Human Errors in Medical Practice: systematic classification and
“...THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF HUMAN SOCIETY ” SYSTEMATIC
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Transcript of “...THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF HUMAN SOCIETY ” SYSTEMATIC
• “...THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF HUMAN SOCIETY ”– SYSTEMATIC
• SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE THAT FOCUSES ATTENTION ON PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR
– HUMAN SOCIETY• GROUP BEHAVIOR IS PRIMARY FOCUS; HOW
GROUPS INFLUENCE INDIVIDUALS AND VICE VERSA– AT THE “HEART OF SOCIOLOGY”
• THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE WHICH OFFERS A UNIQUE VIEW OF SOCIETY
• EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTS– WELL-ROUNDED AS A PERSON– SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS
• MORE APPRECIATION FOR DIVERSITY– THE GLOBAL VILLAGE– DOMESTIC SOCIAL MARGINALITY
• ENHANCED LIFE CHANCES– MICRO AND MACRO UNDERSTANDING– INCREASE SOCIAL POTENTIALS
The Sociological Perspective
OBSERVATIONS ARE CERTAINLY IMPACTED BY THE PERSONAL PERSPECTIVES THROUGH WHICH
PEOPLE COME TO VIEW THE WORLD
Sociological Perspective• SEE THE GENERAL IN THE
PARTICULAR– GENERAL SOCIAL
PATTERNS IN THE BEHAVIOR OF PARTICULAR INDIVIDUALS
• INDIVIDUALS ARE UNIQUE…BUT
• SOCIETY’S SOCIAL FORCES SHAPE US INTO “KINDS” OF PEOPLE
QUICK FIRE:What do people do?
Why do people do what they do?
Choose one of the following to answer:• What are 2 things that might
influence saying yes or no to a marriage proposal?
• What are 2 reasons why someone might consider suicide?
STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLETO SEE THE CONNECTION BETWEEN BIOGRAPHY ANDHISTORY!
• DURKHEIM’S STUDY OF SUICIDE– MORE LIKELY TO COMMIT
• MALE PROTESTANTS WHO WERE WEALTHY AND UNMARRIED HAD HIGHER SUICIDE RATES
– PROTESTANTISM AND INDIVDUALISM
– LESS LIKELY TO COMMIT• MALE JEWS AND CATHOLICS WHO WERE POOR AND MARRIED
– BEING CATHOLIC AND GROUP-ORIENTATION
• ONE OF THE BASIC FINDINGS: WHY?– THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THESE GROUPS HAD TO DO WITH
“SOCIAL INTEGRATION”• THOSE WITH STRONG SOCIAL TIES HAD LESS OF A CHANCE OF
COMMITING SUICIDE
What will we study using our “sociological
perspective”?• Social interaction/relationships – How do
individuals behave when in groups? How do groups influence individual behavior?
• Social structures - What patterns can we identify during social interaction? Are there breaks in patterns?
• Social change/dynamics – Have these patterns changed over time?
Sociological Imagination
• Sociological Imagination = ability to identify relationships between self and society
THE DISCIPLINE’S ORIGINS SOCIOLOGY SPRANG FROM THREE
SEPARATE, YET INTERDEPENDENT REVOLUTIONS (1700-1900)THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
A BELIEF IN SCIENCE BEGAN TO REPLACE TRADITIONAL (religious) FORMS OF AUTHORITY
THE ECONOMIC REVOLUTION INDUSTRIALISM AND CAPITALISM WERE
CHANGING ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PATTERNS
THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION MORE DEMOCRATIC VALUES AND STANDARDS
WERE BEING ADOPTED
PERS
ON
ALIT
IES
• AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)– POSITIVISM
• KARL MARX (1818-1883)– CLASS CONFLICT/STRUGGLE
• HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)– SOCIAL DARWINISM
• EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)– GROUP FORCES; SOCIAL SOLIDARITY
• W.E.B. DU BOIS (1868-1963)– PLIGHT OF AFRICAN AMERICANS
WOMEN IN SOCIOLOGY• HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-1876)– TRANSLATED THE WORKS OF AUGUSTE COMTE – FOCUSED ON ISSUES SURROUNDING
• WOMEN’S RIGHTS• SLAVERY• THE WORKPLACE AND FACTORY LAWS
• JANE ADDAMS (1860-1933)– SOCIAL WORKER– DEVELOPED PLAN TO HELP IMMIGRANTS NEW TO
CITY LIFE IN AMERICA• HULL HOUSE IN CHICAGO• NOBEL PEACE PRIZE WINNER, 1931
SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE(Theoretical Perspective)
• THEORY: A STATEMENT OF HOW AND WHY FACTS ARE RELATED
• PERSPECTIVE: A SET OF FUNDAMENTAL ASSUMPTIONS THAT GUIDES THINKING
PEOPLE HOLD DIFFERING OPINIONS ABOUT THEIR SOCIAL WORLD
WE ALL COME FROM DIFFERENT SOCIALEXPERIENCES AND THEYBIAS OUR ASSUMPTIONS
UP WITH
PEOPLE
DOWN WITHPEOPLE
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE• THE BASICS
– A MACRO-ORIENTED (LARGE-SCALE) PARADIGM– VIEWS SOCIETY AS A COMPLEX SYSTEM WITH MANY INTERDEPENDENT
PARTS (INSTITUTIONS – family, government, religion, etc)– THE PARTS WORK TOGETHER TO PROMOTE SOCIAL STABILITY AND ORDER – MAJOR CHANGES TO THE SYSTEM’S PARTS IS NOT REQUIRED OR DESIRED;
SYSTEM SEEKS TO MAINTAIN IT EQUILIBRIUM• KEY ELEMENTS:
– MANIFEST FUNCTION – intended and recognized consequence of some element of society
– LATENT FUNCTION – unintended/unrecognized consequence
– DYSFUNCTION – negative consequence on stability of social system
• THE BASICS:– A MACRO-ORIENTED PARADIGM
FOCUS- VIEWS SOCIETY AS A STRUCTURED SYSTEM BASED ON INEQUALITY– SOCIAL CONFLICT BETWEEN GROUPS OVER SCARCE
RESOURCES IS THE NORM• KEY ELEMENTS:
– SOCIETY IS STRUCTURED IN WAYS TO BENEFIT A FEW AT THE EXPENSE OF THE MAJORITY
– FACTORS SUCH AS RACE, SEX, CLASS, AND AGE ARE LINKED TO SOCIAL INEQUALITY
– DOMINANT GROUP VS. MINORITY GROUP RELATIONS• SOCIAL CHANGE OCCURS DUE TO CONFLICT-i.e. Feminist Perspective
CONFICT THEORY
THE BASICS:• MICRO-ORIENTED PARADIGM (smaller scale)
– THE VIEW THAT SOCIETY IS THE PRODUCT OF EVERYDAY INTERACTIONS
– SOCIETY IS A COMPLEX MOSAIC OF UNDERSTANDING THAT EMERGES FROM THE VERY PROCESS OF INTERACTING
KEY ELEMENTS• SYMBOLS – anything that represents something else• SYMBOLIC INTERACTION – focus on how people use
symbols (meaning, language, and thought)
INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
http://www.thedailyshow.com/watch/mon-august-17-2009/poll-bearers
QUICK FIRE
• How can poorly designed social research affect public policy?
• What are some possible reasons for inaccurate statistics?
TO BEGIN WITH, THERE ARE JUST TWO SIMPLE REQUIREMENTS:
• LOOK AT THE WORLD USING THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE– A VARIETY OF SOCIAL BEHAVIORS CALLING FOR
INVESTIGATION• BE CURIOUS AND ASK QUESTIONS
– TAKE OFF THE “SOCIAL BLINDERS” THAT STOP MAKING ONE CURIOUS
COMMON SENSE VS. SCIENCE• POOR PEOPLE ARE MORE LIKELY THAN RICH
PEOPLE TO BREAK THE LAW– YES, BUT WE TEND TO PROSECUTE THE POOR MORE, AND WE CREATE
LAWS THAT SEEM TO ENSURE WE WILL PROSECUTE THE POOR MORE OFTEN
• MOST POOR PEOPLE IGNORE OPPORTUNITIES TO WORK– IT IS TRUE FOR SOME, BUT NOT ALL POOR PEOPLE, AND KEEP IN MIND
THAT MANY OF THOSE CLASSIFIED AS POOR ARE NOT EXPECTED TO BE WORKING (E.G., CHILDREN, THE ELDERLY, THE DISABLED, ETC.)
• WORLDWIDE, MOST PEOPLE MARRY BECAUSE THEY ARE IN LOVE– IN MOST SOCIETIES, ROMANTIC LOVE HAS LITTLE TO DO WITH GETTING
MARRIED TO SOMEONE
Did you know?!?
• Ice cream causes crime!!
• CONCEPTS– ABSTRACT IDEAS THAT REPRESENT SOME ASPECT OF THE WORLD,
ALBEIT IN A SOMEWHAT SIMPLIFIED FORM (i.e. crime, poverty, education, etc)
• VARIABLES– CONCEPTS WHOSE VALUES CHANGE FROM CASE TO CASE– INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
• MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES– THE MEANS BY WHICH THE VALUE OF A VARIABLE IS DETERMINED
A LOGICAL SYSTEM THAT DERIVES KNOWLEDGEFROM DIRECT, SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION
• RELIABILITY - THE QUALITY OF CONSISTENT MEASUREMENT– DOES AN INSTRUMENT PROVIDE FOR A CONSISTENT
MEASURE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER?• VALIDITY - THE QUALITY OF MEASURING
PRECISELY WHAT ONE INTENDS TO MEASURE– DOES AN INSTRUMENT ACTUALLY MEASURE WHAT IT
SETS OUT TO MEASURE?
• WHAT ASSUMPTIONS MUST BE MADE ABOUT ISSUES OF RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY WHEN PERFORMING RESEARCH?
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES
• TYPES OF VARIABLES– INDEPENDENT: THE VARIABLE THAT CAUSES THE CHANGE
(OVERCROWDING)– DEPENDENT: THE VARIABLE THAT CHANGES (DELINQUENCY)
• CAUSE AND EFFECT– A RELATIONSHIP IN WHICH CHANGE IN ONE VARIABLE CAUSES CHANGE
IN ANOTHER• EXAMPLE: OVERCROWDING CAUSES DELINQUENCY
• CORRELATION– WHEN TWO OR MORE VARIABLES CHANGE TOGETHER THEY
DEMONSTRATE CORRELATION
– Spurious correlation – when causation is falsely identified because a third, unseen variable is actually the cause
CORRELATION CAUTION
IF TWO VARIABLES VARY TOGETHER, THEY ARE SAID TO BE CORRELATED. IN THISEXAMPLE, DENSITY OF LIVING CONDITIONS
AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY INCREASE AND DECREASE TOGETHER.
CHECKING THE EFFECT OF A THIRD VARIABLE
WHEN A THIRD VARIABLE IS CONSIDERED, IN THIS CASE THAT OF INCOME LEVEL, IS IT DISCOVERED THAT LOW INCOME MAY BE RELATED TO BOTH DENSITY OF LIVING CONDITIONS AND DELINQUENCY RATES.
IN OTHER WORDS, AS INCOME LEVEL DECREASES, BOTH DENSITY OF LIVING CONDITIONS AND DELINQUENCY RATES
ORIGINAL CORRELATION DISAPPEARS
THUS, WHEN INCOME LEVEL IS CONTROLLED (EXAMINE ONLY CASES WITH THE SAME INCOME LEVEL) DO THOSE WITH HIGHER DENSITY LIVING CONDITIONS STILL HAVE A HIGHER DELINQUENCY RATE? THE ANSWER IS NO. THERE IS NO LONGER A CORRELATION BETWEEN THESE TWO VARIABLES!
SO…WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN?
THE FINDINGS LEAD ONE TO CONCLUDE THAT INCOME LEVEL IS A CAUSE OF BOTH DENSITY OF LIVING CONDITIONS AND THE DELINQUENCY RATE.
THERE MAY BE A CORRELATION BETWEEN THE ORIGINAL VARIABLES, BUT NOW DOUBT CAN BE CAST UPON THE THOUGHT THAT ONE CAUSES THE OTHER.
SPURIOUSCAUSE
CAUSE
CORRELATION OR CAUSATION? How do you know?
• CORRELATION – TWO OR MORE VARIABLES CHANGE TOGETHER
• CONDITIONS FOR CAUSATION TO BE CONSIDERED– EXISTENCE OF A CORRELATION– THE INDEPENDENT (CAUSAL) VARIABLE PRECEDES THE
DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN TIME– NO EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT A THIRD VARIABLE IS
RESPONSIBLE FOR A SPURIOUS CORRELATION BETWEEN THE TWO ORIGINAL VARIABLES
STRATEGIES FOR SYSTEMATICALLY CARRYING OUT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH• EXPERIMENTS
– HIGHLY CONTROLLED CONDITIONS• SURVEYS
– QUESTIONNAIRES AND INTERVIEWS• PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS
– JOINING IN ACTIVITIES OF GROUPS• EXISTING SOURCES
– SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF DATA
Scientific Research – Method to their Madness
• SELECT AND DEFINE TOPIC• LITERATURE REVIEW IS CONDUCTED• ASSESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STUDY• DEVELOP KEY QUESTIONS TO ASK• CONSIDER ETHICAL ISSUES• DEVISE A RESEARCH STRATEGY• COLLECT THE DATA• INTERPRET THE FINDINGS• STATE CONCLUSIONS• PUBLISH THE FINDINGS
SO MANY THINGSTO GET RIGHT!
THINK ABOUT WHY EACH REQUIREMENT IS IMPORTANT!!• MUST ENSURE CONFIDENTIALITY • MUST RECEIVE INFORMED CONSENT• SUBJECTS SHOULD BE MADE AWARE OF THE
TRUE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH – ALWAYS IMPORTANT?
• MAINTAIN AWARENESS OF ANY DANGERS
A Lack of Ethics in Past Medical Research
• Holocaust victims• Tuskegee airmen• Milgram experiment part 1• Milgram experiment part 2• Milgram experiment part 3• Stanford experiment
Problems, Problems, Problems• Identify a social problem you believe exists in our
school, city, state, or nation (dependent variable)• Formulate a hypothesis – What do you think is
causing this problem? (independent variable)• Is it possible that there are other causes to this
problem?• Identify a research method that you believe
would be best to study the cause of this problem and be able to explain why this is the best option.
• Choose one research method you would NOT use and explain why it would not be appropriate for your “research project”.