Sociology: Perspective, Theory, and Method

Sociological Perspective

• Sociology – the systematic study of human society.

• The sociological perspective.1. Seeing the general in the particular

2. Seeing the strange in the familiar

3. Seeing individuality in social context

Benefits of the Sociological Perspective

1. Helps us critically assess “commonsense” ideas.

2. Helps us see the opportunities and constraints in our lives.

3. Empowers us to be active participants in our society.

4. Helps us to live in a diverse world.

The Origins of Sociology

• New science born from social forces.

-Industrial Revolution

-Growth of cities

• Political Change

-Pursuit of self-interest

Auguste Comte

• Coined the term “Sociology” in 1838

• Favored Positivism

- A way of understanding based on science

• Society operates according to certain laws

• Discovered social principles and also applied them to social reform

Emile Durkheim

• Emphasis on showing how social forces impact people’s behavior

• Emphasis on thorough research

• Suicide (1897)– Social factors underlie suicide – not simply

personal reasons– Social integration – the degree to which

people are tied to their social group

Emile Durkheim

• Social research must be practical

-Discover causes for social ills and recommend remedies

• Anomie

-Breaking down of the controlling influences of society

-People become detached from society and are left with too little moral guidance

Karl Marx

• Class conflict is the engine of human history• Society is divided into classes who clash in

pursuit of their own class interests• Group identifications and associations influence

an individual’s place in society• Concept of “praxis”

-People should take active steps to change society

-Theory and action

Max Weber

• “Verstehen” (understanding) should be used in intellectual work

• To fully comprehend behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions – how they themselves view and explain their behavior

• Disagreed with Marx that economics was the central force in change- Felt that religion was

W.E.B. DuBois

• Worked under Max Weber

• 1st person of color to receive a doctorate from Harvard

• Founding member of the NAACP

• Worked on race and inequality

Herbert Spencer

• Did not believe that sociology should guide social reform

• Believed in “social Darwinism”

-Over time, societies improve

-Coined the term “Survival of the fittest”

• Did not conduct scientific studies

Robert Merton

• Social structure has many functions, some more obvious than others

-Manifest functions – the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern

-Latent functions – the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern

• Social dysfunction – any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society

Why Theory?

• Allows for full exploration of an issue or problem

• 3 sociological theoretical paradigms

- Sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research

Structural-Functionalism

• Society is a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.

- Social structure – relatively stable patterns of social behavior

• If something does not serve a useful, identifiable purpose, it will not be passed from generation to generation

Social-Conflict Theory

• Sees society as an arena of inequality, generating conflict and change

• Paradigm focuses on how society’s institutions including family, government, religion, education, and the media may help to maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in subservient positions

• Looks to who benefits and who suffers

Symbolic-Interactionism

• Sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals

• Micro-level orientation

• Humans live in a world of meaningful objects – symbols

How Sociology is studied

• Science – a logical system that bases knowledge on empirical evidence

• Scientific method

- Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem

Step 1- Defining the Problem

• State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate

Step 2 – Review the Literature

• See what other people have already written about the issue

Step 3 – Formulate Hypothesis

• Hypothesis – A speculative relationship between 2 or more factors

• Variables – concepts whose value changes from case to case- Independent variable – the variable that influences other variables- Dependent variable – the variable that “depends” on the influence of the independent variable

Step 3 - Formulate Hypothesis

• Measurement – the process of determining the value of a variable in a specific case

-Reliability – consistency in measurement

-Validity – precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure

Step 4 – Selecting Research Design

• Detailed plan for obtaining data scientifically

• Survey research – a study which provides info on how people think and act

- Interview

- Questionnaire

Step 4 – Selecting Research Design

• Samples

- Representative – a selection from the larger population that is statistically typical

- Random – everyone in the population has the same chance of being selected

Step 4 – Selecting Research Design

• Existing sources• Observation – watching individual behavior • Experiment – specific design to produce

expected results

- Experiment group – exposed to the independent variable

- Control group – not exposed to the independent variable

Step 5 – Developing the Conclusion

• May or may not support hypothesis

• Serves as basis for further research