Theory of Change

February 2014

Acknowledgements

Particular thanks are due to Leap’s Impact Manager Tom Currie, author of this document, for his commitment to the project and to Carey Haslam for her precise feedback. We are very grateful to the many people who have contributed to the process of creating this document: Youth sector professionals who have given their time: Dimitrios Tourountsis (London Youth) and Colin Falconer (Foyer Federation) Consultants who have shared their expertise: James Noble (New Philanthropy Capital), Loic Menzies (LKMco), Sarah Burns & Kate Graham (Triangle Consulting) and Sean Blair (ProMeet), and Mary Baginsky (DfE) Members of Leap’s Impact Sub-committee for feedback and encouragement: Suzanne Brais, Rosie Chadwick, John Leach, Rachel Sandby-Thomas (Chair) Leap colleagues who have contributed to this work: Steven Allen, Clarinda Cuppage, Jassy Denison, Thomas Lawson, Matt Lent, Amanda Nelmes, Nik Rabani-Barker and Sandy Sanghera Authors of Leap’s publication – From Violence to Resilience: Jo Broadwood and Nic Fine

Executive Summary Adolescence is a time of passion and ideals. It is often challenging for a young person to make their own sense of the adult world they are entering. These challenges create conflict within themselves and with those around them and if badly managed can lead to destructive behaviour. These conflicts can have potentially devastating effects for the young people, their families and peer groups, and our communities. By understanding what drives their individual behaviour and learning how to make more responsible choices, young people can harness their energy to improve their lives and the lives of others. Leap Confronting Conflict views young people’s experience of conflict as an asset. With the right support and challenge young people can use their experiences to transform their lives. Through increasing their understanding of their relationship to conflict, young people gain self-awareness, ability to empathise and develop self-responsibility – all vital qualities of positive citizenship. Many young people today face economic challenges and uncertainty about their future and this can affect their self-worth and aspirations. Their identity and sense of belonging is further challenged by the need to navigate through a rapidly increasing number of online and offline communities making their ability to create successful, pro-social relationships more valuable than ever. The asset based approach is a new framework for working with young people that is gaining traction amongst the leaders of innovative youth organisations. It means engaging young people in identifying and developing the capabilities and qualities they need to flourish in their adult life. Young people often already have these qualities, albeit in an embryonic or inconsistent state. The asset based approach powerfully challenges the traditional paradigm, prevalent in many institutions and organisations working with young people; that of defining their clients by their deficits or risk factors. Leap has developed an extensive understanding of conflict and our practice benefits from a culture of reflection and development built over 27 years of working with almost 100,000 young people. The young people Leap works with gain an understanding of the sources of their own conflicts, both internal and external. They develop their capabilities and confidence to address and resolve difficult situations, without resorting to violence or acting out. They integrate the tools and models into everyday life, until they become a key part of their outlook and interactions with the world. In a recent evaluation of the sustained impact of attending Quarrel Shop – Leap’s flagship intensive workshop on conflict – a year or more after completion all the graduates we interviewed said that they continue to use Leap tools ‘very often’ (81%) or ‘often’ (19%). This Theory of Change demonstrates how Leap’s work supports young people experiencing challenging circumstances to achieve personal and interpersonal capabilities that enable them to engage successfully in education, volunteering, work and other opportunities in their community and beyond.

“What Leap does is almost give you a personality trait rather than just a specific set of skills, which you can then go away and apply in any situation in which you find yourself”

Emmanuel Inwang, Quarrel Shop Graduate

Table of Contents

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1

Who Leap works with ............................................................................................................... 2

Leap’s approach ........................................................................................................................ 4

Transformative Programmes ................................................................................................... 5

What happens on a Leap course? ........................................................................................... 6

Self Leadership and leading others ......................................................................................... 7

Outcomes ................................................................................................................................. 8

Evaluation .............................................................................................................................. 10

Implementation of the Theory of Change ............................................................................. 14

Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 15

Appendix 1 – Identifying the outcomes .............................................................................. 15

Appendix 2 – Literature Review (including references) ...................................................... 18

Appendix 3 – Evaluation tools and process ......................................................................... 22

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Introduction Leap Confronting Conflict’s purpose is to give young people the skills to manage conflict in their lives, reduce violence in their communities and help lead our society. Leap uses a broad definition of conflict, which includes:

internal dilemmas and tensions

disagreements, arguments and fights with others

fights between other individuals and groups in their communities Conflict is such a personal experience and so commonplace that it can become a part of a person’s identity, influencing how they behave on a day-to-day basis. When it is poorly managed conflict can lead to the breakdown of key support relationships, involvement in coercive interactions, the tolerance of abusive relationships and an increased risk of involvement in violence. By learning to identify the elements of conflict and developing the self-awareness, competence and confidence to de-escalate and resolve it, young people develop and access valuable internal resources and capabilities. Leap believes that the ability to manage conflict successfully gives a young person more choices, enabling better decision-making and ultimately delivering more positive outcomes in their life.

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Who Leap works with Leap approaches can be applied to 11-25 year olds. In practice, we mostly work with people between the ages of 14-21. The models we use encourage participants to consider different ways to view and think about themselves and the world. Engaging people at this age also enables our work to benefit from developmental changes taking place in the adolescent brain, before their identity, beliefs and behaviours become more entrenched.

Training young people means that the outcomes they achieve will offer greater and wider benefits beyond the short term and potentially throughout their life. As they use our models and influence other people in their lives, they create further beneficiaries of our work through a ripple effect. Leap’s models are potentially useful to everyone. Regardless of age or background, we all experience challenging situations. How each of us faces up to and deals with these difficulties will arguably be the most influential factor in their life. In order to maximise our impact Leap targets young people who:

Are vulnerable to the influence of others or may be limiting their choices by avoiding conflict

Have been involved in violent, anti-social or offending behaviour (individually or in groups)

Demonstrate a propensity to make poor decisions around conflict, including passive choices

By equipping these young people to address their own behaviours and the factors that contribute to their experience of conflict, they can achieve real change, both personally and in their interactions with others. These young people may be:

At risk of exclusion from school – because their behaviour is affecting their ability to engage with education

Living in care – which may make them more vulnerable due to the lack of the stabilising resource of a family

In the criminal justice system – due to involvement in offending behaviour, gangs, weapons use or violent relationships

We also recognise that the impact of our work varies for individuals with different needs, as illustrated on the following graph:

“The idea that if something goes wrong in the first 5 years of your life, it's too late to do anything about, is really contradicted by new research, which suggests that developmental neuroplasticity very much continues”

Professor Sarah-Jayne Blakemore Author of “The Learning Brain: Lessons for Education” (2005)

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Focussing on young people in these groups enables the identification of the structures and networks that they are engaged with, for example:

Family home or other residential setting o Parents o Carers o Key or social workers

Peer groups

Education o School o Pupil Referral Unit (PRU) or other Alternative Provision o College

Criminal Justice o Youth Offending Team / Probation o Police o Young Offenders Institution (YOI) / Prison

Youth organisations

Mainstream and social media

Local Community In order to maximise the impact of our work with these young people, Leap also trains adult practitioners, for example teaching and pastoral staff in schools, PRUs and colleges, Youth Offending Teams, officers in prisons and YOIs, youth workers and other professionals working with young people. This training gives practitioners an increased understanding of conflict and new strategies for working with the more challenging aspects of client work. When used alongside a programme for young people, the training enables practitioners to understand the models and strategies that young participants have learned, helping them notice ways that the young person is applying their newly acquired capabilities.

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Practitioners’ recognition and support of this integration process helps young people achieve greater outcomes.

Leap’s approach

Consider the different outcomes achieved by three people facing a challenging situation. Person A fails to identify or ignores the feelings rising within themselves and others and remains silent, avoiding conflict. Person B externalises their experience and blames others for their feelings in an aggressive manner, thereby increasing the danger to him/herself and others. Contrast these with person C who, encountering the same situation, recognises their own emotions and has the resources to communicate in a way that can be heard by others. Isn’t person C much more likely to actively facilitate a successful resolution of the situation? Leap calls the phenomenon of how you experience and respond to the challenges you face your relationship to conflict and all Leap courses include models to help deepen participants’ understanding of this relationship. Your relationship to conflict is shaped by several factors, especially your:

Awareness of your own emotions, their subtleties and function

Ability to distinguish your reactions and interpretations from what is actually happening

Appreciation of others’ perspectives and the ability to understand how they differ to your own

These three factors are important and valuable, but on their own they are not enough to resolve conflict. It is also important to be able to:

Take responsibility for your own choices and actions

Listen fully to others and appreciate their experience

Communicate effectively

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Transformative programmes1 Many excellent programmes engage young people through activities such as sports, drama and music, and offer an alternative to spending time on the streets where they may be drawn into violent or criminal behaviour. These programmes are intended to divert young people away from crime and antisocial behaviour and can help them find new confidence, skills and friends. For some, this is enough to help them change the path they are on. These programmes can be an important first step in contacting and engaging young people who are traditionally seen as hard to reach. However, there are many young people who are already cynical about life or they are so influenced by their peers that they find it impossible to break out of the spiral of destruction. These young people are caught up in a vicious circle and their families, local agencies and the wider community often feel powerless to help them break out of that cycle. They need a transformative programme – a programme that will help them change, fundamentally, the way they perceive themselves, the world around them and their place in their community.

Transformative programmes aim to obtain long-term results that are sustainable and transform the way in which young people live their lives. They build resilience and personal resources in young people, giving them an opportunity to express themselves and to reflect on who they are and what they do. Within a structured and facilitated process, young people are encouraged to examine themselves, their current choices and the consequences of those decisions. Ultimately, the young people transform themselves as the consequences of their choices become clear to them. They begin to develop a new, more resilient way of being in the world and are aided by a community of support that is developed around the programme. Transformative programmes leave a legacy of young leaders who make an active and positive contribution to their community.

1 The sections on Transformative Programmes and Leap’s Core Principles are excerpts from “From Violence to Resilience”

(Broadwood & Fine) JKP 2011

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What happens on a Leap course? A Leap course will typically be delivered to a group of 12-16 young people by 2 or 3 trainers, and can be anything from 1 day to 10 days in length; longer courses tend to be spread over several weeks and usually include a residential component. The group is facilitated through a carefully structured programme of games, discussions, activities and exercises to engage them in a shared understanding of conflict and, by applying it to their own life experience, identify their own perceptions, reactions and patterns of behaviour. Concepts and models are introduced through games and explored through discussions and enactive learning techniques. By sharing and role-playing conflict situations in their life, learning becomes a visceral experience that learners can anchor in their physical and emotional intelligence. This approach engages a wide range of learning styles effectively. It also helps learners identify situations and relationships in their life that they could improve through applying the methods learnt on the course. Key concepts and subjects include:

Identifying personal conflict triggers and whether you are reacting and responding

Distinguishing fact from interpretation

Identifying emotions and their value, particularly understanding the anatomy of anger

Different styles of communication

Tracing the roots of habitual behaviours and identifying their costs and gains

Understanding the concept of being responsible

Exploring the relationship between choices and consequences

The role of thoughts in getting hooked into conflict and strategies for getting unhooked As well as presenting Leap materials in an engaging way, Leap trainers are expert at building rapport and creating strong relationships with young people. Trainers use self-disclosure and personal stories to bring Leap concepts to life and demonstrate the effectiveness of the materials in their own lives. Trainers also apply Leap models in the course room when managing behaviour or interpersonal dynamics presented by the group. This provides learners with direct experience of how conflict and potential conflict can be identified, addressed and resolved safely through respectful communication. Ground rules (including Leap’s five step process for their implementation) are agreed at the start of each course to maintain the sense of safety that is essential for participants to engage fully with the course and allow themselves to be vulnerable, sharing and addressing issues of personal importance.

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Self-leadership and leading others An important aspect of developing a young person’s ability to apply the models and strategies they learn on a Leap course is for them to take on a role that uses these new capabilities. This can include facilitating workshops for other young people, becoming a peer mediator, being a learning mentor to participants on Leap courses or taking a junior role on the delivery team of a Leap course as a Young Trainer. This aspect of the programme is a powerful and valuable part of their development, as it helps anchor their understanding of Leap concepts through applying them in real, demanding situations. Some of these roles require young people to use their own experiences of conflict to address conflict in their communities by engaging with and contributing to others who are involved in similar situations. Their experience and understanding of conflict then becomes an asset in their own practice and they can become a valuable and valued member of their community, contributing to improving the lives of others. The value of this new found role replaces the status that they previously held through their involvement in conflict. Pro-social behaviours offer them a new sense of identity as a young leader in their community.

“It is easier to act yourself into a new way of thinking, than it is to think yourself into a new way of acting.”

A.J. Jacobs – Author

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Outcomes As young graduates from Leap programmes become better at recognising and managing conflict, and sustaining healthy relationships across the different spheres of their life, the change that they achieve can be described on three inter-related levels: Personal, Interpersonal and Societal. Leap spent two years identifying a framework of outcomes across these three levels. This process included analysing how participants describe the changes they experience, reflecting on our learning as practitioners and studying the work of experts in the field. This section briefly describes these outcomes and how they are connected. All Leap participants initially explore how the conflict they experience is shaped by their own perceptions and interpretations. By applying Leap models to their own conflicts, participants develop an understanding of the dynamics at play and learn to recognise their own feelings, reactions and patterns of behaviour. This lays the foundation for addressing conflict successfully and provides the following Personal outcomes: Personal Outcomes

Increased emotional intelligence

Greater locus of control and self-efficacy

Improved well-being and resilience These outcomes enable the participant to identify new choices and approaches to communication that take their own responses into account. Change at this level helps participants identify how their own behaviours and beliefs cause some situations to persist. This shift in understanding enables them to address issues in a more responsible way, providing a better chance of resolution. The Interpersonal outcomes reflect this shift and demonstrate the new knowledge and capabilities they are able to use to address conflict. Interpersonal Outcomes

Increased empathy and awareness of others’ needs

Increased knowledge of negotiation and conflict resolution strategies

Improved communication, negotiation and assertiveness

Better at managing the impact of negative relationships and increased network of positive relationships

Understanding these practical strategies and how they can be applied to affect change encourages participants to address conflict in other areas of their lives. Their proactive stance reinforces the personal outcomes as they successfully address situations they previously tolerated. A growing sense of their own capabilities feeds into the Societal outcomes they achieve as they become more engaged with their local community, be that their school, prison wing or the neighbourhood in which they live. Societal Outcomes

Increased engagement and participation (e.g. through volunteering, training, education and employment)

Taking on responsible leadership roles

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Contributing to increased community safety (e.g. through reduction of violent, aggressive and offending behaviour)

These outcomes benefit other areas of their life as an increase in their capability to address and resolve relationship issues, helps develop their confidence to take on new challenges, growing their sense of accomplishment. This in turn means they are more likely and able to engage and succeed in education, volunteering, work and civic challenges. The roles that young people can then take on (described in Transformative Programmes section) enable them to contribute to the community. They use their previous experiences of conflict in a positive way and build a sense of purpose and value, replacing the status they previously got for negative behaviours with a more positive regard from those around them. Though we separate these three levels for purposes of clarity and understanding, they are interdependent and gains at one level promote gains at other levels as shown in the diagram below. The literature review2 that we commissioned to help establish the measurability and trainability of these outcomes also demonstrated evidence of how the personal outcomes lead to development of the inter-personal outcomes.

2 Appendix 2 – Literature Review

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Evaluation This section of the document focuses on the measurement processes Leap has developed to evaluate the change demonstrated by young people participating in our programmes. Leap’s vision for our evaluation function is that:

We measure and communicate the impact of our work accurately and effectively, using clear and achievable evaluation processes.

Our staff and trainers are competent and confident in fulfilling their evaluation responsibilities and the evaluation tools are easy to use and fit for purpose.

The tools and reporting processes are regularly reviewed to ensure they are effective. The model below illustrates how different functions of the evaluation process fit together.

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Leap has developed measurement processes to evaluate the change demonstrated by young people participating in our programmes. These are implemented for programmes of at least four days of training. There are three main aspects of this evaluation: A. Data regarding participants, circumstances, challenges and goals B. Qualitative and quantitative data regarding their progress during the programme C. Longitudinal data gathered a year after the end of the programme

A. Data regarding participants circumstances, challenges and goals This is gathered from referral partners and the participants during the recruitment process regarding their reasons for doing the course, details of the types of conflict they experience, key challenging relationships in their life and their aspirations. Any offending behaviour, risk factors and other aspects of their life that might affect their participation or on which their participation may impact are also recorded. This is used for risk assessment purposes and held on file for use in follow-up longitudinal evaluation interviews. B. Qualitative and quantitative data regarding their progress during the programme The main tool that we use is the Journey of Change (JoC). The JoC measures participants’ progress against the outcomes on the personal, interpersonal and societal levels of Leap’s Outcomes Framework. It was developed and piloted by our delivery team in collaboration with Triangle Consulting3. The tool is used to gather three perspectives: 1. Participant’s self reflections 2. Trainer’s perspective 3. Referral partner’s experience Comparing data from these three sources helps ensure a robust, triangulated representation of a participant’s progress. The engagement of learners in their own self-reflective evaluation supports the developing self-awareness that is key to our work. A more detailed description of the Journey of Change tools and our evaluation process is outlined in Appendix 3. C. Longitudinal data gathered a year after the end of the programme The learning achieved through participation in a Leap programme offers a new paradigm for many participants - the opportunity to take responsibility for their choices and behaviours. Though it may be challenged and tested, the power of this often continues to grow and benefit different areas of their life for a long time after the end of the programme. Leap has initiated a longitudinal evaluation of the impact of our programmes with participants a year after they completed their course. Through 1 to 1 interviews, often carried out face to face, we gather information regarding: 1. What they are up to in their lives 2. How much they are still using what they learned from the programme

3 Triangle Consulting website - http://www.outcomesstar.org.uk

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3. How they are dealing with conflict 4. The quality of their relationships with key people in their life 5. The choices they are now making and what role they believe the Leap training played in

them making and / or engaging successfully in those choices. In a an evaluation of the longitudinal impact of our work, we interviewed 32 out of 51 graduates from our 2011/12 Improving Prospects programme a year or more after they completed the programme. We also asked interviewees to supply us with the name of a responsible adult (usually from their referral organisation) who knew them since before they participated in the programme and were able to interview 10 of them. This data is available in a summary document4. Measuring impact Leap programmes are delivered in partnership with organisations that hold the primary relationship with participants. By establishing suitable measurement processes, appropriate data analysis and effective tracking of client progress we are developing a better overall picture of the change that young people achieve during and after participation. We continue to build on our evidence base and develop our understanding of how outcomes on the Leap framework contribute to long term change in young people’s lives through partnership programmes like the one described in the logic model below, which we are implementing with Lambeth Youth Offending Service.

4 Download the summary report here: bit.ly/1kvz6f7

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Implementing and improving this Theory of Change This document represents our current understanding of what we do and how we measure success. It is a work in progress and will support ongoing reflection and development of our practice. The process of developing the outcomes framework and evaluation methods has been useful in focussing conversations between colleagues. This document will help to widen that conversation to include all personnel and a wider stakeholder group. This means we will:

Engage delivery personnel in using Leap’s Theory of Change

Continue to use the Journey of Change tool in all suitable programmes

Use the results from the Journey of Change to provide feedback to trainers and referral

agencies, and to inform the improvement and development of our programmes

Where programmes are not suitable for Journey of Change we will use the Theory of

Change to identify and implement more suitable impact measures

Engage with delivery partners to examine and improve our Theory of Change and evaluation methods in a range of settings

Keep abreast of other outcomes frameworks and develop an understanding of their relationship with our own

Refine our outcomes framework to reflect our best understanding and ensure its credibility

Build our evidence base of young people’s achievement of outcomes from the Leap framework and how they contribute to long term outcomes valued by funders and commissioners, e.g. education, employment and desistance from offending.

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Appendix 1 – Identifying the outcomes We identified the outcomes through a 3-stage process: 1. Analysing how young people described the changes they achieved from participating in

one of our main programmes to identify a set of outcomes 2. Holding a 1-day workshop with delivery staff and other sector professionals to express

the change that young people achieve in our programmes 3. Carrying out a literature review to identify peer-reviewed, academic research that

underpinned our understanding of how Leap methods achieved these outcomes The initial list of outcomes was identified by analysing 112 narrative answers to the question: “What has changed?” in participants’ self-reflection evaluation forms5. These answers were coded by two members of Leap staff, one with a background of working with young people and the other the organisation’s lead on evaluation. They worked together, discussing each decision. This yielded the 30 outcomes listed below:

1 EMPATHY 17 6 REDUCED IMPULSIVITY 15

1A Appreciating other's perception and experience

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6A Considering consequences 1

1B Influence of self on others

2

6B Communicate instead of fight

3

1C Modifying behaviour 6 6C Calmer 3

1D Appreciating others 1 6D More considered 8

2 LEARNING TO LEARN 7 SKILLS 10

2A Participation 1 7A Using new skills 5

2B Learning from others 3 7B Confidence 5

3 COMMUNICATION 24 8 INSIGHT/PERCEPTION SHIFT 17

3A Listen more 5 8A Letting go of my past 1

3B ‘I’ vs. 'You' 3 8B Gaining new insights 7

3C Improved skills 13

8C Valuing and appreciating others

2

3D Valuing and trusting communication

3

8D Maturity 3

4 KNOWLEDGE 47 8E Increased locus of control 3

4A Able to support/help others 24 8F Increased confidence 1

4B Understanding conflict better 23 9 TEAM WORK 29

5 SELF-AWARENESS 4 9A Including others 16

5A Recognising limiting beliefs 1 9B Appreciating group dynamics 7

5B Need to work on self first 1

9C More able to contribute/ confidence

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5C Own red flags 2

We then held a 1-day workshop to identify our outcomes from a delivery perspective. This was facilitated by an evaluation consultant (LKMco) and attended by members of Leap’s delivery team, a professional advisor on research and evaluation from the Department for Education and the Director of Policy and Innovation for a national youth organisation.

5 The interim report evaluating outcomes for Quarrel Shops in 2012 – can be downloaded here: http://bit.ly/M8AVjT

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The outcomes for the day were captured as:

Increased self-awareness, emotional intelligence, sense of own value and worth, confidence, self-efficacy and locus of control

More able to identify and articulate own needs

Increase empathy and awareness of others’ needs

Improve skills for dealing with conflict

More assertive

Increase strategies for dealing with conflict

Improved communication skills

Better mental health

Improved listening skills

Able to contribute to others

Increased confidence and self awareness

Appreciate others’ needs and respect difference

The skills & understanding to actively make choices on how to constructively manage conflict

Healthier relationships with friends, family, peers, adults and the professionals who work with them

These two sets of outcomes were then examined, compared and refined in consultation with senior trainers and delivery staff, working with the consultant. We also carried out a literature review6 to examine peer-reviewed, academic research that defined the outcomes, demonstrated their measurability and identified that they could be developed through use of training methods that are comparable to Leap’s approach. Other outcomes frameworks we considered

We studied the Young Foundation’s Framework of outcomes for Young People7 and New Philanthropy Capital’s Journey to EmploymenT Framework8. The outcomes we identified align closely with these two frameworks. This was reassuring as these frameworks were created using rigorous and well-resourced processes. We decided that the specialist focus of our work justified the differences to the outcomes and the way our framework is structured. We continue to study and consider all outcomes frameworks issued by organisations working in relevant fields.

6 Appendix 2 lkmco Literature review 7 https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/framework-of-outcomes-for-young-people 8 http://www.thinknpc.org/publications/the-journey-to-employment/

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Journey to EmploymenT Outcomes

Young Foundation Outcomes Framework

Leap CC Outcomes Framework

EMOTIONAL CAPABILITIES

Self-esteem

Autonomy and control

Grit and determination

Empathy

Managing feelings

Resilience and determination

PERSONAL OUTCOMES Increased emotional intelligence Greater locus of control and self-efficacy Improved well-being and resilience

ATTITUDES

Aspirations

Attitudes to work

Confidence and agency

Creativity

EMPLOYABILITY SKILLS

Teamwork

Communication

Problem solving

Self-management

Leadership

Communication

Planning and problem solving

Relationships and leadership

INTERPERSONAL OUTCOMES Increased empathy & awareness of others’ needs Increased knowledge of negotiation and conflict resolution strategies Improved communication, negotiation and assertiveness Better at managing impact of negative relationships and increased network of positive relationships

EXPERIENCES + INVOLVEMENT

Work experience

Perception of value of work experience

Networks

Community involvement

SOCIETAL OUTCOMES Increased engagement and participation (e.g. volunteering, training, education and employment) Taking on responsible leadership role Contributing to increased community safety (e.g. reduced violent, aggressive and offending behaviour)

QUALIFICATIONS, EDUCATION + TRAINING

Basic skills

Achieving qualifications

Attendance and behaviour

ACCREDITATION Leap’s courses for young people and practitioners are accredited at levels 1, 2 and 3 through the Open College Network

CAREER MANAGEMENT

Career direction

Job search skills

Presentation to employers

PERSONAL CIRCUMSTANCES

Access to transport, internet, childcare, support for young carers or disabled people

Reduced substance abuse

Reduced offending/anti-social behaviour

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Appendix 2 – Literature Review including references The aim of this literature review is to briefly summarise some of the peer reviewed, academic research that underpins Leap’s Theory of Change. (ToC). It is intended to explain some of the assumptions behind the ToC and to ground Leap’s practice in well-evidenced research findings. What personal attributes does Leap aim to impact on? Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand and regulate emotions in others and yourself. It is important because it influences well-being by enabling perspective-taking which improves creative and deep thinking, emotion recognition, facilitation of thought and regulation of emotions (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2002). It can be tested using the MSCEIT (though this is expensive to administer). Self-efficacy and locus of control Thompson (2009) divides ‘perceived control’ into two elements, self-efficacy and locus of control. She describes locus of control as: Locus of Control impacts on wellbeing by reducing stress, increasing problem-solving and helping people become effective copers who are able to tolerate uncomfortable situations and have increased immune functioning. Locus of control can be measured using a scale based on the work of Rotter (1966), and which is testable via a free, regularly validated and reliability-checked online questionnaire. Thompson goes on to describe self-efficacy as: Self-efficacy therefore takes into account whether a person believes they have the competence, skills or knowledge to achieve tasks and goals. It matters because it impacts on well-being by influencing psychological adjustment, physical health, self-regulation, increasing the impact of success in personal plans and improving ‘collective’ efficacy (Maddux, 2005). Self-efficacy can be tested using the Generalised Self-efficacy scale, a well-known and strongly validated instrument often used in psychological and education research which is currently freely available for use in 31 languages. Well being and mental health Psychological well-being is best understood as ‘positive mental functioning.’ It is testable using the work of Carol Ryff (1989) which is free to use on request. Subjective Well-being is our personal experience of how happy we feel. It is testable through the freely available satisfaction with life test.

“the belief that one personally has the ability to enact the actions that are necessary to get desired outcomes”

“the perception that most people’s outcomes are influenced by personal action (internal) versus outside forces or other people (external)”

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Mental Health is used either in a way that is analogous to well-being or more medically to relate to a bio-psychological concept (i.e. not getting ill). What evidence is there to suggest these qualities can be trained? As was shown above, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and locus of control all impact on well-being. If training impacts on these factors it should also impact on well-being. Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy is known to be related to our initial childhood experiences, self-efficacy emphasises that efficacy will only increase later if interventions provide skills and a belief in the ability to solve specific types of problems. Examples outlined by Maddux (2005) include having people practice verbal persuasions, experiencing or ‘performing’ a certain task with increasing levels of autonomy, hypnosis, biofeedback, relaxation training, meditation and imagining experiences via stimuli. All can lead to increased self-efficacy. Emotional Intelligence: A recent study by Pool & Qualter (2012) reported on a teaching intervention with undergraduates which increased students’ emotional intelligence scores. Scores remained significantly improved six months later. The intervention was based on Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) four branch model:

Accurately perceiving emotions in oneself and others

Using emotions to facilitate thinking

Understanding emotional meanings

Managing emotions It included:

Role plays

Short lectures

Group Discussions

Readings Pool & Qualter (2012) also note that although there are few other papers that show a statistically significant increase in emotional intelligence scores, this is not necessarily because there is no way to increase it, but because those studies are simply not available with designs that would adequately pass peer review. This is a common issue across all training organisations. Locus of control: As we have seen, Thompson’s work brings together both locus of control and self-efficacy under ‘perceived control’. She reports on a number of (often medical) interventions in which successful experiences in handling problems and reducing stress (through psycho-educational and group coping skills for example), increased sense of control (Cunningham, Lockwood, Cunningham, 1991). In the educational sphere, ‘attribution retraining’ interventions which sought to increase attribution of causality to controllable and modifiable explanations of academic performance led to reduced drop-out rates and improved academic performance (Perry 2003, Perry and Penner, 1990). However, Thompson notes that attribution of benefits is not without difficulty. It is also worth noting that Reich and Zautra (1991) found that increasing perceived control amongst at risk (disabled or bereaved) older adults with low locus of control did not improve their mental health and could indeed be counterproductive. Nonetheless, Thompson concludes that “attempts to increase perceived control have shown some promise, especially if they increase general coping and stress reduction skills”.

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What are the links between personal qualities and interpersonal qualities?

Empathy and awareness of others’ needs: These are important aspects of emotional intelligence

Knowledge of negotiation and conflict resolution strategies: These are directly taught as part of Leap’s programs

Research on factors contributing to ‘pro-social behaviour’ and relationships is of greatest relevance to interpersonal qualities. Pro-social behaviour is voluntary behaviour designed to help another person. It generally has a beneficial outcome as recognised by people in the local society. Examples include sharing items, being friendly, stepping in to stop a crime, helping resolve conflicts between people. Pro-social behaviour is for the most part motivated by empathy or concern for another person's well-being, though it can also be motivated by self-interest. The intent plays a less important role in the definition than the action itself. Several of the personal qualities identified above influence pro-social behaviours and relationships: Emotional intelligence promotes perspective-taking and sense of control promotes problem-solving rather than blaming. Gebauer et al (2007) found that people with more positive emotions and greater subjective well-being tended to have more pleasure-based, pro-social motivations (i.e. they were motivated to do nice things for other because it would help them feel good). Hence, it seems that being a person who ‘feels’ good generally leads to doing things so others feel good. Penner et al.’s (2005) analysis of pro-social behaviour (conflict resolution would fall into this category) found evidence that pro-social behaviour is increased when an individual has an increased numbers of positive emotions, is strong at emotional intelligence, has high self-efficacy and has general feelings of competence. Factors which contribute to interventions’ success

Large meta-analyses by Blume, Ford, Baldwin & Huang (2010) and Baldwin & Ford (1988) have

shown that training programs work best when:

Cohorts are chosen carefully, taking into account:

Cognitive ability

Conscientiousness

Voluntary participation Training involves increasing:

Motivation

Self-efficacy

Knowledge The training involves:

‘Relapse prevention’ either through immediate opportunities to put training into practice or follow up training

Delivery that is spread over time

Availability of support from a mentor, supervisor or peer

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The Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being, http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/ryff-scales, Accessed: May 17, 2013. Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel psychology, 41(1), 63–105. Blume, B. D., Ford, J. K., Baldwin, T. T., & Huang, J. L. (2010). Transfer of training: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Management, 36(4), 1065–1105. Boniwell, I., & Ryan, L. (2012). Personal Well-Being Lessons for Secondary Schools: Positive psychology in action for 11 to 14 year olds. Open University Press. Challen, A., Noden, P., West, A., & Machin, S. (2011). UK Resilience Programme Evaluation: Final Report. Department for Education. Cunningham, A. J., Lockwood, G. A., & Cunningham, J. A. (1991). A relationship between perceived self-efficacy and quality of life in cancer patients. Patient Education and Counseling, 17(1), 71–78. Dacre Pool, L., & Qualter, P. (2012). Improving emotional intelligence and emotional self-efficacy through a teaching intervention for university students. Learning and Individual Differences, 22(3), 306–312. Gebauer, J. E., Riketta, M., Broemer, P., & Maio, G. R. (2008). Pleasure and pressure based prosocial motivation: Divergent relations to subjective well-being. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(2), 399–420. Headspace. (2009). Evidence Summary: The Effectiveness of Motivational Interviewing for Young People with Substance Use and Mental Health Disorders. Health Foundation. (2011). Research scan: Training professionals in motivational interviewing. Locus of Control Scale, http://www.psych.uncc.edu/pagoolka/LC.html. Accessed: May 17, 2013, Maddux, J.E. (2009) Self-Efficacy: The Power of Believing You Can. In C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds) The Oxford handbook of positive psychology, New York: Oxford University Press. Morton, M. H., & Montgomery, P. (2013). Youth Empowerment Programs for Improving Adolescents’ Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem A Systematic Review. Research on Social Work Practice, 23(1), 22–33. Penner, L. A., Dovidio, J. F., Piliavin, J. A., & Schroeder, D. A. (2005). Prosocial behavior: Multilevel perspectives. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 56, 365–392. Perry, R. P. (2003). Perceived (Academic) Control and Causal Thinking in Achievement Settings. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 44(4), 312. Perry, R. P., & Penner, K. S. (1990). Enhancing academic achievement in college students through attributional retraining and instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(2), 262–71. Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: toward an integrative model of changeJournal of consulting and clinical psychology, 51(3), 390. Positive Action, http://www.positiveaction.net/programs/index.asp?ID1=1&ID2=14, Accessed: May 17, 2013, Reich, J. W., & Zautra, A. J. (1991). Experimental and measurement approaches to internal control in at‐risk older adults. Journal of Social Issues, 47(4), 143–158. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological monographs: General and applied, 80(1), 1–28. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. Salovey, P., Mayer, J.D., & Caruso, D. (2002). The positive psychology of emotional intelligence. In C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive psychology, New York: Oxford University Press. Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators (pp. 3–31). New York: Basic Books. Thompson, S. C. (2009). The Role of Personal Control in Adaptive Functioning. In C.R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (Eds) The Oxford handbook of positive psychology, New York: Oxford University Press

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Appendix 3 – Evaluation Tools and Process

The main tool that we use is called the Journey of Change (JoC). It was developed and piloted by our delivery team in collaboration with Triangle Consulting. The JoC measures progress against stated programme outcomes and also provides data for measuring progress against Leap’s outcomes framework. The tool is used to gather three perspectives: 1. Participant’s self reflections 2. Trainer perspective 3. Referral partner experience 1. Participants self reflections The participant’s self reflection evaluation is embedded in the learning process of the course. As participants engage in the course materials they gain understanding of the course outcomes. The outcomes for Leap’s Quarrel Shop course are:

Understanding my relationship to conflict

Resolving conflict with others through communication

Successful group working that values input from all members

Supporting others to manage their own conflicts

Although the meaning of these outcomes may not immediately be clear to learners, the orientation process helps ensure they understand each outcome and also engages them with the journey metaphor used for their evaluation. This metaphor describes progress through 5 stages. These are:

1. Never really questioned it

2. Questioning / thinking more

3. Learning and making new choices

4. Reflecting and practising new skills

5. Including and influencing others

By identifying and discussing the thoughts and behaviours of someone at each of the 5 stages, participants identify an appropriate score to describe where they were before the course for each of the programme outcomes. This ‘before’ score is gathered once they have reached an appropriate point in the course to have a sense of the concepts involved, so that the score has validity. At the end of the programme, participants are presented with their JoC form and asked to check and, if they wish to, amend their ‘before’ score. They then provide an ‘after’ score and answer the question “What has changed for you?” for each of the outcomes. The data from these self-reflection JoC forms is analysed by comparing ‘before’ and ‘after’ scores for each outcome, providing indication of their progress. The narrative answers are coded against Leap’s outcomes framework to provide qualitative evaluation of the changes each participant is experiencing in their life. 2. Trainer perspective Trainer perspective JoC forms gather start and end scores (1-5) for the programme outcomes and also identify data is collected for which outcomes from Leap’s Framework the trainer team has seen the learner progress with. This is completed at the end of the programme by the two most senior

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trainers on the team. The data from the trainers’ evaluation provides a straight comparison of each learner’s self reflection against the trainers’ perception. 3. Referral partner experience

The referral partner JoC mirrors the Trainer’s JoC, if the programme has included suitable training for referral staff, such that this would be meaningful process with them. Otherwise they are just asked to score the change their client has achieved in each of Leap’s framework of outcomes on the scale shown below:

Negative impact No change Slightly better Much better As they complete the section for personal and interpersonal outcomes they are asked to quantify the degree to which these changes can be attributed to the programme by providing a grade for the following statement:

[Leap Programme] has made a big contribution to these changes

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree This helps establish the level of attribution that the programme can claim and identifies the other programmes and factors affecting participants’ lives. By comparing and evaluating the progress from these three perspectives we build a fuller picture of the progress made by Leap graduates. This is also used as comparison data for the longitudinal evaluation, carried out a year after the course finishes.