LaBelle, Dartmouth College.

Aurora are light shows (streamers and archesof light) created when electrons acceleratedalong Earths magnetic field lines exciteatoms in the atmosphere; they occur at thepoles because of the peculiar magnetic fluxgenerated there. The energy associated withthis phenomenon is significant and complex;one small but distinctive aspect of that ener-gy are radio emissions detectable at frequen-cies between 0.05 and 5.0 megahertz (MHz).

Scientists understand the phenomenon ofauroral hiss that causes broadband noise atfrequencies below 1 MHz. But two other radiophenomena attributable to auroras remainunexplained: Narrowband emissions near 2.8and 4.2 MHz, and broadband noise bursts inthe frequency range of 1.4 to 4.0 MHz.

Although these radio emissions constitutea small fraction of the total energy of theaurora, they may provide important clues tothe more energetic processes; this possibilitywould mirror the use of radio emissions fromthe Sun to infer processes taking place in thesolar corona.

Taking advantage of radio-quiet antarcticconditions, this project uses low-frequen-cy/middle-frequency/high-frequencyreceivers in hopes of developing insightsabout these emissions from antarctic auroralzone and polar cap sites. The receivers willbe installed at Amundsen-Scott South Pole

Station, in three U.S. automatic geophysicalobservatories and in two British automaticgeophysical observatories.(AO-128-O)

In situ measurements of polarstratospheric clouds spanning theaustral winter and of ozone from latewinter to early spring. Terry Deshler, University of Wyoming.

The appearance each spring of the stratos-pheric ozone hole above Antarctica is drivenby chlorine compounds interacting on the sur-faces of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) thatformed the previous polar winter. This is oneexplanation for why ozone depletion is muchmore severe in polar regions than elsewhere.

This project uses balloon-borne instru-ments to provide detailed information on theclouds particles, their distribution, and onozone changes. Our measurements will pro-vide vertical profiles of both the PSCs andozone, size distributions of the PSC particles,and some information on their compositionand physical state (liquid or solid). Our proj-ect is enhanced by a lidar system at McMurdoStation operated by the Instituto De FisicaDellAtmosfere [(Rome), see project AO-107-O]. The results contribute to the WorldMeteorological Organization/UNEP Networkfor the Detection of Stratospheric Change aswell as to the Global Change Initiative. (AO-131-O)

Trace gas measurements over theSouth Pole using millimeter-wavespectroscopy. Robert L. de Zafra, State University of NewYork at Stony Brook.

Many atmospheric gases radiate millimeter-length radio waves, but each species has itsown unique spectrum. These fingerprints notonly identify the gas, but also provide informa-tion on its temperature and pressure. Theseproperties enable scientists to use the millime-ter-wave spectrum of the atmosphere to deter-mine how abundantly and at what altitudes anumber of trace species can be found.

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This research uses a millimeter spectro-scope to monitor the atmosphere aboveSouth Pole, Antarctica, for ozone, carbonmonoxide, nitrous oxide, nitric acid, watervapor, and nitrogen dioxide, over the courseof a year. Several of these gases have impor-tant roles in the formation of the annualantarctic ozone hole. Others particularlywater vapor and carbon monoxide can pro-vide information about the vertical transportand other dynamics of the upper strato-sphere and the mesosphere. (AO-138-O)

Cosmology from Dome-C inAntarctica. Lucio Piccirillo, Bartol Research Institute,University of Delaware.

When the universe was created some 15 billionyears ago in the Big Bang, matter began cours-ing outward. The general flux of that move-ment was discovered in 1965, and is known asthermal cosmic microwave background radia-tion (CMBR). Measurements of the CMBR pro-vide the only direct evidence on the distribu-tion of matter in the very early Universe.

Concordia is one of the highest and coldestsites presently occupied in Antarctica. Theseconditions minimize water vapor in the atmos-phere, which can hinder accurate measure-ments of the CMBR, which is anisotropic; thatis, its readings vary along the different axes.Thus the new French/Italian station on Dome Cin Antarctica (Concordia Station) is a potential-ly superb place from which to make anisotrop-ic CMBR measurements. This project involvesan international collaboration between theUnited States, Italy, and France. We will alsoevaluate the site for other future uses.(AO-140-O)

An optical investigation of the genesis of solar activity. David M. Rust, Johns Hopkins University.

Energy stored in the Suns magnetic fields isreleased in a number of dynamic phenomena,such as flares and coronal mass ejections.Scientists trying to model and understand

these events face several hurdles: The Sunmust be observed for long, continual periods,but the Earths rotation limits unbrokenobservation from any fixed telescope to thelength of a day; further, the required resolu-tion can be achieved only by a telescope situ-ated above most of the atmosphere. Thus far,only two solutions have been found. You canbuild a large, special purpose spacecraft forhundreds of millions of dollars, or launch along distance balloon (LDB) from a polar site.

This study, The Flare Genesis Experiment,uses a high-altitude, long-duration balloon fly-ing around the antarctic continent to deploy an80-centimeter telescope that captures imagesand magnetograms of the solar photosphereand chromosphere; this instrument producesan unprecedented resolution of 0.2 arc-sec.The project is jointly sponsored by the NationalScience Foundation, the National Aeronauticsand Space Administration, and the Air Force. (AB-146-O)

Center for Astrophysical Research inAntarctica (CARA). Stephan Meyer, University of Chicago.

Astronomers probe the infrared (IR) spec-trum at submillimeter scales in search ofdata that could suggest answers to some ofthe seminal questions about the formation ofthe Universe; such as:

How do stars form from interstellar gas? How did the planets form? What was the nature of primeval galaxies? How were matter and energy distributed

in the early Universe?

Antarctica is an ideal spot for suchresearch: The cold temperatures and lack ofwater vapor in the atmosphere above thepolar plateau makes the infrared spectrum ofsky in that region consistently clearer anddarker than anywhere else on Earth. Theseconditions enable scientists to collect meas-urements that would be extremely difficult orimpossible from other sites.

To capitalize on these advantages, theUniversity of Chicago and several collaborating

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institutions in 1991 established the Center forAstrophysical Research in Antarctica (CARA),one of 23 Science and Technology Centersfunded by the National Science Foundation.CARAs scientific mission is to investigate theconditions for astronomy at the South Poleand other sites on the polar plateau, and toestablish an observatory at the South Pole.Currently, CARA supports research using threemajor telescope facilities:

The Astronomical SubmillimeterTelescope/Remote Observatory (AST/RO)project uses a 1.7-meter (m) diameter tele-scope to survey interstellar gas in thegalactic plane, the galactic center, and theMagellanic Clouds.

The South Pole Infrared Explorer (SPIREX)project uses a 0.6-m diameter telescope toobserve distant galaxies, cool stars, andheavily obscured star-forming regions.

The Cosmic Background RadiationAnisotropy (COBRA) project helpsresearchers test current theories of the origin of the Universe.

In addition to projects using these threetelescopes, CARAs Advanced TelescopesProject collects data on the quality of polarplateau sites for astronomical observations,and configures plans for future telescopesand facilities. The following projects and prin-cipal investigators are currently part of CARA:

CARA-wide operations and activities. Stephan Meyer, University of Chicago.(AC-370-O)

The Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope andRemote Observatory (AST/RO) project devel-ops studies on atomic and molecular gas inthe Milky Way and nearby galaxies. Proposalsto use their 1.7-m diameter telescope areinvited from the astronomical community.Antony Stark, Smithsonian Institution.(AC-371-O)

The Advanced Telescopes Project (in additionto gathering measurements of seeing qual-ity using the SPIREX telescope) also sup-

ports a number of other efforts includingwide-field cameras, a near-IR sky brightnessmonitor (in collaboration with the Universityof New South Wales), and an instrument formonitoring mid-IR sky brightness and trans-mission (in collaboration with the NationalAeronautics and Space AdministrationsGoddard Space Flight Center).Bob Lowenstein, University of Chicago.(AC-372-O)

The Degree Angular Scale Interferometer(DASI) is a 13-element interferometerdesigned to measure anisotropies in theCosmic Microwave Background (CMB). Now inits final phase of construction, DASI will cap-ture radiation readings over a large range ofscales with very high sensitivity, and shouldbe collecting data by Feb 2000. The instru-ment uses cooled HEMT amplifiers runningbetween 26 and 36GHz, in five 2-GHz chan-nels and will operate from the South Pole.John Carlstrom, University of Chicago.(AC-373-O)

The South Pole Infrared Explorer (SPIREX)project is ideal for extensive large-scaleinfrared and submillimeter surveys of star-forming regions in the Milky Way andMagellanic Clouds. The SPIREX telescope (60centimeters in diameter) was built to exploitthe unique observing conditions at the SouthPole and to develop and demonstrate thetechnology needed to operate IR telescopesduring the antarctic winter.

The telescope has been enhanced to lowertotal telescope emissivity to just 5 percent.The Abu camera is based on an Aladdin1024x1024 pixel indium antimonide focalplane array and a set of broad- and narrow-band filters spanning the range between 2.4and 5 millimeter (mm). It was developed atNOAO to test advanced focal-plane arrays.Combining this camera with the telescopepermits wide-field (10.2 arc-minutes) astro-nomical imaging at wavelengths of 3-5microns (); this region of the spectrum iswhere the advantages of the South Pole overtemperate sites are greatest.

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The Abu/SPIREX project is the result ofunique collaboration: The National OpticalAstronomy Observatories (NOAO) contributesthe Abu, the best existing 3-5 micron camera;the United States Naval Observatory (USNO)and CARA commit to operating the SPIREX andconducting the science at the worlds darkest3-5 micron site, the South Pole. In addition to researchers at NOAO and USNO, the effortincludes collaborators from Boston University(BU), Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC),Ohio State University (OSU), RochesterInstitute of Technology (RIT), the University ofChicago (UC), the University of New SouthWales (UNSW), and the Universities SpaceResearch Association (USRA).Bob Lowenstein, University of Chicago.(AC-374-O)

The Viper telescope is a 2-meter class tele-scope that will extend the observations (nowbeing made with the 0.75-meter Python tele-scope) to structures in the cosmic microwavebackground having smaller angular scales. The primary goal of the Viper project is todetermine the power spectrum of the CMBRanisotropy over the range of angular scaleswhere cosmological models most differ in theirpredictions. Viper data should permit scientiststo better discriminate among these models.Viper images will also be used to search forcosmological defect-imprints on the CMBR.Jeffrey Peterson, Carnegie-Mellon University.(AC-375-O)

The Submillimeter Polarimeter for AntarcticRemote Observing (SPARO), operating on theViper 2-meter telescope is newly deployed tothe Pole in 1999. SPARO is a 9-pixel, 450-micronpolarimetric imager, which requires onlyinfrequent cryogen refills, making mainte-nance easier during the winterover.

The South Pole offers superb conditionsfor SPARO observations, extending submil-limeter polarimetry (measurement of thepolarization of thermal emission from mag-netically aligned dust grains) to regions oflow-column density that cannot be studiedfrom other sites. SPARO is similar topolarimeters in the University of Chicago

array designed for other telescopes; butthose instruments (for example, at theCaltech Submillimeter Observatory and theOwens Valley Radio Observatory) providemuch better angular resolution. SPAROsgeographic advantage, however, results in a much enhanced submillimeter sensitivity to extended emission.

The primary goal for the 1999-2000 phaseof the project is to reveal the large-scalemagnetic field in the nucleus of our Galaxy.Giles Novak, Northwestern University.(AC-376-O)

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ANTARCTIC BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE The Biology and Medicine program fundsresearch to improve understanding of antarc-tic life forms and ecosystems their physiolo-gy, behavior, adaptations, and relationships.Projects range across all organizational levels from the molecule, cell and organism torelationships within communities and ecosys-tems, to the level of global processes. This isanother area of inquiry where scientific goalsextend far beyond learning (in this field,about flora and fauna) in the high latitudes.

Antarctica is a place like no other: as anintriguing habitat, a scientists dream; a landwhere water is scarce truly a desert despite containing more than two-thirds of the worlds freshwater supply trapped inthe ice. Though it borders the worlds majoroceans, the Southern Ocean system isunique in the world, a sea where averagetemperatures dont reach 2C in summer,where even the water itself is so unique thatit can be identified thousands of miles awayin currents that originated here. As the Earthmakes its elliptical journey around the suneach year tilted on its rotational axis thesun sets in April, not to be seen again untilSeptember. And the ice unimaginable,incomparable vastness of ice in a dozendifferent varieties, at times and in places sev-eral thousand meters thick, two major icesheets (the East larger than most countries),changing dynamically all the time.

Adaptations and behavior developed inresponse to these extreme conditions provideinsight into the intricacies (as well as the fun-damental processes) of evolution. Theseextremes have also driven the development ofecosystems simple enough to reveal wonder-fully clear pieces of the web of life on Earth.Support is focused on the following areas:

Marine ecosystem dynamics: Among theresearch topics are understanding the nat-ural variability of marine ecosystems; cor-relating the structure and function of themarginal ice-zone ecosystem with oceanicand atmospheric processes; exploring thesources of nutrition and their influence on

prey and on primary production; and therole of marine phytoplankton in carbondioxide cycling.

Terrestrial and limnetic ecosystems:Organisms in ice-free areas and in perenni-ally ice-covered lakes show remarkableadaptations to extreme environments.Relatively few species thrive here, whichfacilitates the study of ecosystem dynam-ics and the interpretation of experiments,although much more remains to be learnedabout adaptive mechanisms and evolution-ary processes.

Population biology and physiological ecol-ogy: At the next level, looking at relation-ships among organisms, studies havefocused on the variability and dynamics ofpopulations of krill and other zooplankton;ecological relationships among andbetween fish species, marine mammals,and birds have also been the object ofmuch research, with many issues still to be further explored. As organized pro-grams of antarctic science enter their fifthdecade (some even longer), data sets andongoing observations are elucidating manmade as well as natural changes.

Adaptation: Antarctic extremes present afundamental research opportunity; topicsinclude low-temperature photosynthesisand respiration, enzymatic adaptations andadaptive physiology such as the developmentin fish of antifreeze compounds and modi-fications to the circulatory system in seals;also continuing interest in the response of(and impacts upon) organisms to increasedUV-B radiation from the ozone hole.

Human behavior and medical research:Antarcticas extreme climate and terrainimpose a quite spartan and unconvention-al existence upon scientists and otherswho live and work there. As people aresubjected to social, psychological, andphysiological stresses (exacerbated duringthe winter isolation) research opportuni-ties arise. Studies focus on epidemiology,thermal regulation, immune system func-tion, individual behavior, and groupdynamics.

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Life in Extreme Environments(LEXEN): Biology and ecology of South Pole snow microbes. Edward J. Carpenter, State University of NewYork at Stony Brook.

Scientists have always portrayed Antarcticasinterior ice sheets as a region extremely hos-tile to life. As arid as the worlds severestdesert, the heart of the continent has no water(H2O as a liquid), relentlessly low tempera-tures and long periods with minimal solarenergy (darkness) all conditions that under-mine the viability of indigenous organisms.Move toward the fringes of the continentwhere these conditions moderate somewhat,and this picture begins to change, with numer-ous species of plants, protozoa, and bacteria.

In snow samples collected in January 1997near the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station,however, scientists have found microbes thatcontain two of the basics of biological life: DNAand pigments that result from photosynthesis.The snow was flown immediately to the CraryLaboratory at McMurdo Station, melted andexamined by epifluorescent microscope. Basedon their shape and fluorescence signatures,the particles appear to be cyanobacteria.Subsequent analysis using fluorescent DNAstains and scanning electron microscopy con-firmed the presence of DNA-containingmicrobes with this same shape.

Formerly known as blue-green algae,cyanobacteria are now considered to beMonera: Ancient, often unicellular organismsthat lack cell nuclei but which are basic tothe carbon and nitrogen cycles, as many ofthem have photosynthetic properties.

Are these microbes indigenous to the antarc-tic interior? What can be learned about theirbiology and ecology? These questions will drivethis research project, since the discovery oforganisms capable of surviving in Antarcticasinterior should provide us with new insight intohow life forms can adapt to conditions previ-ously believed incapable of supporting life. The biomolecules and metabolism of thesecreatures must be unique, and could provevaluable for molecular engineering research. (BO-004-O)

Role of antifreeze proteins in freezing avoidance in antarctic fishes: Ecological and organismalphysiology, structure-function andmechanism, genetics, and evolution. Arthur DeVries, University of Illinois.

Despite temperatures that can dip below 0C,antarctic waters provide a life-sustaining envi-ronment for a number of fishes. Thus a basicquestion: Why dont these fish freeze whenthey take this water in through their gills? Oneprimary reason seems to be the presence ofbiological molecules that work like antifreezein an engine, so-called antifreeze glycopep-tides (AFGPs) and antifreeze peptides (AFPs).By devising experiments that distinguish anumber of factors, this project probes someinteresting questions about how these fishesmay have developed such systems.

How much ice and as an adaptativeresponse, how much antifreeze is found infish from more and less severe environments?Researchers will examine how much exogenous(imported into the body) and endogenous(manufactured inside the body) ice is found in fishes from two distinct environments. TheMcMurdo area fishes live in the coldest andmost ice-laden waters of the antarctic region,while those living near the Antarctic Peninsulaface a less severe marine environment. Studieswill correlate the freezing extremes and com-pare the circulating levels of AFGPs in the fishesfound in these two environments.

Other ongoing and new experiments willlook for answers to a number of interestingand related questions: How does the fishorganism respond to ice created inside thebody? The antifreeze proteins: How do theyfunction, what is their structure, how do theirmolecules actually adhere to the potentialice to inhibit its growth? What about thegenes that code for these proteins: What istheir structure; how are they organized; howmight they have evolved? In what tissues inthe fishs body is the AFGP gene expressed?(BO-005-M)

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Use of a long-term database andmolecular genetic techniques toexamine the behavioral ecology and dynamics of Weddell seal(Leptonychotes weddellii) population. Donald B. Siniff, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities.

The Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) isfound in regions of pack ice or fast ice close tothe antarctic continent. These seals are relative-ly long-lived, and the waters of McMurdo Soundhave provided a continuous environment inwhich to study their survival and aquatic repro-ductive patterns. A series of long-term popula-tion studies, ongoing since the mid-1960s, havegenerated a rare and valuable set of data.

Recently developed molecular biology tech-niques, however, permit scientists to examinethe DNA of individual seals as well as groups,and to gain insight into their genetic histories,breeding systems and reproductive fitness.Breeding males behave characteristically;looking at this behavioral ecology and theirmating systems through the lens of their DNAcan project backwards in time and correlatetheir reproductive success and the effectivesize of their populations.

Using and building on the long-term dataset, the study will also examine how hypothe-ses can be tested and parameters can be esti-mated, in producing models and studies ofpopulation demographics. The populationdynamics of the Weddell seal will also beexplored though the lens of immigration andemigration into and out of the group.

As the southernmost breeding mammal inthe world, the Weddell seal exemplifies theability to adapt to environmental extremes.Understanding the mating strategies theseseals employ should contribute to a deeperunderstanding of the evolution and popula-tion dynamics of the Pinnipedia (a suborderof aquatic, carnivorous mammals, includingall the seals and walruses), as well as howmarine mammals (more generally) compete. (BO-009-O)

Weddell seal foraging: Behavioraland energetic strategies for huntingbeneath the antarctic fast ice. Randall Davis, Texas A&M University atGalveston.

Weddell seals, as carnivorous mammals,hunt underwater but breathe air. To thrive intheir aquatic environment, they have devel-oped some remarkable adaptations. Foragingefficiently deep beneath the extensive,unbroken fast-ice along the antarctic coastrequires that they hold their breath for 20minutes or longer (a feat comparable to alion or other large terrestrial predator hold-ing its breath while it locates, pursues, andcaptures its prey). Then at the end of a dive,to avoid drowning, the seals must eitherreturn to the same hole or know the locationof other breathing holes.

What enables Weddell seals to live thisremarkable life? Until now, detailed investiga-tion of the foraging behavior of marine mam-mals has not been feasible. Working from anisolated ice hole in McMurdo Sound,Antarctica, this study will employ a small videosystem and data logger (attached to the sealsbacks) to analyze their behavior and measuretheir consumption of oxygen during voluntarydives. We will measure the underwater behav-ior, locomotor performance (swimming velocity,stroke frequency and amplitude, and three-dimensional movements), and energy metabo-lism of Weddell seals during their foragingdives. We will test hypotheses on: General foraging strategies; the general behavior ofsearching, as well as the mechanics; modesof swimming; the metabolic price of foraging;and how foraging efficiency varies, under dif-ferent environmental conditions, and in pursuitof different types of prey.

Effective inquiry into foraging ecology inmarine mammals requires these sorts of pio-neering studies, focused on type of prey,energetics, and foraging behavior. Of all ofthe deep-diving Pinnipedae (other species ofseal and also of walruses), the Weddell sealmay provide the best opportunity to advance

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knowledge of foraging ecology; because: Wehave data on their diving ability; the isolated-ice-hole protocol in McMurdo Sound enablesrecorders to be attached and recovered reli-ably; and, when placed in the isolated icehole, the seals make daily foraging dives. (BO-017-O)

The chemical ecology of shallow-water marine macroalgae and inver-tebrates on the Antarctic Peninsula.James B. McClintock and Charles D. Amsler,U. of Alabama, Birmingham.

In a number of plant species, evolution hasadapted the basic strategy of developingchemical substances designed to defend the organism. One general group of thesesubstances are classified as defensive sec-ondary metabolites. This project will probethree cost/benefit ideas that are oftenwoven into viable theories on the evolutionof chemical defenses.

First, the Resource Availability Model ofchemical defense. The proposed researchwill examine whether macroalgae grownunder carbon limitation (reduced light) will produce quantitatively higher levels of defensive compounds than will thosegrown in an optimal light environment;also whether antarctic macroalgae found inthe nutrient-rich peninsula region are likelyto develop chemical defenses that includenitrogen compounds.

Second, the Optimal Defense Theory inmacroalgae and invertebrates. The pro-posed research will determine the extentto which chemical defenses are moreabundant in tissues with a high energycontent, such as reproductive tissue andoffspring (larvae); also whether larvae relying on lecithin for nutrition have a higher incidence of chemical defense thando larvae relying on plankton.

Finally, using previous work in the Ross Seaas a starting point, the investigation willmap how chemical defenses may vary acrossdifferent areas; if they do vary, we will seekout possible underlying evolutionary factors.

The program should advance our under-standing of the evolution of chemical defens-es in general, as well as the nature and roleof bioactive agents in the specific ecology of antarctic marine benthos (organisms livingat the bottom of, or in very deep, marineenvironments). (BO-022-O)

The biogeochemistry of dimethylsul-fide (DMS) and related compounds ina chemically stratified antarctic lake.John C Priscu, Montana State University, andGiacomo R. DiTullio, Grice Marine Laboratory,University of Charleston.

The Earths atmospheric cycle involves contin-uous transport of basic elements, one of whichis sulfur. Dimethylsulfide (DMS) is the domi-nant volatile sulfur compound emitted fromthe ocean and may represent up to 90 percentof the sea-to-air biogenic sulfur flux. Whenthese volatile sulfur molecules oxidize in theatmosphere, condensation nuclei can bereleased which, scientists hypothesize, maydirectly counteract the warming effects ofanthropogenically produced CO2. Aquaticsystems in particular the waters of thesouth polar regions thus play a crucial rolein one of the planets basic transactions. Yetboth the sources and the sinks of DMS andassociated sulfonium compounds have yet to be fully identified and understood.

This research will examine the biogeo-chemistry of water column and sedimentaryDMS/DMSP (dimethylsulfoniopropionate),and the role of associated compounds (e.g.,dimethylsulfoxide, dimethylated polysul-fides) in Lake Bonney. A relatively simpleaquatic system, Lake Bonney provides ahighly tractable environment for investigat-ing the microbially mediated cycling of bio-genic sulfur because there is no turbulence,no grazers and little atmospheric exchange.

Preliminary data suggest that maximum lev-els of DMS precursors may be found in thedeep-chlorophyll layer of the lake, a zone dom-inated by cryptophyte algae. In addition, DMSconcentrations deep in the lake, where there isvery little light (i.e., in the aphotic waters), are

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among the highest recorded in a naturalaquatic system. These observations indicatethat precursors produced by trophogenic zonephytoplankton sink to the aphotic waters andsediments, where microbes decompose themto DMS and other sulfur compounds. The proposed research will define the sources and sinks of DMS and associated compounds,and establish how they function in the overallecosystem. We hope to develop a modeldescribing the biogeochemical transformationsof organo-sulfur compounds in Lake Bonney.(BO-025-O)

Factors regulating population sizeand colony distribution of Adliepenguins in the Ross Sea. David G. Ainley, H.T. Harvey and Associates,California.

Over the past few decades, the Adlie pen-guin (Pygoscelis adeliae) colonies in theRoss Sea region have grown dramatically insize. What demographic mechanisms mightaccount for this change? This collaborativeproject will investigate (in particular) thepossible effects of documented changes inthe regions climate. We will look at the nest-ing habitat as a function of access to food,and hope to distinguish the relative impor-tance of the key resources that constrain thegrowth of colonies. A number of behavioraland demographic mechanisms may influencea colonys growth, relative to its initial sizeand distribution pattern for example, aphenomenon known as philopatry: The inter-relationship between the balance achievedby immigration/emigration and consequentbreeding effort and success.

As the first empirical study to consider thegeographic structuring of a seabird population,we expect our results to increase understand-ing of how populations regulate themselves,and the patterns they follow when they dis-perse. We also hope to elucidate the effects of climate change, mediated through changesin sea-ice cover, on penguin populations. Theresults should also provide a context in whichto interpret conflicting data on penguin popu-lation trends from existing programs; in partic-

ular, Adlie penguins have been studied as an indicator of such anthropogenic impacts on antarctic resources as fishery catches anddisturbances created by tourism.

Our 5 years of research include intensivefield study of three Ross Island penguincolonies. We quantify reproductive effort andsuccess, food availability (access to food), dietquality, habitat use, and immigration/emigra-tion relative to colony size and environmentalconditions (i.e., pack-ice cover). We employseveral well-established techniques that havebeen successfully (but infrequently) used inantarctic biological research:

Aerial photography: to evaluate the availability of nesting habitat,

Microwave images of sea-ice concentration:to assess availability of feeding habitat,

Analysis of stable isotopes: to evaluatefood quality,

Radio telemetry: to assess overlap incolony feeding areas, and

Automatic systems: to log aspects ofreproductive effort.

Landcare Research New Zealand (LCRNZ)has conducted two preliminary field seasons,including the testing of new equipment. This project will build on their results, andthey will collaborate with us throughout thelifetime of the project. The LCRNZ work isindependently funded. Researchers from the University of California-Santa Cruz, theUniversity of Wisconsin, and Beigel Tech-nology, will collaborate with those from H.T.Harvey and Associates and LCRNZ to accom-plish the projects goals. (BO-031-O)

Penguin/krill/ice interactions: Theimpact of environmental variabilityon penguin demography. Wayne Trivelpiece, Montana State University.

As the environment fluctuates, there aredirect effects on the structure and function of antarctic marine ecosystems. Three exam-ples are the Adlie, gentoo, and chinstrappenguins of the antarctic, whose changing

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numbers have been related to long-termchanges in environmental conditions, in particular the possible effects of sea-ice coverage on the availability of prey (krill).

We will explore the demographics ofcolonies of those three species living inAdmiralty Bay, King George Island, to testfive hypotheses:

The structure of the krill population isstrongly affected by the extent of pack-ice, and its consequent impact on femalefecundity and the survival of larvae.

Recruitment of penguins to their respectivepopulations is affected by the extent ofpack-ice cover during the winter prior tothe breeding season.

The survival of penguin fledglings is corre-lated to the extent of pack ice cover duringthe winter following the breeding season.

Adlie penguins return to the pack-icehabitat during their first two-week-longforaging trips following clutch competitionto recover from prolonged fasting of thecourtship period.

Accessible pack ice in the early breedingseason has led to the evolution of discretepopulation centers of Adlies from theBellingshausen, Weddell, and Ross Seapopulations.

The Pygoscelis species of penguins are the major upper trophic level predators ofkrill (Euphausia superba) in the AntarcticPeninsula region. In trying to assess thepotential impacts of fishery activities in thisarea, it is imperative to first determine thedistinct impact of a changing environment. (BO-040-O)

Microbial mediation of trace metalcycling in four stratified antarctic lakes.William Green, Miami University at Oxford, Ohio.

Aquatic environments often stratify; that is, boundaries at different depths indicatechanges in the composition of the water. Oneof the basic processes in nature is reductionby oxidation (redox), and redox boundariescan be found at specific water depths where

microbes are implicated in the cycle and fateof a large suite of chemical elements.

The proposed research will examine therole of microbial influences on metal cyclingin four stratified lakes in the McMurdo DryValleys: Lakes Fryxell, Hoare, Joyce and Miers.These lakes are characterized by unusuallystable redox transition zones, and are alsoespecially amenable to a finely spaced sam-pling regime. Collectively, they represent abroad range of water chemistries.

The proposed research will test twohypotheses:

In stratified water columns there should be a clear spatial difference between theonset of manganese reduction and theonset of iron reduction. Heavy metals andrare-earth elements will be seen to under-go co-cycling with manganese (Ma) ratherthan with iron.

In all four lakes, Ma reduction will be asso-ciated with the presence of carnobacteriaor other Ma-reducing organisms.

Dissolved and particulate metal profiles willbe examined at depths from the ice-water inter-face at the top all the way down to the sedi-ments. Profiles will be correlated with microbialMa-reduction assays, and with the presence ofMa reducers; these can be detected by screen-ing with Mn-oxide overlay agar plates andnucleic acid hybridizations that function asprobes for known manganese reducers. Theresearch will include significant involvement of undergraduates.(BO-041-O)

Shell morphogenesis in giant agglutinated foraminifera. Samuel S. Bowser and Charles R. Hauer,Wadsworth Center, New York StateDepartment Health.

A dominant member of the cold, deep-seasediments ecosystem is a group of giant pro-tozoa, the agglutinated foraminifera, alsoknown as forams. For protection, these sin-gle-celled organisms encase themselves inarchitecturally elegant shells that they con-

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struct by collecting, sorting, and cementingtogether sediment grains. The unique occur-rence of these giant cells (greater than 1 mil-limeter in size) in the shallow waters ofMcMurdo Sound, Antarctica, allows for thestudy of the cellular and molecular aspectsof shell construction.

In our project, we will use novel light-microscopic methods to examine how agglu-tinated forams secrete and sculpt the adhe-sive matrix that binds sediment particulate intheir shells. Comparative time-lapse photog-raphy of different foram species constructingshells will identify key steps in the processesthat lead to the various shell morphologies.Peptide sequence analyses of the elastic proteins of the shells will provide valuableinsight into the chemical nature of forambioadhesives. From a practical standpoint,these cements may have important biotech-nological and medical applications.

We will also continue a study of the effectsof collection activities, as well as natural phys-ical disturbances, in this unique environment.The interdisciplinary research conducted forthis project has implications for a number offields, including cellular development, evolu-tion, paleontology, marine products chemistry,and ecosystem management. (BO-043-O)

Microbial life within the extremeenvironment posed by permanentantarctic lake ice. Christian H. Fritsen, Edward E. Adams, JamesA. Raymond, John C. Priscu, and ChristopherP. McKay, Montana State University.

How does microbial life adapt to environ-mental extremes, such as those found inAntarctica? One strategy is by associationwith sediment aggregates, sites where physi-cal, chemical, and biological interactions pro-mote microbial growth under extreme condi-tions inherent to the ice environment. The 3-to-20-meter-thick permanent ice covers onthe lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys,Antarctica, contain viable microbial cells inassociation with just such sediment aggre-gates. Specifically, certain ice aggregates

(within the permanent ice covers on thelakes in the Taylor Valley) have been tenta-tively characterized in previous studies.

This interdisciplinary research program willuse this background and context to explorespecific processes that allow for:

the creation of liquid water (the essentialelement for life) in the permanent ice,

the survival and structuring of microbialpopulations subjected to freezing andthawing,

the production of substances that alter thephysical attributes of the ice-crystal habi-tat, and

the nutrient supply to the microbial popu-lations, which is essential for survival andwhch largely determines net microbialgrowth and the accumulation of biomass.

Research on microbes in permanent iceprovides information on the ecology ofmicrobes in ice ecosystems and promises to have biotechnological implications.Furthermore, since water ice has beendetected within and beyond our own solarsystem, these studies could provide insightsinto the conditions that might support extra-terrestrial life. (BO-044-O)

Influence of seasonal ice cover onpelagic and benthic communities:Long time-series studies. Kenneth L. Smith, Scripps Institution ofOceanography.

The annual expansion and contraction of icecover in the Southern Ocean the largestseasonal process in the world ocean causesprimary biomass production to fluctuateextensively, and has a strong impact on bothpelagic (open, upper sea) and benthic (deep-er, at the bottom) communities of fauna. Thisstudy at Port Foster, Deception Island, willtake advantage of a region that has seasonalice cover and which supports a pelagic andbenthic fauna that are representative of theantarctic coastal zone.

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The study of the water column andseafloor will be structured as a long time-series, employing long-term, autonomousmonitoring and sampling systems that weredeveloped especially for use in Antarctica.We will deploy a bottom-moored, upward-looking acoustic instrument on the seafloorfor 12 months to monitor the vertical distri-bution, abundance, and biomass of acousti-cally detectable macrozooplankton andmicronekton in the water column. Collectionswill be made over this period using newlydeveloped, vertically profiling pump sam-pling. Simultaneously, a time-lapse camerasystem will be moored on the seafloor tomonitor the spatial distribution, sizes, andmovements of the epibenthic megafaunacomponent of the benthic community.

This deployment of instruments will allowus to focus on the effect of the seasonal sea-ice cycle on the distribution, abundance,and biomass of the macrozooplankton andmicronekton in the water column. Similarquestions about the deeper-dwelling epiben-thic megafauna will focus on distribution,size, abundance, and movements. Resultsfrom this study should provide a valuablefoundation database to evaluate the pelagicand benthic community responses to season-al variability in the Southern Ocean. (BO-050-O)

Biodiversity and biogeochemistry of antarctic photosynthetic bacteria.Michael T. Madigan and Laurie A. Achenbach;Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.

Environments classified as cold (averagetemperature 5C or lower) comprise more than 90% of the earths biosphere, yet rela-tively little is known about about the diversityand ecological activities of cold-adaptedmicroorganisms photosynthetic microorgan-isms, in particular. This research will explorethe biodiversity of cold-adapted anoxygenicphotosynthetic bacteria that are found in per-manently cold antarctic habitats. The researchtakes a phased approach to biodiversity:Beginning with the enrichment and isolationof cultures of antarctic photosynthetic bacte-

ria; then characterization in the laboratory of their major physiological, biochemical, and genetic features; finally, in situ study ofbiogeochemical reactions carried out in natu-ral populations of these organisms.

Readily cultivable species of cold-adaptedphotosynthetic bacteria will be isolated inpure culture. The isolation methods to beused are not the classical ones of liquidenrichment but instead employ extinctingdilution this will ensure that rare as well as abundant cultivable species are obtained.Variations in the enrichment approach will be used to isolate those cold-adapted specieswith particularly well developed and/or spe-cialized metabolisms. Examples are thosecapable of autotrophic carbon dioxide fixa-tion, nitrogen fixation and the photocatabo-lism of aromatic compounds. Field researchwill include isolation of new cultures fromstratified antarctic lakes in the McMurdo DryValleys. A series of enrichment cultures estab-lished at different temperatures and growthrate measurements will yield isolates thatpossess the ability to grow over a range oftemperatures. The Isolates will be phylogenet-ically characterized by 16s rRNA sequencing.This will permit us to determine which speciesare merely psychrotrophic (cold-tolerant) andwhich are actually psychrophilic (cold-loving).

The results of the research should fortifythe knowledge of photosynthetic diversity. We anticipate identifying novel organisms foragricultural and biotechnological use, and for the study of photosynthesis and relatedprocesses at low temperatures. Finally, weexpect to broaden the diversity of known psychrophilic and psychrotrophic prokaryotes,and thus provide more data for the study ofexobiology (the study of life beyond the planet).(BO-195-O)

Diving biology of emperor penguins.Paul J. Ponganis, Scripps Institution ofOceanography.

Because the emperor penguin (Aptenoidytesforsteri) lives within the pack ice zone ofAntarctica, its advanced ability to dive hasbeen the subject of interest for many years.

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Emperor penguins routinely hunt for food forbetween 2 and 10 minutes, at depths rangingfrom 50 to 500 meters. These birds havereached a measured depth of nearly 550meters. The longest dives are not the deepest,however; the recorded longest of twenty-twominutes was nowhere near that record depth.

This project will examine the diving physi-ology and behavior of emperor penguins inthe Ross Sea region of Antarctica. We hopeto elucidate both the physiological andbehavioral mechanisms underlying thebreath-holding capacity of these diving birds;also to understand how these physiologicallimits may affect the natural diving behaviorand ecology of the penguins; and further, to use the unique adaptation of diving birdsto explore how organs and tissue tolerateoxygen deprivation.

The emperor penguin provides an excellentmodel to investigate the physiology andbehavior of diving birds and mammals; in thiscase, thermoregulation, underwater behaviorand the homoeostatic regulation of myoglo-bin. We will focus on the role of decreasedbody temperature in extending the durationof aerobic metabolism during diving. Thepresence of a small camera will permit us to examine their behavior during their dives,and to correlate changes in core and muscletemperature with which prey they ingest aswell as with their wing stroke frequency. Atthe molecular biology level, we will use thehigh myoglobin concentration in emperorsand the large increases in myoglobin concen-tration during chick development to examinetranscriptional control of the myoglobin gene. (BO-197-O)

Ultraviolet-radiation-induced DNAdamage in bacterioplankton in theSouthern Ocean.Wade H. Jeffrey, University of West Florida.

Strong evidence now shows that ultraviolet(UV) radiation is increasing periodically overcertain locations in Antarctica and theSouthern Ocean a result of ozone depletion.When ozone concentrations are diluted, thestratosphere is able to adsorb less UV radia-

tion, permitting more of it to reach the Earthssurface. Although research on the impact ofincreased UV radiation due to ozone depletionhas focused primarily on phytoplankton, asmaller effort is being directed to the impactson other food sources.

During this collaborative project, we willexplore the effects of UV radiation upon bac-terioplankton. This involves the interactionsbetween bacterioplankton and photochemi-cal processes, as well as interactions withhigher trophic groups such as phytoplanktonand zooplankton. Several specific parameterswill be explored:

whether bacterial phytoplankton-couplingmodifies bacterial response to UV radiation,

how seasonal changes in UV radiationaffect bacterial community dynamics, and

how chemical photoproducts affect bacter-ial production.

We hope to elucidate the molecular deter-minants of changes in productivity, and alsothe molecular and physiological responses tochanging UV radiation. The ultimate benefitwould be a greater understanding of thepotential impact that changes in UV radiationcan have on marine microbial communities.(BO-200-O)

The role of oceanographic featuresand prey distribution on foragingenergetics and reproductive success. Daniel Costa, University of California at Santa Cruz.

The Southern Ocean enjoys a high seasonalproductivity, in both coastal and pelagic envi-ronments. But observations over the last sev-eral decades show that behind this generalproductivity lies much variation during theyear, and from year to year. Thus the preyavailable to vertebrate predators can vary sig-nificantly over time, and from place to place.

Since the late 1980s, scientists have record-ed this spatial and temporal variability for thenorthern South Shetland Islands region of theAntarctic Peninsula. The antarctic fur seal[Arctocephalus gazella], a subpolar migratory

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otariid with a short lactation period, is anincreasingly dominant marine predator of theSouth Shetlands region. Its life-history pat-tern is characterized by foraging trips alter-nating with short visits to provide for a singleoffspring; this pattern allows scientists tomeasure both maternal investment and thedistribution/abundance of prey, on the sametemporal and spatial scales.

This project will quantify the foragingcosts and maternal investment associatedwith different strategies observed in popula-tions of South Shetland antarctic fur seals.Using state-of-the-art techniques, we willdetermine the costs and benefits of differentforaging patterns correlated to: Energyexpenditure, food intake, dive depth, diveduration, time of day, dive frequency, swimspeed, and foraging location. These meas-urements will coincide with small- and large-scale oceanographic surveys to be conduct-ed by the National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministrations Antarctic Marine LivingResources program, which also contributesto the support of this project.

The research will provide scientists a clear-er picture of the life of a free-ranging marinevertebrate predator. The data should revealpatterns linking the biological characteristicsof the prey (composition, distribution, andabundance) and the physical characteristicsof the foraging environment with foragingsuccess, maternal investment, and reproduc-tive success.(BO-267-O)

Surface UV irradiance and PAR variability over AntarcticaPaul J Ricchiazzi and Catherine Gautier,University of California, Santa Barbara.

Since discovery of the antarctic ozone hole inthe early 1980s, concerns have grown aboutwhether the consequent increase in ultraviolet(UV) radiation reaching the Earths surface has anegative impact on the Southern Ocean ecosys-tem. While subsequent photobiology researchhas shown there are negative effects on photo-plankton, zooplankton and fish larvae from theincreased UV radiation, it is difficult to extrapo-

late localized studies to a broad spatial scale. One way to extend the results of photobiol-

ogy point-measurement to large spatial scalesis by applying PAR (photosynthetically activeradiation) mapping techniques to the UV radi-ation data gained by satellites. The mappingalgorithm developed to date uses specificsatellite images of cloud and ozone distribu-tion to estimate UV and PAR irradiance levelsover large areas of the Earths surface. Thiswork is underway, thanks to prior researchsupport; the goal of the current project is toimprove performance of the UV and PAR map-ping algorithm. Since a significant fraction ofoverall biological productivity occurs in watersnear the coast, we will focus special attentionon improving the performance of the mappingtechnique in those regions.

Simulations made with Monte Carlo radia-tive transfer models suggest that these coastalregions are subject to significantly greater UV surface irradiance. The field study willdeploy a newly modified surface radiometerwith spectral sensors; this device optimizesretrieval of cloud optical depth and surfacealbedo. This superior system should signifi-cantly enhance our ability to test the accuracyof PAR, the mapping algorithm.

We will also investigate how the newAVHRR-3A satellite sensor might be used toimprove the algorithm. It appears that infor-mation from this new sensor could be usefulfor obtaining more frequent and accuratesurface albedo maps, information vital to the mapping algorithm.

We expect the development of these newapproaches to interpreting satellite and surfacemeasurements to provide information criticalfor in