Song : Emmylou Harris Herz an Herz . Herz an Herz werden wir zusammenhalten,
The Prestige Press and the Christmas Bombing-Martin F Herz-1972-123pgs-POL
Transcript of The Prestige Press and the Christmas Bombing-Martin F Herz-1972-123pgs-POL
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The
P r e s t i g e P r e s s
and
Christmas
Bombing, 1 9 7 2
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I
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The
P r e s t i g e P r e s s
d C h r i s t m a s
B o m b i n g , 1 9 7 2
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I
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The
P r e s t i g e P r e s s
t he Christmas
Bombing 1972
I m a g e s a n d R e a l i t y i n V i e t n a m
Martin F . H e r z
A s s i s t e d b y L e s l i e R i d e r
E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y C e n t e r
Washington, D .C .
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THE ETHICS AND PUBLIC POLICY CENTER, established in 1976,
conducts a program of research, writ ing, publications, and conferences to
encourage debate on domestic and foreign policy i ssues among religious,
educational, academic, business, political, and other leaders . A nonpartisan
effort, the Center is supported by contributions from foundations, corporations,
and indivi duals . The authors alone are responsible for the views expressed
in Center publications .
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Herz, Martin Florian, 1917-
The prestige press and the Chris tmas bombing,
1972 .
Includes index .
1 . Vietnamese C onflict, 1961 -1975 -Journalists .
2 . Vietnamese Conflict, 1961-1975 -Aerial operations,
American . 3 . Journalism -United States . I . Rider,
Leslie . I I . T i t l e .DS559 .46 .H47 959.704'38 8 0 - 2 6 2 4 1
ISBN 0-89633-039-7
$5 .00
© 1980 by the Ethics and Public Policy Center . All ri ghts reserved .
Printed in the United States of America .
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1
2
3
4
5
Contents
Foreword by Ernest W. L e f e v e r vu
Vietnam War Chronology 1972 -73 x i
Events Leading to the Bombing 1
Martin F. H e r z
R e p o r t i n g b y t h e P r e s t i g e P r e s s15
Martin F. H e r z a n d L e s l i e R i d e r
Comment by the Prestige Press 4 4
Martin F. H e r z a n d L e s l i e R i d e r
What Really Happened 54
Martin F . H e r z
Images vs . R e a l i t y : Seven Conclusions 64
Martin F . H e r z
AppendixesA . K i s s i n g e r ' s S t a t e m e n t o n t h e P a r i s T a l k s 71
B . N o r t h V i e t n a m ' s S t a t e m e n t s o n t h e P a r i s T a l k s 81C. N o r t h V i e t n a m ' s S t a t e m e n t o n t h e B o m b i n g 86D . " T e r r o r F r o m t h e S k i e s " 88
New York TimesE . " T e r r o r B o m b i n g i n t h e N a m e o f P e a c e " 90
Washington Post
F . Commentary by Eric Sevareid 93CBS Evening NewsG. " About t he Bombing" 95
Wall Street JournalH. " T h e P e a c e T h a t W a s n ' t " 9 7
T h e E c o n om i s t (London)
Index of Names 101
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F o r e w o r d
THE U. S . BOMBING OF THE Hanoi-Haiphong area of
N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t b e g a n o n D e c e m b e r 1 8 , 1 9 7 2 , w a s a c l a s s i c
e x a m p l e o f a m i l i t a r y i n i t i a t i v e d e s i g n e d t o a c h i e v e a p o l i t i c a l
o b j e c t i v e . I t w a s a l s o o n e o f t h e m o s t p a s s i o n at e l y c r i t i c i z e d A m e r -
i c a n a c t i o n s i n t h a t c o n t r o v e r s i a l w a r . T h e v i e w s o f s u p p o r t e r s o f
t h e " C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g , " a s i t c a m e t o b e k n o w n , w e r e r a r e l y
c a r r i e d i n t h e p r i n t o r e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a . I n s h a r p c o n t r a s t , t h e NewYork Times, t h e Washington Post, T ime, N ewsweek, a n d t h e t h r e e
c o m m e r c i a l T V n e t w o r k s - t h e " p r e s t i g e p r e s s " - b o t h l a v i s h l y
r e p o r t e d t h e o u t b u r s t o f o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e b o m b i n g a n d r e i n f o r c e d
i t w i t h c r i t i c a l a n d s o m e t i m e s s c a t h i n g e d i t o r i a l c o m m e nt . T h i s
c r i t i c i s m b y t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a w a s a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e i r s u s t a i n e d
h o s t i l i t y t o b o t h P r e s i d e n t N i x o n a n d t h e V i e t n a m W a r .
T h e P a r i s p e a c e t a l k s b e t w e e n N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A d v i s e r H e n r y
K i s s i n g e r a n d H a n o i ' s L e D u c T h o h a d s u d d e n l y a c c e l e r a t e d i n
O c t o b e r 1 9 7 2 , w h e n i t a p p e a r e d t h a t a n a g r e e m e n t w a s i n s i g h t .
D i f f i c u l t i e s h a d t h e n ar i s e n i n S a i g o n , a n d t h e ne g o t i a t i o n s w e r e
r e s u m e d i n N o v e m b e r . T h e n , i n D e c e m be r , j u s t w h e n t h e A m e r i -
c a n s i d e f e l t t h a t a n a c c e p t a b l e a g r e e m e n t h a d b e e n h a m m e r e d
o u t , H a n o i h a r d e n e d i t s p o s i t i o n , a n d b y D e c e m b e r 1 3 t h e p e a c e
t a l k s h a d b e c o m e s t a l e m a t e d .
T o p e r s u a d e H a n oi t o n e g o t i a t e s e r i o u s l y , P r e s i d e n t N i x o n o n
D e c e m b e r 1 4 o r d e r e d t h e r e n e w e d m i n i n g o f H a i p h o n g h a r b o r
a n d t h e b o m bi n g o f m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s i n t h e H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a .
F o u r d a y s l a t e r t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n . I t c o n t i n u e d d a i l y e x c e p t f o r
C h r i s t m a s u n t i l D e c e m b e r 2 9 , a t o t a l o f e l e v e n d a y s .
The U . S . p r e s t i g e p r e s s w a s o u t r a g e d . On December 20 the
Times s a i d t h a t " c i v i l i z e d m a n w i l l b e h or r i f i e d a t t h e r e n e w e d
s p e c t a c l e o f t h e w o r l d ' s m i g h t i e s t a i r f o r c e m e r c i l e s s l y p o u n d i n g a
s m a l l A s i a n n a t i o n i n a n a b u s e o f n a t i o n a l p o w e r a n d d i s r e g a r d o f
h u m a ni t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e s . " N o r t h V i e t n a m m i g h t y e t b e b o m b e d
" b a c k t o t h e s t o n e a g e , " i t s a i d , b u t p e r h a p s a t t h e p r i c e o f U . S .
r e v e r s i o n t o a " k i n d of s t o n e a g e b a r b a r i s m . "
v i i
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V i i i ERNEST W. LEFEVER
T w o d a y s l a t e r t h e Times a s s e r t e d t h a t A m e r i c a n p l a n e s h a d
d r o p p e d an e s t i m a t e d 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f e x p l o s i v e s i n t h e f i r s t t w o
d a y s a l o n e - t h e " e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e H i r o s h i m a b o m b " - a n d a s k e d
i t s r e a d e r s t o i m a g i n e w h a t t h i s w o u l d d o t o " N e w Y o r k o r a n y
o t h e r A m e r i c a n c i t y . " T o s t o p t h i s " m a s s i v e , i n d i s c r i m i n a t e u s e o f
. . . o v e r w h e l m i ng a e r i a l m i g h t , " t h i s " t e r r o r i s m o n a n u n p r e c e -
d e n t e d s c a l e , " A m e r i c a n s m u s t " s p e a k o u t f o r s a n i t y i n W a s h i n g -
t o n a n d p e a c e i n I n d o c h i n a . " ( S e e A p pe n d i x D f o r t h e f u l l t e x t o f
t h i s e d i t o r i a l . )
Times c o l u m ni s t s v i g o r o u s l y s u p p or t e d t h e e d i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n .
" H o w t e r r i b l e i t i s t o r e a l i z e t h i s C h r i s t m a s , " s a i d A n t h o n y L e w i s ,
" t h a t i n t h e e y e s o f m o s t o f t h e w o r l d t h e C h r i s t i a n p e a c e o f fe r e d
b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s t h e p e a c e o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n : c o n f o r m i t y o r
t o r m e n t e d d e a t h . " T o m W i c k e r a d d e d : " T h e r e i s s h a m e o n e a r t h ,
and American shame . . . . W h a t e v e r h a p p e n e d i n P a r i s , i t i s n o t
t h e y w h o i n w i l l f u l a n g e r a r e b l a s t i n g o u r c i t i e s a n d o u r p e o p l e . I t i s
w e w h o h a v e l o o s e d t h e h o l o c a u s t . "
The Washington Post o n D e c e m b e r 2 8 c a l l e d t h e b o m b i n g " t h e
m o s t s a v a g e a n d s e n s e l e s s a c t o f w a r e v e r v i s i t e d , o v e r a s c a n t t e n
d a y s , b y o n e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e u p o n a n o t h e r . " I t c o nt i n u e d : " T o
p r e t e n d t h a t . . . w e a r e m a k i n g ` e n d u r i n g p e a c e ' b y c a r p e t -
b o m b i n g o u r w a y a c r o s s d o w n t o w n H a n o i w i t h B - 5 2 s . . . i s t o
p r a c t i c e y e t o n e m o r e c r u e l d e c e p t i o n u p o n a n A m e r i c a n p u b l i c
a l r e a d y c r u e ll y d e c e i v e d , " a n d " t o t a l k o f ` m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s ' w h e n
w h a t w e a r e h i t t i n g a r e r e s i d e n t i a l c e n t e r s a n d h o s p i t a ls a n d c o m -
m e r c i a l a i r p o r t s " s h o w s t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s " c o n t i n u i n g r e a d i -
n e s s t o d i s s e m b l e . " ( T h i s Post e d i t o r i a l a p pe a r s a s A p p e n d i x E . )
A f t e r a t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n of b o t h t h e n e w s a n d t h e e d i t o -
r i a l s c a r r i e d b y t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s , t h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s s t u d y s o b e r l y
r e p o r t w h a t r e a l l y h a p pe n e d o n b o t h t h e m i l i t a r y a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l
f r on t . T h e r e w a s n o " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g , " n o c i vi l i a n t a r g e t s w e r e
d e l i b e r a t e l y h i t , a n d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e o f f i c i a l N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e
c o u n t , 1 , 3 1 8 c i v i l i a n s w e r e k i l l e d i n t h e H a n o i a r e a a n d 3 0 5 i n t h e
H a i p h o n g a r e a . T h i s w a s a f a r c r y f r o m t h e s p e c t e r r a i s e d b y t h e
Times and the Post-Hiroshima (where nearly 70,000 were
k i l l e d ) , h o l oc a u s t , " t e r r o r i s m o n a n u np r e c e d e n t e d s c a l e . " U n l i k e
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FOREWORD i X
H a n oi ' s m a n y d e li b e r a t e a t t a c k s a g a i n s t i n n o c e nt c i v i l i a n s , t h e
C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g w a s c o n fi n e d t o m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s .
O n t h e p o l i t i c a l f r o n t , t h e b o m bi n g s e e m s t o h a v e a c h i e v e d i t s
p r i n c i p al o b j e c t i v e : H a n oi r e t u r n e d t o t h e n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e o n
J a n u a r y 8 , 1 9 7 3 , a n d s i g n e d a n a g r e e m e n t t h a t l e d t o t h e c e a s e - f i r e
o f J a n u a r y 2 7 .
A l t h o ug h t h i s s t u d y e x a m i n e s b o t h t h e f a c t s o f t h e C h r i s t m a s
b o m bi n g a n d t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s , i t i s p r i m a r i l y
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e t w o . T h e a u t h o r s
d r a w s o m e p r o v o c a t i v e c o n c lu s i o n s a b o u t t h e i m a g e s e v o k e d b y
t h e m e d i a a n d t h e r e a l i t y i n V i e t n a m .
T h e s t o r y i s t o l d h e r e b y A m b a s s a d o r M a r t i n F . H e r z w i t h t h e
c a l m ob j e c t i v i t y t h a t h a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d h i s e a r l i e r w o r k s . A m b a s -
s a d o r H e r z c u r r e n t l y t e a c h e s a t t h e S c h o o l o f F or e i g n S e r v i c e o f
G e o r g e t o w n U n i v e r s i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n a nd d i r e c t s i t s I n s t i t u t e f o r
t h e S t u d y o f D i p l o m a c y . A c a r e e r F o r e i g n S e r v i c e o f f i c e r , h e h a s
been U . S . a m b a s s a d o r t o B u l g a r i a a n d f o r m e r l y s e r v e d i n C e n t r a l
a n d W e s t e r n E u r o p e , t h e M i d d l e E a s t , a n d t h e F a r E a s t . H e i s t h e
a u t h o r o f n u m e r o u s a r t i c l e s a n d m o n og r a p h s o n r e c e n t d i p l om a t i c
h i s t o r y . A m o n g h i s b o o k s a r e Beginnings of the Cold War ( 1 9 6 8 )
and How the Cold War Is Taught : Six Ameri can History TextbooksExamined ( 1 9 7 8 ) . H e i s t h e e d i t o r o f Decline of the West? George
Kennan and His Cr iti cs ( 1 9 7 8 ) . T h e l a t t e r t w o b o o k s w e r e p u b -
l i s h e d b y t h e E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y C e n t e r , w h e r e f o r f i f t e e n
m o n t h s A m b a s s a d o r H e r z w a s a s e n i o r r e s e a r c h f e l l o w .
A s s i s t i n g i n t h i s p r o j e c t w a s L e s l i e R i d e r , a n a l u m n a o f
G e o r g e t o w n ' s S c h o o l o f F o r e i g n S e r v i c e w h o i s n o w a g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t a t C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y . S h e f o r m e r l y w a s o n t h e s t a f f o f
t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Re s c u e C o m m i t t e e i n W a s h i n g t o n .
T h i s s t u d y i s e n r i c h e d b y e i g h t a p p e n d i x e s . T h e f i r s t t h r e e a r eU. S . a n d N or t h V i e t n a m e s e s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e P a r i s t a l k s a n d t h e
C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g . T h e s e a r e f o l l ow e d b y t h r e e c r i t i c a l c o m m e nt s
o n t h e b o m b i n g , f r o m t h e New York Times , t h e Washington Post,
a n d C B S N e w s , a n d b y t w o s u p p o r t i v e c o m m e n t s , f r o m t h e Wall
Street Journal and the London Economi st . A b r i e f c h r o n o l o g y
p r e c e d e s c h a p t e r 1 , a n d n a me s a r e i n d e x e d a f t e r t h e a p p e n di x e s .
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X ERNEST W. LEFEVER
T h e C e n t e r i s p l e a s e d t o m a k e a v a i l a b l e t o s c h o l a r s a n d l a ym e n
a l i k e t h i s p a i n s t a k i n g l y p r e p a r e d c a s e s t u d y t h a t i l lu m i n a t e s t h e
c o m pl e x i t i e s o f w a r t i m e p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s , t h e i m p a c t o f p o p u l ar
p a s s i o n s , a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e m a s s m e d i a i n a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y .
T h e a u t h o r s a l on e a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e v i e w s e x p r e s s e d .
ERNEST W. LEFEVER, P r e s i d e n t
E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y C e n t e r
W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .
November 1980
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Vi et nam War
Chronology, 1 972-73
1972
March 30 N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e s p r i n g / s u m m e r o f f e n s i v e b e g i n s w i t h
m a s s i v e a t t a c k a c r o s s t h e D e m i l i t a r i z e d Z o n e .
A p r i l 6 American bombing of North Vietnam resumes .
May 8 U.S . m i n e s H a i p h o n g a n d ot h e r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e
h a r b o r s .
May 23-29 Nixon-Brezhnev summit meeting in Moscow .
June N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e o f f e n s i v e p e t e r s o u t , a f t e r h e a v y
l o s s e s .
J u n e 1 3 B r e z h n e v s e n d s S o v i e t p r e s i d e n t P o d g o r n y t o H a n o i .
J u n e 2 2 B r e z h n e v r e p o r t s t o N i x o n a b o ut P o d g o r n y v i s i t t o
H a n o i , s u g g e s t s U . S . p r o p o s e a d a t e f o r r e s u m i n g
n e g o t i a t i o n s .
J u l y 1 9 S e c r e t K i s s i n g e r - L e D u c T h o t a lk s r e s u m e i n P a r i s .
J u l y 2 4 A m e n d m e n t c a l l i n g f o r w i t h d r a w a l f r o m V i e t n a m
p a s s e d b y f i v e v o t e s i n U . S . S e n a t e ( b u t b i l l t o w h i c h i t w a s
a t t a c h e d l a t e r f a i l e d t o p a s s ) .
Aug . 1 F i r s t s i g n s a p p e a r o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e f l e x i b i l i t y i n
s e c r e t P a r i s t a l k s .
S e p t . 1 5 S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e r e t a k e Q u a n g T r i n e a r t h e
D e m i l i t a r i z e d Z o n e , t h e o n l y p r ov i n c i a l c a p i t a l t h e N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e h a d c a p t u r e d i n t h e i r o f f e n s i v e .
S e p t . 2 6 , 2 7 F u r t h e r c o n c e s s i o n s b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e i n P a r i s
t a l k s .
Oct . 2 N i x o n t e l ls S o v i e t f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r G r o m y k o t h a t U .S .
w i l l m a k e " f i n a l " p r o p o s a l s t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e
O c t o b e r 8 . I f r e j e c t e d , t h e r e w i l l b e n o f u r t h e r
n e g o t i at i o ns d u r i ng e l e ct i o n p e r i o d ; a f t e r w a r d s U . S . w i l l
r e t u r n t o " o t h e r m e t h o d s . "
x i
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X i i CHRONOLOGYO c t . 4 Thieu objects to U . S . counter-proposals .
O c t . 8Fir st "breakthrough" in secret negotiations : Hanoi
makes forthcoming proposals, giving up i dea of coaliti on
government and accepting continuance of Thieu regime
after cease-fire .
O c t . 23 Kiss inger goes to Saigon ; f a i l s t o s e l l s e t t l e m e n t t o T h i e u ,
w ho d e m a n d s m a jo r c ha n g e s .
O c t . 26 Hanoi "goes public" wi th the draft settl ement and
demands t hat agreement be signed by Oct ober 31 .
O c t . 26 Kissi nger issues " we believe peace is at hand" statem ent,
confirmi ng essential accuracy of text r eleased by Hanoi
b u t s t a t i n g t h e c l a r i f i c a t i o n s s t i l l r e q u i r e d .
Nov . 7 U. S . presidential elections : Ni xon reelected with 60 .7 per
cent of vote, to 37 .5 per cent for McGovern . However,
Senate has larger anti-war majorit y .
Nov . 20 Kissinger-Le Duc Tho talks resume in Paris . Some
progress .
Dec . 4 Le Duc Tho hardens stand, withdraws som e concessions,
and introduces new changes . Meetings December 6, 7,
11, and 13 show pattern of North Vietnamese
"insolence, guile, and stalling ." Le Duc Tho says he must
retur n to Hanoi for consultati ons .
Dec . 1 1 Thieu appears t o reject peace plan in speech to South
V i e t n am e s e N a t i o n al A s s e m b ly .
Dec. 14 Ni xon orders mi ning of Haiphong and bombing of
mil itar y targets in the Hanoi-Haiphong complex .
Dec . 1 6 Kissinger press conference accuses North Vietnam of
stalling t he peace talks .
Dec . 1 7 North Vietnamese deny Kissinger's s tatement about
negotiations .
Dec . 1 8 Bombing of Hanoi-Haiphong area (and of other tar gets
north of the twentieth parallel ) and renewed mini ng
begin .
Dec . 2 6 Nort h Vietnames e send "si gnal" about resum ption of
negotiati ons .
Dec . 2 9 End ("suspension") of bombing . Agreement to meet
January 8 .
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1973
J a n . 8 R e s u m p t i o n o f K i s s i n g e r - L e D u c T h o n e g o t i a t i o n s .
J a n . 9 " M a j o r b r e a k t h r o u g h " s c o r e d . T h o a c c e p t s d r a f t a s i t
h a d s t o o d N o v e m b e r 2 3 , w i t h d r a w s d e m a n d s t h a t h e h a d
m a d e s u b s e q u e n t l y , a n d a c c e p t s A m e r i c a n c o m p r o m i s e
l a n g u a g e o n D M Z t h a t h e h a d r e j e c t e d i n D e c e m b e r .
J a n . 1 2 N e g o t i a t i o n s c o n c l u d e d .
J a n . 1 5 T e r m i n a t i o n o f a l l b o m b i n g a n d m i n i n g a c t i v i t y i n N o r t h
Vietnam .
J a n . 16 G e n e r a l H a i g m e e t s w i t h T h i e u , e x p l a i n s t e r m s , c o n v e y s
N i x o n m e s s a g e g u a r a n t e e i n g " s t r o n g [ U . S . ] r e a c t i o n " i n
c a s e o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e v i o l a t i o n s , t h r e a t e n s t h a t i f
n e c e s s a r y U . S . will s i gn alone .
J a n . 2 0 T h i e u a c c e p t s t h e a g r e e m e n t .
J a n . 2 3 A g r e e m e n t i n i t i a l e d b y K i s s i n g e r a n d L e D u c T h o .
J a n . 27 A g r e e m e n t s i g n e d b y N o r t h V i e t n a m , t h e V i e t C o n g
( P R G ) " g o v e r n m e n t , " S o u t h V i e t n a m , a n d t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s .
J a n . 2 7 C e a s e - f i r e g o e s i n t o e f f e c t .
CHRONOLOGY X i i l
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CHAPTER ONE
Events Leading to
t he Bombing
Martin F . Herz
WHEN I WAS OFFERED t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x a m i n e t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a i n r e p o r t i n g a n d c o m m e n t i n g
o n t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g i n N o r t h V i e t n a m i n 1 9 7 2 , I j u m p e d a t
t h e i n v i t a t i o n b e c a u s e I t h o u g h t t h e t o p i c i m p o r t a n t , i n t e r e s t i n g ,
a n d r e s e a r c h a b l e . I h a d s e r v e d i n V i e t n a m ( f r o m 1 9 6 8 t o 1 9 7 0 )
a nd h av e a c on t i nu i ng i n t e r e s t i n t h e s u bj e c t . I i m m e d i at e l y i m -
m e r s e d m y s e l f i n t h e a v a i l ab l e m a t e r i a l o n t h e m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n ,
t h e P a r i s n e g o t i a t i o n s , a nd t h e A m e r i c a n m e d i a r e s p o n s e t o t h e
bombings . B u t t h e n a s t r a n g e l e t h a r g y s e t i n , w h i c h l a s t e d f o r
months . I c o m p l a i n e d t o m y w i f e t h a t I d i d n ' t s e e m a b l e t o g e t a
h a n d l e o n t h e p r o b l e m . O n t h e c o n s c i o u s l e v e l I w a n t e d t o g e t o n
w i t h t h e j o b . O n t h e u n c o n s c i o u s l e v e l s o m e t h i n g w a s h o l d i n g m e
b a c k .
F i n a l l y t h e c a u s e o f m y f r u s t r a t i o n b e c a m e c l e a r t o m e . I h a d
c o m e t o t h i n k t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e " p r o v e d " c e r t a i n t h i n g s , b u t
g r a d u a l l y - i m p e r c e p t i b l y a t f i r s t , t h e n a l m os t w i t h a r u s h - i t w a s
b o r n e i n o n m e t h a t t h e s e t h i n g s a r e , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , q u i t e
i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e i n a n y s c i e n t i f i c s e n s e : ( 1 ) t h a t t h e b o m bi n g ,
f a r f r o m c r e a t i n g a n e w a n d m a j o r o b s t a c l e t o c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e
V i e t n a m p e a c e a g r e e m e n t , a c t u a l l y f a c i l i t a t e d i t ; ( 2 ) t h a t t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s " u n f a i r l y" a c c u s e d o f w h o l e s a le s l a u g h t e r o f
c i v i l i a n s i n t h e H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a , w h e r e a s t h e b o m b i n g w a s
l a r g e l y c o n f i n e d t o m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s a n d w a s q u i t e a c c u r a t e ; ( 3 ) t h a t
t h e A m e r i c a n p r e s t i g e m e d i a - i . e . , t h e New York Times, t h e
1
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2 MARTIN F . H ERZ
Washington Post, Time, N ewsweek, and the three major TV
n e t w o r k s - g a v e " u n f a i r , " o n e - s i d e d a t t e n t i o n t o c r i t i c s o f t h e
b o m b i n g , f a i l i n g t o p r e s e n t a d e q u a t e l y t h e o t h e r s i d e o f a n i m p o r -
t a n t c o n t r o v e r s y ; a n d ( 4 ) t h a t i n w h a t w a s s a i d a b o u t t h e n e g o t i a t -
i n g s i t u a t i o n , t h o s e m e d i a t e n d e d t o g i v e m o r e c r e d e n c e t o t h e
s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e e n e m y t h a n t o t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t
o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
W h i l e t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t a l l t h e s e p r o p o -
s i t i o n s , I n o w r e a l i z e t h a t o n l y t h e l as t o n e i s s u s c e p t i b l e o f p r o o f .
T h e f i r s t t h r e e r u n i n t o p r o bl e m s c o n c e r n i ng t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i m e , t h e s p e c u l a t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f
a s s u m p t i o n s a b ou t N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e m o t i v a t i o n , a n d t h e l o g i c a l
p i t f a l l o f m u l t i p l e c a u s a t i o n , a m o n g o t h e r s , t h a t m a k e i t a l m o s t
i m p os s i b l e t o dr a w c o nc l us i o n s c at e g o r i c al ly . I n m y o p i n i o n , w h e n
o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e e v i d e n c e o f m i s r e p o r t i n g a n d m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f t h e b o m b i n g a n d i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s , o n e h a s t o b e a w a r e t h a t :
1 . B e f o r e t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g , H a n o i w a s n o t p r e p a r e d t o
s i g n t h e a g r e e m e n t n e g o t i a t e d w i t h W a s h i n g t o n i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 2
a n d i m p r o v e d d u r i n g n e g o t i a t i o n s i n N o v e m b e r . I t d i d s i g n t h e
N o v e m b e r d r a f t , w i t h f u r t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t s ( f r o m t h e S o u t h V i e t -
n a m e s e p o i n t o f v i e w ) , s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e b o m b i n g , i n J a n u a r y 1 9 7 3 .
N o o n e c a n s a y w i t h a s s u r a n c e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e b o m b i n g c a u s e d
H a n o i ' s c h a n g e o f m i n d . T h e f a c t t h a t B h a p p e n s a f t e r A d o e s n ' t
p r o v e t h a t B w a s caused by A . * I h a p p e n t o t h i n k t h a t t h e b o m b i n g
s p e e d e d c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e t r e a t y , b e c a u s e I f o u n d c o n v i n c i n g t h e
statements about Nort h Vietnamese obstruction given by Dr .
H e n r y K i s s i n g e r i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 , b e f o r e t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n .
B u t u n l e s s a m e m b e r o f t h e V i e t n a m e s e P o l i t b u r o d e f e c t s a n d
r e p o r t s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g h e l p e d t h a t b o d y m a k e u p i t s m i n d , t h e
p r o p o s i t i o n i s i n h e r e n t l y u n p r o v a b l e . T h i s i s s o e v e n t h o u g h s u b -
s e q u e n t e v e n t s h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h o s e w h o p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e
*Neither, of course, can one reasonably conclude, as Tad Szulc concluded in
Foreign Policy, S u m m e r 1 9 7 4 ( p . 67) , and in his book The Illusion of Peace (p .
654), that because the agreement signed in January 197 3 was only incrementally
better than the agreement negotiated in October 197 2, therefore the bombing had
been unnecess ary. The argument begs the question . N o one can say with any
assurance what, if anything, the North Vietnamese were prepared to sign inDecember .
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EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 3
b o m bi n g w o u l d c a u s e t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e t o d i g i n t h e i r h e e l s
a n d h a r d e n t h e i r s t a n d , o r t h a t i t w o u l d j e o p a r d i z e d e t e n t e w i t h
C h i n a o r R u s s i a o r b ot h , w e r e m i s t a k e n .
2 . T h e b o m b i n g w a s l a r g e l y d o n e b y B - 5 2 b o m b e r s , w h i c h h a d
n e v e r b e f o r e b e e n u s e d a g a i n s t t a r g e t s i n o r n e a r l a r g e p o p u la t i o n
c e n t e r s . T h e B - 5 2 i s w i d e l y b e l i e v e d t o b e a n a i r c r a f t t h a t d e l i v e r s i t s
l o a d n o t o n a p i n p o i n t e d t a r g e t b u t o v e r a n a r e a , a s o - c a l l e d b o x
m e a s u r i n g a b o u t h a l f a m i l e b y a m i l e a n d a h a lf . T h i s i s t h e w a y i t h a d
b e e n u s e d o n a r e a t a r g e t s e a r l i e r i n t h e w a r . I t w a s t h e r e f o r e n o t
u n r e a s o n a b l e f o r c r i t i c s o f t h e b o m b i n g t o s p e a k o f " c a r p e t -
b o m b i n g , " w h i c h c a l l e d t o m i n d t h e d e v a s t a t i o n c a u s e d b y U . S . a n d
B r i t i s h b o m bi n g o f s u c h t a r g e t s a s H a m b u r g , D r e s d e n , a n d T o k y o
d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . A s i t t u r n e d o u t , t h e c r i t i c s w e r e m i s t a k e n . T h e
b o m b i n g s , f o r r e a s o n s t o b e e x p l a i n e d , w e r e q u i t e a c c u r a t e , a n d t h e
l o s s o f c i v i l i a n l i v e s s u r p r i s i n g l y s m a l l . B u t i t i s h a r d t o f a u l t t h e c r i t i c s
f o r t h i n k i n g o t h e r w i s e a t t h e t i m e .
3 . W h e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s b o m b i n g w i t h B - 5 2 s , w h i c h w a s
d o n e l a r g e l y a t n i g h t a n d t h r o u g h c l o u d c o v e r d u r i n g t h e m o n s o o n
s e a s o n , t h e p r e c i s e e x t e n t o f t h e d a m a g e c o u l d b e a c c u r a t e l y
assess ed by U . S . a u t h o r i t i e s o n l y s o m e t i m e a f t e r t h e e v e n t .
U n t i l e x t e n s i v e p h o t o - r e c o n n a i s s a n c e c o u l d b e u n d e r t a k e n , o n l y
the N orth Vietnamese knew preci sely what had happened on
t h e g r o u n d . T h e y , o f c o u r s e , h a d n o r e a s o n t o p a y t r i b u t e t o t h e
a c c u r a c y o f t h e a t t a c k e r s a n d a m pl e r e a s o n t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e
e f f e c t s o n t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u la t i o n . ( T h e h a n d f u l o f A m e r i c a n a n t i -
w a r a c t i v i s t s i n H a n o i a t t h e t i m e o f t h e b o m b i n g c o u l d r e p o r t o n l y
w h a t t h e y w e r e s h o w n o r a l l o w e d t o s e e , a n d t h e i r r e p o r t i n g t u r n e d
o u t t o b e a l m o s t a s m i s l e a d i n g a s t h a t o f t h e i r h o s t s . ) F u r t h e r m o r e , i n
t h e c o v e r a g e o f r e a c t i o n s t o t h e b o m bi n g i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d
a b r o a d , t h e r e s i m p l y w a s n o t m u c h a p p r o v i n g c o m m e n t t o r e p o r t . I n
f r e e c o u n t r i e s , p e o p l e d o n o t p u bl i c l y d e m o ns t r a t e t h e i r s u p p o r t o f
a n u np l e a s a nt m i l i t a r y d e c i s i o n t a k e n b y t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t . T h e
n e w s w a s l a r g e l y g e n e r a t e d b y o p p o n e n t s , a n d t h e U . S . p r e s t i g e
m e d i a c o p i o u s ly r e p o r t e d a s n e w s ( w i t h f u l l a t t r i b u t i o n ) t h e p r o p -
a g a n d a g i v e n o u t b y t h e e n e m y a n d h i s a l l i e s . H e n c e , b a l a n c e d
r e p o r t i n g a b o u t t h e b o m bi n g w a s d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e . ( D i f f i c u l t ,
h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t m e a n i m p o s s i b l e . )
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4 MARTIN F . HERZ
4 . T h e n e g o t i a t i n g s i t u a t i o n a t t h e t i m e t h e t a l k s b r o k e d o w n i n
D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 ( a n d w h e t h e r t h e y a c t u a l l y b r o k e d o w n i s i t s e l f i n
d i s p u t e ) w a s e x c e e d i n g l y c o m p l i c a t e d . A m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l s h a d
r a i s e d , l a r g e l y pro forma, v a r i o u s p o i n t s t h a t P r e s i d e n t T h i e u o f
S o u t h V i e t n a m w a n t e d t h e m t o r a i s e , p o i n t s t h a t t h e y k n e w t h e
Nort h Vietnamese would consider non-negotiable . The North
V i e t n a m e s e h a d e x c e l l e n t r e a s o n s t o h e s i t a t e a n d p e r h a p s t o d r a w
b a c k f r o m s i g n i n g t h e a g r e e m e n t t h a t h a d b e e n n e g o t i a t e d i n O c t o -
b e r 1 9 7 2 a n d c la r i f i e d a n d m a r g i n a l l y i m p r o v e d ( f r o m t h e S o u t h
V i e t n a m e s e p o i n t o f v i e w ) i n N o v e m b e r a n d e a r l y D e c e m b e r ; b u t
t h e y w e r e n ' t t a l k i n g a b o u t t h o s e r e a s o n s . T h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e ,
w h o r e m e m b e r e d t h a t H e n r y K i s s i n g e r h a d i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 2 d e -
c l a r e d t h a t " w e b e l i e v e p e a c e i s a t h a n d " a n d w h o n ow s a w t h e
h o s t i l i t i e s b e i n g r e n e w e d w i t h a v e n g e a n c e , c a n b e f o r g i v e n f o r
w o n d e r i n g i f t h e y h a d b e e n m i s l e d b y t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t .
The Purpose of This Study
T h i s a n a l y s i s o f m e d i a p e r f o r m a n c e i s b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n
t h a t m a s s c o m m u n i c a t o r s i n a d e m o c r a c y h a v e a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o
p r o v i d e a r e a s o n a b l y f u ll a n d f a i r p i c t u r e o f m a j o r p o l i t i c a l a n d
m i l i t a r y d e v e l o p m e n t s . T h e y h a v e a n e q u a l o b l i g a t i o n t o r e f l e c t t h e
v a r i e t y o f v i e w s a b ou t t h e s e d e v e l o pm e n t s s o t h a t t h e p e o p l e a s
c i t i z e n s c a n p a s s j u d g m e n t w i s e l y o n t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e c i s i o n s .
T h o s e d u t i e s a r e a c k n o w l e d g e d i n t h e c o d e s o f t h e p r i n t a n d e l e c -
t r o n i c m e d i a . T h e C o d e o f B r o a d c a s t N e w s E t h i c s , f o r e x a m p le ,
s t a t e s t h a t " b r o a d c a s t n e w s p r e s e n t a t i o n s s h a l l b e de s i g n e d n o t o n ly
t o o f f e r t i m e l y a n d a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t a l s o t o p r e s e n t i t i n t h e
l i g h t o f r e l e v a n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t g i v e i t m e a n i n g a n d p e r s p e c -
t i v e . "
T h e f a i r n e s s r e q u i r e m e n t i s m o r e s t r i n g e n t f o r t h e e l e c t r o n i c
m e d i a t h a n f o r t h e p r i n t m e d i a b e c a u s e t h e f o r m e r m u s t s h a r e a
l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f f r e q u e n c i e s a n d c h a n n e l s a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e
r e g u l a t e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t . U n d e r t h e F e d e r a l C o m m u n i c a t i o n s
C o m m i s s i o n ' s F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e , b u t t r e s s e d b y l a w a n d u p h e l d b y
*Code of Broadcast News Ethics, Radio Television News Directors Associa-
tion, adopted January 2, 1966, and amended October 13, 1973, Ar ticle Two .
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EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 5
t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t , a l l b r o ad c a s t e r s a r e r e q u i r e d t o s e r v e " t h e
p u b l i c i n t e r e s t " i n t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a ll p u b li c i s s u e s . T h i s
d o c t r i n e i s r o o t e d i n " t h e p a r a m o u nt r i g h t o f t h e p u bl i c i n a f r e e
s o c i e t y t o b e i n f o r m e d a n d t o h a v e p r e s e n t e d t o i t f o r a c c e p t a n c e o r
r e j e c t i o n " t h e d i f f e r e n t v i e w p o i n t s o n " c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e s . " * T h e
b r o a d c a s t e r i s r e q u i r e d t o p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e n e w s i n a m e a n i n g f u l
c o nt e x t a n d h a s a n " a f f i r m a t i v e d u t y " t o s e e k o u t s p o k e s m e n f o r
c o n t r a s t i n g o p i n i o n s a n d pe r s p e c t i v e s . W h e n p r e s e n t i n g o p p o s i n g
v i e w s , t h e b r o a d c a s t e r m u s t p r o v i d e a " r e a s o n a b l e o p po r t u n i t y "
f o r e a c h t o b e h e a r d . A n y r a d i o o r T V s t a t i o n - a n d b y i m p l i c at i o n
a n e t w o r k - h a s a r i g h t t o a d v o c a t e p a r t i c u l a r v i e w s , b u t i t h a s a
c o r r e s p o n d i n g o b li g a t i o n t o p r e s e n t c o n t r a s t i n g o n e s .
W h i l e t h e F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e a p p li e s t o a s t a t i o n ' s o r n e t w o r k ' s
t o t a l p u b li c - a f f a i r s p r o g r a m m i n g ( n e w s , d o c u m e n t a r i e s , a n d p a n e l
s h o w s ) , t h e A B C , C B S , a n d N B C e v e n i n g n e w s p r o g r a m s w i t h
t h e i r v a s t a u d i e n c e a n d i n f l u e n c e h a v e a s p e c i a l r e s p o ns i b i l i t y t o
o b s e r v e t h e s p i r i t o f b a l a n c e a n d f a i r p l a y e m b r a c e d i n t h e d o c t r i n e .
T o a c o n s i d e r a bl e e x t e n t , I t h i n k , t h e s a m e a p p li e s t o t h e N e w Y o r k
Times a n d t h e Washington Post, w h i c h , a s n e w s p a p e r s o f r e c o r d ,
o c c u p y a s p e c i a l po s i t i o n o f t r u s t a n d i n f l u e n c e .
T h i s s t u d y t a k e s i n t o a c c ou n t t h e i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
n e w s r e p o r t i n g , w h i c h s h o u l d b e a s a c c u r a t e a n d o b j e c t i v e a s
p o s s i b l e , a n d c om m e n t a r y o r e d i t o r i a l s , w h i c h , w h e n t h e y a r e s o
l a b e l e d , m a y b e p a r t i s a n a n d o p i n i o n - l a d e n . M y p u r p o s e i s n o t t o
a s s e m b l e a b i l l of p a r t i c u l ar s a g a i n s t t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a f o r m i s -
r e p o r t i n g a n d m i s i n t e r p r e t i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t i n o ur r e c e n t
h i s t o r y . I t i s r a t h e r t o p r e s e n t t h e e v i d e n c e , t o t e l l t h e s t o r y o f h o w
t o p j o u r n a l i s t s r e p o r t e d a n d c o m me n t e d o n t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b -
i n g . I n t h e f i n a l c h a pt e r I d r a w s o m e c o nc l us i o n s . T h e p r i n c i pa l o ne
c a n b e s t a t e d h e r e , r i g h t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g : M a n y m i s t a k e s w e r e
m a d e i n c o m m u n i c a t i n g t h e f a c t s a n d m e a n i n g o f t h e C h r i s t m a s
b o m b i n g t o t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e a n d t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d . T h e
*FCC 74 -702 (18425), released July 12, 197 4 . A brief history and interpreta-
tion of the Fairness Doctri ne, which had been evolving for more than four
decades, can be found in TV and National Defense: An Analysis of CBS News,
1 9 7 2 - 1 9 7 3 , by Ernest W. Lefever (Boston, Virginia : Institute for American
Strategy Press, 1974 ), pp . 4 - 9 .
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6 MARTIN F . H ERZ
p r e s t i g e m e d i a w e r e n o t t h e on l y o ne s a t f a u l t ; t he U . S . g o v e r n -
m e n t h a d a s i g n i f i c a nt s h a r e i n t h e s e m i s t a k e s .
I t n e e d h a r d l y b e r e c a l l e d t h a t b y 1 9 7 2 U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e
V i e t n a m W ar w a s n o t p o p u la r w i t h t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s a n d t h e T V
news anchormen. I n t h e e y e s o f t h e m e d i a , t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e
N i x o n a dm i n i s t r a t i o n w a s l ow , e v e n ( a n d p e r h a p s e s p e c i a l l y ) a f t e r
t h e P r e s i d e n t w a s r e - e l e c t e d i n 1 9 7 2 b y a s ub s t a n t i al m a j o r i t y . Th e
s e c r e t i v e n e s s o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h i c h i n t h e c a s e o f t h e P a r i s
p e a c e t a l k s w a s n e c e s s a r y , d i d n o t m a k e f o r e a s y a c c e p t a n c e o f i t s
p u b li c s t a t e m e n t s .
The Chris tmas Bombing
O n D e c e m b e r 1 8 , 1 9 7 2 , a l t h o u g h n o t h i n g i n t h e m i l i t a r y s i t u a -
t i o n i n Vi e t n a m w a r r a n t e d i t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s u d d e n l y r e s u m e d
h e a v y b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m n o r t h o f t h e t w e n t i e t h p a r a l l e l .
T h e a t t a c k c o n c e n t r a t e d o n t a r g e t s i n t h e H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g
a r e a s ; c o n c u r r e n t l y m i n e s w e r e d r o p p e d i n t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e
h a r b o r s . T h e n e x t d a y W h i t e H o u s e p r e s s s e c r e t a r y R on a l d Z i e g l e r
c i t e d a s a r e a s o n f o r t h e b o m bi n g s o m e s i g n s o f p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r
a n o t h e r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e o f f e n s i v e a g a i n s t S o u t h V i e t n a m ; b u t
t h e r e h a d b e e n n o m e n t i o n o f s u c h p r e p a r a t i o n s b e f o r e , a n d
Z i e g l e r ' s s t a t e m e n t h a d li t t l e c r e d i b i l i t y . O ther government
s o u r c e s m a d e i t c l e a r t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e b o m b i n g a n d m i n i n g
w a s t o f o r c e N o r t h V i e t n a m i n t o a m o r e t r a c t a b l e p o s i t i o n a t t h e
a r m i s t i c e t a l k s i n P a r i s , w h i c h h a d b e e n s u s p e n d e d i n d i s a g r e e m e n t
f i v e d a y s b e f o r e .
T h i s w a s n o t t h e f i r s t t i m e d u r i n g t h e w a r t h a t b o m b i n g h a d b e e n
u s e d f o r p r i m a r i l y p o l i t i c a l pu r p o s e s , b u t t h e o c c a s i o n w a s d i f f e r e n t
f r o m p r e v i o u s o ne s i n s e v e r a l r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , i t h a d b e e n t h e
g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n p r i o r t o t h e D e c e m b e r 1 3 s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e
t a l k s b e t w e e n H e n r y K i s s i n g e r a n d L e D u c T h o t h a t N o r t h V i e t -
n a m a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d c o n c l u d e a n a g r e e m e n t t o e n d
t h e w a r b e f o r e C h r i s t m a s . T w o m on t h s b e f or e , H e n r y K i s s i n g e r ,
P r e s i d e n t N i x o n ' s n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a d v i s e r , h a d a n no u n c e d t h a t
" w e b e l i e v e p e a c e i s a t h a n d " a f t e r t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d
p u bl i c i z e d t h e t e x t o f t h e a g r e e m e n t - p r e m a t u r e l y , t o f o r c e t h e
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EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 7
American hand ; a t t h a t t i m e , a c c o r d i n g t o K i s s i n g e r , o n l y m i n o r
d e t a i l s s t i l l r e m a i n e d t o b e s e t t l e d . T h e m a s s i v e b o m b i n g w i t h o u t
m i l i t a r y p r o v o c a t i o n w a s s e e n b y m a n y a s a d a n g e r o u s e s c a l a t i o n
t h a t c o u ld e m b r o i l t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i t h C h i n a , t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ,
o r b o t h ; a n d t h e r e w a s w i d e s p r e a d d i s a p po i n t m e nt t h a t , i n s t e a d o f
p e a c e , t h e C h r i s t m a s s e a s o n w a s s e e i n g a n i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
h o s t i li t i e s f r o m w h i c h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w i s h e d t o w i t h d r a w .
B a c k g r o u n d o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s D e c i s i o n
T o v i e w t h e b o m b i n g i n p e r s p e c t i v e w e m u s t l o o k b a c k a t t h e
c o u r s e o f t h e w a r d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r m o n t h s o f t h a t y e a r . T h e s p r i n g
a n d s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 2 h a d s e e n t h e b i g g e s t N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e
o f f e n s i v e o f t h e w a r - i n f a c t , t h e f i r s t t h a t p i t t e d t w o w e l l -
e q u i p p e d V i e t n a m e s e a r m i e s a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r i n " s e t p i e c e "
b a t t l e s . ( T h e g u e r r i l l a c om p o n e n t o f t h e w a r , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d , h a d
b e e n a t a r e l a t i v e l y l ow l e v e l e v e r s i n c e t h e " T e t " o f f e n s i v e i n e a r l y
1968 ; a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e V i e t C o n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e h a d
b e e n d e s t r o y e d , b o t h d u r i n g t h e T e t o f f e n s i v e , w h e n t h e V i e t C o n g
u n s u c c e s s f u l l y a t t a c k e d t h e c i t i e s o f S o u t h V i e t n a m , a n d d u r i n g i t s
a f t e r m a t h , w h e n t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t c o n d u c t e d i t s
" a c c e l e r a t e d p a c i f i c a t i o n c a m p a i g n , " 1 9 6 8 - 7 0 . ) T h e C o m m u n i s t
s p r i n g o f f e n s i v e i n 1 9 7 2 i n v o l v e d f o u r t e e n r e g u l a r N o r t h V i e t -
n a m e s e d i v i s i o n s a n d t w e n t y - s i x i n d e p e n d e n t r e g i m e n t s p l u s , s u p -
p o r t i n g t r o o p s , i n c l u d i n g a r m o r a n d h e a v y a r t i l l e r y . I t l a s t e d ,
t h r o u g h s e v e r a l s t a g e s , i n t o t h e s u m m e r .
T h i s o f f e n s i v e b r o u g h t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e o n l y l i m i t e d s u c -
c e s s e s . A l t h o u g h t h e y o v e r r a n t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t c i t y o f S o u t h
V i e t n a m , Q u a n g T r i , w h i c h w a s a b a n d o n e d i n pa n i c b y i t s d e f e n -
d e r s a n d a g o o d p a r t o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n, t h a t c i t y w a s e v e n t u a l l y
r e t a k e n b y S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e m a r i n e s i n a n e i g h t y - d a y b a t t l e t h a t
e n d e d i n S e p t e m b e r . T h e m o s t l a s t i n g s u c c e s s f o r t h e N o r t h V i e t -
n a m e s e w a s a w i d e n i n g o f t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e w e s t e r n p a r t o f t h e
C e n t r a l H i g h l a n ds , w h i c h a l l o w e d t h e m t o e s t a b l i s h n e w l o g i s t i c
c o m p l e x e s a l o n g t h e C a m b o d i a n b o r d e r t h a t w o u l d b e u s e f u l i n
f u t ur e op e r a t i o ns . I n t h e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n o f S o u t h V i e t n a m ,
d e s p i t e o v e r w h e l m i n g s u p e r i o r i t y i n a r m o r a n d a r t i l l e r y , t h r e e
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8 MARTIN F . H ERZ
N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e d i v i s i o n s f a i l e d t o t a k e A n L o c , w h o s e d e f e n -
d e r s s h o w e d a s t o n i s h i n g h e r o i s m .
O n t h e w h o l e , t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e f o u g h t w i t h t h e i r c u s t o m -
a r y t e n a c i t y a n d d i s r e g a r d f o r h u m a n l i f e ; b u t t h e i r l o s s e s w e r e s o
h e a v y t h a t a t t h e e n d o f t h e o f f e n s i v e t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e ,
d e s p i t e t h e i r s m a l le r p o p u l at i o n b a s e , e n j o y e d n u m e r i c a l s u p e r i o r -
i t y o v e r t h e at t a c k e r s . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e r e w e r e a ls o s u b s t an t i a l
( t h o u g h s t i l l s m a l l ) n u m b e r s o f N o r t h V i e t n a me s e d e s e r t e r s , a n d i n
s o m e r e t r e a t s t h e a t t a c k e r s l e f t v a l u ab l e e q u i p m e n t b e h i n d .
I n t h e s e d e f e n s i v e b a t t l e s i n S o u t h V i e t n a m d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g
a n d s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 2 , S a i g o n ' s f o r c e s c o u l d n o l o n g e r c o u n t o n
A m e r i c a n s u p p o r t o n t h e g r o u n d , s i n c e m o s t A m e r i c a n t r o o p s h a d
b e e n w i t h d r a w n . H o w e v e r , t h e y r e c e i v e d m a s s i v e a n d v e r y e f f e c -
t i v e s u p p o r t f r o m t h e a i r , i n c l u d i n g s t r i k e s b y t h e g i a n t B - 5 2
bombers . F o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e r e w e r e c l e a r b a t t l e l i n e s , a nd t h e s e
h e a v y b o m b e r s c o u l d b e u s e d w i t h g o o d e f f e c t . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e y
w e r e s u f f i c i e n t l y a c cu r a t e t o b e u s e d a g a i n s t t h e a t t a c k e r s o f A n
L o c w i t h o u t h u r t i n g t h e d e f e n d e r s .
The American bombing of North Vietnam, which had beenh a l t e d , w a s r e s u m e d o n A p r i l 6 . A t t a c k s o n m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s i n t h e
N o r t h b e c a m e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e a c c u r a t e i n 1 9 7 2 b e c a u s e o f t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f " s m a r t " - T V - a n d l a s e r - g u i d e d - b o m b s . F o r i n -
s t a n c e , t h e T h a n h H o a b r i d g e , w h i c h h a d n o t b e e n h i t d e s p i t e 8 0 0
t o 1 , 0 0 0 s o r t i e s d u r i n g p r e v i o u s b o m b i n g o f f e n s i v e s , w a s d e -
s t r o y e d i n t h e f i r s t a t t a c k . T h e B - 5 2 o p e r a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , w e r e n o t
c o n d u ct e d w i t h " s m a r t " b o m bs b u t i n v o l ve d t a r g e t s d e f i n e d w i t h i n
a " b o x " o f c o o r d i n a t e s .
T o s h o w i t s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o f oi l t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e e f f o r t ,
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n M a y 1 9 7 2 f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e d r o p p e d m i n e s i n t o
H a i p h o n g h a r b o r a n d o t h e r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a r b o r s . P r e s i d e n t
N i x o n d r e w c o n s i d e r a b l e c r i t i c i s m f o r t h a t a c t i o n a nd f o r t h e
r e s u m e d b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m ( w h i c h i n c l u d e d b o m b i n g o f
t h e H a n o i a r e a ) . I t w a s w i d e l y p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h o s e a t t a c k s w o u ld
l e a d t o r e t a l i a t i o n b y t h e S o v i e t U n i o n o r C h i n a or b o t h . A t t h e
v e r y l e a s t , t h e c r i t i c s s a i d , t h e s t e p p e d - u p a t t a c k s w o u ld j e o p a r di z e
N i x o n ' s p l a n n e d M a y s u m m i t m e e t i n g w i t h S o v i e t l e a d e r L e o n i d
Brezhnev in Moscow . B u t a s i t t u r n e d o u t t h e r e w a s n o s u c h
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EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 9
c o u n t e r a c t i o n , a n d t h e M o s c o w s u m m i t t o o k p l a c e a s p l a n ne d .
A c c o r d i n g t o v a r i o u s r e p o r t s b a s e d o n a ll e g e d l e a k s , i n d i s c r e -
t i o n s , o r u n a t t r i b u t e d i n t e r v i e w s , t h e N i x o n - B r e z h n e v m e e t i n g i n
M a y 1 9 7 2 p la y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n a d v a n c i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s
b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d N o r t h V i e t n a m . ( T h e r e i s n o m e n -
t i o n of t h i s i n e i t h e r N i x o n ' s o r K i s s i ng e r ' s m e m oi r s . ) I n t h e "p ub -
l i c " n e g o t i a t i o n s i n P a r i s , t h e d e l e g a t i o n o f t h e P r o v i s i o n al G o v -
e r n m e n t o f S o u t h V i e t n a m ( t h e V i e t C o ng , i n e f f e c t s p e a k i n g f o r
t h e i r N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e m a s t e r s ) h a d p r o po s e d a t r i p a r t i t e " g o v -
e r n m e n t o f n a t i o n a l c o n co r d " i n w h i c h t h e C o m m u n i s t s , t h e a n t i -
C o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t o f S o u t h V i e t n a m , a n d a n u n i d e n t i f i e d
n e u t r a li s t " t h i r d f o r c e " w o u l d be r e p r e s e n t e d . T h i s p r o p os a l h a d
b e e n c a t e g o r i c a l l y r e j e c t e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d S o u t h V i e t -
nam . A t t h e M o s c o w s u m m i t , K i s s i n g e r i s s u p p o s e d t o h av e l e t i t b e
k n o w n t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d no t b e o p po s e d t o a t r i p a r t i t e
b o d y pr o v i d e d i t s f u n c t i o n s w e r e l i m i t e d t o t h e h o ld i n g o f f r e e
e l e c t i o n s a f t e r a n a g r e e d c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e h o s t i l i t i e s . K i s s i n g e r ' s
o f f i c e h a s d e n i e d t o m e t h a t h e r a i s e d t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i n M o s c o w .
W h e t h e r o r n o t o n e f i n d s t h e d e n i a l c o nv i n c i n g , i t i s a f a c t t h a t t h e
i d e a o f a t r i p a r t i t e e l e c t o r a l c o m m i s s i o n p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e
i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t t h a t w a s e v e n t u a l l y w o r k e d o u t b e t w e e n t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d N o r t h V i e t n a m .
T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d i n c o nc l u s i v e l y t h r o u g h t h e
s u m m e r a n d e a r l y f a l l , br o u g h t n o p r o g r e s s u n t i l l a t e S e p t e m b e r ,
w h e n t h e r e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s i n t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e t w o
s i d e s . S i n c e t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d f a i l e d i n t h e i r l a r g e s t m i l i -
t a r y e f f o r t t o d a t e , du r i n g w h i c h a n e s t i m a t e d 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 o f t h e i r m e n
h a d b e e n k i l l e d o r d i s a b l e d a nd v a s t q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e i r m i l i t a r y
s u p p li e s h a d b e e n d e s t r o y e d , t h e y w e r e i n n o p o s i t i o n t o r e s u m e
l a r g e - s c a l e h o s t i l i t i e s f o r s o m e t i m e , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e r e s u p p l y
h a d be e n g r e a t l y ha m p e r e d by t h e m i ni n g o f t h e i r p o r t s . O n t h e
S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e s i d e , t h e s u c c e s s f u l d e f e ns e h a d r a i s e d t h e s t o c k
o f P r e s i d e n t T h i e u - a s w e l l a s h i s d e t e r m i n at i o n t o r e s i s t A m e r i -
c a n c o n c e s s i o n s t o h i s C o m mu n i s t e n e m i e s . W i t h S e n a t o r G e o r g e
M c G o v e r n a s t h e D e m o c r a t i c c a n d i d a t e i n t h e f o r t h c o m i n g e l e c -
t i o n s , t h e p o l l s s h o w e d a n i n c r e a s i n g l i k e l i h o o d t h a t N i x o n w o ul d
b e r e - e l e c t e d . I f N i x o n c o ul d t a k e t h e c on s i d e r a b le r i s k o f m i n i n g
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1 0 MARTIN F . H ERZ
H a i p h o ng s i x m o n t h s b e f o r e t h e e l e c t i o n , t h e r e w a s n o p r e d i c t i n g
w h a t h e m i g h t d o a f t e r h e w o n r e - e l e c t i o n .
I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e m a d e s o m e p r o m i s i n g
p r o p o s a ls i n e a r l y O c t o b e r - w i t h t h e d e m a n d t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t
b e s i g n e d o n O c t o b e r 3 1 , j u s t b e f o r e t h e A m e r i c a n e l e c t i o n . T h e r e
w a s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r a pi d b a r g a i n i n g i n P a r i s , a n d t h e c o n c e s s i o n s
m a d e b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e s e f e a t u r e s
o f t h e d r a f t a c c o r d t h e y a n n o u nc e d o n O c t o b e r 2 6 : t h e y a c ce p t e d a
c e a s e - f i r e i n p l a c e , w hi c h t h e y h ad h i t h e r t o o pp o s e d ; t h e y a g r e e d
f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t o a s e p a r a t i o n be t w e e n t h e c e a s e - f i r e a n d a
p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t , t h u s l e a v i n g t h e T h i e u g o v e r n m e n t i n p o w e r ;
t h e y a g r e e d t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l ly s u p e r v i s e d e l e c t i o n s , w h i c h t h e y h a d
r e p e a t e d l y r e j e c t e d i n t h e p a s t ; a n d t h e y w o r k e d o u t w i t h t h e U . S .
n e g o t i a t o r s t h e c o n c e p t o f a " N a t i o n a l C ou n c i l o f N a t i o n a l R e c o n-
c i l i a t i o n a nd C o n c or d " t o i m p l e m e n t t h e a g r e e m e n t a n d t o o r g a -
n i z e e l e c t i o n s w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e T h i e u g o v e r n m e n t - a
p a l e s h a d o w o f t h e i r p r e v i o u s i n s i s t e n c e o n a c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t .
A l s o , t h e y a g r e e d t h a t t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d
c o nt i n u e t o r e c e i v e A m e r i c a n e c o n om i c a n d m i l i t a r y a i d , t h e l a t t e r
o n l y on a r e p l a c e m e n t b a s i s , w h e r e a s p r e v i o u s l y t h e y h a d d e -
m a n d e d t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n w i t h d r a w a l b e f o l l ow e d b y a c e s s a t i o n
o f a l l A m e r i c a n a i d t o S o u t h V i e t n a m . T h e r e w e r e a l s o o t h e r
p r o v i s i o n s t h a t n e e d n o t b e l i s t e d i n t h i s s u m m a r y .
The Paris Negotiations Bog Down
M e a n w h i l e , h o w e v e r , t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t o f
P r e s i d e n t T h i e u , c a u g h t b y s u r p r i s e b y t h e r a p i d p r o g r e s s i n t h e
n e g o t i a t i o n s , w a s n o t r e a d y t o s e t t l e . I t o b j e c t e d t o a n y s o l u t i o n
t h a t w o u l d p e r m i t t h e c o n t i n u e d p r e s e n c e o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e
t r o o p s o n S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e t e r r i t o r y ( e v e n t h o u g h t h i s h a d b e e n
i m p l i e d i n a l l j o i n t U . S . - S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e c e a s e - f i r e p r o p o s al s
s i n c e O c t o b e r 1 9 7 0 ) . T h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e a l s o i n t e n s e l y
s u s p i c i o u s o f t h e i d e a o f a t r i p a r t i t e e l e c t o r a l c o m m i s s i o n .
T o a l la y T h i e u ' s f e a r s t h a t a f t e r a n a r m i s t i c e t h e N o r t h V i e t -
n a m e s e w o u l d r e s u m e t h e i r m i l i t a r y b u i l du p i n S o u t h V i e t n a m i n
d e f i a n c e of t h e t e r m s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b e g a n t o
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EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 1 1
t r a n s f e r m i l i t a r y e q u i p m e n t t o S o u t h V i e t n a m t h a t m o r e t h a n
m a d e u p i t s b a t t l e l o s s e s ( " O p e r a t i o n E n h a n c e " ) . T h i s b u i l d u p
b e g a n i n t h e e a r l y f a l l a n d w a s a c c e l e r a t e d i n O c t o b e r . T o w a r d t h e
e n d o f O c t o b e r , h o w e v e r , i t b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t d e s p i t e m a j o r
A m e r i c a n p r e s s u r e a n d d e s p i t e t h e a d d i t i o n al a r m s , S o u t h V i e t -
n a m w o u ld r e f u s e t o s i g n t h e a g r e e m e n t o n t h e p r e s c r i b e d d a t e o f
O c t o b e r 3 1 . W o r s e , a n e m b ar r a s s e d K i s s i n g e r l e a r n e d t h a t t h e
V i e t n a m e s e - l a n g u a g e v e r s i o n o f t h e d r a f t a g r e e m e n t h e had
n e g o t i a t e d d i f f e r e d i n i m p o r t a n t r e s p e c t s f r o m t h e E n g l i s h v e r s i o n .
T h e s i t u a t i o n w a s e x a c e r b a t e d b y N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p r o p a g a n d a
d e s c r i b i n g t h e ( p o w e r l e s s ) t r i p a r t i t e c o u n c i l a s a n i n t e r i m g o v e r n -
ment .
W h e n i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s c o u l d n ot p e r s u a d e t h e
S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e t o s i g n , H a n oi p u b l i c ly r e l e a s e d t h e t e r m s o f t h e
a g r e e m e n t o v e r R a d i o H a n o i i n t h e e a r l y m o r n i n g o f O c t o b e r 2 6 .
O n t h e s a m e d a y ( i n h i s " w e b e l i e v e p e a c e i s a t h a n d " s t a t e m e n t )
K i s s i n g e r a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e e s s e n t i a l a c c u r a c y o f H a n o i ' s a c c o u nt
b u t p o i n t e d o ut t h a t s o m e d e t a i l s r e m a i n e d t o b e s e t t l e d .
Between October 26 and December 13 three developments
u n e x p e c t e d b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e m a d e t h e s i t u a t i o n i n S o u t h
V i e t n a m l e s s f a v o r a b l e t o t h e m . F i r s t , m a n y V i e t C o n g u n i t s i n
S o u t h V i e t n a m , h a v i n g b e e n l e d t o e x p e c t t h a t a c e a s e - f i r e i n p l a c e
w o u l d b e a n n o u n c e d o n O c t o b e r 3 1 , r e v e a l e d t h e m s e l v e s p r e m a -
t u r e l y b y s e i z i n g o r a t t e m p t i n g t o s e i z e v i l l ag e s a n d t o w n s t h a t t h e y
h o p e d t o c l a i m - o n l y t o b e c a pt u r e d o r k i l l e d b y t h e S o u t h V i e t -
namese . S e c o n d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , i n a f u r t h e r e f f o r t t o c o n c i li a t e
T h i e u , s t e p p e d u p i t s " O p e r a t i o n E n h a n c e " i n t o a n e v e n l a r g e r
s u p p l y o pe r a t i o n d u b b e d " E n h a n c e - P l u s " ( i n v o lv i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e ,
t h e h u r r i e d t r a n s f e r o f A m e r i c a n w a r p l a ne s f r o m t h e i n v e n t o r i e s o f
T a i w a n , S o u t h K o r e a , a n d I r a n , a t W a s h i ng t o n ' s u r g e n t r e q u e s t ) .
A l t o g e t h e r , t h e S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e r e c e i v e d a b o u t $ 2 b i l li o n w o r t h
o f a r m s a n d s u p p l i e s i n l e s s t h a n t w o m o n t h s . T h i r d , w h e n t h e
s e c r e t n e g o t i a t i o n s w e r e r e s u m e d i n P a r i s o n N o v e m be r 2 0 , K i s -
s i n g e r r a i s e d a l a r g e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s t h a t h e h a d pr o m i s e d T h i e u
t o r a i s e , s o m e o f t h e m q u i t e f u n d a m e n t a l . A l t h o u g h t h e N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e r e j e c t e d m o s t o f t h e s e p o i n t s , t h e y i n i t i a l l y ac c e p t e d a
f e w , i n c l ud i n g o n e a b ou t r e s p e c t f o r t h e D M Z ( t h e d e m i l i t a r i z e d
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1 2 MARTIN F . H ERZ
z o n e b e t w e e n N o r t h a n d S o u t h V i e t n a m ) , w h i c h m a d e t h e a g r e e -
m e n t l e s s a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e m . F u r t h e r m o r e , s o m e o f t h e d i s c r e p a n -
c i e s b e t w e e n t h e E n g l i s h a n d V i e t n a m e s e t e x t s p r o v e d s i g n i f i c a n t
a n d h a d t o b e r e s o l v e d i n a r d u o u s n e g o t i a t i o n s .
A n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t , p e r h a p s n o t u n e x p e c t e d b y t h e N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e a n d c e r t a i n l y n ot u n w e l c o me t o t h e m , w a s t h a t t h e r e
w e r e g r o w i n g s i g n s t h a t a m a j o r i t y i n t h e n e w U . S . C o n g r e s s , w h i c h
w a s t o c o n v e n e i n J a n u a r y 1 9 7 3 , w o u l d f a v o r c u t t i n g o f f a l l a p -
p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r t h e V i e t n a m w a r . T h i s p r o s p e c t t e n d e d t o w e a k e n
the U . S . p o s i t i o n i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s . H a n o i ' s O c t o b e r 2 6 p u b li c a -
t i o n o f t h e n e a r l y c o m p l e t e d p e a c e t e r m s i n c r e a s e d U . S. d o m e s t i c
p r e s s u r e s o n N i x o n t o s e t t l e , e v e n a f t e r h i s r e - e l e c t i o n .
B y e a r l y D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 , t h e A m e r i c a n s i d e - h a v i n g p u b l i c l y
a n n ou n c e d t h a t w h e n i t w a s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e t e r m s i t w o u l d s i g n a n
a g r e e m e n t e v e n i f T h i e u w o u l d no t - e x p e c t e d t h e a g r e e m e n t t o b e
b u t t o n e d u p i n a m a t t e r o f d a y s . H o w e v e r , m i d w a y i n t h e f i n a l
p h as e o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s ( o r w h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s e x p e c t e d t o b e
t h e f i n a l p h a s e ) , w h i c h b e g a n o n D e c e m b e r 4 , L e D u c T h o s e e m e d
t o h a v e c h a n g e d h i s m i n d o n t h e u r g e n c y o f a n e a r l y a g r e e m e n t . H e
r e f u s e d a n y d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o t o c o ls o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d t h e n
s u b m i t t e d n e w p r o p o s a l s t h a t w e r e e n t i r e l y u n a c c e pt a b l e t o t h e
A m e r i c a n s i d e . F u r t h e r m o r e , h e w i t h d r e w s e v e r a l c o n c e s s i o n s h e
had made during November and even in early December . I t b e -
c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p a r e n t t h a t i f H a n o i h a d n ' t c h a n g e d i t s m i n d
a b o u t t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a n e a r l y ag r e e m e n t , a t l e a s t i t m u s t h a v e
i n s t r u c t e d i t s n e g o t i a t o r t o p l a y f o r t i m e s o t h a t t h e P o l i t b u r o c o u l d
r e a s s e s s t h e e n t i r e m a t t e r . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , P r e s i d e n t T h i e u -
w h o h a d b e e n w a r ne d t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d p r o c e e d w i t h -
o u t h i m i f i t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t w a s r e a s o n a b l e - g a i n e d
f u r t h e r c o n c e s s i o n s f r o m P r e s i d e n t N i x o n , n o t a b l y a pe r s o n a l w r i t -
t e n c o m m i t m e n t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w o u l d c o m e t o h i s a i d i f
N o r t h V i e t n a m u n d e r t o o k a w h o l e s a l e v i o l a t i o n of t h e a g r e e m e n t .
T h e P a r i s n e g o t i a t i o n s e n d e d w i t h o u t a g r e e m e n t o n D e c e m b e r
1 3 ( t h e U . S . a n d N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e s t a t e m e n t s o n t h e b r e a k d o w n
a r e p r i n t e d a s A p p e n d i x A a n d A p p e n d i x B o f t h i s s t u d y ) , a n d t h eU. S . b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n i n t h e H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a b e g a n f i v e
d a y s l a t e r .
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A Personal View
T h i s s u m m a r y o f t h e e v e n t s l e a d i n g u p t o t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g
h a s b e e n , I b e l i e v e , f a c t u a l . W h a t f o l l o w s i s m y o w n v i e w o f t h e
s i t u a t i o n c r e a t e d b e t w e e n O c t o b e r a n d D e c e m b e r .
F i r s t , i t a p p e ar s t h a t w h i l e P r e s i d e n t T h i e u ' s c o n t i n u e d o p p o s i -
t i o n w a s e m b a r r a s s i n g , i t n o l o n g e r w o u l d p r e c l u de t h e s i g n i n g o f
t h e s l i g h t l y i m p r o v e d a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d
N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t s e e m e d w i t h i n r e a c h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f D e -
cember . S e c o n d , i t s e e m s e n t i r e l y r e a s o n a b le t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t -
n a m e s e w e r e h a v i n g s e c o n d t h o u g h t s a b ou t s i g n i n g t h e a g r e e m e n t
a s i t h a d b e e n a m e n d e d i n N o v e m b e r , b e c a u s e f o u r t h i n g s h a d
h a p p e n e d t o m a k e i t l e s s a t t r a c t i v e : t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i r l o c a l
f o r c e s i n t h e S o u t h b r o u g h t a b o u t b y p r e m a t u r e s u r f a c i n g ; t h e
r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e T h i e u g o v e r n m e n t t h r o u g h o p e r a -
t i o n s E n h a n c e a n d E n h a n c e - P l u s ; t h e p r e c i s i o ns i n t h e a g r e e m e n t
i n s i s t e d o n by K i s s i n g e r , w h i c h h a d r e m o v e d a m b i g u i t i e s , n o t a b l y
a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f N a t i o n a l R e c o n c i l i -
a t i o n a n d C o n c o r d ; a n d t h e p r o s p e c t i v e c h a n g e s i n t h e U . S . C o n -
g r e s s t h a t w o u l d m ak e i t w o r t h w h i l e t o p l a y a w a i t i n g g a m e . A s for
N i x o n , w h i l e t h e e l e c t i o n h a d s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s p o s i t i o n , h e n e e d e d
t o c o n v i n c e H a n o i t h a t s t a l l i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s w o u l d n o t b e t o i t s
a d v a n t a g e . U n a b l e t o p r o v i d e i t s a d v e r s a r y w i t h a d d i t i o n a l i n c e n -
t i v e s t o c o n c lu d e t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d t o f i n d
c o n v i n c i n g d i s i n c e n t i v e s t o n o n - c o n c l u s i o n .
I w i s h t o e m p h as i z e t h a t u n l e s s a c r e d i b l e w i t n e s s c o m e s f o r w a r d
t o t e l l u s , nobody c a n s a y w i t h a n y a s s u r a n c e w h a t w e n t o n i n t h e
N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e P o l i t b u r o d u r i n g t h e f i r s t h a l f o f D e c e m b e r
1972 . I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t i f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d w a i t e d , t h e N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e w o u l d h a v e c o m e b a c k t o t h e p e a c e t a l k s a n d s i g n e d
t h e a g r e e m e n t o n t h e N o v e m b e r t e r m s . I d o n o t t h i n k s o , b u t t h e
r e a d e r n e e d n o t a g r e e w i t h m e .
W h a t I w i s h t o a n a l yz e i n t h i s s t u d y i s w h e t h e r t h e b o m bi n g i t s e l f
w a s f a i r l y r e p o r t e d , w h e t h e r t h e d e c i s i o n t o b o m b w a s d i s c u s s e d o n
i t s m e r i t s , a n d w h e t h e r r e a d e r s o f A m e r i c a ' s p r e s t i g e p r e s s a n d
v i e w e r s o f i t s m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l n e w s p r o g r a m s c o u l d g a i n a b a l a n c e d
p i c t u r e of w h at w a s g o i ng o n a n d w h a t w a s a t s t a k e . A n s w e r i n g
EVENTS LEADING TO THE BOMBING 1 3
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1 4 MARTIN F. HERZ
t h o s e q u e s t i o n s d o e s n o t r e q u i r e a p a r t i c u la r p o s i t i o n o n t h e i s s u e s ;
o n e n e e d o n l y b e a w a r e o f t h e v a r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s .
S i n c e w e w i l l b e d i s c u s s i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e r e p o r t i n g a n d
d e b a t e , o n e m o r e p o i n t m u s t b e b r o u g h t up a t t h e r i s k o f f u r t h e r
c o m p l i c a t i n g a n a l r e a d y t a n g l e d s t o r y . O n D e c e m b e r 1 7 , j u s t
b e f o r e t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n , t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e i n t w o b r o a d -
c a s t s c a l l e d f o r a r e t u r n t o t h e O c t o b e r d r a f t - i . e . , f o r a j e t t i s o n i n g
o f a l l t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n s t h a t h a d b e e n a g r e e d o n
i n t h e N o v e m be r n e g o t i a t i o n s . T h i s w a s n o t n e w , b u t i t c o u l d h a v e
b e e n s i g n i f i c a n t . R e a s o n a b le m e n c a n d i f f e r o n w h e t h e r t h i s o f f e r
w a s s e r i o u s a n d w he t h e r i t s h o u l d h a ve b e e n a c c e p t e d . A r e t u r n t o
t h e O c t o b e r d r a f t w o u l d h a v e b r o u g h t a n o p e n b r e a k b e t w e e n
W a s h i n g t o n a n d S a i g o n ( a n d t h e r e w e r e t h o s e w h o t h o u g h t s u c h a
b r e a k d e s i r a b l e a n d ne c e s s a r y ) . T h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w o u l d h a v e
v i e w e d i t a s a t r a g e d y n o t o n l y f o r S o u t h V i e t n a m b u t a l s o f or t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s : i t w o u l d h a v e i n v o l v e d t h e b e t r a y a l o f a n al l y a nd a
s u r r e n d e r o f t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s t h a t h a d b e e n a r d u o u s ly w o n . T h e
d e b a t e o n t h e l i k e l y c o s t s v e r s u s t h e p r e s u m e d b e n e f i t s o f s u c h a
c o u r s e o f a c t i o n w o u l d h a ve b e e n i n t e r e s t i n g a n d w o r t h w h i l e - h a d
s u c h a d e b a t e t a k e n p l a ce i n t h e A m e r i c a n p r e s t i g e m e d i a .
V e r y l i t t l e o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s u m m a r i z e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r w a s
u n k n o w n o r i n a cc e s s i b l e t o t h e r e p o r t e r s , e d i t o r s , e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r s ,
a n d T V a n c h o r m e n a n d r e p o r t e r s w h o w e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e n e w s
a n d e x p r e s s i n g o p i n i o n s o n i t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f t h e C h r i s t m a s
bombing . B u t r e m a r k a b l y li t t l e w a s s a i d o r w r i t t e n t o p r e s e n t a
c l e a r r a t i o n al e f o r w h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s . d o i n g i n N o r t h
Vietnam . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t d i d v e r y l i t t l e t o w a r d
o f f o r m i n i m i z e t h e t i d e o f a d v e r s e c o m m e n t t h a t w a s a b o u t t o r o l l
o v e r i t . T h i s w a s n o t u n u s u a l . A c e r t a i n r e s i g n e d l e t h a r g y t o w ar d
d o i n g b a t t l e w i t h t h e o p i n i on - m a k e r s h a d s e t i n . D u r i n g t h e l a s t
f e w y e a r s o f t h e w a r , i n t h e f a c e o f w h a t m u s t h a v e s e e m e d t h e
u n a lt e r a b l e o p po s i t i o n o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
g o v e r n m e n t n e v e r g e a r e d i t s e l f u p a d e q u a t e l y t o e x p l a i n i t s p o s i -
t i o n s a n d p o li c i e s a n d t o r e b u t c r i t i c i s m o n a s y s t e m a t i c b a s i s .
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CHAPTER TWO
Reporting by
t h e P r e s t i g e P r e s s
Martin F. Herz and Leslie Rider
ON DECEMBER 16, 1 9 7 2 , t w o d a y s b e f o r e t h e C h r i s t m a s
b o m b i n g b e g a n , H e n r y K i s s i n g e r g a v e a d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n o f
t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e P a r i s n e g o t i a t i o n s . H e di d no t fo r ec as t t he
bombing . T h i s w a s t h e l a s t d e t a i l e d o f f i c i a l U . S . s t a t e m e n t -
e x c e p t f o r a li s t o f t a r g e t s r e l e a s e d b y t h e U . S . c o m m a n d i n S a i g o n
o n D e c e m b e r 2 8 - m a d e u n t i l a f t e r t h e b o m b i n g e n d e d o n D e -
c e m b e r 2 9 .
T h e f i r s t n e w s o f t h e b o m b i n g c a m e f r o m H a n o i . A m e r i c a n
o f f i c i a ls w e r e t i g h t - l i p pe d o n t h e s u b j e c t . O n D e c e m b e r 1 8 , S e c r e -
t a r y o f D e f e n s e M e l v i n L a i r d w a s q u e s t i o n e d a b o u t t h e m a t t e r
d u r i n g a p h o t o g r a p h i c s e s s i o n w h e r e h e w a s p r e p a r i n g t o t u r n o v e r
h i s d u ti e s t o E l li o t t R i ch a r ds o n . " A f t e r a t t e m p t i n g t o a v o i d t h e
q u e s t i o n , " a c c o r d i n g t o t h e New York Times (Dec . 1 9 ) , L a i r d s a i d :
" ` A i r o pe r a t i o n s a r e be i n g c o nd u c t e d t h r ou g h o ut N o r t h V i e t n a m
a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . ' H e d e c l i n e d t o d i s c u s s t h e m a t t e r f u r t h e r ,
s a y i n g i t m i g h t j e o p a r d i z e p i l o t s ' l i v e s . " T h e A d mi n i s t r a t i o n ' s
s i l e n c e w a s a l l b u t d e a f e n i n g . T h e D e c e m b e r 1 9 C B S r e p o r t o n t h e
b o m b i n g w a s b a s e d o n V i e t n a m e s e r e p o r t s . " F r o m t h e A m e r i c a n
s i d e t h e r e w e r e f e w d e t a i l s o n t h e b o mb i n g , " s a i d t h e r e p o r t .
" M i l i t a r y s o u r c e s i n W a s h i n g t o n a nd S a i g o n s a y P r e s i d e n t N i x o n
h a s c l a m p e d a l i d o n a n y i n f o r m a t i o n . S a i d o n e o f f i c e r , ` W e ' v e
n e v e r b e e n u n de r s u c h t i g h t r e s t r i c t i o n s ."' On December 22,
R o b e r t P i e r p o n t o f C B S r e p o r t e d t h a t " p r e s s e d t o c o m m e n t o n o r
e x p l a i n t h e m a s s i v e b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m , Z i e g l e r [ t h e p r e s i -
d e n t i a l p r e s s s p o k e s m a n ] w o u ld n e i t h e r c o nf i r m n o r d e n y t h a t i t i s
1 5
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1 6 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
a i m e d a t f o r c i n g H a n o i t o a c c e p t t h e U . S . v e r s i o n o f a f a i r s e t t l e -
ment . " L a t e r , W h i t e H o u s e p r e s s s p o k e s m e n a n s w e r e d s u c h q u e s -
t i o n s w i t h " n o c o m m e n t . "
T h e r e w a s a r e a s o n f o r t h i s , b u t i t b e c a m e k n o w n o n l y m u c h
l a t e r . K i s s i n g e r h a d r e c o mm e n d e d f r om P a r i s t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t g o
o n n a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n t o a n no u n c e a n d e x p l a i n t h e b o m b i n g , b u t
t h e P r e s i d e n t h a d r e f u s e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y . N i x o n ' s t e l e g r a p he d r e -
s p o n s e t o K i s s i n g e r w a s : " T h e t h i n g t o d o h e r e i s t o t a k e t h e h e a t
f r o m t h e W a s h i n g t o n e s t a b l i s h m e n t , w h o k n o w t h e d i f f e r e n c e , f o r
s t e p p i n g u p t h e b o m b i n g w h i c h w i l l o c c u r f o r a f e w d a y s , a n d
s i m p l y a c t s t r o n g l y w i t h o u t e s c a l a t i n g p u b l i c i t y a b o ut o u r a c t i o n s
b y w h a t w e s a y a b o u t t h e m " (RN: T h e M e m o i r s o f R i c h a r d N i x o n ,
New York : G r o s s e t a n d D u n l a p , 19 7 8 , p . 7 3 0 ) . N i x o n ' s r e a s o n i ng
a n d t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g r e l a t i o ns b e t w e e n h i m a n d K i s s i n g e r a t t h a t
t i m e w i l l b e e x a m i n e d i n c h a pt e r 4 .
N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h e v e r y s i l e n c e o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w a s u s e d
a s a n a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e b o m b i n g . N e w s d i s p a t c h e s r e p e a t e d l y
r e f e r r e d t o t h e " s e c r e t i v e n e s s " o f t h e W h i t e H o u s e , t h e S t a t e
D e p a r t m e n t , a n d t h e P e n t a g o n . E v e n e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e s e c r e c y ,
w h e n t h e y w e r e g i v e n , c o nt r i b u t e d t o t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t f a c t s
w e r e b e i n g n e e d l e s s l y w i t h h e l d . F o r i n s t a n c e , a r e p o r t d a t e l i n e d
S a i g o n t h a t a p p e a r e d i n t h e Washington Post a s l a t e a s D e c e m b e r
2 8 q u o t e d a n A i r F o r c e m a j o r , G i l b e r t W h i t e m a n , a s s a y i ng t h a t
i n f o r m a t i o n w a s b e i n g " t e m p o r a r i l y w i t h h e l d t o p r o t e c t t h e s e c u -
r i t y o f o n g o i n g o p e r a t i o n s a n d pr o t e c t t h e s a f e t y o f t h e c r e w s . "
T h i s l a c k e d p l a u s i b i l i t y .
T h e o n e W h i t e H o u s e e x p l a n a t i o n o n l y m a d e m a t t e r s w o r s e .
O n D e c e m b e r 1 9 , P r e s s S e c r e t a r y R o n a l d Z i e g l e r s a i d : " T h e
P r e s i d e n t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o o r d e r w h a t e v e r a c t i o n h e c o n s i d e r s
n e c e s s a r y , b y a i r o r b y s e a , t o p r e v e n t a n y b u i l d u p t h a t c o u l d l e a d
t o t h e o pe n i n g o f a ne w o f f e n s i v e i n t he S o u t h . W e a r e n o t g oi n g t o
a l l ow t h e p e a c e t a l k s t o b e u s e d a s a c o v e r t o b u i l d u p a n o t h e r
o f f e n s i v e . " T h i s i m p l i e d t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s p r i m a r i l y f o r m i l i -
t a r y r e a s o n s . Z i e g l e r ' s a n n o u n c e m e n t w a s i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l ow e d
b y a s p a t e o f r e p o r t s t h a t w h e n U . S . m i l i t a r y o ff i c e r s w e r e a s k e d
w h e t h e r t h e r e h a d b e e n a c h a n g e i n t h e r e c e n t m i l i t a r y a s s e s s m e n t
t h a t i t w o u l d t a k e N o r t h V i e t n a m e i g h t e e n m o n t h s t o r e c o v e r f r o m
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 1 7
i t s l o s s e s d u r i n g t h e s p r i n g - s u m m e r o f f e n s i v e , t h e y e x p r e s s e d s u r -
p r i s e a n d d i s b e l i e f .
Method of Analysis
T h e f a c t u a l m e d i a c o v e r a g e o f t h e b o m b i n g c a n b e g r o u p e d
u n d e r s e v e n h e a d i n g s : ( 1 ) W h o C au s e d t h e B r e a k d o w n o f N e g o t i -
a t i o n s ? ( 2 ) W i l l t h e B o mb i n g A c h i e v e I t s P u r p o s e ? ( 3 ) C i v i l i a n
Damage in North Vietnam . ( 4 ) U s e o f t h e B - 5 2 B o m b e r . ( 5 )
F o r e i g n R e a c t i o n t o t h e B o m b i n g . ( 6 ) C h i n a : A S p e c i a l C as e . ( 7 )
R e a c t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t w a s e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n -
g u i s h b e t w e e n f a c t u a l r e p o r t i n g a n d c o m m e n t i n t h e p e r i o d w e a r e
a n a l y z i n g ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 t o 3 1 ) , b o t h be c a u s e o f t h e s e l e c t i v i t y o f
t h e m e d i a i n r e p o r t i n g f a c t s a n d b e c a u s e s o m u c h c o m m e n t w a s
r e p o r t e d i n t h e n e w s c o l u m ns , i n e f f e c t g i v i n g t h a t c o m m e n t a f r e e
r i d e a s n e w s . B u t o t h e r p e o p l e ' s c o m m e n t s are n e w s , a c c o r d i n g t o
e s t a b l i s h e d c u s t o m , a nd i t i s h a r d t o s e e w h e r e e l s e s u c h c o m m e nt s
c o u l d h a v e b e e n p l a c e d .
W e d i s t i n g u i s h h e r e b e t w e e n ( a ) c o m m e n t i n t h e e d i t o r i a l c ol -
u m n s a n d o n t h e o p - e d ( o p p o s i t e t h e e d i t o r i a l s ) p a g e , a n d ( b ) a l l
m a t e r i a l i n t h e n e w s c o l u m ns . I n t h e a n a ly s i s o f Time and N e w s -
week, m a k i n g t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t a n d i nv o l v e s s o m e a r b i t r a r -
i n e s s , s i n c e i n t h o s e p u b l i c a t i o n s n e w s a n d c o mm e n t a r e o f t e n
i n t e r t w i n e d ( a s i n d e e d t h e y a r e i n t e l e v i s i o n n e w s p r o g r a m s ) .
T h e d i f f i c u l t y i s c o m p o u nd e d w h e n s t r a i g h t e d i t o r i a l c om m e n t
f r o m a b r o a d i s c a r r i e d i n t h e n e w s c o l um n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n w h a t
c a t e g o r y s h o u l d o n e p l a c e a f a i r l y t y p i c a l r e p o r t i n t h e Washington
Post q u o t i n g t h e L o n d o n Daily Mirror a s s a y i n g t h e b o m b i n g w a s
" a n a c t o f i n s a n e f e r o c i t y , a c r u d e e x e r c i s e i n t h e p o l i t i c s o f t e r r o r , a
b l u n d e r o f t r a g i c m a g n i t u d e " ? W a s t h i s c o m m e n t o r ne w s ? I t w a s
c o m m e n t r e p o r t e d a s n e w s , s o w e t r e a t i t a s n e w s . ( A s i n g l e c o u n -
t e r v a i l i n g q u o t e f r o m t h e L o n d o n Daily Telegraph, a l s o r e p o r t e d i n
t h e P o s t , s a i d m e r e l y t h a t U . S . a c t i o n s " m a y w e l l b e r i g h t " ; t h i s
i l l u s t r a t e s h o w on e - s i d e d t h e d e b a t e w a s i f o n e c o m pa r e s t h e p a s -
s i o n a r o u s e d i n o p p o n e n t s o f t h e b o m b i n g t o t h e p a i n e d s o b r i e t y o f
i t s f e w s u p p o r t e r s . )
A n o t h e r d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e " n e w s a n a l y s i s " t h a t a p p e a r s i n t h e
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1 8 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
n e w s c o l u m n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , C a r r ol l K i r k p a t r i c k a s s e r t e d i n t h e
Washington Post (Dec . 3 1 ) t h a t " s e c r e c y h as b e c o m e a p r e s i d e n t i a l
w e a p o n a n d o nl y t h e t i p o f t h e i c e b e r g i s e v e r a p p a r e n t t o t h e
v o t e r s i n t h i s d e m o c r ac y . " A l t h o u g h t h i s w a s c o m m e n t , i t w a s n o t
p r e s e n t e d a s e d i t o r i a l o p i n i o n , s o w e c o u n t e d i t a s p a r t o f t h e n e w s
c o v e r a g e .
W e h a d a v a i l a bl e c o m p le t e t r a n s c r i p t s o f t h e C B S e v e n i n g n e w s
b r o a d c a s t s b u t o n l y s u m m a r i e s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b r o a d ca s t s o f
t h e o t h e r n e t w o r k s ( a s p u b li s h e d i n t h e V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y
T e l e v i s i o n N e w s I n d e x a n d A b s t r a c t s ) . W e t h e r e f o r e d i d n o t a t t e m p t
a q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e N B C a n d A B C n e w s b r o a d c a s t s . F o r
C B S , w e a n a l y z e d c o v e r a g e b y l i n e s i n t h e f u l l t r a n s c r i p t s , w h e r e a s
f o r t h e n e w s p a p e r s a n d m a g a z i n e s w e u s e d t h e a c t u a l n u m b e r o f
p r i n t e d l i n e s . " L i n e s " i n t h e f i v e s t u d i e d s o u r c e s a r e n o t s t r i c t l y
c o m p a r a bl e , s i n c e t h e n u m b e r o f w o r d s p e r l i n e d e p e n d s o n t h e
c o l u m n w i d t h a n d t y p e s i z e . N o n e t h e l e s s , w e t h i n k o u r a n a l y s i s
p r o v i d e s t h e r o u g h c o m pa r a b i l i t y w e s o u g h t .
Who Caused the Breakdown of Negotiations?
T h e q u e s t i o n o f w h o m t o b l a m e r o s e i m m e d i a t e l y . C o ns i d e r i n g
t h a t t h e p r e s s h a d a b u n d a n t a nt i - U . S . a c c u s a t i o n s f r o m H a n o i a n d
o n ly s p a r s e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m W as h i n g t o n - e x c e p t f o r K i s s i n g e r ' s
d e t a i l e d p r e s s b r i e f i n g o n D e c e m b e r 1 6 a n d o n e " b a c k g r o u n d "
s e s s i o n o n D e c e m be r 2 0 - t h e b a l an c e i n t h e n e w s s t o r i e s i s b e t t e r
t h a n m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d ; s e e t a b l e 1 .
L i n e A o f t h e t a b l e i n c l u d e s r e p o r t s t h a t a c c u s e d t h e N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e o f h a v i n g m a d e a f u n d a m e n t a l d e c i s i o n a g a i n s t p e a c e
*There is a marginal inexactitude in the tallies for the N e w Y o r k T i m e s and the
Washington Post . We counted lines of type but then decided to convert lines into
column inches . To do this we used the Post measure-a column inch equals five
lines-for both newspapers and rounded off to the nearest full i nch . By the time
we discovered that the Times column inch is calculated differently, Leslie Rider
had discarded the original line counts . Since we had divided by five to get column
inches, we multiplied by five to revert to lines . But since we had rounded off the
column-inch figures, the reconstruct ed line tallies m ay be one or two li nes off .
(This explains, of course, why our figures for the T im es and t he P os t are always
multipl es of five . )
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 1 9
TABLE 1
ASSIGNING BLAME FOR THE BREAKDOWN OF NEGOTIATIONS( B y l i n e s o f t e x t )
o r a d e c i s i o n t o s t a l l t h e t a l k s . R e p o r t s f r o m S o u t h V i e t n a m t h a t
r e f e r r e d t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e " p e r f i d y " c o m e i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . S o
d o r e p o r t s r e c a l l i n g K i s s i n g e r ' s a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e e n e m y w a s p u t -
t i n g n e w o b s t a c l e s i n t h e w a y o f r e l e a s e o f A m e r i c a n p r i s o n e r s o f
w a r , r e f u s i n g t o d i s c u s s t h e t e c h n i c a l ma c h i n e r y o f t h e c e a s e - f i r e
( u n t i l t h e d a y b e f o r e h e w a s t o r e t u r n t o W a s h i n g t o n ) , a n d t r y i n g t o
w e a k e n t h e a l r e a d y w e a k s u p e r v i s o r y f o r c e . T h e r e w e r e a l s o r e c o l-
l e c t i o n s o f K i s s i n g e r ' s c h a r g e t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d w i t h -
d r a w n e a r l i e r c o n c e s s i o n s a n d h a d r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t l a n g u a g e
about the DMZ and even a vague reference t o some ki nd of
coexis tence between Nort h and South Vietnam . T h i s c a t e g o r y
i n c l u d e s a l s o t h e r e p o r t t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e g o v e r n m e n t
h a d " d i r e c t e d a n e v a c u a t i o n o f w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n f r o m H a n o i o n
D e c e m b e r 4 , t h e d a y t h e m o s t r e c e n t r o u n d o f p r i v a t e t a l k s b e g a n
i n P a r i s " ( N e w Y o r k T i m e s , Dec . 1 9 ) , w h i c h c o u l d b e i n t e r p r e t e d t o
m e a n t h a t t h e e n e m y m u s t h a v e k n o w n , or a t l e a s t c o n s i d e r e d i t
l i k e l y , t h a t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s i n D e c e m b e r w e r e g o i n g t o f a i l o r b e
s t a l e m a t e d . (Actually the evacuation had covered more than
w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n ; i t a p p a r e n t l y h a d n o t b e e n c o m p l e t e d b y t h e
t i m e t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n . ) I n a s i m i l a r a n d m o r e e x p l i c i t i t e m o n
ABC evening news December 2 1, Howard K . S m i t h , r e f e r r i n g t o
i n t e l l i g e n c e r e p o r t s a b o u t t h e e v a c u a t i o n , a d d e d t h a t "U. S . o f f i -
c i a l s t h e o r i z e t h a t H a n o i m a y , h a v e d e c i d e d t o s t a l l f o r o n e o r a l l o f
t h r e e r e a s o n s : t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t Co n g r e s s m a y c u t of f m i l i t a r y
a i d t o S o u t h V i e t n a m ; t h e p r o s p e c t o f f u r t h e r d i s p u t e s b e t w e e n
N. Y .
TIMESWASHPOST TIME NEWS-WEEK C BS
A. B l a m e H a n o i 480 2 3 0 1 3 4 9 1 4 3
B . N e u t r a l 2 7 0 3 1 0 44 1 0 0 1 3
C. Blame U . S . 5 2 5 4 2 5 5 8 3 3 2 7
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2 0 MARTIN F . HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
S a i g o n a n d W a s h i n g t o n ; o r t h e n e e d f o r t i m e t o p r e p a r e a n e w
m i l i t a r y o f f e n s i v e . " T h e r e w a s n o s i m i l a r t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t t h e
r e a s o n f o r t h e b o m b i n g o n t h e C B S e v e n i n g n e w s .
L i n e B u s e s " n e u t r a l " t o m e a n , n o t b e i n g i m p a r t i a l t o w a r d
H a n o i a n d W as h i n g t o n , b u t m a k i n g n o v a l u e j u d g m e n t s a b o u t t h e
b e h a v i o r o f t h e t w o s i d e s . T h i s c a t e g o r y i n c l u d e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , b o t h
V i e t n a m e s e a n d A m e r i c a n d e n i a l s o f t h e a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e m ,
c h a r g e s t h a t S o u t h V i e t n a m w a s t o b l a m e , a t t e m p t s t o r e c o n c i l e
c o n f l i c t i n g c l a i m s , a n d s p e c u la t i v e m a t e r i a l a b o u t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s .
A m o n g t h e l a t t e r w e r e a t t e m p t e d e x p l a na t i o n s o f w h a t w e n t w r o n g
i n P a r i s t h a t r e f e r r e d t o s u c h s t i c k i n g p o i n t s a s S o u t h V i e t n a m e s e
s o v e r e i g n t y , t h e s u p e r v i s o r y f o r c e , a n d t h e D M Z .
L i n e C i n c l u d e s m a t e r i a l t h a t a c c u s e d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f t r y i n g
t o a l t e r t h e e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f
t e c h n i c a l c h a n g e s a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n s . Among the examples are
N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e c o n t e n t i o ns t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d r e f u s e d
t o a c c e p t t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e r e w e r e t w o g o v e r n m e n t s a n d t w o
m i l i t a r y f o r c e s i n S o u t h V i e t n a m a n d h a d a t t e m p t e d , i n s t e a d , t o
h a v e t h e a r m i s t i c e a g r e e m e n t e s t a b l i s h t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f S o u t h
Vietnam. A Washington Post (Dec . 3 1 ) " n e w s a n a l y s i s " s u m -
m a r i z e d H a n oi ' s c o m pl a i nt t h a t a m o ng o t h e r t h i n g s K i s s i n g e r t r i e d
t o " m a k e t h e r e l e a s e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l de t a i n e e s i n S o u t h V i e t n a m
c o n t i n g e n t u p o n t h e w i t h d r a w a l o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e f o r c e s , t o
" r e d u c e t h e t a s k " o f t h e p r o po s e d t r i p a r t i t e N a t i o n a l C ou n c i l , a nd
t o " c a n c e l " a l l m e n t i o n o f t h e P r o v i s i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n a r y G o v e r n -
m e n t ( V i e t C o n g ) i n t h e a g r e e m e n t , a n d t h a t h e i n s i s t e d o n m a i n -
t a i n i n g U . S . m i l i t a r y a d v i s e r s i n S o u t h V i e t n a m u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f
c i v i l i a n p e r s o n n e l . T h e N o r t h V i e t n a me s e c h a r g e d t h a t t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s h a d p r o po s e d 1 2 6 c h a n g e s i n t h e d r a f t a g r e e m e n t - w h i c h
e l i c i t e d a d e n i a l - a n d h a d t h r e a t e n e d " o n a d a i l y b a s i s " t o r e s u m e
t h e b o m b i n g n o r t h o f t h e t w e n t i e t h p a r a l l e l . T i m e ( J a n u a r y 1 ,
w h i c h w a s o n t h e n e w s t a n d s a b o u t D e c e m b e r 2 6 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t
" t h e l a s t s t r a w " c a m e w h e n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e o p e n e d a p r e v i -
o u s l y s e t t l e d i s s u e b y a t t e m p t i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e D M Z a s a n
i n t e r n a t i o n a l f r o n t i e r , a n d H a n o i " e x p l o d e d . "
A l l t h i s i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e n o u g h , a n d t h e t a b l e a l l o w s u s t o n o t e
a n i n t e r e s t i n g d i s p a r i t y , w h i c h w e s h a l l c h e c k i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t
c a t e g o r i e s t o s e e i f i t i s a p a t t e r n . T h e r a t i o o f m a t e r i a l c r i t i c a l o f
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 2 1
H a n o i t o m a t e r i a l c r i t i c a l o f W a s h i n g t o n i s : New York Times,1 ( c r i t i c a l o f H a n oi ) t o 1 ( c r i t i c a l o f W a s h i n g t o n) ; Post, 1 t o 2 ;
Time, 2 . 5 t o 1 ; Newsweek, 3 t o 1 ; C B S , 3 t o 2 . C B S h a d t h e
s m a l l e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f n e u t r a l i t e m s ; Time's, t o o , w a s r e l a t i v e l y
s m a l l . I t s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d a g a i n t h a t i n t h i s s e c t i o n w e a r e
a n a l y z i n g n e w s , n o t e d i t o r i a l c o m m e n t .
Will the Bombing Achieve Its Purpose?
A s s e r t i o n s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d be c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e w e r e
r e p o r t e d w i d e l y : i t w o u l d p r o lo n g r a t h e r t h a n e n d t h e w a r , i t w o u l d
f o r c e H a n oi t o s t i f f e n i t s s t a n d , i t w o u l d j e o p a r d i z e d e t e n t e w i t h
M o s c o w o r P e k i n g o r b o t h . T h e s e w e r e n o t c o u n t e r b a l an c e d b y
r e p o r t s a b o u t t h e p r e s u m e d r a t i o n a l e o f t h e b o m b i n g , n o r e v e n
b y r e p o r t s t h a t c r e d i t e d t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i t h a p la u s i b l e
s t r a t e g y w h i l e e x p r e s s i n g d o u b t s t h a t i t w o u l d w or k . S o m e h o w t h e
n e w s - g a t h e r e r s s e e m e d a b l e t o f i n d o n l y o b t u s e a n d u n co n v i n ci n g
e x p l a na t i o n s o f w h a t t h e U . S . g o v e r n me n t w a s d o i ng . O ne r e po r t
c i t e d a " k n o w l e d g e a bl e s o u r c e " t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t P r e s i d e n t N i x o n
w a s h o p i n g t o " s h o w H a n o i t h a t h e c o u l d t a k e t h e h e a t a t h o m e a n d
a b r o a d " (New York Times, Dec . 2 6 ) , i . e . , t h a t h e c o u l d a f f o r d t o
c o n t i n u e t h e w a r . O t h e r s s a i d N i x o n w a s d e m on s t r a t i n g t h a t h e
w o u l d k e e p h i s w o r d b y f o l l o w i n g t h r o u g h o n t h r e a t s m a d e d u r i n g
t h e t a l k s a n d b y r e s u m i n g a c t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y h a lt e d i n t h e h o p e t h a t
H a n o i w o u l d d i s p l a y g o od w i l l a n d r e a s o n a b l e n e s s i n t h e t a l k s . A s
a s t o r y i n t h e Times (Dec . 2 4 ) p u t i t , " [ a s ] s p e c u l a t e d b y s o m e , t h e
P r e s i d e n t m a y h a v e o r d e r e d t h e B - 5 2 r a i d s a s m o r e o f a b l u n t
m a u li n g o p e r a t i o n , t o s h o w N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t h e h a s t h e d e t e r -
m i n a t i o n t o i n t e n s i f y p r e s s u r e . " T h e r e w e r e n o r e p o r t s , o r a l m os t
n o n e , o f t h e o f f i c i a l v i e w t h a t t h e b o m b i n g m i g h t h a s t e n t h e c o m i n g
o f p e a c e .
V i e w s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s n o t o n l y c r u e l a n d i m m o r a l b ut a l s o
f u t i l e a n d s e l f - d e f e a t i n g w e r e r e p o r t e d f r o m X a n T hu y , t h e N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e n e g o t i a t o r ; a s t u d y b y a g r o u p o f l e a d i n g U . S . s c i e n -
t i s t s u n de r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f D e f e n s e A n a l y s i s ;
N g u y e n T r i n h L e , t h e s p o k e s m a n f o r H a n oi ' s d e l e g a t i o n i n P a r i s ;
a n t i - w a r a c t i v i s t T o m H a y d e n ; D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n , a N e w Y o r k
l a b or l e a d e r ; M m e N g u y e n T h i B i n h , t h e V i e t c o n g n e g o t i a t o r ; " a
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2 2 MARTIN F . HERZ AN D LESLIE RIDER
n u m b e r o f d i p l o m a t s i n S a i g o n " ; " on e o f fi c i a l" a nd "a n i n fo r me d
i n t e l l i g e n c e s o ur c e " i n W as h i n g t o n ; t h e S o v i e t a m b a s s a d o r t o
F r a n c e ; H a n o i r a d i o ; G e n e r a l V o N g u y e n G i a p o f N o r t h V i e t n a m ;
" m a n y A m e r i c a n e x p e r t s " w h o " d o n ot i d l y d i s m i s s G i a p ' s c l a i m " ;
t h e I n d i a n d e pu t y f or e i g n m i n i s t e r ; S e n a t o r J a c o b J a v i t s o f N e w
York ; t h r e e L a b o r p a r t y m e m b e r s ( f r o m C o v e n t r y ) i n t h e B r i t i s h
House of Commons ; A r t h u r G a l s t o n , a Y a l e b i o l o g i s t ; a nd ot h e r s .
A g r e a t d e a l o f a t t e n t i o n - p e r h a p s d e s e r v e d l y - w a s g i v e n t o a
s t a t e m e n t m a d e b y a l a r g e g r o u p o f A me r i c a n s c i e n t i s t s u n d e r t h e
a u s p i c e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A d v a n c e m e n t o f
S c i e n c e ; i n c l u d e d i n t h e g r o u p , i n a d d i t i o n t o P r o f e s s o r G a l s t o n ,
w e r e t h r e e N o b e l la u r e a t e s : G e o r g e W a l d o f H a r v a r d , S a l v a d o r e
L u r i a o f M I T , a n d A l b e r t S z e n t - G y o r g y i o f t h e M a r i n e B i o l o g y
Laboratory at Wood's Hole . T h e r e w a s a p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f
b i o l o g i s t s i n t h e g r o u p , a n d n o a p p a r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f r o m
a m o n g e x p e r t s i n p o l i t i c s , s t r a t e g y , o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l af f a i r s .
T h e d i s p a r a t e n e s s o f t h e s e s o u r c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t r e p o r t e r s
s o u g h t ne g a t i v e v i e w s m o r e as s i d u o u s l y t h a n p o s i t i v e o ne s . T h e
New York Tim e s, Time, a n d C B S f e a t u r e d a b o u t 2 5 p e r c e n t m o r e
n e g a t i v e t h a n p o s i t i v e c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e b o m b i n g
f o r p r e s s u r i n g N o r t h V i e t n a m t o ne g o t i a t e , w h i l e t h e Washington
Post and Newsweek d e v o t e d t h r e e t i m e s a s m u c h s p a c e t o s u c h
a r g u m e n t s a s t o t h e r e v e r s e c l a i m t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d or c o u l d
s u c c e e d i n a l t e r i n g t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e s t a n c e .
L o o k i n g a t t h e s e d a t a v e r y t e n t a t i v e l y t o s e e i f a n y p a t t e r n
e m e r g e s , w e f i n d t h a t f o r Newsweek a n d C B S t h e p a t t e r n f o u n d i n
t h e " W h o C au s e d t h e B r e a k d o w n ? " s e c t i o n s e e m s t o b e r e v e r s e d .
The Washington Post t e n d s t o b e m or e c o ns i s t e n t : w e s a w t h a t
t w i c e a s m u c h o f i t s n e w s t e n d e d t o b l a m e W a s h i n g t o n a s t o b l a m e
H a n oi f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n o f n e g o t i a t i o n s , a n d w e n o w s e e t h a t i t
g a v e t h r e e t i m e s a s m u c h s p a c e t o v i e w s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o ul d b e
i n e f f e c t i v e a s t o t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w .
Civi lian Damage in North Vietnam
W h a t w a s s a i d a b o u t c i v i l i a n d a m a g e c a u s e d b y t h e b o m b i n g i s
t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t as p e c t o f t h i s s t u d y . I t w a s t h e mo s t c on t r o v e r -
s i a l i s s u e . " B a l a n ce " i n r e p o r t i n g o n t h i s p o i n t w a s i m p o s s i b l e t o
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 2 3
a t t a i n , s i n c e t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a n d o t h e r n a t i o n a l s i n H a n o i
w h o s y m p a t h i z e d w i t h N o r t h V i e t n a m h a d a v i r t u a l m o n o po l y o n
f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n a n d H a n o i u n d e r s t a n d a b l y e m p h a s i z e d c i v i l i a n
r a t h e r t h a n m i l i t a r y d a m a g e . T h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e n i a l s t h a t i t
t a r g e t e d a n y c i v i l i a n s i t e s s e e m e d i m p l a u s i b l e i n t h e f a c e o f a n
a v a l an c h e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t s e e m e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s w a s e n g a g e d i n i n d i s c r i m i n a t e " c a r p e t - b o mb i n g . "
Throughout the two-week bombing the Administ rati on main-
ta ined tha t i t wa s ta r g e t ing only fac il i t i e s of m il i ta ry valu e . T e n d a y s
i n t o t h e b o m b i n g t h e m i l i t a r y c o m m a n d i n S a i g o n i s s u e d a p r e s s
r e l e a s e a s s e s s i n g t h e d a m a g e d o n e t o m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s i n t h e H a n o i
a n d H a i p h o n g a r e a s . T h e l i s t i n c l u d e d a i r b a s e s , r a i l y a r d s a n d s h i p -
y a r ds , S A M ( s u r f a c e - t o - a i r m i s s i l e ) a n d o t h e r a n t i - a i r c r a f t s i t e s ,
f a c i l i t i e s f o r c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l , f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , a n d f o r
v e h i c l e r e p a i r , w a r e h o u s e s , p o w e r p l a n t s , r a i l w a y b r i d g e s , t r u c k
p a r k s , a n d a i r - d e f e n s e r a d a r . A m er e l i s t in g o f th e s e t ar g e t s c ou ld
n o t o f f s e t t h e c h a r g e s t h a t A m e r i c a n a i r c r a f t , e s p e c i a l l y B - 5 2 s ,
w e r e s o w i n g p a t h s o f de s t r u c t i o n t h r o u g h o u t c i v i l i a n a r e a s , k i l l i n g
a n d m a i m i n g o n a s c a le r e c a l l i n g t h e m o s t i n t e n s e a i r r a i d s o f W o r l d
W a r I I . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s t a t e m e n t b y t h e s c i e n t i s t s l e d b y t h r e e
N o b e l P r i z e - w i n n e r s a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
i s l a u n c h i n g t h o s e a t t a c k s a g a i n s t c o n c e n t r a t e d c e n t e r s o f c i v i l i a n
p o p u l a t i o n , w h i l e b l a n d l y a n n o u n c i n g l i s t s o f m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s t h a t
u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i n s u l t t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f e v e r y t h i n k i n g
p e r s o n . N o r t h V i e t n a m h a r d l y c o n t a i n s m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s ; a n d a
B - 5 2 b o m b i n g p a t t e r n , o n e a n d o n e - h a l f m i l e s l o n g b y o n e - h a l f
m i l e b r o a d , d r o pp e d f r o m a n a l t i t u d e o f 3 0 , 0 0 0 f e e t c a n n o t p i c k
o u t t a r g e t s . Y e t s u c h b om b i n g s a r e n o w c r i s s - c r o s s i n g s o m e o f
t h e m o s t d e n s e l y po p u l a t e d c i t i e s o f t h e w o r l d , i n a n u n p r e c e -
d e n t e d o r g y o f k i l l i n g a n d d e s t r u c t i o n t h a t h o r r i f i e s p e o p le
e v e r y w h e r e - a s G u e r n i c a , C o v e n t r y , a n d D r e s d e n o n c e h o r r i -
f i e d t h e m [ s t a t e m e n t b y t h e A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e
A d v a n c e m e n t o f S c i e n c e , D e c e m b e r 2 8 , 1 9 7 2 ] .
S u b s e q u e n t i n f o r m a t i o n h a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s
s u r p r i s i n g l y a c c u r a t e a n d t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f c i v i l i a n s k i l l e d w a s
m u c h s m a l le r t h a n , f o r e x a m p le , t h e n u m b e r o f c i v i l i a n s k i l l e d b y t h e
N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e i n m e r e l y t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s o f t h e i r s p r i n g o f f e n -
s i v e , w h e n t h e y h a d d e l i b e r a t e l y ai m e d a r t i l l e r y f i r e a t t h o u s a n ds o f
r e f u g e e s t r y i n g t o f l e e s o u t h w a r d f r o m Q u a n g T r i . ( T he s e ma t t e r s
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2 4 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p t e r 4 , " W h a t R e a l l y H a p pe n e d . " ) B u t
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e B - 5 2 w h e n u s e d a s i t w a s u s e d
o v e r H a n o i w a s w i t h h e l d f r o m t h e p r e s s , a s w a s t h e f a c t t h a t m i l i t a r y
t a r g e t s n e a r c i v i l i a n c on c e n t r a t i o n s - f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e H a n o i p ow e r
p l a n t - w e r e b o m b e d w i t h " s m a r t " b o m b s d e l i v e r e d b y f i g h t e r -
b o m b e r s a n d n o t s u b j e c t e d t o B - 5 2 b o m b i n g a t a l l . * A n i n q u i s i t i v e
j o u r n a l i s t c o u l d h av e d e d u c e d t h i s f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e d t a r g e t l i s t b y
n o t i n g t h e c a t e g o r y o f a i r c r a f t a s s i g n e d t o p a r t i c u l ar t a r g e t s . B u t t h a t
i n f o r m a t i o n , p u b l i s h e d D e c e m b e r 2 8 , w a s l a r g e l y i g n o r e d .
A b l u n d e r b y J e r r y F r i e d h e i m , t h e P e n t a g o n s p o k e s m a n , a t a p r e s s
c o n f e r e n c e D e c e m b e r 2 0 i l l u s t r a t e s b o t h t h e p a u c i t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e b o m b i n g s t r a t e g y a n d t h e h a p l e s s n e s s o f m i l i t a r y s p o k e s -
m e n i n t h e f a c e o f p r e s s q u e s t i o n i n g . F r i e d h e i m s a i d f i r s t t h a t t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s d i d n o t " s t r i k e c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s " b u t i m m e d i a t e l y c o r -
r e c t e d h i m s e l f b y s a y i n g t h a t i t d i d n o t " t a r g e t c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s . " ( A
New York Times e d i t o r i a l - s e e A p p e n d i x D - s u b l i m i n a ll y t r a n s -
f o r m e d t h i s r e m a r k t o a p p l y t o c i v i l i a n " c e n t e r s . " ) U n d e r q u e s t i o n -
i n g , h e c o n c e d e d t h a t o n e c o u l d n o t " r u l e o u t " t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
c o l l a t e r a l d a m a g e . W he n t h e li s t o f t a r ge t s w a s i s s u ed i n S a i g on o n
D e c e m b e r 2 8 , F r i e d h e i m " s t r e s s e d t h a t a l l t h e t a r g e t s o n t h e l i s t o f
s i x t y - e i g h t t h a t h e r e l e a s e d w e r e m i l i t a r y o n e s a nd t h a t h e ` ha s n o
r e p o r t s o f a n y c o l la t e r a l d a m a g e ' t o c i v i l i a n i n s t a l l a t i o n s . H e c o n -
c e d e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t H a n o i i s a c i t y l i k e a n y o t h e r , w i t h m i l i t a r y a n d
c i v i l i a n f a c i l i t i e s i n t e r s p e r s e d . W h e r e m i l i t a r y s i t e s w e r e t a r g e t e d , h e
s a i d , h e c o u l d n o t ` r u l e o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o t h e r t h i n g s h a p p e n -
* T h e r e w e r e t w o a p pa r e n t e x c e p t i o n s . One was the "Hanoi communicati ons
f a ci l i ty " l i s te d as a B - 5 2 t a r g et . I t w a s a l s o b o m b e d b y F - 1 1 1 s a n d F - 4 s . A c c o r d i n g
t o o u r r e a d i n g o f m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n m a p s , i t i s l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t c o r n e r o f
downtown Hanoi . ( W e a r e a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e " H a n o i c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y " i s
i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e " H a n o i c o m m u n i c a t i o n s o f f i c e " s h o w n o n o u r m a p s b u t c o u l d n o t
g e t t h i s c o n f i r m e d b y m i l i t a r y s o u r c e s . T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s i n a s c h e m a t i c m a p
p u b l i s h e d o n D e c e m b e r 2 8 , 1 9 7 2 , a s s u m e d t h e y w e r e i d e n t i c a l . ) A n o t h e r e x c e p t i o n
w a s t h e p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s a r e a i n a s o u t h e r n s u b u r b o f H a n o i t h a t w a s a m o n g t h e
B - 5 2 t a r g e t s ; i t w a s 2 0 0 y a r d s f r o m t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l . A l s o c l o s e t o t h e h o s p i t a l
w e r e t h e B a c h M a i a i r f i e l d , a f i g h t e r - b o m b e r t a r g e t , a n d t h e " c o - l o c a t e d " B a c h M a i
m i l i t a r y s t or a g e c o m pl e x , a B - 5 2 t a r g e t . A n u n e x p l a i n e d a s p e c t o f t h e d a m a g e t o t h e
B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l i s t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o o u r r e a d i n g o f t h e a e r i a l p h ot o g r a p h s
r e l e a s e d i n A p r i l 1 9 7 3 , t h e d a m a g e o c c u r r e d i n t h e p a r t o f t h e h o s p i t a l c o m p le x t h a t
was f a r t h e s t a w a y f r o m t h e B a c h M a i a i r f i e l d a n d f r o m t h e p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s a r e a .
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 2 5
i n g " ' (Washington Post, Dec . 2 8 ) . O n e c a n i m a g i n e t h e q u e s t i o n i n g
t h a t r e s u l t e d i n h i s " c o n c e d i n g " t h a t c i v i l i a n s c a n g e t h u r t w h e n
m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s n e a r c i v i l i a n h a b i t a t i o n s a r e b o m b e d .
T h e p r e d i c a m e n t o f t h e P e n t a g o n s p o k e s m a n , o b v i o u s l y u n d e r
o r d e r s n o t t o d i s c u s s c i v i l i a n c a s u a lt i e s , c a n b e s e n s e d i n t h e f o l l ow -
i n g r e p o r t :
T o r e p o r t e r s w h o a s k e d r e p e a t e d l y a b o u t f o r e i g n r e p o r t s o f
h e a v y d a m a g e a n d c a s u a l t i e s i n n o n m i l i t a r y s e c t i o n s o f t h e c a p i -
t a l , M r . F r i e d h e i m s a i d : " Y o u ' l l h a v e t o j u d g e t h e s o u r c e s o f t h a t
i n f o r m a t i o n . " P r e s s e d o n r e p o r t s o f " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " o f c i v i l -
i a n a r e a s b y B - 5 2 s h e s a i d : " T h e a d j e c t i v e s y o u ' l l h a v e t o c h o o s e
f o r y o u r s e l v e s . I f t h e i m p li c a t i o n o f y ou r q u e s t i o n i s t h a t w e a r e
b o m bi n g c i v i l i a n a r e a s , t h e a n s w e r i s n o . . . . " A r e p o r t e r a s k e d :
" I s i t y o u r p o s i t i o n t h a t y o u d o n ' t w a n t t o d i s c u s s c i v i l i a n c a s u al -
t i e s , a n d y o u d o n ' t w a n t t o t e l l u s t h e r e a s o n s you d o n ' t w a n t t o
d i s c u s s t h e t o p i c , a n d t h a t a n y c o mm e n t i s t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t -
n a m e s e o f t e n u s e s u c h s i t u a t i o n s f o r p r o p a g a n d a p u r p o s e s ? "
" I ' l l a c ce p t t h a t s u m m a t i o n , " M r . F r i e d h e i m r e p l i e d [New Yor k
Times, Dec . 3 0 ] .
T h e n e w s c o m i n g f r o m H a n oi s t r e s s e d d a m a g e d o n e t o c i v i l i a n
f a c i l i t i e s . T h e r e w e r e u n d e n i a b l e W e s t e r n e y e w i t n e s s r e p o r t s t h a t
t h e G i a L a m c i v i l i a n a i r p o r t h a d be e n h i t , t h o u g h i t w a s n o t o n t h e
l i s t o f t a r g e t s . T h e r e w e r e r e p o r t s t h a t S o v i e t , C h i n e s e , a n d P o li s h
s h i p s h a d b e e n h i t i n H a i p h o n g a n d t h a t t h e C u b a n , E g y p t i a n ,
I n d i a n , E a s t G e r m a n , B u l g a r i a n , C a m b o d i a n , a n d A l b a n i a n e m -
b a s s i e s a n d t h e H u n g a r i a n t r a d e m i s s i o n h a d b e e n h i t i n H a n oi .
( M u c h l a t e r i n t h e b o m bi n g , m i l i t a r y s o u r c e s b e g a n t o s u g g e s t t h a t
d o w n e d A m e r i c a n a i r c r a f t a n d s p e n t N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a n t i -
a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e s h i t t i n g t h e g r o u n d c o ul d h a v e c a u s e d s o m e o f t h i s
damage . ) T h e r e w e r e r e p o r t s , e v e n a ll e g e d e y e w i t n e s s r e p o r t s ,
w h i c h l a t e r t u r n e d o u t t o b e v a s t l y e x a g g e r a t e d , t h a t U . S . b o m b s
h a d d a m a g e d t h e p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r f a c i l i t y t h a t t h e p r e s s had
d u b b e d t h e " H a n o i H i l t o n . " T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e c h a r g e d t h a t
t h e B a ch M a i ho s p i t a l h a d b e e n " d e s t r o y e d " ; t h e n t h e A m e r i c a n
c o m m a n d d e n i e d h a v i n g " h i t " t h e h o s p i t a l . A s i t t u r n e d o u t ,
n e i t h e r t h e c h a r g e n o r t h e d e n i a l w as a c c u r at e . T h e h o s p i t al , w h i c h
i s l o c a t e d n e x t t o a m i l i t a r y a i r f i e l d a n d m i l i t a r y s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s ,
h a d i n d e e d b e e n h i t , b u t i t w a s f a r f r o m b e i n g c o m p l e t e l y d e -
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2 6 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
s t r o y e d . T h e f a l s e d e n i a l f u e l e d t h e f i r e s o f e x a g g e r a t e d d a m a g e
c l a i m s .
T h e r e p o r t b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e N e w s A g e n c y d e s c r i b i n g
t h e a l l e g e d d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l h a d c i r c u m s t a n t i a l
d e t a i l t h a t m a d e i t q u i t e p l au s i b l e , e s p e c i a l ly i n t h e a b s e n c e o f
p h o t o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e t o t h e c o n t r a r y , w h i c h b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e
o n l y m u c h l a t e r :
T h e f i r s t b o m b i n g a t t a c k d e s t r o y e d a c o n s u l t a t i o n s e c t i o n o f t h e
B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l , w r e c k e d t h e e a r - n o s e - t h r o a t i n s t i t u t e , a n d
" c o m p le t e l y d e m o l i s h e d " a r e s e a r c h s e c t i o n , H a n o i s a i d . A
s e c o n d B - 5 2 r a i d S a t u r d a y " l a i d a c a r p e t o f b o m b s o f d i f f e r e n t
c a l i b e r s o n a l o ng s t r e t c h g o i n g f r o m t h e g a t e o f t h e h o s p i t a l t o
d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s a n d p a t i e n t w a r d s , " t h e a g e n c y r e p o r t e d .
T h i s s t r i k e d a m a g e d e v e r y u n t o u c h e d r o o m, i n c l u d i ng u n d e r -
g r o u n d s e c t i o n s o f t h e h o s p i t a l , a n d d e s t r o y e d t h e d e p a r t m e n t s
o f d e r m a t o l o g y , i n t e r n a l m e d i c i n e , p h a r m a c o l o g y , a d m i n i s t r a -
t i o n , k i t c h e n s , r e p a i r s h o p s , a n d l a un d r i e s , H a n o i s a i d [Wash-
i n g t o n P o s t , Dec . 2 4 ] .
T h i s r e p o r t w a s " c o r r o b o r a t e d " i n a n a ll e g e d e y e w i t n e s s a c -
c o u n t b y T e l f o r d T a yl o r , t h e f a m o u s Y a l e j u r i s t w h o h a d b e e n t h e
p r o s e c u t o r a t t h e N u r e m b e r g w a r c r i m e t r i a l s . A p p a r e n t l y u n -
a w a r e t h a t t h e h o s p i t a l w a s a v a s t c o m p l e x c o n s i s t i n g o f m a ny
b u i l d i n g s a n d w i n g s o f b u i l d i n g s , h e s a i d f l a t l y t h a t t h e e n t i r e
h o s p i t a l w a s " b l o w n t o s m i t h e r e e n s , b l o w n t o b i t s , c o m p l e t e l y
d e s t r o y e d " (Washington Post, Dec . 3 1 ) . W a lt e r C r o n k i t e ( C B S ,
Dec . 2 2 ) r e p o r t e d H a n o i ' s c h a r g e t h a t t h e h o s p i t a l h a d be e n d e -
s t r o y e d a n d m a n y d o c t o r s a n d n u r s e s h a d b e e n k i l l e d . T a y l o r a l s o
d e s c r i b e d t h e " r e m a i n s o f a l a r g e l o w - c o s t h o u s i n g d e v e l o pm e n t i n
t h e A n D u o n g d i s t r i c t o f H a n o i . S o m e t h i r t y m u l t i p l e - d w e l l i n g
u n i t s c o v e r i n g s e v e r a l a c r e s h a d s u f f e r e d t w e n t y o r m o r e h i t s
l e a v i n g f r e s h b o m b c r a t e r s f i f t y f e e t i n d i a m e t e r a n d v i r t u a l ly t o t a l
d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e h o m e s . " T h e F r e n c h r e p o r t e r J e a n L e c l e r c d e
S a b l on ( A g e n c e F r a n c e P r e s s e ) p r o v i d e d a n o t h e r e y e w i t n e s s r e -
port on the destruct ion of the "once busy st reet" of Kham
T h i e n - n e a r w h i c h , h e s a i d , t h e " o n l y " m i l i t a r y t a r g e t w a s a
r a i l w a y y a r d t h a t h a d b e e n " f i n i s h e d o f f " t h e w e e k b e f o r e . T h e
i m p l i c a t i o n w a s t h a t b o m b e r s h a d t a r g e t e d a c i v i l i a n a r e a w h o s e
n e a r n e s s t o a r a i l w a y y a r d w a s n o l o n g e r r e l e v a n t .
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 2 7
N u m e r o u s o t h e r c l a i m s o f h i g h c i v i l i a n l o s s e s m a d e b y R a d i o
H a n o i , F r e n c h r e p o r t e r s , a n d t h e S o v i e t n e w s a g e n c y T a s s w e r e
w i d e l y d i s s e m i n a t e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n m e d i a . ( A N o r t h V i e t -
n a m e s e s t a t e m e n t b r o a d c a s t o n D e c e m b e r 2 7 t h a t c a l l e d t h e
b o m b i ng r a i d s " b r u t a l a c t s a i m e d a t m a s s a c r i n g c i v i l i a n s " i s r e -
p r i n t e d a s A p p e n d i x C . ) I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t i n t h e a b s e n c e o f
r e l i a b l e w i t n e s s e s t o t h e o v e r a l l a c c u r a c y o f t h e b o m bi n g , t h e
m e d i a r e s o r t e d t o e y e w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s c o m i n g o u t o f H a no i , e v e n
w h e n t h e y w e r e p a t e n t l y b i a s e d . O n D e c e m b e r 2 9 , B e r t Q u i n t o f
C B S i n t e r v i e w e d a n I n d i a n d i p l o m a t , M r . S h a s h a n k ( p r e s u m e d
s p e l l i n g ) , w h o h a d j u s t a r r i v e d i n V i e n t i a n e f r o m H a n o i , a n d
a n o t h e r I n d i a n o f f i c e r . T h e i t a l i c s a r e a d d e d t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e
s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n w h a t t h e s e " n e u t r a l " o b s e r v e r s w e r e s a y i n g
a n d w h a t H a n o i h a d c l a i m e d .
QUINT : W h y a r e t h e y [ S h a s h a n k ' s f a m i l y ] l e a v i n g ?SHASHANK : S i m p l y w e h a v e s e e n a s t a t e o f b o m bi n g w h i c h w a s
a l m o s t u n i m a g i n a b l e i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , a n d t h i n g s a r e b e i n g
b o m b e d w i t h o u t a n y s o r t o f [ u n i n t e l l i g i b l e ] . T h e c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s
are being bombed, a n d w h a t I ' m s u r p r i s e d a t , m a n y o f t h e s e
t a r g e t s a r e v e r y c l o s e t o t h e h e a v i l y p op u la t e d a r e a s o f t h e c i t i e s .
I h a v e b e e n i n H a n o i f o r t h e l as t s e v e n m o n t h s , b u t I t h i n k f i r s t
t i m e t h a t I ' m s e e i n g t h i s s o r t o f indiscriminate . . .QUINT : A n o t h e r I n d i a n , a m e m b e r o f t h e C o n t r o l C o m m i s -
s i o n , s a i d t h e b o m b i n g i s w o r s e t h a n e v e r . H o w b a d i s t h e
bombing?
INDIAN OFFICER : W e l l , y ou s e e , e v e r y e v e n i n g a f t e r t h e b o m b -
i n g i s o v e r , y o u g o t o t h e r o o f o f t h e h o t e l i n H a n o i a n d y o u s e e
f i r e a r o u n d t h e t o w n , a t l e a s t [ u n i n t e l li g i b l e ] . . .
QUINT : W h a t a b o u t c i v i l i a n s ?INDIAN OFFICER : V e r y m a n y , v e r y m a n y . T h e y ' v e b e e n d y i n g
l i k e a n y t h i n g b e c a u s e I s a w o n e c u s t o m o f f i c e r , i n t h e m o r n i n g I
s a w h i m a n d i n t h e e v e n i n g h e h a d d i e d .
P h i l B r a d y o f N B C i n t e r v i e w e d S h a s h a n k a n d h i s w i f e a l o n g w i t h
t h e s o n o f a n I n d i a n o f f i ci a l i n H a no i . B o t h t h e l i n e o f q u e s t i o n i ng
a n d t h e a n s w e r s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g .
SHASHANK : T h e B a c h M a i H o s p i t a l , t h e b i g g e s t h o s p i t a l i n t h e
R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m , h a s b e e n razed to the ground . I d o n ' t
k n o w , p e o p l e a r e s a y i n g t h a t i t h a s n o t b e e n h i t . B u t I h a v e s e e n
w i t h m y o w n e y e s t h a t i t h a s b e e n h i t a n d d i r e c t l y h i t .
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2 8 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
MRS. SHASHANK : It's been the worst experi ence I've ever had
in my life I think . I was very scared and I was horrified at it
a l l . . .BRADY How bad is the bombing?MRS. SHASHANK : It's awful . I think all the military targets have
already been taken and now the only thing that is l e f t i s t h e l i v e s o f
the people, and I think that will be gone as well . . .BRADY A m i r ' s f a t h e r r u n s I n d i a 's e m b a s s y i n H a no i , w h i c h
has already been hit twice by American bombs .AMIR: It's very bad . They've been coming four or five ti mes a
day very regularly . T h e y h a v e s i x t i m e s b e e n c o m i n g .BRADY Only milit ary targets being hit?
AMIR : No, there is unrestricted bombing, they'r e bom bing at
every target .BRADY How about the North Vietnamese? Has this slowedthem down? Are they going to give i n?AMIR : No . The North Vietnamese have been fighting for thirty
y e a r s . They're not discouraged at all . And they're going to prove
that now to the American people .
S o m e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e d i s p a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e a c c ou n t s o f t h eU.S. command and those of the eyewitnesses was attempted byTime, w h i c h r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t a c i v i l i a n m a p a nd a m i l i t a r y m a p
b e v i e w e d o n e a t o p t h e o t h e r :
Then it is at once evident that m any of those targets lay smack inthe middle of the most populous metropolitan and suburbanareas in the North . The Hanoi t hermal power plant, for i nstance,
w a s o n ly 1,000 ya r d s f r o m t he ve r y c en t e r o f t he c i t y . A mainpetroleum storage area was only 200 yards from the Bach Mai
hospital . The town of Thai Nguyen lay right next t o one of the
key power plants .
But Time did not explain that a map overlay showing the targets of
t h e e i g h t - m o t o r e d B- 5 2 s t r a t o s p h e r i c b o m b e r , w i t h i t s p r e s u m e d
lesser accuracy, would have shown that those targets (wit h one or
two exceptions, as indicated earlier ) lay either outs ide Hanoi or in
its outskirt s and that this bombing could not have involved either
t h e H a n oi p o w e r p l a n t o r c i v i l i a n d w el l i n g a r e a s e x c e p t b y s o m e
unintended mishap .
O n ly o n e s t o r y , t he Washington Post (Dec . 30), came close to
revealing the true dis positi on of the aerial weapons for different
target categories :
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S o m e m i l i t a r y s o u r c e s r e p o r t t h a t i n a f e w c a s e s t h e B - 5 2 s w e r e
u s e d a g a i n s t s o m e t a r g e t s c l o s e t o H a n o i w h e r e t h e s h o c k e f f e c t
o f t h e i r b o m b i n g - w i t h t h i r t y t o n s o f b o m b s i n e a c h p l a n e -
c o u l d b e f e l t a n d t h e n t h e s a m e t a r g e t w a s h i t a g a i n b y s m a l l e r
f i g h t e r b o m b e r s c a r r y i n g m u c h m o r e a c c u r a t e b o m b s t o k n o c k
o u t t h e t a r g e t .
T h i s , o f c o u r s e , w a s s t i l l n o t t h e f u l l t r u t h , w h i c h w a s t h a t t a r g e t s i n
o r n e a r t h e c e n t e r o f H a n o i w e r e g e n e r a l l y t a r g e t e d f o r b o m b i n g b y
f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s , w h i c h a r e m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n B - 5 2 s . Why was
t h i s n o t m a d e c l e a r t o t h e p r e s s ? P r o b a b l y i t w o u l d h a v e P r o v i d e d
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n o f u s e t o t h e e n e m y , f o r h e w o u l d
t h e n h a v e k n o w n w h e r e n o t t o e x p e c t t h e B - 5 2 s , w h i c h w o u l d h a v e
h e l p e d h i m i n p o s i t i o n i n g h i s a n t i - a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e s .
T h e q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s o f n e w s i t e m s o n b o m b i n g d a m a g e i n
N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t a p p e a r s i n t a b l e 2 m u s t b e t a k e n i n c o n t e x t
w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t f o l l o w s i t .
TABLE 2
NEWS ON MILITARY DAMAGE VS . NEWS ON CIVILIAN DAMAGE
( B y l i n e s o f t e x t )
I n g e n e r a l , n e w s a b o u t m i l i t a r y d a m a g e t e n d e d t o c o n v e y t h e
i d e a t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s d o i n g i t s j o b , i . e . , t h a t i t w a s a l e g i t i m a t e
m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n , w h e r e a s n e w s a b o u t c i v i l i a n d a m a g e s u g g e s t e d
t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s i n d i s c r i m i n a t e a n d t h e r e f o r e r e p r e h e n s i b l e .
I n t a b l e 2 t h e t e r m " n e u t r a l " w a s u s e d f o r n e w s i t e m s t h a t d e a l t
w i t h e f f e c t s o f t h e b o m b i n g b u t d i d n o t f i t i n t o e i t h e r c a t e g o r y - f o r
i n s t a n c e , t h e P e n t a g o n ' s r e t o r t t h a t i f t h e H a n o i p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r
c a m p h a d b e e n h i t , t h e n t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e t o b l a m e f o r
p u t t i n g i t i n a n a r e a s u s c e p t i b l e t o a t t a c k ; t h e r e p o r t t h a t t h e G i a
L a m a i r p o r t h a d b e e n h i t b y m i s t a k e ; a n d t h e P e n t a g o n ' s s u g g e s -
N . Y .
TIMES
WASH.
POSTTIME
NEWS-
WEEKCBS
A . M i l i t a r y d a m a g e 5 2 5 2 2 5 2 1 2 0 24
B . N e u t r a l 1 5 0 2 2 0 3 3 1 3 7 1
C . C i v i l i a n d a m a g e 1 , 0 7 0 6 1 0 1 3 3 7 0 91
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3 0 MARTIN F . HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
t i o n t h a t s o m e o f t h e c i v i l i a n d a m a g e a n d c a s u a l t i e s m i g h t h a v e
c o m e f r o m c r a s h i n g p l a n e s o r u n s p e n t m i s s i l e s . S u c h i t e m s , t h o u g h
n o t e x a c t l y n e u t r a l , d o n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o a n i m p r e s s i o n o f e i t h e r
w a n t o n d i s r e g a r d o r j u d i c i o u s r e g a r d f o r h u m a n w e l f a r e .
T h e p r o p o r t i o n f o r c o v e r a g e o f m i l i t a r y d a m a g e a n d c i v i l i a n
d a m a g e i n n e w s s t o r i e s i n t h e New York Times a p p e a r s t o b e 2 t o 1 ,
s u g g e s t i n g b e t t e r b a l a n c e t h a n i n t h e o t h e r m e d i a . T h e r e a s o n i s
t h a t w e i n c l u d e d i n t h e c a t e g o r y " m i l i t a r y d a m a g e " t h e 3 5 0 - l i n e
f u l l t e x t o f t h e D e c e m b e r 2 8 c o m m u n i q u e o n t a r g e t s i s s u e d i n
S a i g o n , w h i c h a p p e a r e d o n l y i n t h e Times . A c o m m u n i q u e t h a t
l i s t s t a r g e t s i s n o t r e a l l y a n e w s s t o r y , p r o p e r l y s p e a k i n g , b u t a
c h u n k o f d o c u m e n t a r y b a c k g r o u n d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n e w s i t e m s
a b o u t c i v i l i a n d a m a g e , s c a t t e r e d o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d a n d u s u a l l y
f e a t u r e d o n t h e f r o n t p a g e , h a d a m u c h g r e a t e r r e a d e r i m p a c t t h a n
t h e 2 - t o - 1 p r o p o r t i o n m i g h t s u g g e s t , e v e n g r e a t e r f r o m t h e p s y c h o -
l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w t h a n t h e 6 - t o - 1 p r o p o r t i o n w e w o u l d h a v e
o b t a i n e d h a d t h e l e n g t h y c o m m u n i q u e n o t b e e n i n c l u d e d .
O v e r a l l , n e w s a b o u t d a m a g e w a s h e a v i l y t i l t e d t o w a r d c i v i l i a n
d a m a g e - s u r e l y i n l a r g e p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u c h
n e w s f r o m H a n o i . I t w o u l d h a v e r e q u i r e d r e s t r a i n t o n t h e p a r t o f
t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a t o d o w n p l a y t h e a b u n d a n t n e w s a b o u t c i v i l i a n
d a m a g e i s s u i n g f r o m e n e m y s o u r c e s . T h e p r o p o r t i o n i n t h e Post i s
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 . 5 c i v i l i a n t o 1 m i l i t a r y , i n Time 6 . 5 t o 1 , i n
Newsweek 3 . 5 t o 1 , a n d i n C B S n e w s a bo u t 4 t o 1 . ( C B S a l s o h a d a
l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f " n e u t r a l " i t e m s . ) T h e o v e r a l l p r o b a bl e i m p r e s -
s i o n o f t h e r e a d e r a n d v i e w e r m u s t h a v e b e e n t h a t m o s t o f t h e
b o m b i n g d a m a g e w a s d o n e t o c i v i l i a n s .
Us e of the B-5 2 Bomber
T h e d e c i s i o n t o s e n d t h e B - 5 2 b o m b e r a g a i n s t H a n o i a n d
H a i p h o n g , c o r r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e d t o N i x o n h i m s e l f , g e n e r a t e d c o n -
s i d e r a b l e d e b a t e a b o u t t h e b i g b o m b e r ' s l i m i t e d m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y
a n d a c c u r a c y . T h e r e w e r e t h u s t w o i s s u e s : W a s i t w i s e t o e x p o s e t h e
B - 5 2 t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t e d d e f e n s e s o f N o r t h V i e t n a m , w h e r e i t s
i m a g e o f i n v u l n e r a b i l i t y w o u l d b e s e v e r e l y i m p a i r e d a n d m a n y
A m e r i c a n l i v e s w o u l d b e l o s t ? A n d w a s i t a p p r o p r i a t e a n d m o r a l t o
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 3 1
u s e a " w e a p o n o f m a s s d e s t r u c t i o n " ( w h i c h t h e B - 5 2 w a s p e r c e i v e d
t o b e ) a g a i n s t t a r g e t s i n a h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a ? T h e o p p o n e n t s
a s s e r t e d o r i m p l i e d t h a t t h e l o s s e s i n a i r c r a f t w e r e u n a c c e p t a b l e
a n d t h a t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , t h e B - 5 2 w a s a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e w e a p o n
a g a i n s t t a r g e t s i n a h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a b e c a u s e i t w a s c a p a b l e
o n l y o f " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g , " i . e . , b o m b i n g a " t a r g e t b o x " o f a h a l f
m i l e b y a m i l e a n d a h a l f , a s t h e p r e s s k e p t i n s i s t i n g . T o s o m e
r e p o r t e r s a n d c o m m e n t a t o r s t h e u s e o f t h e B - 5 2 o v e r H a n o i a n d
H a i p h o n g w a s a m a j o r w a r c r i m e b e c a u s e i n t h e i r e y e s t h e m a i n
o b j e c t i v e m u s t h a v e b e e n t o t e r r o r i z e c i v i l i a n s r a t h e r t h a n t o
d e s t r o y m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s .
A m e r i c a n l o s s e s r e c e i v e d g r e a t p r o m i n e n c e , w i t h H a n o i i n v a r i -
a b l y m a k i n g e x a g g e r a t e d c l a i m s b e f o r e o f f i c i a l U . S . n e w s r e l e a s e s
c a m e o u t . H e n c e t h e l a t t e r a l w a y s h a d t o t r y t o o v e r t a k e a n d c o r -
r e c t t h e n e w s s t o r i e s g e n e r a t e d b y N o r t h V i e t n a m . T h i s w a s p r o b -
a b l y i n e v i t a b l e , s i n c e W a s h i n g t o n h a d t o w a i t f o r t h e r e t u r n o f t h e
p l a n e s b e f o r e m a k i n g i t s a n n o u n c e m e n t a n d s i n c e t h e m e d i a r e -
p o r t e d t h e f i r s t n e w s f i r s t . W h e n o f f i c i a l A m e r i c a n a n n o u n c e m e n t s
w e r e c a r r i e d t h e y w e r e s o m e t i m e s e m b r o i d e r e d b y t h e a d d i t i o n
o f t h e " p r i c e t a g s " o f d o w n e d p l a n e s . F o r i n s t a n c e , W a l t e r C r o n -
k i t e r e p o r t e d o n D e c e m b e r 2 1 : " The America n c ommand n ow
s a y s t h a t i n f o u r d a y s s i n c e t h e f u l l - s c a l e b o m b i n g r e s u m e d , s i x
B - 5 2 s h a v e b e e n s h o t d o w n , e a c h v a l u e d a t $ 8 m i l l i o n . " T h e c o s t
f i g u r e h a d n o t b e e n p a r t o f t h e n e w s r e l e a s e b u t w a s a d d e d b y C B S .
The U . S . m i l i t a r y p o i n t e d o u t d u r i n g a n d a f t e r t h e b o m b i n g s t h a t
t h e r a t e a t w h i c h p l a n e s w e r e l o s t ( s l i g h t l y o v e r 2 p e r c e n t p e r
m i s s i o n ) w a s l o w e r t h a n e x p e c t e d a n d t h a t t h e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e n e s s
r a t i o w a s a c c e p t a b l e . B u t t h e h e a d l i n e a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o r e p o r t s t h a t
B - 5 2 s h a d b e e n s h o t d o w n a n d t h e p l a y g i v e n t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e
f i g u r e s o n l o s s e s - t h o u g h a l w a y s w i t h a t t r i b u t i o n t o t h e e n e m y
s o u r c e - c r e a t e d a f e e l i n g t h a t t h e U . S . S t r a t e g i c A i r C o m m a n d
w a s b e i n g b l e d d a n g e r o u s l y o v e r N o r t h V i e t n a m .
O n t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e B - 5 2 , C B S c l a i m e d ( D e c . 2 1 ) t h a t " t h e
b o m b s a r e c o n s i d e r e d o n t a r g e t i f t h e y f a l l i n a p r e s e l e c t e d a r e a
m e a s u r i n g a h a l f m i l e w i d e a n d a l m o s t t w o m i l e s l o n g . " T h e m i l i t a r y
i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e B - 5 2 w a s a c c u r a t e b u t d i d n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y d i s p u t e
t h e f i g u r e s . ( T h e d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y o f t h e B - 5 2 u n d e r i d e a l
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3 2 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
c o n d i t i o n s - f o r i n s t a n c e , i n " b o m b i n g c o m p e t i t i o n s " h e l d i n
p e a c e t i m e - i s , i n f a c t , s t i l l c l a s s i f i e d i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t o f c o u r s e
c o n d i t i o n s o v e r H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g w e r e f a r f r o m i d e a l . )
T h e r e w e r e p r o b a b l y i n a d v e r t e n t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e p e r -
f o r m a n c e o f t h e B - 5 2 . T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t (Dec . 3 ) , f o r e x a m p l e ,
r e p o r t e d :
F o r t h e B - 5 2 s t o b o m b w i t h a n y t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g p r e c i s i o n , t h e y
m u s t s t a y o n a s t e a d y c o u r s e a n d a l t i t u d e f o r a t l e a s t a f e w m i n u t e s ,
d u r i n g w h i c h t h e y a r e g o o d t a r g e t s [ f o r a n t i - a i r c r a f t m i s s i l e s ] .
T r y i n g t o m a n e u v e r o u t o f t h e p a t h o f t h e s e m i s s i l e s o r h u r r y i n g
t h e i r b o m b r u n w i l l t h r o w t h e i r b o m b s o f f t a r g e t a n d w o u l d h e l p t o
e x p l a i n r e p o r t s o f l a r g e - s c a l e d e v a s t a t i o n t o c i v i l i a n a r e a s i n t h e
H a n o i v i c i n i t y .
T h e f a c t w a s , a s w e s h a l l s e e , t h a t B - 5 2 p i l o t s w e r e o r d e r e d u n d e r
t h r e a t o f c o u r t - m a r t i a l n o t t o d e v i a t e f r o m t h e i r p r e s c r i b e d b o m b i n g
r u n e v e n w h e n S A M s w e r e c o m i n g a t t h e m , a n d a s a r e s u l t m a n y
A m e r i c a n s d i e d f o r t h e s p e c i f i c p u r p o s e o f a v o i d i n g u n n e c e s s a r y
c i v i l i a n l o s s o f l i f e . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t w a s n o t t r u e t h a t t h e b o m b i n g r u n
r e q u i r e d " a t l e a s t a f e w m i n u t e s . " B u t e v e n a s o m e w h a t s h o r t e r
p e r i o d w a s e n o u g h f o r t h e c o m p u t e r s o f t h e S A M s y s t e m t o f i g u r e
o u t w h e r e m i s s i l e a n d B - 5 2 w o u l d m e e t .
Th e New York Times (Dec . 2 6 ) l o c a t e d a n u n i d e n t i f i e d U . S .
o f f i c e r w h o " a c k n o w l e d g e d " t h a t
w i t h o u t t h e g r o u n d - b a s e d n a v i g a t i o n a l a i d s l o c a t e d i n S o u t h V i e t -
n a m , t h e b o m b i n g w a s m u c h l e s s a c c u r a t e . . . . T h e o f f i c e r s a i d h e
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e b i g p l a n e s w e r e f i n a l l y p u t i n t o l a r g e - s c a l e
u s e i n t h e N o r t h i n h o p e s t h a t t h e i r d e v a s t a t i n g c a r p e t b o m b i n g
w o u l d d e l i v e r a c r i p p l i n g b l o w t o t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e .
A c t u a l l y , t h e B - 5 2 s h a d a l a r g e n u m b e r o f n a v i g a t i o n a l a i d s t h a t ,
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e m o d e o f d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e p l a n e s , a s s u r e d a
d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y t h a t c o m p a r e d f a v o r a b l y w i t h t h a t o f t h e b o m b -
i n g o f t a r g e t a r e a s i n t h e S o u t h . A q u o t e l i k e t h i s o n e c a n n o t b e
checked . T h e u n i d e n t i f i e d " o f f i c e r " m i g h t n o t h a v e b e l o n g e d t o t h e
A i r F o r c e . H i s u s e o f t h e t e r m " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " m a k e s i t h i g h l y
u n l i k e l y t h a t h e w a s i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e d e p l o y m e n t m o d e o f t h e
B - 5 2 i n N o r t h V i e t n a m . I n f a c t , h i s s t a t e m e n t w a s o f t h e v e r y k i n d
t h a t b o m b i n g o p p o n e n t s w e r e s e e k i n g , p e r h a p s p r o m p t i n g , o r p o s s i -
b l y e v e n i n v e n t i n g . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e New York Times (Dec .
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 3 3
2 2 ) a l s o c a r r i e d a s t a t e m e n t a t t r i b u t e d t o " a w e l l - i n f o r m e d o f f i c e r "
t h a t " w i t h i n t h e p a c k a g e t h e r e w e r e n u m e r o u s t a r g e t s , a l l w i t h
a s s i g n e d p r i o r i t i e s , a n d n u m e r o u s a t t a c k p a t t e r n s i n w h i c h s e v e r a l
t y p e s o f a i r c r a f t a r m e d w i t h a v a r i e t y o f w e a p o n s w e r e b e i n g c o o r d i -
n a t e d . " T h i s m u c h m o r e t h a n t h e p r e v i o u s s t a t e m e n t r e a d s l i k e
s o m e t h i n g a U . S . A i r F o r c e o f f i c e r m i g h t h a v e s a i d .
T h e s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g m y t h t h a t a B - 5 2 i n e v i t a b l y h i t s a n a r e a a
h a l f m i l e w i d e a n d o n e a n d a h a l f m i l e s l o n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e
F r e n c h r e p o r t e r J e a n L e c l e r c d e S a b l o n ' s r e p o r t t h a t K h a m T h i e n
a n d i t s a d j a c e n t s t r e e t s " w e r e c a r p e t b o m b e d b y p l a n e s i n c l u d i n g
B - 5 2 s w h i c h p l o u g h e d u p a s t r i p a b o u t a m i l e l o n g a n d s e v e r a l
h u n d r e d y a r d s w i d e f r o m o n e e n d o f t h e s t r e e t t o t h e o t h e r " (New
Y o r k T i m e s , Dec . 2 9 ) . A l t h o u g h d e s t r u c t i o n f r o m o n e s t r i n g o f
b o m b s c a n b e o b s e r v e d i n a e r i a l p h o t o s o f t h e K h a m T h i e n a r e a
r e l e a s e d i n M a y 1 9 7 3 , t h i s w a s n o t " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g . " T h e d a m a g e
o b s e r v e d b y M . d e S a b l o n w a s d e s c r i b e d i n v e r y d i f f e r e n t t e r m s b y
l a t e r e y e w i t n e s s e s , a s b r o u g h t o u t i n c h a p t e r 4 .
T a b l e 3 g i v e s a q u a n t i t a t i v e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e n e w s r e l a t i n g t o
B - 5 2 a c c u r a c y a n d s u r v i v a b i l i t y ( o r i n a c c u r a c y a n d j e o p a r d y ) .
TABLE 3
NEWS ON THE ACCURACY AND SURVIVABILITY OF THE B-52
( B y l i n e s o f t e x t )
" P o s i t i v e m a t e r i a l " i n t a b l e 3 i n c l u d e s a n y c l a i m s o f a c c u r a c y ,
s t a t e m e n t s t h a t t h e l o s s e s w e r e a c t u a l l y l o w e r t h a n a n t i c i p a t e d , a n d
a l s o i t e m s t h a t a c k n o w l e d g e d c i v i l i a n d e a t h s b u t t e r m e d t h e m
i n c i d e n t a l . A n e x a m p l e o f t h e f o r m e r w o u l d b e t h i s T i m e s r e p o r t :
P e n t a g o n o f f i c i a l s i n s i s t e d . . . t h a t t a r g e t s f o r t h e B - 5 2 s w e r e
b e i n g s e l e c t e d s o t h a t e v e n i f t h e i r b o m b i n g p a t t e r n s w e r e s l i g h t l y
o f f t h e y w o u l d n o t h i t c i v i l i a n c e n t e r s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y s a i d , t h e
N . Y .
TIMES
WASH .
POSTTIME
NEWS-
WEEK CBS
A . P o s i t i v e2 9 0 5 5
3 0 0
B . N e u t r a l 3 2 5 9 0 2 5 1 1 2
C . N e g a t i v e 1 3 5 1 4 5 3 1 3 4 1 8
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3 4 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
B - 5 2 s m i g h t b e g i v e n a l a r g e t a r g e t o f a r a i l r o a d y a r d , w h i l e t a r g e t s
n e a r c i v i l i a n c e n t e r s , s u c h a s a b r i d g e o r a p o w e r p l a n t , w o u l d b e
l e f t t o f i g h t e r - b o m be r s u s i n g p r e c i s i o n b o m b s [New York Times,
Dec . 2 2 ] .
A n e x a m p l e o f t h e l a t t e r i s a n e w s i t e m q u o t i n g a s e n i o r A i r F o r c e
o f f i c e r : " E v e n w i t h t h e a c c u r a c y w e g e t , w e ' r e s t i l l n o t s u r e w e w o u l d
n o t g e t a l i t t l e m o r e t h a n m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s " (New York Times , Dec .
3 1 ) .
N o t e w o r t h y i s t h e v o l u m e o f n e w s o n t h e B - 5 2 i n t h e Times
c o m p a r e d t o t h a t i n t h e P o s t , a n d a l s o t h e i n v e r s i o n o f t h e r a t i o o f
f a v o r a b l e t o u n f a v o r a b l e n e w s ( 2 t o 1 i n t h e Times, 1 t o 3 i n t h e
Post) . Time, News w eek, a n d C B S h a d v i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g g o o d t o s a y
a b o u t t h e B - 5 2 a n d t h e d e c i s i o n t o d e p l o y i t a g a i n s t N o r t h V i e t -
n a m . T h e Wa sh ington Post, i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e a l m o s t e q u a l l y
a n t i - w a r Times, g a v e g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o n e g a t i v e n e w s a b o u t t h e
u s e o f B - 5 2 s - a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a r e d i n t h i s i n s t a n c e b y Time,
News w eek, a nd CBS News .
Foreign Reaction to the Bombing
P e o p l e r a r e l y d e m o n s t r a t e i n f a v o r o f a n u n p l e a s a n t d e c i s i o n b y
their own government-mu ch less one by a foreign govern-
m e n t - e v e n i f i t i s r e g a r d e d a s n e c e s s a r y . T h e c o v e r a g e i n t h e
p r e s t i g e m e d i a o f f a v o r a b l e a n d u n f a v o r a b l e f o r e i g n r e a c t i o n s t o
t h e b o m b i n g i s n e v e r t h e l e s s s t a r t l i n g , a s i s t h e t h o r o u g h n e s s w i t h
w h i c h n e w s a b o u t u n f a v o r a b l e r e a c t i o n s w a s s o u g h t o u t a n d r e -
p o r t e d . E x c e p t f o r a c u r s o r y r e f e r e n c e ( M u r r e y M a r d e r ,W a s h ing -
t o n P o s t , Dec . 3 0 ) t o a " f e w n e w s p a p e r s i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e " w i t h
o n e c i t a t i o n o f a m i l d l y f a v o r a b l e c o m m e n t , a l l t h e p a p e r s a n d
b r o a d c a s t s e x a m i n e d i n t h i s s t u d y r e p o r t e d p o s i t i v e c o m m e n t o n l y
f r o m S o u t h V i e t n a m , C a m b o d i a , T a i w a n , a n d S o u t h K o r e a . Y e t
t h e r e w e r e d o u b t l e s s m a n y f o r e i g n m e d i a , s c h o l a r s , f o r e i g n - p o l i c y
s p e c i a l i s t s , a n d o t h e r s w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e b o m b i n g .
T h e a v a l a n c h e o f m a t e r i a l a b o u t u n f a v o r a b l e r e a c t i o n s r e c o r d e d
v i e w s f r o m t h e S o v i e t U n i o n , C h i n a , F i n l a n d , D e n m a r k , S w e d e n ,
t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , C a n a d a , Y u g o s l a v i a , P o l a n d , A u s t r a l i a , S i n g a -
p o r e , I n d i a , B a n g l a d e s h , W e s t G e r m a n y a n d W e s t B e r l i n , a n d
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 35
B e l g i u m , a s w e l l a s f r o m t h e P o p e , U . N . s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l W a l d -
h e i m , F i d e l C a s t r o , C a t h o l i c p e a c e g r o u p s a b r o a d , a n d t h e B r i t i s h
L a b o r p a r t y . T h e r e a c t i o n r a n g e d f r o m t h e P o p e ' s r e l a t i v e l y m i l d
e x p r e s s i o n o f " p a i n f u l e m o t i o n " o v e r " h a r s h a n d h e a v y m i l i t a r y
o p e r a t i o n s i n b l e s s e d V i e t n a m , w h i c h h a s b e c o m e a c a u s e o f d a i l y
g r i e f " t o t h e a s s e r t i o n b y t h e P o l i s h p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U . N . G e n e r a l
A s s e m b l y t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s " i n h u m a n i n a l l i t s a s p e c t s " a n d a
s t a t e m e n t b y R o y J e n k i n s o f t h e B r i t i s h L a b o r p a r t y c a l l i n g t h e
a c t i o n " o n e o f t h e m o s t c o l d - b l o o d e d a c t i o n s i n r e c e n t h i s t o r y . "
T h e s t a t e m e n t o f S o v i e t f i r s t s e c r e t a r y B r e z h n e v o n D e c e m b e r 2 1
t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d h a v e a n e f f e c t o n S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n r e l a -
t i o n s w a s r e p o r t e d b y W a l t e r C r o n k i t e ( C B S , D e c . 2 1 ) a s i n d i c a t -
i n g t h a t t h e " f u t u r e o f R u s s i a n - A m e r i c a n r e l a t i o n s h a n g s i n t h e
b a l a n c e . " T h i s s e e m s t o b e a n e x a g g e r a t i o n o f w h a t B r e z h n e v
a c t u a l l y s a i d , w h i c h w a s : " H o w e v e r - a n d t h i s s h o u l d b e c l e a r l y
e m p h a s i z e d - m u c h w i l l d e p e n d o n t h e c o u r s e o f e v e n t s i n t h e
i m m e d i a t e f u t u r e a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , o n w h a t k i n d o f t u r n i s t a k e n
o n t h e i s s u e o f e n d i n g t h e w a r i n V i e t n a m . "
TABLE 4
NEWS ABOUT FOREIGN REACTIONS TO THE BOMBING
( B y l i n e s o f t e x t )
T h e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e w a s e v e n m o r e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y n e g a t i v e
t h a n t a b l e 4 s u g g e s t s , b e c a u s e o f t h e p a s s i o n o f s o m e o f t h e c r i t i c a l
v i e w s r e p o r t e d . T h e p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d L o n d o n D a i l y M i r r o r
c o m m e n t " a n a c t o f i n s a n e f e r o c i t y , a c r u d e e x e r c i s e i n t h e
p o l i t i c s o f t e r r o r " - w a s r e p o r t e d i n t h e Wa sh ington P o s t (Dec . 3 0 )
w i t h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e e d i t o r i a l h a d a p p e a r e d o n t h e f r o n t
p a g e u n d e r t h e h e a d l i n e " N i x o n ' s C h r i s t m a s D e l u g e o f D e a t h . " I n
N . Y .
TIMES
WASH .
POSTTIME
NEWS-
WEEKCBS
A . F a v o r a b l e 9 0 4 0 3 0 0
B . N e u t r a l 6 0 1 1 5 1 1 5 1 0
C . N e g a t i v e 1 , 0 1 0 6 3 5 5 7 1 6 1 9
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3 6 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
r e v i e w i n g m o u n t i n g w o r l d w i d e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e b o m b i n g , t h a t i s s u e
o f t h e Post a l s o q u o t e d f r o m Asa hi, J a p a n ' s l i b e r a l n e w s p a p e r :
" W e b e l i e v e t h a t w h a t P r e s i d e n t N i x o n i s t r y i n g t o a c h i e v e i n
V i e t n a m i s n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n i m p e r i a l i s m , c o l o n i a l i s m , and
g e n o c i d e . " A l l t h e m e d i a w e r e v i e w e d r e p o r t e d a s t a t e m e n t b y
S w e d i s h p r i m e m i n i s t e r O l o f P a l m e , a l o n g t i m e o p p o n e n t o f U . S .
i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m :
W h a t i s h a p p e n i n g i s t h a t a p e o p l e a r e be i n g t o r t u r e d , a n a t i o n i s
b e i n g t o r m e n t e d a n d h u m i l i a t e d t o f o r c e t h e m t o s u b m i t t o t h e
l a n g u a g e o f f o r c e . T h a t i s w h y t h e b o m b i n g s a r e a n o u t r a g e .
T h e r e a r e m a n y e x a m p l e s o f t h i s i n m o d e r n h i s t o r y. T h e y a r e
u s u a l l y r e m e m b e r e d b y n a m e s - G u e r n i c a , O r a d o u r , B a b i Y a r ,
K a t y n , L i d i c e , S h a r p e v i l l e , T r e b l i n k a .
Time ( J a n . 8 , 1 9 7 3 , w h i c h w a s o n t h e n e w s t a n d s a b o u t J a n . 1 )
c a r r i e d a q u o t e f r o m a n e d i t o r i a l i n t h e F r e n c h w e e k l y L'Expres s
t h a t t u r n e d c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e b o m bi n g i n t o a p e r s o n a l a t t a c k o n
N i x o n :
I n t h e p o k e r g a m e o f l i f e , M r . N i x o n i s a m a s t e r . B y m e a n s o f t h e
n e a r l y b l i n d m o n s t e r , t h e B - 5 2 , h e h a s d i s c a r d e d f o r e v e r a n
a s s u m p t i o n . M r . N i x o n i s n o l o n g e r , a n d w i l l n e v e r a g a i n b e , a
r e s p e c t a b l e m a n . T h a t i s , i f h e e v e r w a s o n e .
O n e m a y w o n d e r w h e t h e r t h e n e w s s e r v i c e s o f t h e Times, t h e
P o s t , Time, News w eek, a n d C B S s e a r c h e d a s d i l i g e n t l y f o r l e s s
c o n d e m n a t o r y c o m m e n t , p e r h a p s f r o m s o m e o f t h e m o r e c o n s e r -
v a t i v e s p o k e s m e n o r m e d i a i n E n g l a n d , F r a n c e , G e r m a n y , a n d
Japan-e . g . , The Economist, Le F igaro, L'Aurore, Fran kfu rter
All gemeine Zeitun g, Mainich i, o r Sankei Shimbu n, i n w h i c h e d i t o -
r i a l s l e s s c r i t i c a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n p r e s i d e n t d i d a p p e a r . A n a n a l y s i s
i n t h e Economist (Dec . 2 3 ; s e e A p p e n d i x H ) w a s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y
e l o q u e n t i n m a k i n g t h e c a s e f o r t h e A m e r i c a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
Newsweek d i d q u o t e t h i s c o m m e n t f r o m Le F igaro i n i t s r o u n d u p
o f w o r l d r e a c t i o n s ( J a n . 8 ) : " A s f o r t h r o w i n g t h e e n t i r e r e s p o n s i b i l -
i t y f o r t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e t a l k s s o l e l y o n t h e A m e r i c a n G o v e r n m e n t ,
i t i s g o o d p o l e m i c s a t b e s t . "
T h e " n e u t r a l " c a t e g o r y i n t a b l e 4 c o v e r s m a t e r i a l t h a t n o t e d
t h e r e s t r a i n t o f c e r t a i n o f f i c i a l r e a c t i o n s s u c h a s t h o s e e x p r e s s e d
b y W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n g o v e r n m e n t s , r e m a r k e d t h a t r e a c t i o n s
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 3 7
s e e m e d s l o w t o d e v e l o p , o r o b s e r v e d t h a t , i n i t i a l l y a t l e a s t , t h e
r e s p o n s e s o f l e a d e r s l i k e t h e P o p e a n d W a l d h e i m w e r e r e s t r i c t e d
t o e x p r e s s i o n s o f c o n c e r n .
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e s i s t t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t c e r t a i n m e d i a s o u g h t
o u t u n f a v o r a b l e c o m m e n t f o r t h e i r n e w s c o l u m n s . T h e s h e e r v o l -
ume of 1,010 lines in the Times a n d 6 3 5 l i n e s i n t h e Post
s u g g e s t s t h i s , a s d o e s t h e f a c t t h a t s o m e o f t h e n e w s i t e m s c a m e
f r o m s o u r c e s t h a t a r e r a r e l y q u o t e d i n t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s . T h e
W a s h ington Post (Dec . 2 8 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , i n f o r m e d i t s r e a d e r s
t h a t t h e B u e n o s A i r e s p a p e r La Opin ion h a d c a r r i e d t h e h e a d -
l i n e "U . S . C a r r i e d O u t M o s t C o m p l e t e P l a n o f D e s t r u c t i o n i n
Human History . " S i m i l a r l y , a b o y c o t t b y A u s t r a l i a n s e a m e n , a
m a r c h o f 7 0 0 p e o p l e i n W e s t B e r l i n , a n d a s i l e n t v i g i l o u t s i d e t h e
America n embas sy in London woul d perha ps not ha ve merited
c o v e r a g e b y t h e s e m e d i a h a d t h e r e n o t b e e n a n e f f o r t t o b u i l d u p
t h e p i c t u r e o f A m e r i c a n i s o l a t i o n i n t h e w o r l d . News w eek r e -
p o r t e d i n i t s J a n u a r y 8 i s s u e ( p r i n t e d J a n u a r y 1 ) t h a t " t h e r e a c -
t i o n i n m o s t o f t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d [ h a d b e e n ] i m m e d i a t e a n d
f u r i o u s , " a n d i t s p o k e o f " t h e o u t r a g e d r e a c t i o n a m o n g f r i e n d l y
a n d a d v e r s a r y n a t i o n s a l i k e . " T h e i t e m w a s h e a d l i n e d " D i p l o -
m a c y b y T e r r o r . "
T h a t t h e o u t r a g e w a s p e r h a p s n o t s o g r e a t a n d i n t e n s i v e a s i t
m i g h t h a v e b e e n w a s a c k n o w l e d g e d a t t h e e n d o f a Wa sh ington
Post s t o r y ( D e c . 30 ) headl ined "Bombing Criticism Mounts . "
A f t e r d e v o t i n g 1 7 5 l i n e s t o r e p o r t i n g p r o t e s t s a n d c r i t i c i s m s , t h e
Post b r i e f l y n o t e d : " W o r l d p r e s s c r i t i c i s m , U . S . a n a l y s t s n o t e d ,
h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y s l o w e r t o d e v e l o p i n v o l u m e t h a n i t d i d
w h e n A m e r i c a n t r o o p s c r o s s e d i n t o C a m b o d i a i n A p r i l , 1 9 7 0 . "
F i v e l i n e s r e p o r t e d a E u r o p e a n c o m m e n t i n d e f e n s e o f t h e U . S .
bombing .
China : A S p e c i a l C a s e
M o s t o f t h e c o m m e n t a b o u t t h e r e a l , i m a g i n e d , a l l e g e d , o r
feared effect of the "Christmas bombing" on U . S . - S o v i e t a n d
U. S . - C h i n e s e r e l a t i o n s a p p e a r e d , q u i t e p r o p e r l y , o n t h e e d i t o r i a l
p a g e s o r i n c o m m e n t c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d a s s u c h . T h i s i n c l u d e d ( a s
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3 8 MARTIN F . HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
n o t e d i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r ) w a r n i n g s t h a t d e t e n t e w i t h t h e
U . S . S . R . a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f r e l a t i o n s w i t h C h i n a c o u l d b e
j e o p a r d i z e d . B u t o n e f r o n t - p a g e i t e m m e r i t s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n .
Under the headl ine "Chou Says Raids Hurt U . S . R e l a t i o n s "
(Wa sh ington Post, Dec . 2 9 ) a r e p o r t d a t e l i n e d P e k i n g b y M a r i -
l y n B e r g e r s a i d i n p a r t :
C h o u w a s a s k e d w h e t h e r t h e b o m b i n g , t h e s e c o n d r e s u m p -
t i o n s i n c e h e r e c e i v e d P r e s i d e n t N i x o n i n P e k i n g i n F e b r u a r y ,
w o u l d a f f e c t C h i n a ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
H i s r e p l y , i n C h i n e s e , w a s t r a n s l a t e d a s " C e r t a i n l y . "
C h o u , h e a v i n g h i s s h o u l d e r s a n d p o i n t i n g h i s f i n g e r f o r e m -
p h a s i s , s t o p p e d a n d s a i d i n E n g l i s h : " S u r e l y . "
A s k e d h o w t h e b r e a c h c o u l d b e h e a l e d , h e s a i d , a g a i n i n
E n g l i s h , " S t o p . "
T h e n , i n C h i n e s e , h e c o n t i n u e d : " T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s g o v -
e r n m e n t s h o u l d s t o p t h e b o m b i n g . I h o p e y o u w i l l c o n v e y m y
a n s w e r t o t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e . "
T h e p r e m i e r s p o k e a s h e p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e r e c e i v i n g l i n e i n
t h e G r e a t H a l l o f t h e P e o p l e w h e r e s o m e 4 0 0 C h i n e s e o f f i -
c i a l s , f o r e i g n d i p l o m a t s a n d j o u r n a l i s t s w e r e i n v i t e d t o a n u n -
u s u a l l y g r a n d ba n q u e t f o r M r s . B i n h ( t h e V i e t C o n g " F o r e i g n
M i n i s t e r " ) .
I t i s a p p a r e n t f r o m t h i s s t o r y - a n d t h e r e i s m o r e t o c o m e -
t h a t t h e C h i n e s e p r i m e m i n i s t e r h a d n o t i n t e n d e d t o d e l i v e r s u c h
a messa ge to the American people bu t wa s "a sked" the
q uestion-b y the writer of this report-a s h e wa s pa ss ing
t h r o u g h t h e r e c e i v i n g l i n e . T h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t " h o w t h e b r e a c h
c o u l d b e h e a l e d " d i d n o t r e f e r t o a n y t h i n g t h a t C h o u h a d s a i d ;
h e h a d n o t m e n t i o n e d a b r e a c h . T h e w h o l e s t a t e m e n t a n d a d -
m o n i t i o n w e r e e l i c i t e d f r o m h i m b y a n A m e r i c a n j o u r n a l i s t a t a
s o c i a l o c c a s i o n .
Ms . B e r g e r w e n t o n t o r e p o r t t h e g l i t t e r i n g f u n c t i o n i n t h e G r e a t
H a l l o f t h e P e o p l e w h e r e t h e V i e t C o n g " f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r " w a s
b e i n g e n t e r t a i n e d . S h e d e s c r i b e d i n s o m e d e t a i l w h a t C h i P e n g - f e i ,
t h e C h i n e s e f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r , h a d s a i d a b o u t t h e b r e a k d o w n o f
n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d t h e b o m b i n g : " T h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t c o m m i t t e d
a b r e a c h o f f a i t h , f a b r i c a t e d p r e t e x t s , s e t u p v a r i o u s o b s t a c l e s a n d
d e l i b e r a t e l y d e l a y e d a n d s a b o t a g e d t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e p e a c e
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 3 9
a g r e e m e n t . . . " ; t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s " c o m m i t t i n g u n f o r g i v a b l e
n e w c r i m e s a g a i n s t t h e V i e t n a m e s e p e o p l e " ; a n d t h e l i k e . A l m o s t
a s a n a f t e r t h o u g h t , t h e s t o r y w e n t o n t o s a y t h e f o l l o w i n g :
W h i l e a t t a c k i n g t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , h e [ C h i P e n g - f e i ] a l s o s a i d
t h a t C h i n a u n d e r s t o o d t h a t f u r t h e r t a l k s w o u l d b e n e c e s s a r y .
" T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m u s t s t o p f o r t h w i t h t h e b o m b i n g o f t h e
D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f V i e t n a m , " h e s a i d , " a n d through
n e g o t i a t i o n s , s p e e d i l y s i g n t h e a g r e e m e n t o n e n d i n g t h e w a r a n d
r e s t o r i n g p e a c e i n V i e t n a m " [ i t a l i c s a d d e d ] .
T h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n w h a t t h e C h i n e s e f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r w a s
q u o t e d a s s a y i n g a n d w h a t t h e V i e t C o n g " f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r " w a s
s a y i n g o n t h e s a m e o c c a s i o n w a s g l a r i n g - b u t u n r e m a r k e d b y t h e
r e p o r t e r ; f o r M m e N g u y e n T h i B i n h w a s r e p o r t e d a s " c a l l i n g o n
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o s i g n t h e d r a f t c e a s e - f i r e a g r e e m e n t r e a c h e d i n
O c t o b e r , " i . e . , w i t h o u t f u r t h e r n e g o t i a t i o n . C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e
N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e a c c u s i n g W a s h i n g t o n o f h a v i n g g o n e b a c k
o n t h e O c t o b e r a g r e e m e n t a n d t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d t a k e n t h e
p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t n e e d e d i m p r o v e m e n t , i t i s a p p a r e n t
t h a t aWa sh ington Post
r e p o r t e r w a s p r e s e n t o n a r a r e o c c a s i o n
when a major divergence between China and North Vietnam
( r e p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h i t s V i e t C o n g s a t e l l i t e ) w a s a i r e d i n p u b l i c .
B u t t h e P o s t , i n i t s e a g e r n e s s t o r e p o r t t h e a l l e g e d d a n g e r t o
U. S . - C h i n e s e r a p p r o c h e m e n t , p e r h a p s i n a d v e r t e n t l y b u r i e d o n a
b a c k p a g e s o m e n e w s t h a t p r e f i g u r e d t h e c h a n g e i n t h e N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e p o s i t i o n t h a t e v e n t u a l l y l e d t o a n e n d t o t h e b o m b i n g
a n d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e a r m i s t i c e w i t h i n a m o n t h .
R e a c t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f u n f a v o r a b l e t o f a v o r a b l e n e w s i t e m s o n
A m e r i c a n d o m e s t i c r e a c t i o n s r e p o r t e d i n t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s i s
s t a r t l i n g , e v e n i n t h e f a c e o f t h e i m b a l a n c e w e h a v e s e e n s o f a r i n
t h e o t h e r t o p i c s a n a l y z e d . T h e New York Times a n d t h e Was hing-
t o n P o s t a p p a r e n t l y f o u n d i t a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o l o c a t e a n y f a v o r -
a b l e c o m m e n t . T a b l e 5 s h o w s o v e r w h e l m i n g a t t e n t i o n t o c r i t i c a l
c o m m e n t t o t h e v i r t u a l e x c l u s i o n o f s u p p o r t i v e v i e w s .
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40 MARTIN F . HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
TABLE 5NEWS ABOUT U . S . REACTIONS TO THE BOMBING
(By l i n e s o f t e x t )
I n a l l t h e m e d i a t h e r e i s a t e l l i n g d i s p r o p o r t i o n ; t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s
o n l y i n d e g r e e . C B S g a v e s i x t i m e s m o r e s p a c e t o c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t
t h a n t o f a v o r a b l e c o m m e n t . T h e New York Times h a d a r a t i o o f 1 9
t o 1 a n d t h e Wa sh ington Post 2 5 t o 1 . T h e n e w s m a g a z i n e s w e r e
l e s s u n b a l a n c e d .
H o w c o u l d s u c h l o p s i d e d n e s s h a v e h a p p e n e d ? I t m i g h t b e s a i d
t h a t t h e r e s i m p l y w a s n o f a v o r a b l e c o m m e n t a v a i l a b l e . B u t t h i s
s e e m s u n l i k e l y w h e n t h e p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l s i n 1 9 7 2 s t i l l s h o w e d a
f a i r l y e v e n d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n o p p o n e n t s a n d p r o p o n e n t s o f f u r t h e r
U. S . s u p p o r t f o r S o u t h V i e t n a m .
T h e k i n d o f s t o r i e s t h e m e d i a h i g h l i g h t e d s u g g e s t s t h a t s o m e
s u p p o r t f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s p o l i c y w e n t u n d e r - r e p o r t e d . D e s p i t e i t s
g e n e r o u s r e p o r t i n g o f c r i t i c a l c o m m e n t o n t h e b o m b i n g a n d i t s
d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f t h e P r e s i d e n t a n d o f U . S . p o l i c y , t h e New YorkTimes (Dec . 2 3 ) c a r r i e d a p a g e - s e v e n s t o r y e n t i t l e d " R e a c t i o n t o
Bombing Is Relatively Mild . " I t n o t e d t h a t u p t o t h e n a n t i -
b o m b i n g d e m o n s t r a t i o n s w e r e f e w a n d t h a t s o m e e d i t o r s w e r e
r e m a r k i n g o n t h e p a u c i t y o f p r o t e s t l e t t e r s . (On the same day
A n t h o n y L e w i s , w r i t i n g h i s o p - e d c o l u m n f r o m L o n d o n , r e m a r k e d
d e s p a i r i n g l y o n t h e " i n e r t n e s s o f t h e r e s p o n s e i n m a n y q u a r t e r s " i n
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . ) B u t a s t h e t h o r o u g h r e p o r t i n g o n n e g a t i v e
c o m m e n t o r a c t i o n c o n t i n u e d , t h i s c h a n g e d .
S o m e s u p p o r t i v e v i e w s w e r e r e p o r t e d , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o f a n
A m e r i c a n s o l d i e r , t h e l e a d e r o f a p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r g r o u p , a n d a
s m a t t e r i n g o f s e n a t o r s . Congressman F . Edw ard Hebert (D-La . )
s a i d h e s u p p o r t e d t h e A m e r i c a n e f f o r t i f i t w o u l d e n d t h e w a r , a n d
N . Y .
TIMES
WASH .
POSTTIME
NEWS-
WEEKCBS
A . F a v o r a b l e 35 40 5 13 28
B . N e u t r a l 140 130 30 5 1 4 1
C. U n f a v o r a b l e 650 990 96 75 159
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 4 1
S e n a t o r H u g h S c o t t (R-Pa . ) s a i d h e w a s d i s t r e s s e d b u t h a d h o p e
t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d b e s u c c e s s f u l. W i l l i a m F
. B u c k l e y c o n s i d -
e r e d t h e b o m b i n g a l o g i c a l a n d h o n o r a b l e r e s p o n s e t o H a n o i ' s
" M i c k e y M o u s e " t a c t i c s . T h e New York Times ( D e c . 2 5 ) r e p o r t e d
t h a t t h e c o m e d i a n B o b H o p e s u p p o r t e d t h e b o m b i n g . T h e W a s h -
ington Post (Dec . 3 1 ) r e p o r t e d t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f W i l l i a m E . T i m -
m o n s , h e a d o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c o n g r e s s i o n a l l i a i s o n o f f i c e , t h a t
C o n g r e s s b e l i e v e d N i x o n w a s r e a l l y t r y i n g t o e n d t h e w a r . A n d t h a t
w a s a b o u t a l l . I f , a s C B S , t h e P o s t , a n d t h e Times ( a l l o n D e c . 3 1 )
r e p o r t e d , s e n a t o r s p o l l e d d u r i n g t h e r e c e s s o p p o s e d t h e b o m b i n g
b y t w o t o o n e , t h e n t h e r e w e r e m o r e t h a n t h i r t y s e n a t o r s w h o d i d
n o t o p p o s e t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s d e c i s i o n ; y e t t h e i r v i e w s w e n t u n r e -
p o r t e d .
I n c o n t r a s t , t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a r e p o r t e d c r i t i c a l o r c o n d e m n a -
t o r y c o m m e n t s f r o m s e n a t o r s M i k e M a n s f i e l d ( D - M o n t . ) , E d -
wa rd K ennedy (D-Mass . ) , W i l l i a m S a x b e ( R - O h i o ) , E d m u n d
Mus kie (D-Maine), Edw a rd Brooke (R-Ma s s . ) , G e o r g e
McGovern (D-S . D . ) , C l i f f o r d C a s e (R-N . J . ) , John Tun ney (D-
C a l i f . ) , H a r o l d H u g h e s ( D - I o w a ) , J a c o b J a v i t s (R-N . Y . ) , Hubert
Humphrey (D-Minn . ) , a n d C h a r l e s M a t h i a s (R-Md . ) ; c o n -
g r e s s m e n D o n a l d R i e g l e ( R - M i c h . ) , R o b e r t D r i n a n ( D - M a s s . ) ,
Lester Wolf f (D-N . Y . ) , a nd Ed wa rd Koc h ( D- N . Y . ) ; t h e
M e n l o - A t h e r t o n c h a p t e r o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a R e p u b l i c a n L e a g u e ;
t h e C h i c a g o c i t y c o u n c i l ; t h e Los Angeles Times, t h e Mil wa u kee
Journal , t h e Bos ton Gl obe, a n d t h e San Fran cisco Chronicl e ;
Averell Harriman, Theodore Rosza k, an d Hamil ton F ish
Armstrong ; t h e R e v . P h i l i p B e r r i g a n , t h e U. S
. C a t h o l i c C o n f e r -
e n c e , R a b b i M a u r i c e E i s e n d r a t h ( p r e s i d e n t o f t h e U n i o n o f
A m e r i c a n H e b r e w C o n g r e g a t i o n s ) , R o b e r t V . M o s s ( p r e s i d e n t o f
t h e U n i t e d C h u r c h o f C h r i s t ) , W i l l i a m T h o m p s o n ( s t a t e d c l e r k o f
t h e U n i t e d P r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h ) , R o b e r t N e l s o n W e s t ( p r e s i d e n t
o f t h e U n i t a r i a n U n i v e r s a l i s t A s s o c i a t i o n ) , a n d " t h e s o c i a l a c t i o n
d i r e c t o r s o f t h e s e v e n p r o v i n c e s o f t h e S o c i e t y o f J e s u s . "
T h e s e c r i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s d i d n o t l a c k f o r c e f u l n e s s a n d
pungency . T h e m o r a l c o n c e r n s o f t h e n a t i o n w e r e s a i d t o b e r e -
f l e c t e d i n a s t a t e m e n t b y " a n i n t e r f a i t h g r o u p o f f o r t y - f o u r r e l i -
g i o u s l e a d e r s " t h a t d e n o u n c e d t h e b o m b i n g a s " a n u n s p e a k a b l e
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4 2 MARTIN F . HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
a s s a u l t u p o n t h i s s e a s o n ' s m e s s a g e o f p e a c e o n e a r t h " ( W a s h in g -
ton Post, Dec . 2 3 ) . O n e o f t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d n e g a t i v e
r e a c t i o n s w a s t h e d e f e c t i o n o f S e n a t o r W i l l i a m S a x b e ( R - O h i o )
f r o m t h e N i x o n c a m p a n d t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h i s l o n g s t a n d i n g
s u p p o r t o f t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s S o u t h e a s t A s i a n p o l i c y : " I h a v e
f o l l o w e d P r e s i d e n t N i x o n t h r o u g h a l l h i s c o n v o l u t i o n s a n d s p e -
c i o u s a r g u m e n t s , b u t h e a p p e a r s t o h a v e l o s t h i s s e n s e s o n t h i s . "
S a x b e w a s a l s o q u o t e d a s s a y i n g t h e d e c i s i o n t o b o m b H a n o i a n d
H a i p h o n g d e m o n s t r a t e d " a r r o g a n c e a n d i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . "
An NBC interview (Dec . 2 6 ) g a v e S e n a t o r M c G o v e r n a n o p -
p o r t u n i t y f o r a n u n u s u a l l y l o n g s t a t e m e n t i n w h i c h h e s a i d i n
p a r t :
I n t h e l a s t t e n o r e l e v e n d a y s w e ' v e s e e n t h e m o s t m u r d e r o u s
a e r i a l b o m b a r d m e n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e w o r l d - t h e f i r s t u s e
o f B - 5 2 s , t h e l a r g e s t b o m b e r s w e h a v e , i n N o r t h V i e t n a m . I
t h i n k t h i s p o l i c y h a s n o t o n l y d e s t r o y e d a n y i m m e d i a t e h o p e s
f o r p e a c e , b u t I t h i n k i t ' s t h e m o s t i m m o r a l a c t i o n t h a t t h i s n a -
t i o n h a s e v e r c o m m i t t e d i n i t s n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y . I t ' s m a d e a
t r a v e s t y o f t h e w h o l e s p i r i t o f C h r i s t m a s . . . . We're bombing
i n o n e o f t h e m o s t d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d s e c t i o n s o f I n d o c h i n a , i n
the outskirts of Haiphong a nd Hanoi, wh ere most of the
p e o p l e h a v e f l e d i n o r d e r t o g e t a w a y f r o m t h e c e n t r a l c i t i e s .
I t ' s a p o l i c y o f m a s s - m u r d e r t h a t ' s b e i n g c a r r i e d o n i n t h e
na me of the American people . A n d I h o p e t h e p e o p l e o f t h i s
c o u n t r y w i l l r i s e u p a g a i n s t i t .
I t m a y b e n o t e d t h a t t h e s e n a t o r a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t B - 5 2 s w e r e
b o m b i n g n o t t h e c i t i e s p r o p e r b u t t h e i r " o u t s k i r t s , " b u t b e c a u s e
h e p l a c e d t h e b u l k o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g i n
t h e o u t s k i r t s , h e m a d e t h e b o m b i n g a p p e a r a s a c a l c u l a t e d e f f o r t
t o d e s t r o y c i v i l i a n s . ( I n t h i s s u g g e s t i o n M c G o v e r n w a s u n i q u e
among opponents of the bombing . ) S e n a t o r H a r o l d H u g h e s w a s
q u o t e d a s d e c l a r i n g : " I t i s u n b e l i e v a b l e s a v a g e r y t h a t w e h a v e
u n l e a s h e d o n t h i s h o l y s e a s o n ; t h e o n l y t h i n g I c a n c o m p a r e i t
w i t h i s t h e s a v a g e r y a t H i r o s h i m a a n d N a g a s a k i . " S e n a t o r M i k e
M a n s f i e l d s a i d o n A B C n e w s : " I t h i n k t h a t b o m b i n g w i l l j u s t p u t
s t e e l i n t h e i r b a c k b o n e s a n d p r o l o n g t h e w a r . " S e n a t o r J a c o b
J a v i t s s a i d: " T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a v e n o t b e e n b o m b e d i n t o
a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e t h a t o u r r e n e w e d
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REPORTING BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 4 3
a i r s t r i k e s a r e g o i n g t o h a v e t h a t e f f e c t n o w . " A s t a t e m e n t b y
Senator Mathias q uoted in the W a s h i n g ton Post su mmarized
m a n y o f t h e c o n c e r n s t h a t m o t i v a t e d t h e p r o t e s t s a n d c a l l s f o r
c o n g r e s s i o n a l a c t i o n :
E v e n i f t h e b o m b i n g i s s u c c e s s f u l i n b r i n g i n g t h e p a r t i e s b a c k
t o t h e n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e . . . t h e p r i c e w o u l d b e t o o h i g h i n l i v e s
l o s t . . . a n d t h e h i g h e s t o f a l l i n o u r l o s s o f m o r a l l e a d e r s h i p i n
t h e w o r l d .
A s i n t h e c a s e o f r e p o r t s o n r e a c t i o n s f r o m a b r o a d , t h e c o v e r a g e
of un fa vorable comments b y America n l eaders incl uded some
w h o s e i m p o r t a n c e - p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y c o u n t e r -
v ail ing items of even moderate importan ce-might be q ues-
t i o n e d . A m o n g t h e s e w e r e t h e v i e w s o f t h e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e F i r s t
N a t i o n a l B a n k o f B o s t o n , s e v e n t y - e i g h t a c t i v i s t s p i c k e t i n g t h e
h o m e o f N i x o n ' s N e w J e r s e y c a m p a i g n c h a i r m a n , a n d c l e r g y m e n
wh o picketed the White House (a nd thus got featured on the
C B S e v e n i n g n e w s ) .
O u r r e v i e w o f r e p o r t i n g a b o u t U . S . r e a c t i o n l e a d s u s t o t h e
c o n c l u s i o n t h a t w i t h a m i n i m u m o f e f f o r t , t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a
cou l d ha v e reported more comment f rom people wh o, while
p e r h a p s n o t e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e b o m b i n g , w o u l d n o t h a v e
b e e n s o s h a r p l y c r i t i c a l a s t h o s e w h o s e v i e w s w e r e r e p o r t e d .
T h e s e c o u l d e a s i l y h a v e b e e n f o u n d a m o n g t h e m a n y A m e r i c a n
s c h o l a r s , h i s t o r i a n s , a n d f o r e i g n - p o l i c y s p e c i a l i s t s w h o s u p p o r t e d
the Christmas bombing a s a mean s for persuad ing Hanoi to
n e g o t i a t e m o r e s e r i o u s l y .
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CHAPTER THREE
Commen t b y
t h e P r e s t i g e P r e s s
Martin F . H e r z a n d L e s l i e R i d e r
IN OUR SOCIETY THE CRUCIAL d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r e p o r t -
i n g t h e n e w s a n d c o m m e n t i n g o n i t i s a c c e p t e d i n t h e o r y a n d
f r e q u e n t l y v i o l a t e d i n p r a c t i c e . T h e s t a n d a r d s f o r r e s p o n s i b l e r e -
p o r t i n g a r e s p e l l e d o u t i n t h e v a r i o u s b r o a d c a s t i n g a n d p r i n t m e d i a
c o d e s . T h e y f o c u s o n a b a l a n c e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f a c t s a n d v i e w s
a b o u t s i g n i f i c a n t e v e n t s o r d e v e l o p m e n t s . B u t t h e r e a r e n o s i m i l a r
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e d i t o r i a l s , i n w h i c h o p i n i o n s a b o u t e v e n t s c a n b e
f r e e l y g i v e n , t h o u g h u n d e r t h e F C C ' s F a i r n e s s D o c t r i n e , a s n o t e d
i n c h a p t e r 1 , a b r o a d c a s t e r i s r e q u i r e d t o l a b e l c o m m e n t a s s u c h
a n d t o p r o v i d e a " r e a s o n a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y " f o r d i v e r s e o p i n i o n s t o
b e a i r e d .
T h e f o l l o w i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a ' s e d i t o r i a l p e r f o r -
m a n c e t a k e s t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s i n t o a c c o u n t . T h e v i e w s o f t h e NewYork Times a n d t h e Wa sh ington Post t o w a r d t h e V i e t n a m W a r
w e r e w e l l k n o w n , a n d i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n s u r p r i s i n g h a d t h o s e
p a p e r s - o r W a l t e r C r o n k i t e o n C B S - h a d a n y t h i n g g o o d t o s a y
a b o u t t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s h a n d l i n g o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s o r a b o u t
t h e b o m b i n g i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 . N o o n e c a n c r i t i c i z e a n e d i t o r i a l
w r i t e r f o r v o i c i n g s t r o n g o p i n i o n s .
H o w e v e r , t h e c o n f i d e n c e w i t h w h i c h e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r s a n d c o l -
u m n i s t s a s s u m e d c e r t a i n a s s e r t i o n s a b o u t t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g
t o b e f a c t s i s , i n r e t r o s p e c t , r e m a r k a b l e . T h i s c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e
s e l e c t i v e n e w s r e p o r t i n g t h a t w e e x a m i n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r
c r e a t e d a c o n t i n u i n g o n e - s i d e d i n f l u e n c e o n e l i t e p u b l i c o p i n i o n .
4 4
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COMMENT BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 4 5
O p i n i o n s i n the Times
T h e f i r s t Times e d i t o r i a l o n t h e b o m b i n g ( " D e c e p t i o n o r N a i v e -
t 6 ? , " Dec . 1 9 ) w a s s c a t h i n g o n a l l c o u n t s . T h e b o m b i n g " i s n o t
l i k e l y t o h a s t e n - a n d c o u l d i n d e f i n i t e l y p o s t p o n e - t h e ` j u s t a n d
f a i r ' a g r e e m e n t t h a t H e n r y K i s s i n g e r h a s s a i d i s t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s
o b j e c t i v e , " s a i d t h e Times . F u r t h e r m o r e , W a s h i n g t o n w a s a t f a u l t
f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s :
B u t i t w a s W a s h i n g t o n t h a t i n t r o d u c e d M r . T h i e u ' s s u b s t a n t i v e
d e m a n d s i n t o t h e P a r i s t a l k s , u p s e t t i n g t h e t e n t a t i v e a g r e e m e n t
t h a t h a d b e e n h a m m e r e d o u t i n O c t o b e r a n d o p e n i n g t h e w a y t o
c o u n t e r d e m a n d s f r o m t h e o t h e r s i d e . I t i s P r e s i d e n t N i x o n ,
a c c o r d i n g t o a l l a v a i l a b l e t e s t i m o n y , w h o i s n o w i n s i s t i n g t h a t a
f i n a l a c c o r d s o m e h o w r e q u i r e H a n o i t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t S a i g o n i s
t o r e m a i n i n c o n t r o l o f t h e S o u t h .
H o w e v e r d e v o u t l y t o b e w i s h e d , t h i s i s a n u n r e a l i s t i c c o n d i t i o n
t h a t a t t e m p t s t o i m p o s e a t t h e p e a c e t a b l e a p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n
t h a t h a s n o t b e e n w o n - a n d c a n n o t b e w o n - o n t h e f i e l d o f
b a t t l e .
Th e Times r i d i c u l e d K i s s i n g e r f o r h a v i n g s a i d t h a t h i s c a l l f o r
l a n g u a g e i n t h e a g r e e m e n t t h a t w o u l d " m a k e c l e a r t h a t t h e t w o
p a r t s o f V i e t n a m w o u l d l i v e i n p e a c e w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d t h a t
n e i t h e r s i d e w o u l d i m p o s e i t s s o l u t i o n o n t h e o t h e r b y f o r c e " w a s
" a m o d e s t r e q u i r e m e n t , " " r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y a c h i e v a b l e . " ( T h a t K i s -
s i n g e r s a i d h e w o u l d h a v e s e t t l e d f o r a v a g u e f o r m u l a t i o n , " h o w -
e v e r a l l u s i v e , h o w e v e r i n d i r e c t , " w a s n o t m e n t i o n e d . ) W h a t , a s k e d
t h e T i m e s , d i d P r e s i d e n t N i x o n a n d h i s a d v i s e r s t h i n k t h a t t h e
h i s t o r y o f V i e t n a m f o r t h e l a s t e i g h t e e n y e a r s h a d b e e n a l l a b o u t ?
T h e p a p e r s a i d t h a t N i x o n a n d K i s s i n g e r h a d b e e n " e i t h e r d e c e p -
t i v e o r n a i v e i n t h e i r p r e - e l e c t i o n a s s u r a n c e s t o t h e A m e r i c a n
p e o p l e a b o u t t h e i m m i n e n c e o f p e a c e i n V i e t n a m . " A n d i t c o n -
c l u d e d b y s a y i n g , " P e a c e w a s n o t a t h a n d , a n d M r . K i s s i n g e r h a s
g i v e n n o c o n v i n c i n g r e a s o n s f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t i t w a s . " S o t h e
i m p l i c a t i o n w a s c o n v e y e d t h a t K i s s i n g e r , w h o m f e w h a v e a c c u s e d
o f n a i v e t e , h a d d e l i b e r a t e l y d e c e i v e d t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e .
T h i s w a s o n l y t h e o p e n i n g s a l v o o f w h a t b e c a m e a d r u m f i r e o f
s c a t h i n g c o m m e n t . T h e a l l e g e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e
b o m b i n g a n d i t s b r u t a l i t y w e r e a s s u m e d . T h e n e x t d a y ( D e c . 2 0 ) ,
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4 6 MARTIN F . HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
t h e Times a c c u s e d N i x o n o f " r e s o r t i n g o n c e m o r e t o n a k e d f o r c e "
a n d c o m m e n t e d t h a t " c i v i l i z e d m a n w i l l b e h o r r i f i e d a t t h e r e -
n e w e d s p e c t a c l e o f t h e w o r l d ' s m i g h t i e s t a i r f o r c e m e r c i l e s s l y
p o u n d i n g a s m a l l A s i a n n a t i o n i n a n a b u s e o f n a t i o n a l p o w e r a n d
d i s r e g a r d o f h u m a n i t a r i a n p r i n c i p l e s . " N o r t h V i e t n a m m a y y e t b e
b o m b e d " b a c k t o t h e s t o n e a g e , " a s a n A i r F o r c e g e n e r a l o n c e
s u g g e s t e d , s a i d t h e Times, b u t " i n t h e p r o c e s s , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
i t s e l f i s i n d a n g e r o f b e i n g r e d u c e d t o t h e k i n d o f s t o n e a g e b a r -
b a r i s m t h a t c o u l d d e s t r o y s o m e o f w h a t i s m o s t w o r t h p r e s e r v i n g i n
A m e r i c a n c i v i l i z a t i o n . "
I n " T e r r o r F r o m t h e S k i e s " ( D e c . 2 2 ; r e p r i n t e d a s A p p e n d i x
D o f t h i s s t u d y ) , t h e Times s a i d t h a t " n o r m a l l y " B - 5 2 s o p e r a t e i n
f l i g h t s o f t h r e e t h a t l a y d o w n a p a t t e r n o f b o m b s - t w e n t y t o n s t o
a p l a n e - " w h i c h s c a t t e r o v e r a n a r e a m o r e t h a n h a l f a m i l e w i d e
a n d m o r e t h a n a m i l e a n d a h a l f l o n g . " C l a i m i n g ( q u i t e e r r o n e -
o u s l y ) t h a t A m e r i c a n p l a n e s h a d d r o p p e d 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f e x p l o -
s i v e s i n t h e f i r s t t w o d a y s a l o n e , t h e p a p e r s a i d t h a t t h i s w a s t h e
" e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e H i r o s h i m a b o m b " - i m p l y i n g t h a t t e n s o f
t h o u s a n d s o f c i v i l i a n s w e r e b e i n g s l a u g h t e r e d . " I m a g i n e what
w o u l d h a p p e n t o N e w Y o r k o r a n y o t h e r A m e r i c a n c i t y , " t h e
Times s a i d , " i f a c o m p a r a b l e e n e m y f o r c e w e r e u n l e a s h e d t o a t -
t a c k s u c h t a r g e t s o n t h e P e n t a g o n ' s a u t h o r i z e d l i s t a s r a i l y a r d s ,
s h i p y a r d s , c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l f a c i l i t i e s , w a r e h o u s e a n d t r a n s -
s h i p m e n t a r e a s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t i e s , v e h i c l e - r e p a i r f a c i l i -
t i e s , p o w e r p l a n t s , r a i l w a y b r i d g e s , r a i l w a y r o l l i n g s t o c k , t r u c k
p a r k s , a i r b a s e s , a i r - d e f e n s e r a d a r s , a n d g u n a n d m i s s i l e s i t e s . " T h e
r e a d e r w o u l d b e l i k e l y t o s u p p o s e t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s d e s t r o y i n g
H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g . T h e e d i t o r i a l c o n c l u d e d r e s o u n d i n g l y :
N o m a t t e r w h o i s t o b l a m e f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n i n t a l k s , t h i s
m a s s i v e , i n d i s c r i m i n a t e u s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' o v e r w h e l m -
i n g a e r i a l m i g h t t o t r y t o i m p o s e a n A m e r i c a n s o l u t i o n t o V i e t -
n a m ' s p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s i s t e r r o r i s m o n a n u n p r e c e d e n t e d s c a l e ,
a r e t r e a t f r o m d i p l o m a c y . . . . I n t h e n a m e o f c o n s c i e n c e a n d
c o u n t r y , A m e r i c a n s m u s t n o w s p e a k o u t f o r s a n i t y i n W a s h i n g -
t o n a n d p e a c e i n I n d o c h i n a .
O n t h e s a m e d a y , t h e Times r e p o r t e d o n a n e d i t o r i a l f r o m LeMonde ( P a r i s ) t h a t c o m p a r e d t h e b o m b i n g w i t h t h e a t r o c i t y a t
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COMMENT BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 4 7
G u e r n i c a d u r i n g t h e S p a n i s h c i v i l w a r a n d s p o k e o f " c o v e r i n g
t h i s d e n s e c r o w d w i t h a c a r p e t o f b o m b s , " c o n c l u d i n g t h a t N o r t h
Vietnam wa s being "martyred" by an "a bomination" becau se
Nixon w as bypassing the U . S . C o n s t i t u t i o n " b y t h e l o g i c o f a n
i m p e r i a l s y s t e m . " A s n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 2 , Times c o l u m n i s t A n -
thony Lewis (Dec . 2 3 ) d e p l o r e d t h e a b s e n c e o f a p u b l i c o u t c r y
a g a i n s t " a p o l i c y t h a t m a n y m u s t k n o w h i s t o r y w i l l j u d g e a c r i m e
a g a i n s t h u m a n i t y ." Wh at wa s the purpose of the bombing? he
asked : " I t i s o n l y , H e n r y K i s s i n g e r s a y s , t o m a k e s u r e t h e A m e r -
i c a n d e p a r t u r e i s ` h o n o r a b l e . ' F o r t h a t w e h a v e c a u s e d , a r e c a u s -
i n g a n d p r e s u m a b l y w i l l c o n t i n u e t o c a u s e t h e m o s t t e r r i b l e d e -
s t r u c t i o n i n t h e h i s t o r y o f m a n . "
T h e e m o t i o n s o f C h r i s t m a s w e r e i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h o p p o s i t i o n
t o t h e w a r a n d t h e b o m b i n g i n c o l u m n s b y L e w i s , " G o o d W i l l t o
Men" (Dec . 2 5 ) , a n d T o m W i c k e r , " S h a m e o n E a r t h " ( D e c . 2 6 ) .
L e w i s s a i d :
America ns are us ed to regarding themselves as the good
n e i g h b o r s o f t h e w o r l d , i n n o c e n t a n d h e l p f u l . H o w t e r r i b l e i t i s
t o r e a l i z e t h i s C h r i s t m a s t h a t i n t h e e y e s o f m o s t o f t h e w o r l d
t h e C h r i s t i a n p e a c e o f f e r e d b y t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s t h e p e a c e
o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n : c o n f o r m i t y o r t o r m e n t e d d e a t h .
And W icker :
T h e r e i s n o p e a c e . There is sh ame on earth, and American
s h a m e , p e r h a p s e n d u r i n g , s u r e l y p e r s o n a l a n d i m m e d i a t e a n d
i n e s c a p a b l e . W h a t e v e r h a p p e n e d i n P a r i s , i t i s n o t t h e y w h o i n
w i l l f u l a n g e r a r e b l a s t i n g o u r c i t i e s a n d o u r p e o p l e . I t i s w e
w h o h a v e l o o s e d t h e h o l o c a u s t .
On December 24 , a Times a r t i c l e b y L e s l i e G e l b a n d A n t h o n y
L a k e c l a i m e d t h a t N i x o n w a s s e e k i n g a N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e " s u r -
r e n d e r " a n d w i t h t h e b o m b i n g w a s " l a s h i n g o u t a t N o r t h V i e t -
n a m l i k e a s p o i l e d c h i l d w h o c a n n o t g e t h i s w a y ." On December
2 7 , t h e p a p e r e x h o r t e d t h e C o n g r e s s t o p u t a n e n d t o t h e w a r b y
l i n k i n g f u r t h e r f u n d s t o t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f a s e t t l e m e n t a n d t h e
r e t u r n o f t h e p r i s o n e r s o f w a r . O n i t s o p - e d p a g e w e r e t h e a p p e a l
o f t h e s c i e n t i s t s m e n t i o n e d i n c h a p t e r 2 a n d a n a r t i c l e b y G e n e r a l
M a x w e l l T a y l o r , w h o a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o n e e d f o r a n y w r i t -
t e n a g r e e m e n t t o w i t h d r a w t h e r e m a i n i n g A m e r i c a n f o r c e s .
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4 8 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
O p i n i o n s i n t h e Post
Th e Wa sh ington Post d i d n o t l a g b e h i n d t h e Times i n v i g o r o u s
c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e b o m b i n g . I t a c c e p t e d a s f a c t v i r t u a l l y e v e r y -
t h i n g t h a t H a n o i a n d t h e A m e r i c a n a n t i - w a r m o v e m e n t w e r e
c l a i m i n g . A l o n g e d i t o r i a l e n t i t l e d " T h e G r e a t P e a c e C h a r a d e "
(Dec . 1 9 ) m a d e t w o s o m e w h a t c o n t r a d i c t o r y p o i n t s : t h a t K i s -
s i n g e r h a d b e e n n a i v e o r d i s i n g e n u o u s i n a s c r i b i n g " s o m e d a r k
a n d d u b i o u s b a r g a i n i n g t r i c k s " t o t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e , s i n c e
h e o f a l l p e o p l e s h o u l d h a v e r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e y " a r e n o t b e h a v i n g
l i k e p e r f e c t g e n t l e m e n " - a n d t h a t h e h a d c r a f t i l y t r i e d t o t r i c k
t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e i n t o c o n c e d i n g , u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f a m i n o r
a m e n d m e n t t o t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e c r u c i a l p o i n t o f t h e w h o l e w a r ,
n a m e l y " n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t h e p o l i t i c a l f u t u r e o f S o u t h V i e t -
n a m . " T h e p a p e r c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h i s , r a t h e r t h a n a n y a l l e g e d
North Vietna mese obs tru ction, h ad tran sf ormed the e n t i r e
n e g o t i a t i n g p r o c e s s i n t o a " c h a r a d e . " T h e o p p o s e d o b j e c t i v e s o f
N o r t h a n d S o u t h V i e t n a m , t h e e d i t o r i a l s a i d , c a n n o t b e r e c o n -
c i l e d : " t h e r e i s n o c o n c e i v a b l e s e t t l e m e n t s h o r t o f a n u n w i n n a b l e
v i c t o r y . " T h e P r e s i d e n t m u s t " a c c e p t t h i s h a r s h r e a l i t y " - a n d ,
presumably, withdraw from Vietnam on North Vietnamese
t e r m s .
L i k e t h e T i m e s , t h e Post d i d n o t a c c u s e K i s s i n g e r o u t r i g h t o f
d e c e p t i o n i n h i s " p e a c e i s a t h a n d " s t a t e m e n t i n O c t o b e r , b u t i t
c a m e s o c l o s e t h a t t h e e f f e c t w a s t h e s a m e . I t s a i d , f i r s t , t h a t a
c h a r a d e w a s a g a m e t h a t " t a k e s t w o t e a m s t o p l a y , " a d d i n g t h a t
" Mr . N i x o n a n d D r . K i s s i n g e r h a v e m a d e t h e i r o w n c o n s i d e r a b l e
c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a d e . " R e f e r r i n g t h e n t o K i s s i n -
g e r ' s O c t o b e r s t a t e m e n t , t h e Post s a i d : " . . . i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o
r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l p i e c e o f p a n t o m i n e , i f y o u w i l l , w a s
p l a y e d o u t o n t e l e v i s i o n o n t h e e v e o f t h e n a t i o n a l e l e c t i o n , w i t h
t h e m o s t c a r e f u l c a l c u l a t i o n , w i t h w h a t h a d t o b e e n o r m o u s p o l i t i -
c a l e f f e c t . " T h e i m p l i c a t i o n w a s c l e a r : K i s s i n g e r h a d b e e n l e s s t h a n
t r u t h f u l . A t t h e l e a s t , t h e p a p e r s a i d , " h e a n d t h e P r e s i d e n t h a v e
b e e n t a k e n f o r a l o n g h a r d r i d e b y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e ; i n s h o r t ,
t h e y h a v e b e e n h a d , b y D r . K i s s i n g e r ' s o w n a d m i s s i o n . " B u t t h e
r e a s o n f o r t h i s w a s n o t a r t f u l n e s s o r d u p l i c i t y o n t h e p a r t o f t h e
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COMMENT BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 4 9
N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e ; i t w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n n e g o t i a t o r s
h a d m a d e u n r e a l i s t i c d e m a n d s .
I n " T e r r o r B o m b i n g i n t h e N a m e o f P e a c e " ( D e c . 2 8 ; r e p r i n t e d
a s A p p e n d i x E ) t h e Post c a l l e d t h e b o m b i n g " t h e m o s t s a v a g e a n d
s e n s e l e s s a c t o f w a r e v e r v i s i t e d , o v e r a s c a n t t e n d a y s , b y o n e
s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e u p o n a n o t h e r . " I t a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e c o u l d b e n o
r e s o l u t i o n t o t h e f i g h t i n g t h a t w o u l d y i e l d m o r e t h a n a m b i g u i t y :
T o p r e t e n d t h a t w e a r e d o i n g o t h e r w i s e - t h a t w e a r e m a k i n g
" e n d u r i n g p e a c e " b y c a r p e t - b o m b i n g o u r w a y a c r o s s d o w n t o w n
H a n o i w i t h B - 5 2 s - i s t o p r a c t i c e y e t o n e m o r e c r u e l d e c e p t i o n
u p o n a n A m e r i c a n p u b l i c a l r e a d y c r u e l l y d e c e i v e d . I t i s , i n b r i e f ,
t o c o m p o u n d w h a t i s p e r h a p s t h e r e a l i m m o r a l i t y o f t h i s a d m i n i s -
t r a t i o n ' s p o l i c y - t h e c o n t i n u i n g r e a d i n e s s t o d i s s e m b l e , t o t a l k
o f " m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s " w h e n w h a t w e a r e h i t t i n g a r e r e s i d e n t i a l
c e n t e r s a n d h o s p i t a l s a n d c o m m e r c i a l a i r p o r t s ; t o s p e a k o f o u r
d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e r e t u r n o f o u r P O W s a n d o u r m i s s i n g i n a c t i o n
e v e n w h i l e w e a d d m o r e t h a n s e v e n t y t o t h e i r n u m b e r i n l i t t l e
m o r e t h a n a w e e k .
T h i s p a r a g r a p h e p i t o m i z e s t h e Wa sh ington Post's s t a n c e . T h e
Post a c c e p t e d i t a s f a c t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s , a s N o r t h
V i e t n a m w a s c l a i m i n g , " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s o f
Hanoi ; i t a c c u s e d t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f " c r u e l d e c e p t i o n " a b o u t
t h e c a u s e s o f t h e b r e a k d o w n i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s ; i t w a s c o n -
v i n c e d - a s w e s a w i n i t s D e c e m b e r 1 9 e d i t o r i a l - t h a t t h e b o m b i n g
w o u l d n o t l e a d t o a n a g r e e m e n t ; a n d i t d i s b e l i e v e d t h e A d m i n i s -
t r a t i o n ' s s t a t e m e n t s t h a t o u r b o m b e r s w e r e a iming o n l y a t m i l i t a r y
t a r g e t s . T h e e d i t o r i a l c a l l e d t h e b o m b i n g " t h e h e a v i e s t a e r i a l
o n s l a u g h t o f t h i s o r a n y o t h e r w a r , " t h u s c o n j u r i n g u p t h e i d e a t h a t
t h e c a s u a l t i e s m u s t b e o n t h e o r d e r o f t h o s e i n f l i c t e d o n D r e s d e n ,
T o k y o , a n d H i r o s h i m a ( t h o u g h a p a r a l l e l w i t h t h o s e W o r l d W a r I I
b o m b i n g s w a s n o t e x p l i c i t l y d r a w n ) . T h e p a t t e r n w a s c l e a r . T h e
Post, l i k e t h e Times, h a d f o r y e a r s g i v e n g r e a t e r c r e d e n c e t o e n e m y
c l a i m s a b o u t t h e w a r t h a n t o s t a t e m e n t s i s s u e d b y U . S . o f f i c i a l s -
n o t a l w a y s w i t h o u t j u s t i f i c a t i o n .
W h i l e e d i t o r i a l l y a s s c a t h i n g a n d d e n u n c i a t o r y a s t h e Times, t h e
Post h a d n o t h i n g t o m a t c h t h e e l o q u e n c e o f L e w i s a n d W i c k e r o n
i t s o p - e d p a g e. M o s t o f i t s c o l u m n i s t s , w h i l e h o s t i l e t o t h e b o m bi n g ,
w e r e a n a l y t i c a l a n d p r e s c r i p t i v e r a t h e r t h a n o u t r a g e d a n d c o n -
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5 0 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
demna tory . A m o n g t h e g u e s t c o l u m n i s t s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d w a s
f o r m e r a m b a s s a d o r C h a r l e s W . Y o s t ( D e c . 3 0 ) , w h o s a w " t h e c r u e l
a n d f o o l i s h " r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m a s
" t h r o w i n g d e t e n t e i n t o h a z a r d . " T h e d e t e n t e w i t h t h e S o v i e t
U n i o n a n d C h i n a h a d r e m o v e d , h e w r o t e , " t h e o n l y c o n v i n c i n g
r e a s o n f o r t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' c o n c e r n w i t h a V i e t n a m e s e w a r ,
w h i c h w a s o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d o f a s a n i n s t r u m e n t o f t h e i r e x p a n -
s i o n . O n e c a n t h e r e f o r e s a y t h a t r a r e l y i n h i s t o r y h a s s o m u c h b e e n
r i s k e d f o r s o l i t t l e . "
Among the regul ar colu mnists, Victor Zorza (Dec . 2 0 )
h y p o t h e s i z e d w h a t n o o n e c o u l d p o s s i b l y h a v e k n o w n : t h a t H a n o i
m a d e t h e o r i g i n a l O c t o b e r c o n c e s s i o n s " a f t e r a f i g h t i n w h i c h t h e
h a r d l i n e r s w e r e n a r r o w l y d e f e a t e d b y C o m m u n i s t ` d o v e s . " '
I t t o o k t h e H a n o i P o l i t b u r o t h r e e d a y s t o d i g e s t t h e r e p o r t s f r o m
P a r i s , a n d t o t a k e a n e w v o t e o n t h e n e w A m e r i c a n d e m a n d s ,
w h i c h w e n t f a r b e y o n d w h a t h a d b e e n p r e v i o u s l y a g r e e d . I n
t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e H a n o i h a r d l i n e r s w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e
t o a r g u e t h a t t h e y h a d b e e n r i g h t a l l a l o n g , a n d t o s w i n g t h e
P o l i t b u r o m a j o r i t y t o t h e i r s i d e .
Z o r z a c o n c l u d e d t h a t N i x o n ' s v e r y " u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y " h a d b e c o m e
p r e d i c t a b l e a n d t h a t H a n o i w o u l d n o w t r y t o e x p l o i t a h y p o t h e t i c a l
s p l i t t h a t w a s d e v e l o p i n g b e t w e e n a N i x o n " h a r d l i n e " a n d a s o f t e r
l i n e a l l e g e d l y s o u g h t b y K i s s i n g e r .
Another Post c o l u m n i s t , K e n n e t h C r a w f o r d , d e c i d e d t h a t " K i s -
s i n g e r , a M o s t U n l i k e l y V i c t i m , W a s H a d " ( D e c . 2 3 ) . C r a w f o r d d i d
n o t s h a r e t h e v i e w h e l d b y S e n a t o r M c G o v e r n ( a n d s t r o n g l y i m -
p l i e d b y t h e New York Times) t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l " p e a c e i s a t h a n d "
a n n o u n c e m e n t h a d b e e n a d e l i b e r a t e h o a x . R a t h e r , h e h e l d t h a t
K i s s i n g e r h a d b e e n l e d d o w n t h e g a r d e n p a t h b y t h e C o m m u n i s t s ,
w h o n e v e r i n t e n d e d t o s e t t l e w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n s . W h e n K i s s i n g e r
h a d t r i e d t o c l a r i f y t h e d e l i b e r a t e o b s c u r i t i e s o f t h e O c t o b e r
a g r e e m e n t , C r a w f o r d a r g u e d , " t h e C o m m u n i s t s w e n t i n t o t h e i r
p e t t i f o g g i n g , o b f u s c a t i n g , n e r v e - j a n g l i n g a c t . Anyone wh o h a s
e v e r s e e n t h i s p e r f o r m a n c e , e v e n i n a c o m m u n i s t - i n f i l t r a t e d o r -
g a n i z a t i o n , m u s t s y m p a t h i z e w i t h K i s s i n g e r . A f t e r h i s O c t o b e r
o p t i m i s m , t h e y h a d h i m s e t u p f o r t h e d o u b l e c r o s s . "
C r a w f o r d ' s c o n c l u s i o n w a s t h a t o n t h e o n e h a n d , p u b l i c o p i n i o n
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COMMENT BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 5 1
w o u l d f o r c e t h e American g o v e r n m e n t b a c k t o t h e n e g o t i a t i n g
t a b l e , i . e . , t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e r e a p i n g t a c t i c a l a d v a n -
t a g e f r o m t h e b o m b i n g ; a n d t h a t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e b o m b i n g
w a s t h e r i g h t t a c k n o w , " t h e n i t w a s a m i s t a k e t o d i s c o n t i n u e [ i t ] a s
a g e s t u r e o f g o o d w i l l w h i l e t h e P a r i s n e g o t i a t i o n s w e r e p r o c e e d -
i n g . " T h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c o l u m n w a s t h a t a t e s t o f w i l l s w a s
i n v o l v e d i n w h i c h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g N o r t h V i e t -
n a m e s e w e a k n e s s , w o u l d l o s e b e c a u s e o f t h e p r e s s u r e o f p u b l i c
o p i n i o n t o s e t t l e o n e n e m y t e r m s .
B u t " H a n o i W a s H a d " a c c o r d i n g t o a n i n f r e q u e n t c o n t r i b u t o r t o
t h e P o s t , Josiah Lee Auspitz (Dec . 2 4 ) . A u s p i t z a s s e r t e d t h a t
Nixon h ad never wanted a reasonable agreement ; r e a l i z i n g b e -
l a t e d l y t h a t t h e a g r e e m e n t K i s s i n g e r h a d n e g o t i a t e d w o u l d b r i n g
t h e d o w n f a l l o f T h i e u a n d t h e v i n d i c a t i o n o f M c G o v e r n , t h e P r e s i -
d e n t w a s n o w d o i n g " t h e u g l i e s t t h i n g A m e r i c a n s h a v e s e e n a
P r e s i d e n t d o f o r m a n y a C h r i s t m a s . " A n o t h e r i n f r e q u e n t c o n t r i -
b u t o r , F r e d B r o n f m a n , w r o t e a t l e n g t h a b o u t t h e h i d e o u s n e s s o f
t h e A m e r i c a n o r d n a n c e d r o p p e d o n N o r t h V i e t n a m , s o m e o f i t
d e s i g n e d t o " p e n e t r a t e u n d e r g r o u n d s h e l t e r s , " s o m e e m p l o y e d f o r
m a x i m u m e f f e c t o n h u m a n b o d i e s , a n d s o o n ( D e c . 2 4 ) . B r o n f m a n
c l a i m e d t h a t t h e u s e o f p l a s t i c i n b o m b s w a s e s p e c i a l l y r e p r e h e n s i -
b l e b e c a u s e , N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e d o c t o r s s a i d , " t h e f r a g m e n t s d o n o t
s h o w u p o n a n X - r a y . " ( T h e Post l a t e r c a r r i e d a P e n t a g o n s t a t e -
m e n t d e n y i n g t h a t a n y A m e r i c a n b o m b s u s e d p l a s t i c f o r s h r a p n e l ,
a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e f i n s o n b o m b s w e r e m a d e o f p l a s t i c f o r
a e r o d y n a m i c e f f e c t . )
Murrey Marder (Wa sh ington Post, Dec . 2 3 ) t o o k t h e p o s i t i o n
t h a t s i n c e K i s s i n g e r a n d t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d d i a m e t r i c a l l y
o p p o s i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , a n d
s i n c e t h e f a c t s w e r e n o t k n o w n , " t h e o p p o s i n g a r g u m e n t s m u s t b e
t a k e n o n f a i t h . B u t b l i n d f a i t h d i s a p p e a r e d y e a r s a g o - a n e a r l y
c a s u a l t y o f t h e w a r . " I n o t h e r w o r d s , M a r d e r a t l e a s t l e f t o p e n t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t H a n o i m i g h t n o t b e t e l l i n g t h e t r u t h . C o l u m n i s t
S t e w a r t A l s o p ( D e c . 2 7 ) a s k e d : W h a t w o u l d N i x o n d o i f t h e N o r t h
V i e t n a m e s e r e f u s e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e t a b l e ? " N u k e
H a n o i ? H i t t h e d i k e s ? O r j u s t g o o n b o m b i n g N o r t h V i e t n a m t i l l
h e l l f r e e z e s o v e r ? "
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5 2 MARTIN F. HERZ AND LESLIE RIDER
The Other Prestige Media
I t i s m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y e d i t o r i a l o r c o l u m n i s t c o m m e n t i n
t h e n e w s m a g a z i n e s a n d t h e n e t w o r k s b e c a u s e i n t h e s e m e d i a n e w s
a n d c o m m e n t a r e o f t e n i n t e r t w i n e d . Time (Dec . 2 5 ) g a v e t h e
K i s s i n g e r s i d e o f t h e c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e
n e g o t i a t i o n s b u t r e m a r k e d t h a t " t h e U . S . m a y b e d e m a n d i n g m o r e ,
in Han oi's view, t h a n h a s b e e n w o n o n t h e b a t t l e f i e l d . " ( I t a l i c s i n
c o m m e n t s i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h a r e a d d e d t o h i g h l i g h t " h e d g i n g . " ) I t
c o n c l u d e d t h a t " t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e h a d e v e r y r i g h t t o f e e l d i s i l -
l u s i o n e d a n d perhaps e v e n m i s l e d . " I n t h e n e x t i s s u e ( J a n . 1 , 1 9 7 3 ) ,
Time c a l l e d t h e b o m b i n g " b r u t a l " a n d n o t e d t h a t " t h e B - 5 2 i s
b e t t e r a t s a t u r a t i o n b o m b i n g t h a n p i n p o i n t a t t a c k : H a n o i ' s c l a i m o f
h i g h c i v i l i a n c a s u a l t i e s w a s propagan distic bu t pla us ible . " W r i t i n g
l i k e t h i s m a k e s i t d i f f i c u l t t o c a t e g o r i z e t h e e d i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n . T h e
s a m e w a s t r u e o f Newsweek . I t a s k e d s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s , " W a s
K i s s i n g e r ' s ` p e a c e i s a t h a n d ' d e c l a r a t i o n j u s t b e f o r e e l e c t i o n d a y
o n l y a p o l i t i c a l g a m b i t ? " ( D e c . 2 5 ) . I n i t s J a n u a r y 1 i s s u e , i t
r e v i e w e d t h e c h r o n o l o g y o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d t h e i r b r e a k d o w n
a n d n o t e d t h a t " t h e s a v a g e , w r e n c h i n g t u r n a b o u t o n t h e p a t h
t o w a r d a s e t t l e m e n t c o n f i r m e d t h e b e l i e f o f m a n y A m e r i c a n s -
well founded or not-that t h e y c o u l d n o t t r u s t t h e i r o w n g o v e r n -
ment . " A l t h o u g h Time and Newsweek d i d n o t s upport W a s h i n g -
t o n ' s p o s i t i o n , t h e i r c o m m e n t w a s d i s t i n c t l y l e s s n e g a t i v e t h a n w h a t
w a s s a i d i n t h e New York Times a n d t h e W a s h in g t on Post .
T o i d e n t i f y " e d i t o r i a l " o p i n i o n s i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t s o f t h e C B S
a f t e r n o o n a n d e v e n i n g n e w s s h o w s i s d i f f i c u l t , s i n c e t h o s e s h o w s
c o n s i s t e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y o f v i s u a l n e w s s t o r i e s . M a n y s t o r i e s w e r e
n e g a t i v e : t h e p r o n o u n c e m e n t s o f w a r c r i t i c s , r e p o r t s a b o u t t h e
f a m i l i e s o f p r i s o n e r s , C o m m u n i s t a n d o t h e r f o r e i g n d e n u n c i a t i o n s
o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , r e p o r t s o f p r o t e s t s i n A m e r i c a , a n d t h e l i k e .
B u t t h i s c o m e s u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f s e l e c t i v e n e w s r e p o r t i n g r a t h e r
t h a n d i r e c t e d i t o r i a l i z i n g . T h e o n l y o u t r i g h t C B S e d i t o r i a l s w e r e
t h o s e o f E r i c S e v a r e i d , w h o s e t e c h n i q u e , a s r e q u i r e d b y t h e
m e d i u m , i s " c o o l " a n d t h u s f o r t h e m o s t p a r t o n e o f i n d i r e c t i o n a n d
i m p l i c a t i o n . S u c h " c o m m e n t " c a n n o t b e a n a l y z e d i n d e p t h h e r e ;
t h e t o n e i s a p p a r e n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g S e v a r e i d p a s s a g e ( D e c . 2 2 ) :
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COMMENT BY THE PRESTIGE PRESS 5 3
T h e g r e a t g o v e r n m e n t b u i l d i n g s h e r e h a v e g o n e d a r k ; t h e t r a f f i c
c r a w l s a l o n g i n t h e c o l d d r i z z l e a s t h e p e o p l e w h o m a n t h i s
g o v e r n m e n t h e a d f o r t h e i r h o m e s a n d t h e l o n g C h r i s t m a s h o l i -
d a y . T h e a i r o f d e j e c t i o n h e r e c o m p a r e s i n s o m e m e a s u r e a t l e a s t
w i t h t h e C h r i s t m a s o f ' 4 1 w h e n o u r n a v y l a y s m a s h e d a t P e a r l
H a r b o r a n d t h e n i g h t w h e n e v e r y o n e t h o u g h t t h e w a r i n E u r o p e
w a s a l l b u t o v e r , a n d l e a r n e d i n s t e a d t h a t t h e N a z i s h a d s m a s h e d
b a c k i n t h e B a t t l e o f t h e B u l g e a n d p e a c e a g a i n r e c e d e d . T h e h i g h
h o p e s o f e a r l y a u t u m n a r e i n r u i n s . I n m o s t a r e a s o f t h i s g o v e r n -
m e n t , t h e v e r y h i g h l e v e l s i n c l u d e d , t h e f e e l i n g i s o n e o f d i s m a y ,
t i n g e d w i t h s h a m e t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i s a g a i n r e s o r t i n g t o
m a s s k i l l i n g . [ T h e ] c r e d i b i l i t y g a p i s o p e n i n g w i d e , a n d u n l e s s
t h e r e ' s a r e s o l u t i o n q u i c k l y , a g o o d m a n y r e p u t a t i o n s w i l l s l i d e
d o w n i t s s l o p e s . T h e s e n s e o f s h o c k h a s n o t y e t t u r n e d i n t o
o r g a n i z e d p r o t e s t , p a r t l y b e c a u s e i t i s t h e h o l i d a y s e a s o n . T h e
C o n g r e s s i s o u t ; t h e c o l l e g e s a r e c l o s e d . W e k n o w l i t t l e o f w h a t i s
h a p p e n i n g i n N o r t h V i e t n a m , s a v e w h a t H a n o i R a d i o c l a i m s .
A m e r i c a n m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a r e h e l d t o v i r t u a l s i l e n c e , a n d t h e
P r e s i d e n t h i m s e l f m a i n t a i n s t o t a l s i l e n c e . . . . I f s e r i o u s a n d p r o -
d u c t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e n o t r e s u m e d , t h e n t h e h a u n t i n g q u e s t i o n
i s , W h a t h i g h e r b a r g a i n i n g c a r d s o r w e a p o n s d o w e p o s s e s s ?
D o e s t h e w i l l e x i s t t o u s e t h e m ; a n d a t w h a t c o s t t o t h e A s i a n
c o u n t r y a n d t o o u r s e l v e s ?
T h e p i c t u r e i s o n e o f a l m o s t u n r e l i e v e d g l o o m , w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f
m o r e i n t e n s i v e p r e s s u r e o n N o r t h V i e t n a m ( n u c l e a r w e a p o n s ? )
r a i s e d s u b t l y . In a su bsequent comment (Dec . 2 9 ; r e p r i n t e d a s
Appendix F) Sevareid was somewh at more outspoken :
I s i t p o s s i b l e t o g e t w h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t c a l l s a n h o n o r a b l e p e a c e
b y d i s h o n o r a b l e m e a n s ? H o w i s i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e s e r v e A m e r i c a n
l e a d e r s h i p a n d c r e d i b i l i t y i n t h e w o r l d , w h i c h t h e P r e s i d e n t s a y s
i s t h e i m p o r t a n t g o a l , w h e n t h e m o r a l b a s e f o r t h a t n a t i o n a l
p o s t u r e i s b e i n g h a c k e d a w a y ?
T o r a i s e q u e s t i o n s i n s u c h r h e t o r i c a l t e r m s i s t o a n s w e r t h e m .
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CHAPTER FOUR
What Really Happened
Martin F . Herz
DURING THE ELEVEN DAYS o f t h e b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t -
n a m , D e c e m b e r 1 8 t o 2 9 , 1 9 7 2 ( t h e r e w a s n o a c t i o n o n C h r i s t -
m a s d a y ) , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d r o p p e d o v e r 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f b o m b s
o n t a r g e t s i n t h e H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a . T h i s w a s b y f a r t h e
l a r g e s t a n d m o s t c o n c e n t r a t e d b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n o f t h e w a r . I n
t o n s o f o r d n a n c e d r o p p e d , t h e o p e r a t i o n c a n b e c o m p a r e d t o
s o m e o f t h e h e a v i e s t b o m b i n g s o f W o r l d W a r I I . T h e r e w e r e 7 2 4
s o r t i e s b y B - 5 2 s ( m o s t o f t h e m c a r r y i n g t h i r t y t o n s o f b o m b s )
a n d 6 4 0 s t r i k e s o r t i e s b y o t h e r a i r c r a f t ( A - 7 s , F - 4 s , F - 1 1 1 s ) p l u s
1 , 3 8 4 s o r t i e s b y o t h e r a i r c r a f t ( r e c o n n a i s s a n c e , S A M / f l a k s u p -
p r e s s i o n , e s c o r t , c o m b a t a i r p a t r o l , e l e c t r o n i c c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s ,
s e a r c h a n d r e s c u e , a n d o t h e r s ) .
D e s p i t e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s e f f o r t , t h e n u m b e r o f c i v i l i a n s
k i l l e d i n H a n o i , b y t h e o f f i c i a l N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a c c o u n t o f J a n u -
a r y 4 , w a s 1 , 3 1 8 . T h e n u m b e r o f w o u n d e d w a s g i v e n a s 1 , 2 6 1 . ( T h e
n u m b e r k i l l e d i n H a i p h o n g w a s 3 0 5 . ) M u c h a s o n e m u s t d e p l o r e
t h e l o s s o f c i v i l i a n l i v e s - i n d e e d , o f a l l l i v e s - i n a w a r , t h e e x t r a o r -
d i n a r y a s p e c t o f t h e s e f i g u r e s i s t h a t t h e y w e r e s o l o w , c o n s i d -
e r i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e b o m b i n g e f f o r t . T h e r e i s s i m p l y n o c o m -
p a r i s o n w i t h t h e c i v i l i a n t o l l t a k e n b y t h e m a j o r b o m b i n g r a i d s i n
G e r m a n y a n d J a p a n d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I .
T h a t t h e n u m b e r o f d e a d m u s t h a v e b e e n s m a l l b e c a m e a p p a r -
ent du ring the bombing c ampaign bu t wa s overlooked or
d o w n p l a y e d b y t h e m e d i a . F o r i n s t a n c e , o n D e c e m b e r 2 1 t h e
New York Times c a r r i e d o n i t s f r o n t p a g e a r e p o r t f r o m t h e
S o v i e t p r e s s a g e n c y T a s s c h a r g i n g t h a t t h e r a i d s h a d c a u s e d
5 4
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WHAT REALLY HAPPENED 5 5
" h e a v y " c i v i l i a n c a s u a l t i e s a n d d a m a g e d " t h o u s a n d s " o f h o m e s ;
m a n y p a g e s l a t e r - o n p a g e 1 6 - t h e r e a p p e a r e d a n i n c o n s p i c u o u s
A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s r e p o r t t h a t H a n o i h a d c l a i m e d o n l y 2 6 0 d e a t h s
i n H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g a s a r e s u l t o f t h e m a s s i v e r a i d s u p t o t h a t
t i m e .
Wh y Civilian Death s Were Low
A m o n g t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e e x c e e d i n g l y l o w n u m b e r o f f a t a l i t i e s
a r e t h e s e :
1 . H a n o i ' s c i v i l d e f e n s e m e a s u r e s w e r e e f f e c t i v e . M a y o r T r a n
D u y H o n g e x p l a i n e d t o a Wa sh ington Post r e p o r t e r o n F e b r u a r y
4 , 1 9 7 3 : "W hen American bombs struck in December, two-
t h i r d s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n e v a c u a t e d . T h i s e x p l a i n s w h y
d e s p i t e t h e B - 5 2 s f e w p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d . " T h e e v a c u a t i o n c o n -
t i n u e d a f t e r t h e b o m b i n g b e g a n , s o t h a t b y t h e e n d o f D e c e m b e r
p r o b a b l y t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n e v a c u a t e d .
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g , i n c i d e n t a l l y , t o n o t e t h a t t h e m a y o r o f H a n o i
r e p o r t e d a f t e r t h e a r m i s t i c e ( W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , Feb . 3 , 1 9 7 3 ) t h a t
i n D e c e m b e r h e h a d r e c e i v e d a d v i c e f r o m A m e r i c a n " c o m r a d e s "
t o c l a i m a f i g u r e o f 1 0 , 0 0 0 d e a d b u t t h a t h e h a d r e f u s e d , s a y i n g
t h i s w o u l d h a r m N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e c r e d i b i l i t y - s o t h a t , i f t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s l a t e r r e a l l y k i l l e d 1 0 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s , " n o b o d y w o u l d
b e l i e v e u s . "
2 . B - 5 2 s w e r e a s s i g n e d t o " a r e a " t a r g e t s o u t s i d e H a n o i a n d
H a i p h o n g p r o p e r o r i n t h e i r o u t s k i r t s ; * t h e m o r e p r e c i s e a n d a c -
c u r a t e f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s w e r e u s e d o n t a r g e t s i n o r n e a r d e n s e l y
p o p u l a t e d a r e a s . D e s p i t e c h a r g e s o f " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " b y B - 5 2 s
i n s i d e H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g , t a r g e t s s u c h a s t h e H a n o i p o w e r s t a -
t i o n w e r e g i v e n n o t t o B - 5 2 s , w h i c h b o m b e d a t n i g h t b y r a d a r ,
b u t t o s m a l l e r p l a n e s t h a t b o m b e d v i s u a l l y b y d a y . T h e p o w e r
s t a t i o n w a s a t t a c k e d a n d d e s t r o y e d b y o n e f l i g h t o f F - 4 s u s i n g
" s m a r t " ( l a s e r - g u i d e d ) b o m b s d u r i n g o n e o f t h e v e r y s h o r t
p e r i o d s o f g o o d v i s i b i l i t y .
* A s n o t e d e a r l i e r , t h e H a n o i c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t y m a y w e l l h a v e b e e n a n
e x c e p t i o n t o t h i s r u l e .
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5 6 MARTIN F . HERZ
T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t B - 5 2 s w e r e n e v e r u s e d a g a i n s t t a r g e t s
t h a t w e r e n e a r c i v i l i a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . I n s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s B - 5 2 s
w e r e a s s i g n e d " a r e a t a r g e t s , " s u c h a s t h e K i m N o s t o r a g e a r e a
a n d t h e H a n o i p e t r o l e u m p r o d u c t s a r e a , t h a t , t h o u g h o n t h e o u t -
skirts of the city, were s t i l l c l o s e e n o u g h t o c i v i l i a n
i n s t a l l a t i o n s - s u c h a s t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l - t h a t c o l l a t e r a l
d a m a g e o c c u r r e d , a p p a r e n t l y f r o m b o m b s r e l e a s e d b y e r r o r o r
a c c i d e n t . T h e t o w n o f T h a i N g u y e n , l o c a t e d n e x t t o t h e T h a i
N g u y e n e l e c t r i c p o w e r p l a n t , f a l l s i n t o a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t c a t e -
g o r y . I t s u s t a i n e d m a j o r d a m a g e a n d l o s s o f c i v i l i a n l i f e t h r o u g h
r e p e a t e d e f f o r t s t o p u t t h e p o w e r p l a n t o u t o f c o m m i s s i o n ; t h e
q u e s t i o n a r i s e s w h e t h e r i t w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n b e t t e r t o w a i t f o r
t h e w e a t h e r t o c l e a r s o t h a t t h e p l a n t c o u l d b e a t t a c k e d w i t h
" s m a r t " b o m b s l a u n c h e d b y f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s . ( I t a p p e a r s , i n f a c t ,
t h a t a f t e r t h e B - 5 2 s f a i l e d t o d e s t r o y t h e t h e r m a l p o w e r p l a n t ,
F - 1 1 1 s w e r e c a l l e d i n t o c o m p l e t e t h e j o b . ) B u t c l e a r l y t a r g e t s
w i t h i n h e a v i l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s o r c l o s e t o s u c h c e n t e r s w e r e , w i t h
o n e o r t w o e x c e p t i o n s , n o t a s s i g n e d t o B - 5 2 s . T h i s p o i n t w a s m a d e
c l e a r b y t h e t a r g e t l i s t . ( A n d i f t h a t l i s t h a d b e e n f a k e d t h e m e d i a
w o u l d u n d o u b t e d l y h a v e f o u n d i t o u t . )
D e s p i t e t h e i n s i s t e n c e o f s o u r c e s i n t h e S t r a t e g i c A i r F o r c e
t h a t t h e B - 5 2 i s s u p e r i o r i n a c c u r a c y t o f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s , t h e r e i s
n o d o u b t i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s s t u d y t h a t t h e
f i g h t e r - b o m b e r s ( e v e n w h e n not us ing " smart" b ombs) w ere
m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n t h e s t r a t o s p h e r i c B - 5 2 D s , w h o s e h u g e m i x e d
l o a d o f 1 0 8 b o m b s o f 7 5 0 a n d 5 0 0 p o u n d s h a d a s u b s t a n t i a l
a m o u n t o f s c a t t e r d u r i n g d e s c e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o G u e n t e r L e w y , i t
h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t i n 9 0 p e r c e n t o f a l l B - 5 2 m i s s i o n s o n e
o r m o r e b o m b s l a n d e d o u t s i d e t h e t a r g e t " b o x e s " b e c a u s e o f
b e n t o r d a m a g e d f i n s ( A m e r i c a i n V i e t n a m , p . 4 1 2 ) .
3 . A n o t h e r f a c t o r i n t h e l o w c i v i l i a n d a m a g e w a s t h e p a r t i c u -
l a r m o d e o f b o m b i n g o r d e r e d f o r t h e B - 5 2 s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n
w a s n o t g i v e n o u t d u r i n g t h e b o m b i n g a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e
a v a i l a b l e o n l y t h r o u g h s p e c i a l i z e d p u b l i c a t i o n s , s u c h a s t h e U . S .
A i r F o r c e m o n o g r a p h " L i n e b a c k e r I I : A V i e w f r o m t h e R o c k . "
W i t h o u t g o i n g i n t o c l a s s i f i e d i n f o r m a t i o n , i t c a n b e s a i d t h a t t h e
" c e l l s " o f B - 5 2 s w e r e s m a l l e r a n d m o r e c o n c e n t r a t e d t h a n t h o s e
o b s e r v e d b y t h e p r e s s i n p r e v i o u s b o m b i n g s , s u c h a s t h e b o m b -
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WHAT REALLY HAPPENED 5 7
i n g s a r o u n d K h e S a n h i n 1 9 6 8 a n d a r o u n d A n L o c i n t h e s u m -
mer of 1972; t h a t p l a n e s i n t h e c e l l s d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d r o p
t h e i r b o m b s a t t h q . ; s a m e m o m e n t ; a n d t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n t o o k
p l a c e u n d e r i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t m i n i m i z e d c i v i l i a n c a s u a l t i e s
t h r o u g h t h e l i n e s o f a p p r o a c h s e l e c t e d f o r b o m b i n g r u n s , t h r o u g h
s t r i c t i n s t r u c t i o n s t o r e f r a i n f r o m e v a s i v e a c t i o n a g a i n s t H a n o i ' s
s u r f a c e - t o - a i r m i s s i l e s ( S A M s ) d u r i n g t h e b o m b i n g r u n s , and
t h r o u g h o r d e r s t o w i t h h o l d b o m b s a n d j e t t i s o n t h e m i n t o t h e s e a
i f p r e s c r i b e d t a r g e t a c c u r a c y c o u l d n o t b e a s s u r e d .
T o b e s u r e , t h e t h r e a t o f c o u r t - m a r t i a l a g a i n s t a i r c r a f t c o m -
m a n d e r s w h o m a n e u v e r e d t o a v o i d S A M s d u r i n g t h e i r b o m b i n g
r u n s w a s n o t m o t i v a t e d o n l y b y a d e s i r e t o m i n i m i z e c i v i l i a n
c a s u a l t i e s : i t w a s a l s o c a u s e d b y a c o n c e r n f o r " c e l l i n t e g r i t y , "
b e c a u s e o f t h e f e a r o f c o l l i s i o n s a n d a l s o b e c a u s e s t a y i n g c l o s e
t o g e t h e r m a d e t h e p l a n e s ' e l e c t r o n i c c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t t h e
S A M g u i d a n c e s y s t e m s m o r e e f f e c t i v e .
A l t o g e t h e r N o r t h V i e t n a m l a u n c h e d m o r e t h a n 1 , 2 5 0 S A M s .
T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s l o s t t w e n t y - s i x a i r c r a f t , i n c l u d i n g B - 5 2 s , a l l
SAM victims . T h e l o s s o f B - 5 2 s w a s s l i g h t l y o v e r 2 p e r c e n t ,
w h i c h i s w e l l b e l o w t h e l o s s r a t i o o f b o m b e r s i n W o r l d W a r I I . I t
i s k n o w n t h a t m a n y S A M s e x p l o d e d i n t h e a i r w i t h o u t h i t t i n g
t h e i r i n t e n d e d t a r g e t s , a n d a l s o t h a t m a n y f a i l e d t o e x p l o d e a n d
h e a d e d d o w n a g a i n . S o m e o f t h e d a m a g e i n p o p u l a t e d a r e a s t h a t
w a s a t t r i b u t e d t o U . S . p l a n e s i n g e n e r a l o r t o B - 5 2 s i n p a r t i c u l a r
w a s l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n c a u s e d b y h u g e S A M s a n d o t h e r a n t i -
a i r c r a f t o r d n a n c e t h a t f e l l t o t h e g r o u n d w i t h o u t h i t t i n g t h e i r
t a r g e t s. ( I n c i d e n t a l l y , i t a p p e a r s t h a t b y t h e t i m e t h e b o m b i n g
w a s s t o p p e d u p o n r e c e i p t o f a s i g n a l f r o m N o r t h V i e t n a m t h a t i t
w o u l d r e s u m e n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e e n e m y h a d f i r e d i t s e n t i r e s t o c k
of SAMs ; c o n t i n u e d b o m b i n g b y B - 5 2 s w o u l d t h e r e f o r e h a v e
b e e n m u c h l e s s r i s k y f o r t h e a t t a c k e r s . )
The Da mage to Ha noi
E y e w i t n e s s a c c o u n t s , s o m e e v e n d u r i n g t h e b o m b i n g , c o n -
t r a d i c t t h e c l a i m s o f " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " a n d i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a c -
c u r a c y o f t h e a t t a c k e r s m u s t h a v e b e e n q u i t e r e m a r k a b l e , c o n -
s i d e r i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n . Mal colm W .
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5 8 MARTIN F . HERZ
Browne of the New York Times , a c o n f i r m e d c r i t i c o f t h e N i x o n
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s c o n d u c t o f t h e w a r , r e p o r t e d f r o m H a n o i a f t e r
the Janu ary a greement that "the damage cau sed by America n
bombing wa s gross ly overstated by North Vietna mese prop-
aga nda " (March 31, 1973) . A f t e r a v i s i t i n M a r c h 1 9 7 3 , P e t e r
W a r d o f t h e Bal timore Sun w r o t e t h a t " e v i d e n c e o n t h e g r o u n d
d i s p r o v e s c h a r g e s o f i n d i s c r i m i n a t e b o m b i n g . S e v e r a l b o m b l o a d s
o b v i o u s l y w e n t a s t r a y i n t o c i v i l i a n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , b u t d a m a g e
t h e r e i s m i n o r c o m p a r e d t o t h e t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f s e l e c t e d
t a r g e t s " ( M a r c h 2 5 ) .
Tammy Arbuc kle of the Wa sh ington Star, w h o v i s i t e d H a n o i
i n l a t e M a r c h 1 9 7 3 , r e p o r t e d : " P i c t u r e s a n d s o m e p r e s s r e p o r t s
h a d g i v e n a v i s i t o r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t H a n o i h a d s u f f e r e d b a d l y
i n t h e w a r - b u t i n f a c t t h e c i t y i s h a r d l y t o u c h e d " ( A p r i l 1 ) . A r -
bu ckle was not sh own the Bac h Mai hospital b ut man aged to
v i s i t K h a m T h i e n , t h e a r e a a b o u t w h i c h t h e F r e n c h N e w s A g e n c y
h a d r e p o r t e d s o l u r i d l y i n D e c e m b e r , a n d d e s c r i b e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
t h e r e a s f o l l o w s :
We were sh own K ha m Thien . I t l o o k e d a s i f a b o u t 6 0 h o u s e s
ha d been destroyed an d an other 20 da maged . N o r t h V i e t -
n a m e s e o f f i c i a l s s a i d a b o u t 2 1 5 p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d a t K h a m
Thien . I t w a s d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s w h a t s o r t o f b o m b i n g h a d
c a u s e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n a s m a k e s h i f t h o u s e s h a v e s p r u n g u p o n
t h e r u i n s o f t h e o l d .
T h e K h a m T h i e n a r e a , a c c o r d i n g t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e s o u r c e s
(W as hington Post, Feb . 4 , 1 9 7 3 ) , h a d a p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y o f
7 5 , 0 0 0 p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e m i l e . A l t h o u g h m a n y o f t h e s e m u s t
h a v e b e e n e v a c u a t e d , t h e l o w o f f i c i a l n u m b e r o f d e a d i n t h i s r e s -
i d e n t i a l a r e a s u g g e s t s t h a t i t w a s n o t " c a r p e t - b o m b e d " b y B - 5 2 s .
T e l f o r d T a y l o r , w h o h a d r e p o r t e d i n D e c e m b e r t h a t t h e B a c h
M a i h o s p i t a l h a d b e e n " b l o w n t o s m i t h e r e e n s " a n d i m p l i e d t h a t
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n h a d b e e n d e l i b e r a t e , m o d i f i e d h i s a s s e s s m e n t
a f t e r a s e c o n d v i s i t . T h e New York Times ( J a n . 7 ) q u o t e d h i s r e -
v i s e d v i e w t h a t t h e b o m b s t h a t h i t t h e h o s p i t a l " w e r e p r o b a b l y
d i r e c t e d a t t h e a i r f i e l d a n d n e a r b y b a r r a c k s a n d o i l s t o r a g e
u n i t s. " I n h i s e a r l i e r r e p o r t T a y l o r h a d n o t m e n t i o n e d t h e h o s p i -
t a l ' s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e s e m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s , o r i f h e h a d , t h e p o i n t
wa s censored b y the North Vietnamese . ( I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t ,
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WHAT REALLY HAPPENED 5 9
d e s p i t e t h e s e r e v i s e d r e p o r t s , t h e c h a r g e o f d e l i b e r a t e a t t a c k s o n
c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s w a s a c c e p t e d a s t r u e b y D a l e S . D e H a n n , c o u n s e l
t o t h e S e n a t e s u b c o m m i t t e e o n r e f u g e e s , w h o v i s i t e d H a n o i i n
M a r c h 1 9 7 3 , a n d b y t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e s u b c o m m i t t e e , S e n a t o r
Edw ard Kennedy . * )
N o t u n t i l A p r i l 4 , 1 9 7 3 , i n e x p l i c a b l y , d i d t h e D e f e n s e D e -
p a r t m e n t r e l e a s e a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s t o p r o v e i t h a d n o t e n g a g e d
i n " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g . " T h e New York Times r e p o r t e d t h i s i n a n
articl e by Drew Midd leton entitled " Han oi Films Show No
' C a r p e t - B o m b i n g " ' ( M a y 2 ). T h e k e y p a s s a g e f o l l o w s
:
A e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e h e a v y U n i t e d S t a t e s
b o m b i n g o f H a n o i l a s t D e c e m b e r s h o w d a m a g e t o m i l i t a r y
t a r g e t s , t o a h o s p i t a l n e a r a m i l i t a r y a i r f i e l d , a n d t o a c o m m e r -
c i a l a n d r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a c l o s e t o t h e m a i n r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n a n d
y a r d s . T h e p h o t o g r a p h s , t a k e n b y r e c o n n a i s s a n c e d r o n e s a f t e r
t h e t w e l v e - d a y b o m b i n g o f f e n s i v e a n d m a d e p u b l i c b y t h e D e -
f e n s e D e p a r t m e n t , i n c l u d e o n e c o m p o s i t e p i c t u r e o f H a n o i .
T h i s d o e s n o t s u p p o r t c h a r g e s m a d e d u r i n g t h e o f f e n s i v e t h a t
U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e p l a n e s s u b j e c t e d H a n o i t o t h e k i n d
o f c a r p e t - b o m b i n g e m p l o y e d a g a i n s t G e r m a n c i t i e s i n W o r l d
W a r I I .
T h e a r t i c l e n o t e d t h a t t h e d a m a g e t o t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l , w h i c h
h a d b e e n t h e f o c u s o f m u c h i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i t i c i s m , w a s e x p l a i n e d
b y t h e h o s p i t a l ' s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e B a c h M a i m i l i t a r y a i r f i e l d , w h i c h
w a s h e a v i l y b o m b e d b y B - 5 2 s , F - 1 1 1 s , a n d F - 4 s : " T h e r u n w a y w a s
c u t a t t w o p o i n t s a n d t e n s u p p o r t b u i l d i n g s a n d t e n b a r r a c k s w e r e
d e s t r o y e d . B u t w h a t w e r e d e s c r i b e d a s p r e m a t u r e b o m b d r o p s
s e v e r e l y d a m a g e d s e v e r a l b u i l d i n g s i n t h e n e a r b y B a c h M a i c i v i l i a n
h o s p i t a l . " T h e p i c t u r e s , a c c o r d i n g t o M i d d l e t o n , a l s o s h o w e d s o m e
h e a v y d a m a g e i n t h e K h a m T h i e n a r e a n e a r t h e r a i l w a y y a r d s , b u t
t h e Times w r i t e r r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o e v i d e n c e o f d e l i b e r a t e
b o m b i n g o f c i v i l i a n a r e a s . H o w e v e r , t h e T i m e s , w h o s e e d i t o r i a l s
h a d c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t w h o l e s a l e d e v a s t a t i o n , d i d n o t a c k n o w l e d g e
t h e s e f i n d i n g s i n i t s e d i t o r i a l c o l u m n s .
A s f o r t h e Wa sh ington Post, i t t u c k e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
*U. S . Senate, Committee on the Ju dicia ry, Sub committee to Inv estigate Prob-
lems Conn ected with Refugees an d Esca pees, Hearings on Relief and Reha bilita-
tion of Wa r Victims in Indoch ina, P a r t I I I : North Vietna m and Laos, Jul y 31,
1973, 93rd Congress, 1s t Sess ion, 1973, p . 7 2 .
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6 0 MARTIN F. HERZ
w h a t t h e a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s r e v e a l e d a t t h e e n d o f a n e w s s t o r y
a b o u t a n o t h e r s u b j e c t ( " C a m b o d i a n P e r i l I s D i s c o u n t e d b y P e n t a -
g o n , " A p r i l 5 ) o n p a g e 2 4 . O f c o u r s e , t h i s p a p e r , w h i c h h a d
s p e c i f i c a l l y c h a r g e d c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " a c r o s s d o w n t o w n H a n o i , "
d i d n o t c o m m e n t o n t h e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n ; a n d t h e o t h e r m e d i a
s u r v e y e d h e r e d i d n o t e v e n r e p o r t i t i n c i d e n t a l l y .
T h e r e i s a n o t h e r o d d i t y a b o u t t h e a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s . T h e y w e r e
p r e s e n t e d t o t h e H o u s e D e f e n s e A p p r o p r i a t i o n s S u b c o m m i t t e e o n
A p r i l 4 , b u t w h e n A d m i r a l T h o m a s M o o r e r , t h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e
J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f , w a s a s k e d w h y t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n h a d n o t b e e n
r e v e a l e d b e f o r e , h e s a i d ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e P o s t ) t h a t " t h e l a r g e
p h o t o w a s n ' t a v a i l a b l e u n t i l J a n u a r y " a n d t h a t " c e a s e - f i r e n e g o t i a -
t i o n s w e r e g o i n g o n a g a i n a t t h a t t i m e . " I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o s e e w h y
r e l e a s e o f t h e p h o t o i n t e l l i g e n c e a b o u t t h e a c t u a l e x t e n t o f d a m a g e
i n H a n o i w o u l d h a v e i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , w h i c h i n a n y
e v e n t w e r e c o n c l u d e d o n J a n u a r y 1 2 . I t i s a l s o d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r -
s t a n d w h y , w i t h t h e p h o t o i n t e l l i g e n c e a v a i l a b l e o n A p r i l 4 , t h e
Times r e p o r t e d i t o n l y o n M a y 2 . O n e c a n s p e c u l a t e t h a t p e r h a p s
t h e r e w a s s o m e r e l u c t a n c e t h a t h a d t o b e o v e r c o m e .
The Nixon- Kissinger Disagreement
W h y , d u r i n g t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g a n d f o r s o m e t i m e t h e r e a f -
t e r , t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t w a s s i l e n t a b o u t t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e
b o m b i n g a n d s a i d s o l i t t l e a b o u t t h e s t e p s t a k e n t o m i n i m i z e
c i v i l i a n d e a t h s , i s n o m y s t e r y . A s n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 3 , t h e s i l e n c e
a b o u t o b j e c t i v e s r e s u l t e d f r o m a d e c i s i o n b y P r e s i d e n t N i x o n t a k e n
a g a i n s t t h e r e p e a t e d a d v i c e o f H e n r y K i s s i n g e r . T h e i n t e r p l a y
b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o m e n o n t h i s p o i n t a s r e p o r t e d i n t h e i r m e m o i r s i s
n o t e w o r t h y . B o t h N i x o n a n d K i s s i n g e r r e p o r t e d t h a t w h e n i t
l o o k e d a s i f t h e t a l k s w o u l d h a v e t o b e b r o k e n o f f a n d t h e b o m b i n g
r e s u m e d , K i s s i n g e r r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t g o o n t e l e v i -
s i o n t o e n l i s t t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e f o r t h e s t e r n
m e a s u r e s t h a t w o u l d b e t a k e n . " I b e l i e v e t h a t y o u c a n m a k e a
s t i r r i n g a n d c o n v i n c i n g c a s e t o r a l l y t h e m a s y o u h a v e s o o f t e n i n
t h e p a s t w i t h y o u r d i r e c t a p p e a l s , " K i s s i n g e r t e l e g r a p h e d f r o m
P a r i s (RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, New York : G r o s s e t
a n d D u n l a p , 1 9 7 8 , p . 7 2 6 ) . B u t t h e P r e s i d e n t d i s a g r e e d .
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WHAT REALLY HAPPENED 6 1
I n s t e a d o f a f r a n t i c a n d p r o b a b l y f o r e d o o m e d a t t e m p t o n m y
p a r t t o r a l l y A m e r i c a n p u b l i c o p i n i o n b e h i n d a m a j o r e s c a l a t i o n
o f t h e w a r , I p r e f e r r e d a n u n a n n o u n c e d s t e p p i n g u p o f t h e
bombing . T h i s w o u l d b e c o u p l e d w i t h a p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e b y
K i s s i n g e r t o e x p l a i n w h e r e w e s t o o d i n t e r m s o f t h e n e w a t t e m p t s
a t r e a c h i n g a s e t t l e m e n t , a n d w h y t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s h a d b r o k e n
d o w n [ i b i d . ] .
K i s s i n g e r d i s a g r e e d a n d r e m o n s t r a t e d , b u t N i x o n n o t e s : " I r e -
m a i n e d u n c o n v i n c e d o f t h e w i s d o m a n d t h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f t h i s
c o u r s e o f a c t i o n " ( p . 7 2 7 ) . L a t e r , i n a t e l e g r a m , t h e P r e s i d e n t t o l d
K i s s i n g e r: " I h a v e t a l k e d t o a f e w o f t h e h a r d - l i n e r s h e r e i n t o t a l
c o n f i d e n c e , a n d i t i s t h e i r s t r o n g l y u n a n i m o u s v i e w t h a t i t w o u l d b e
t o t a l l y w r o n g f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t t o g o o n T V a n d e x p l a i n t h e d e t a i l s
o f w h y t h e t a l k s h a v e f a i l e d " ( p . 7 2 8 ) . K i s s i n g e r d e s c r i be s h i s o w n
s t a t e o f m i n d a t t h e t i m e i n t h i s w a y :
I f I a d m i r e d N i x o n ' s d e c i s i o n [ t o b r e a k o f f t h e t a l k s a n d r e s u m e
t h e b o m b i n g ] , I w a s l e s s e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t h i s r e f u s a l t o e x p l a i n
i t t o t h e p u b l i c . . . .Bu t Nixon wa s d etermined to take himself out
o f t h e l i n e o f f i r e [ i t a l i c s s u p p l i e d ] . I w a s a s k e d t o g i v e a l o w - k e y
b r i e f i n g o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e r e c e s s i n g o f t h e P a r i s t a l k s ; h o w t o
b e l o w - k e y a b o u t s u c h a d r a m a t i c e v e n t w a s n o m o r e a p p a r e n t t o
m e i n W a s h i n g t o n t h a n i t h a d b e e n i n P a r i s . I h a d n o o b j e c t i o n t o
t h i s a s s i g n m e n t ; i n d e e d , I v o l u n t ee r e d f o r i t . B u t i f t h e r e w a s a
m a j o r u p r o a r , o n l y t h e P r e s i d e n t w o u l d b e a b l e t o q u i e t i t a n d
g i v e t h e p u b l i c a s e n s e o f w h e r e w e w e r e h e a d e d . I t w a s p r o p e r
t h a t I s h o u l d b e t h e b u t t o f a t t a c k , a s I h a d b e e n a n d w o u l d b e
a g a i n t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f s u c c e s s . . . .
B u t t h e o v e r r i d i n g , i m m e d i a t e n e e d w o u l d b e t o c a l m p u b l i c
f e a r s a n d r e s c u e n a t i o n a l s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e o u t o f t h e b e d l a m
c e r t a i n t o f o l l o w N i x o n ' s d e c i s i o n . Nixon explains that he wa s
concerned n ot to jeopardize the negotiations ; s ilence ena bl ed him
to av oid giving our actions the character of a n ul timatum and thus
permitted Hanoi to return to the conference tabl e without l oss of
face [ i t a l i c s s u p p l i e d ] . T h i s w a s p a r t o f h i s c o n c e r n ; b u t I a l s o
t h i n k t h e r e w e r e o t h e r , m o r e c o m p l e x r e a s o n s . N i x o n w a s s t i l l
s e i z e d b y t h e w i t h d r a w n a n d s u l l e n h o s t i l i t y t h a t h a d d o m i n a t e d
h i s m o o d s i n c e h i s e l e c t o r a l t r i u m p h . H e r e s e n t e d h a v i n g t o f a c e
o n c e a g a i n t h e e m o t i o n a l t r a v a i l o f a n e x p a n d e d w a r a t t h e v e r y
s t a r t o f h i s n e w a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . H e w a s m u c h l e s s c e r t a i n o f
s u c c e s s t h a n I ; h e t o l d m e h i s d o u b t s r e p e a t e d l y [Wh ite HouseYears, Boston : L i t t l e , B r o w n a n d C o . , 1 9 7 9 , p p . 1 4 4 8 , 1 4 4 9 ] .
P e r s o n a l l y I b e l i e v e t h a t N i x o n w a s r i g h t a n d t h a t a c a m p a i g n t o
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62 MARTIN F. HERZ
ral l y th e America n peopl e behind their government at th e time of
the Christmas bombing w ould ha ve fa iled. Such a campaign should
ha ve been s tarted much earlier, an d s us tained throughout the war .
If the Administration ha d fough t ba ck, it woul d not ha ve reversed
the tide of publ ic opinion, b ut it woul d h av e given h eart to its
su pporters a nd probab ly increas ed the nu mber of th e und ecided .
Simil arl y, inf ormation to disprove the ch arges of " ca rpet-
bombing" c oul d h av e been releas ed earl ier if th e Administration
ha d not virtua ll y given u p on the prestige media .
The memoirs rev eal a d istinct d ifferenc e between Nixon a nd
Kiss inger in their incl ination to compromise . The Presiden t w a s
not onl y l oath to conf ront the America n pub lic with an explan ation
for the bombin g ; h e was al so less certain that the United States
sh oul d persevere in trying to improve the October ag reement .
The record of mess ag es a s refl ected in the two memoirs sh ows
qu ite cl early tha t Nixon was more eager tha n Kissinger to settle on
min imu m terms , i . e . , o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e e a r l i e r , v i r t u a l l y c o n c l u d e d
a greement . In l ate November he ca bl ed Kissinger tha t "we must
recognize the fu nd amental reality tha t we ha ve no choice bu t to
reac h ag reement al ong the l ines of th e October 8 principles"
(W h ite Hou se Years , p . 1421) . The next morning , how ever, he
rev ersed himself . Kiss inger reports th at h e telegraph ed the Presi-
dent tha t "I did not see how we coul d a cc ept returning to the
October text (not to speak of one even worse, as Hanoi proposed) .
Though I cons idered the a greement a g ood one then , interven ing
events [obv ious ly , the tab ling b y th e United States of Thieu's
requ ested cha nges] w oul d turn a cceptan ce of it into a debacl e" (p.
1429) . But as l ate as December 10, General Alexand er Haig,
Kissinger's deputy, ca bl ed from Was hington that "if even this
[compromise] fails , the President, a s we predicted, would even b e
willing to cav e completely with the hopes tha t we can s till bring
Thieu aroun d" (p . 1439 ; italics a dded) .
However, the North Vietna mese w ent into a s tal l an d effectively
ha lted th e negotiations in the s econd w eek of December . C l e a r l y ,
Han oi ha d developed doub ts ab out the w hole enterprise . No one
can sa y w ha t wo u l d h a v e happened if the United States h ad not
proceeded to bomb the Han oi a nd Haiphong areas an d to resu me
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WHAT REALLY HAPPENED 6 3
t h e m i n i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p o r t s . H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
a g r e e m e n t c o n c l u d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g m o n t h , J a n u a r y 1 9 7 3 , w a s
f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f S o u t h V i e t n a m b e t t e r t h a n t h e O c t o b e r
d r a f t - i t i n c l u d e d a l l t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s a n d c l a r i f i c a t i o n s o b t a i n e d
i n N o v e m b e r a n d e a r l y D e c e m b e r - s u g g e s t s v e r y s t r o n g l y t h a t t h e
b o m b i n g i n f l u e n c e d t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e d e c i s i o n t o s e t t l e o n a
m u t u a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y b a s i s .
S o m e r e a d e r s w i l l w o n d e r w h e t h e r a n y o f t h i s m a t t e r s , s i n c e
e v e n t u a l l y t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w o n t h e w a r . B u t t h e y w o n i t
o n l y i n 1 9 7 5 , a f t e r m a n y o t h e r t h i n g s h a d h a p p e n e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e
w e a k e n i n g a n d d e m o r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d S o u t h
V i e t n a m c a u s e d b y W a t e r g a t e a n d t h e c o n g r e s s i o n a l c u t b a c k o f
f u n d s f o r m i l i t a r y a i d t o S a i g o n , b o t h o f w h i c h e m b o l d e n e d t h e
e n e m y t o l a u n c h t h e f i n a l o f f e n s i v e .
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CHAPTER FIVE
Images v s . R e a l i t y :
Sev en Conc l u s ions
Martin F . Herz
As WE DRAW CONCLUSIONS ABOUT the performance of
t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a i n r e p o r t i n g a n d c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e C h r i s t m a s
b o m b i n g i n Vi e t n a m , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c a l l t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
t h e p r e s s i n a f r e e s o c i e t y . W e c a n n o t a n d d o n o t e x p e c t p e r f e c t i o n
f r o m j o u r n a l i s t s , n e w s p a p e r s , a n d T V n e w s p r o g r a m s , w h i c h g e n -
e r a l l y m u s t o p e r a t e w i t h t i g h t d e a d l i n e s a n d w i t h o u t a l l t h e f a c t s .
B u t A m e r i c a n c i t i z e n s h a v e a r i g h t t o e x p e c t a r e a s o n a b l e d e g r e e o f
f a i r n e s s , b a l a n c e , a n d h o n e s t y f r o m t h e i r m a j o r s o u r c e s o f n e w s .
T h e b r o a d c a s t m e d i a s h o u l d s t r i v e t o l i v e u p t o t h e F a i r n e s s D o c -
t r i n e a n d t h e i r o w n i n d u s t r y c o d e s . W h i l e t h e p r i n t m e d i a a r e n o t
o b l i g a t e d b y l a w t o b e f a i r i n r e p o r t i n g c o n t r a s t i n g v i e w s , t h e y t o o
h a v e c o d e s t h a t c a l l u p o n t h e m t o p r o v i d e a b a l a n c e d p i c t u r e o f t h e
d a y ' s n e w s .
T h e s e w e r e t h e g e n e r a l s t a n d a r d s w e u s e d t o a n a l y z e T i m e ,
News week, t h e New York Times, t h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , a n d t h e
CBS thirty-minu te evening TV news program . I f r e e l y a c k n o w l -
e d g e t h a t c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s i s f a r f r o m b e i n g a n e x a c t s c i e n c e , t h a t a n
e l e m e n t o f s u b j e c t i v i t y i s a l w a y s p r e s e n t . B u t I b e l i e v e t h a t a n y
c o m p e t e n t p e r s o n g o i n g o v e r t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l w i t h o r d i n a r y
s t a n d a r d s o f f a i r n e s s w o u l d c o m e t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e c o n -
c l u s i o n s .
L o n g b e f o r e t h e c o n t r o v e r s i a l b o m b i n g o f D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 , m o s t
o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a w e r e c l e a r l y o n r e c o r d a g a i n s t U . S . i n v o l v e -
m e n t i n t h e V i e t n a m w a r : t h e y s a w i t a s a m i s t a k e , a s a n e x e r c i s e i n
6 4
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IMAGES VS . REALITY : SEVEN CONCLUSIONS 6 5
f u t i l i t y , o r e v e n a s a c r i m e . (Time an d News week, w h i l e s h a r p l y
c r i t i c a l o f t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g , w e r e p r e v i o u s l y l e s s h o s t i l e t o
U. S . i n v o l v e m e n t t h a n t h e Times, t h e Post, a n d W a l t e r C r o n k i t e o f
C B S e v e n i n g n e w s . ) T h e r e f o r e t o s a y t h a t t h e s e m e d i a o p p o s e d t h e
C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g i s t o s t a t e o n l y t h e o b v i o u s . T h e i r o p p o s i t i o n
w a s e x p l i c i t i n t h e d a i l y n e w s p a p e r s , i m p l i c i t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t i n
t h e n e t w o r k n e w s b r o a d c a s t s .
M o r e o v e r , o n e d i d n o t h a v e t o b e a n i n v e t e r a t e o p p o n e n t o f U . S .
i n v o l v e m e n t t o s u s p e c t t h a t t h e B - 5 2 w a s a n i n a p p r o p r i a t e a i r c r a f t
f o r b o m b i n g i n o r n e a r m a j o r u r b a n a r e a s i n N o r t h V i e t n a m o r t o
q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h i s b o m b i n g w a s a n a p p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e t o t h e
b r e a k d o w n o f t h e P a r i s t a l k s . B u t t h e f a c t s a d d u c e d b y t h e p r e s t i g e
p r e s s i n s u p p o r t o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n w e r e o f t e n w r o n g . T h e r e w a s n o
" c a r p e t - b o m b i n g , " a n d t h e b o m b i n g d i d n o t s t i f f e n H a n o i ' s s t a n d
i n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , a n y m o r e t h a n t h e b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n i n t h e
s p r i n g h a d s t i f f e n e d i t s s t a n d . T h e b o m b i n g w a s m u c h m o r e a c c u -
r a t e a n d p o l i t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e t h a n t h e c r i t i c s - a n d a l s o , p e r h a p s ,
s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n - h a d e x p e c t e d . A l l
t h i s i s b y n o w p r e t t y o b v i o u s . L e s s o b v i o u s a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g
o b s e r v a t i o n s .
1 . T h e e d i t o r i a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s d o u b t l e s s a f f e c t e d
t h e s e l e c t i o n o f n e w s s t o r i e s o n t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g . T h i s i s
m o r e t r u e o f t h e Times, t h e P o s t , a n d C B S N e w s t h a n o f Time and
Newsweek . G r a n t e d , s u p p o r t e r s o f a n u n p o p u l a r m i l i t a r y a c t i o n d o
n o t u s u a l l y f e e l s t r o n g l y e n o u g h a b o u t t h e i r p o s i t i o n t o d e m o n -
s t r a t e i n i t s b e h a l f ; o p p o n e n t s o f t h e a c t i o n a r e m o r e a p t t o a d v e r -
t i s e t h e i r p o s i t i o n a n d t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y f o r c o m m e n t . B u t e v e n
w h e n a l l o w a n c e i s m a d e f o r t h i s , i t i s c l e a r i n r e t r o s p e c t t h a t t h e
n e w s r e p o r t i n g w a s h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e . N o n e o f t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a
m a n a g e d t o f i n d m u c h p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n . S i x t i m e s a s m u c h n e g a t i v e
a s p o s i t i v e U . S . r e a c t i o n w a s c a r r i e d b y C B S N e w s a n d New s w eek,
n i n e t e e n t i m e s a s m u c h i n Time, t w e n t y - o n e t i m e s a s m u c h i n t h e
New York Times , a n d t w e n t y - f i v e t i m e s a s m u c h i n t h e Wa shington
Post . A n d i n t h e c o v e r a g e o f f o r e i g n r e a c t i o n s , t h e r a t i o w a s 1 1 : 1 i n
th e Times, 16 : 1 i n t h e Post, 19 : 1 i n Time, a n d n o f a v o r a b l e i t e m s
a t a l l i n C B S N e w s a n d Newsweek . Y e t m u c h c o m m e n t f a v o r a b l e
t o t h e A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s d e c i s i o n w a s a v a i l a b l e , b o t h a b r o a d a n d
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6 6 MARTIN F . HERZ
a t h o m e . I t i s h a r d t o e s c a p e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e r e p o r t e r s o r
e d i t o r s s e l e c t e d a n d s o u g h t n e w s u n f a v o r a b l e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t
a n d m a d e l i t t l e e f f o r t t o s e e k o u t c o m m e n t w i t h w h i c h t h e y - o r
t h e i r b o s s e s ( o r t h e i r i d e o l o g i c a l p e e r s ) - d i s a g r e e d . A n e x a m p l e i s
t h e c o m m e n t e l i c i t e d f r o m C h i n e s e p r e m i e r C h o u E n - l a i , w h o t i l l
t h e n h a d r e f r a i n e d f r o m s u c h p o i n t e d l y a d v e r s e c o m m e n t .
O p e n e d i t o r i a l c o m m e n t i s t h e m e d i a ' s p r i v i l e g e a n d r e s p o n s i b i l -
i t y ; b u t t h e r e c o r d p r e s e n t e d h e r e r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e
d e l i b e r a t e s h a p i n g o f n e w s , t h e s e e k i n g o u t a n d s t i m u l a t i o n o f
c o m m e n t s t h a t b u t t r e s s t h e p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
m e d i u m , d o e s n o t v i o l a t e j o u r n a l i s m ' s o w n s t a n d a r d s . I t a p p e a r s t o
m e t o b e a d u b i o u s p r a c t i c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n a t i m e o f n a t i o n a l c r i s i s .
C o m m e n t m u s t a l w a y s b e f r e e , b u t e d i t o r i a l i z i n g t h r o u g h n e w s -
m a k i n g a n d n e w s s e l e c t i o n s e e m s t o m e t o b e a s u r r e p t i t i o u s m e a n s
o f i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e a d e r a n d v i e w e r a n d m a y t h u s b e d a m a g i n g t o
t h e f r e e f o r m a t i o n o f o p i n i o n t h a t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a d e m o c r a c y .
2 . T h e W a s h in gton Pos t w a s c o n s i s t e n t l y t h e m o s t n e g a t i v e
t o w a r d t h e U . S . p o s i t i o n . I n r e p o r t i n g a b o u t r e a c t i o n s t o t h e P a r i s
t a l k s , t h e Times c a r r i e d r o u g h l y a n e q u a l n u m b e r o f s t o r i e s c o n -
d e m n i n g H a n o i a n d s t o r i e s c o n d e m n i n g W a s h i n g t o n . T h e P o s t ,
p r e s u m a b l y w o r k i n g w i t h t h e s a m e m a t e r i a l , d e v o t e d t w i c e a s
m u c h s p a c e t o n e w s m a k e r s w h o b l a m e d W a s h i n g t o n a s t o t h o s e
w h o b l a m e d H a n o i . I n r e p o r t i n g c o m m e n t s o n t h e l i k e l y e f f i c a c y o f
t h e b o m b i n g i n b r i n g i n g p e a c e , t h e Times, Time, a n d C B S h a d p r o
a n d c o n i t e m s i n r o u g h b a l a n c e , w h e r e a s t h e Post and Newsweek( t h e l a t t e r i s o w n e d b y t h e P o s t ) r e p o r t e d t h r e e t i m e s a s m u c h
n e g a t i v e a s p o s i t i v e c o m m e n t i n t h e i r n e w s c o l u m n s .
3 . T h e r e l a t i v e s i l e n c e o f t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t i n s t a t i n g i t s c a s e
o n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d t h e b o m b i n g d e p r i v e d t h e m e d i a o f s o m e
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t w o u l d h a v e e n a b l e d t h e m t o p r e s e n t a m o r e
b a l a n c e d p i c t u r e h a d t h e y b e e n s o d i s p o s e d . T h i s t i g h t - l i p p e d
p o s t u r e d u r i n g t h e c r u c i a l D e c e m b e r 1 8 t o 3 0 p e r i o d w a s , a s w e
h a v e s e e n , a d o p t e d a g a i n s t t h e a d v i c e o f H e n r y K i s s i n g e r . T h e r e
m a y h a v e b e e n s o m e m e r i t i n t h e p o s i t i o n K i s s i n g e r a t t r i b u t e s t o
N i x o n , t h a t " s i l e n c e e n a b l e d h i m t o a v o i d g i v i n g o u r a c t i o n s t h e
c h a r a c t e r o f a n u l t i m a t u m a n d t h u s p e r m i t t e d H a n o i t o r e t u r n t o
t h e c o n f e r e n c e t a b l e w i t h o u t l o s s o f f a c e , " b u t t h e s i l e n c e i n D e -
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IMAGES VS . REALITY : SEVEN CONCLUSIONS 6 7
c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 w a s o n l y a n e x t r e m e o f w h a t h a d p r e v a i l e d f o r s o m e
t i m e . T h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n n e v e r m a d e t h e m a j o r e f f o r t r e -
q u i r e d t o d o b a t t l e o n a c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s w i t h t h e p r e s t i g e m e d i a
a n d t h e i d e o l o g i c a l o p p o n e n t s o f U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m .
E v e n s o , d e s p i t e t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s v i r t u a l s i l e n c e , s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e
d e c i s i o n t o u n d e r t a k e t h e b o m bi n g c a m p a i g n d i d n o t f i n d i t i m p o s -
s i b l e t o p r e s e n t a p l a u s i b l e d e f e n s e o f t h a t a c t i o n . ( T w o e x a m p l e s
a p p e a r a s A p p e n d i x e s G a n d H . )
4 . T h e p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w a s e f f e c t i v e i n b r i n g i n g
t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e b a c k t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e t a b l e a n d t h a t i t
c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e e a r l y c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e a r m i s t i c e i n 1 9 7 3 c a n n o t
b e p r o v e d o r d i s p r o v e d . B u t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t b y e a r l y D e c e m b e r
t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e h a d l o s t i n t e r e s t i n t h e n e g o t i a t e d a g r e e -
m e n t i s p l a u s i b l e w h e n o n e r e v i e w s t h e s a l i e n t f a c t s i n t h e s i t u a t i o n
a t t h a t t i m e . C e r t a i n l y t h e y s e e m e d e a g e r t o c o m e t o t e r m s a f t e r t h e
b o m b i n g , a n e a g e r n e s s t h e y h a d c o n s p i c u o u s l y f a i l e d t o d i s p l a y
b e f o r e . ( W h e t h e r t h e i r " l o s s o f f a c e " w o u l d h a v e be e n s i g n i f i c a n t l y
g r e a t e r i f N i x o n h a d g i v e n a p u b l i c e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r
t h e b o m b i n g i s a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n t h a t c o u l d b e a n s w e r e d a u t h o r i t a -
t i v e l y o n l y b y a h i g h - r a n k i n g N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e d e f e c t o r . ) A t a n y
r a t e , t h o s e w h o p r e d i c t e d t h a t t h e b o m b i n g w o u l d d e l a y c o n c l u s i o n
o f t h e t r e a t y w e r e w r o n g .
5 . T h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e U . S . A i r F o r c e e n g a g e d i n t h e
" c a r p e t - b o m b i n g " o f c i v i l i a n c e n t e r s . S u c h c h a r g e s , w h i c h w e r e
p r o m i n e n t l y f e a t u r e d i n t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s , w e r e w i t h o u t f o u n d a -
t i o n . T h e c r e d i b i l i t y a c c o r d e d t o H a n o i p r o p a g a n d a b y k e y s e c t o r s
i n t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s a n d t h e b i a s o f t h e s e m e d i a a g a i n s t U . S .
i n v o l v e m e n t m a d e i t a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e t h a t H a n o i ' s c h a r g e s w o u l d
b e p r e s e n t e d a s f a c t . B u t a s w e n o t e d i n c h a p t e r 1 , e v e n u n b i a s e d
p e r s o n s c o u l d r e a s o n a b l y b e l i e v e t h a t u s e o f t h e B - 5 2 a u t o m a t i -
c a l l y m e a n t " c a r p e t - b o m b i n g . " I n a n y c a s e , t h e d i s t o r t e d r e p o r t i n g
l e d t o t h e u n f o r t u n a t e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e U . S . m i l i t a r y w e r e
c o n t i n u a l l y t r y i n g t o c o r r e c t f a l s e h o o d s a n d e x a g g e r a t i o n s t h a t h a d
b e e n p r i n t e d o r b r o a d c a s t . A m e r i c a n " p e a c e " a c t i v i s t s w h o w e r e i n
H a n o i a t t h e t i m e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d i s t o r t i o n , s o m e t i m e s u n w i t -
t i n g l y . I t i s h a r d t o s e e w h y t h e U . S . A i r F o r c e w a i t e d t h r e e m o n t h s
t o p r e s e n t p r o o f t h a t t h e r e h a d b e e n n o c a r p e t - b o m b i n g o f H a n o i .
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6 8 MARTIN F . HERZ
I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , a g a i n , t h e U . S . g o v e r n m e n t d i d n o t d e f e n d i t s e l f
w e l l a g a i n s t i t s c r i t i c s .
6 . J u d g e d b y a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e s o f w a r f a r e , t h e C h r i s t m a s
b o m b i n g w a s n o t d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e ; m u c h l e s s w a s i t a " w a r c r i m e . "
I n e v e r y w a r t h e q u e s t i o n i s p r o p e r l y r a i s e d a s t o w h e t h e r a p a r t i c u -
l a r m i l i t a r y a c t i o n i s e x c e s s i v e , m e a s u r e d b y t h e o b j e c t i v e s i t w a s
u n d e r t a k e n t o a c h i e v e . T h e p r i n c i p l e o f " p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y " i s a n
i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e c l a s s i c d o c t r i n e o f t h e j u s t w a r . T e l f o r d T a y l o r ,
f o r m e r c h i e f c o u n s e l a t t h e N u r e m b e r g W a r C r i m e s T r i a l a n d a n
opponent of U . S . i n v o l v e m e n t i n V i e t n a m , t h r o w s s o m e l i g h t o n
t h i s p r o b l e m . I n a l e c t u r e t o t h e C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y C l u b o f
Wa sh ington (F eb . 2 1 , 1 9 8 0 ) , h e a d d r e s s e d t h e c h a r g e t h a t t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s s o u g h t t o d e s t r o y H a n o i :
D e s p i t e t h e e n o r m o u s w e i g h t o f b o m b s t h a t w e r e d r o p p e d , I
q u i t e r a p i d l y b e c a m e c o n v i n c e d t h a t w e w e r e m a k i n g n o e f f o r t t o
d e s t r o y H a n o i . T h e c i t y r e m a i n e d l a r g e l y i n t a c t , a n d i t s e e m e d
q u i t e a p p a r e n t t h a t i f t h e r e w e r e a n e f f o r t t o d e s t r o y H a n o i i t
c o u l d h a v e b e e n d o n e v e r y r e a d i l y i n t w o o r t h r e e n i g h t s . S o I
t h i n k a n y s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f t h e r a i d w a s t o w i p e o u t o r
r a z e H a n o i i s q u i t e m i s t a k e n .
T a y l o r s t a t e d t h a t t h e b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m u n d e r t h e c i r -
c u m s t a n c e s p r e v a i l i n g i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 2 c a n n o t b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
a s a w a r c r i m e ; b u t h e r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r u s e o f t h e B - 5 2
w a s j u s t i f i e d i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t " t h e r e w e r e f e w m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s
l e f t . " H e s a w t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e b o m b i n g a s , e s s e n t i a l l y , t o
" f r i g h t e n t h e d e v i l o u t o f N o r t h V i e t n a m "
T h i s w a s p r i m a r i l y a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a f f a i r , t o c a u s e t h e m s u c h
w o r r y a n d a n g u i s h t h a t t h e y w o u l d h a s t e n b a c k t o t h e n e g o t i a -
t i o n s . A n d t h a t , o f c o u r s e , r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r t h e p u r -
p o s e o f t h e b o m b i n g i s r e l e v a n t w h e n w e t a l k a b o u t l i m i t a t i o n s .
T a y l o r c i t e d o t h e r j u r i s t s w h o t a k e t h e v i e w t h a t " y o u c a n o n l y
b o m b f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f h i t t i n g m i l i t a r y o b j e c t i v e s a n d y o u s h o u l d
n o t b e a l l o w e d t o b o m b f o r p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s . " I n r e p l y , h e s a i d :
I t i s a v i e w w h i c h I m u s t c o n f e s s I f i n d d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c e p t i n g . O n e
c a n ' t h e a r t h a t w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g o f C l a u s e w i t z a n d t h e g e n e r a l
i d e a t h a t w a r i s a n e x t e n s i o n o f d i p l o m a c y a n d p o l i t i c s . M o s t
p e o p l e d o n ' t g o t o w a r j u s t f o r t h e f u n o f w a r , b u t t o a c h i e v e
a i m s , a n d t h o s e a i m s a r e g e n e r a l l y p o l i t i c a l .
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IMAGES VS . REALITY : SEVEN CONCLUSIONS 6 9
I s h o u l d e m p h a s i z e t h a t f o r T a y l o r t h e m a t t e r d o e s n o t e n d t h e r e .
H e w e n t o n t o r a i s e t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r b o m b i n g f o r t h e p u r p o s e
o f " t e r r o r i z i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n " ( a s d i s t i n c t , p r e s u m a b l y , f r o m
" k i l l i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n " ) s h o u l d b e p e r m i s s i b l e . S t i l l , h i s p o i n t t h a t
b o m b i n g f o r " p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s " i s l e g i t i m a t e , s i n c e w a r s t h e m -
s e l v e s a r e f o u g h t f o r p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e s , s e e m s e m i n e n t l y s e n s i b l e
a n d r i g h t .
7 . T h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e C h r i s t m a s b o m b i n g l a y n o t i n t h e
a m o u n t o f p h y s i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n i t c a u s e d b u t i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
a n d p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e i t p l a c e d o n t h e e n e m y . T h e m i l i t a r y e ff e c t
a l o n e c o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s
bombing ; t h e t a r g e t s o n t h e l i s t r e l e a s e d b y U . S . a u t h o r i t i e s o n
D e c e m b e r 2 8 c o u l d v e r y l i k e l y h a v e b e e n p u t o u t o f c o m m i s s i o n
w i t h l e s s t o n n a g e . I t d o e s i n d e e d a p p e a r , a s T a y l o r s a i d , t h a t t h e
b o m b i n g w a s p u r s u e d l a r g e l y f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s . A n d i t
a c h i e v e d t h e s e p u r p o s e s . T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e r e n o t s o m u c h
h u r t a s i m p r e s s e d . T h e b o m b i n g w a s a m e s s a g e , a n d t h e y g o t t h e
mess age .
W h e t h e r P r e s i d e n t N i x o n f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
t h e b o m b i n g i n t h e s e t e r m s i s u n c e r t a i n . I n h i s m e m o i r s h e r e p o r t s '
t h a t o n D e c e m b e r 1 4 h e c a l l e d A d m i r a l T h o m a s M o o r e r , c h a i r -
m a n o f t h e J o i n t C h i e f s o f S t a f f , a n d t o l d h i m : " I d o n ' t w a n t a n y
m o r e o f t h i s c r a p a b o u t t h e f a c t t h a t w e c o u l d n ' t h i t t h i s t a r g e t o r
t h a t o n e . T h i s i s y o u r c h a n c e t o u s e m i l i t a r y p o w e r e f f e c t i v e l y t o w i n
t h i s w a r , a n d i f y o u d o n ' t , I ' l l c o n s i d e r y o u r e s p o n s i b l e " (RN, p .
734 ; i t a l i c s a d d e d ) . B u t t h e b o m b i n g o f H a n o i a n d H a i p h o n g w a s
n o t a g o o d e x a m p l e o f w h a t s t r a t e g i c b o m b i n g c a n a c c o m p l i s h . I t
d i d n o t i n f l i c t u n a c c e p t a b l e m i l i t a r y d a m a g e , a n d i t c e r t a i n l y d i d
n o t " w i n [ t h e ] w a r ." By December 29 not onl y h ad the North
V i e t n a m e s e r u n o u t o f s u r f a c e - t o - a i r m i s s i l e s , b u t U . S . f o r c e s h a d
r u n o u t o f p l a u s i b l e t a r g e t s . O n e m o r e d a y o f b o m b i n g w o u l d h a v e
m a d e t h e s y m b o l i c n a t u r e o f t h e e n t i r e o p e r a t i o n e v e n m o r e g l a r -
i n g l y a p p a r e n t .
A s a n i n v i t a t i o n t o r e s u m e s e r i o u s n e g o t i a t i o n s , t h e b o m b i n g
w a s n o t a s u b t l e m o v e ; i t w a s n o t a m i l i t a r i l y e f f e c t i v e m o v e ; i t w a s
c e r t a i n l y n o t a p o p u l a r m o v e ; b u t i t a p p e a r s t o h a v e b e e n a d i p -
l o m a t i c a l l y e f f e c t i v e o n e . R e g r e t t a b l y , t h i s r e a l i t y h a s n e v e r b e e n
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70 MARTIN F . HERZ
a c k n o w l e d g e d b y t h e p r e s t i g e p r e s s , w h i c h d i d s o m u c h t o o b s c u r e
t h e i s s u e s a t t h e t i m e . A c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f e r r o r d o e s n o t c o m e
e a s i l y t o h u m a n b e i n g s . I t m a y c o m e e s p e c i a l l y h a r d t o l e a d e r s o f
t h e m e d i a , w h o s o m e t i m e s o p e r a t e a s t h o u g h t h e y s h o u l d b e f r e e
f r o m t h e c r i t i c i s m t o w h i c h t h e y s u b j e c t t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d a l l
o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s i n s o c i e t y .
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APPENDIXA
Kissinger's Statement
On the Paris Talks
December 16,1972
The foll owing statement and excerpts from the question-a nd- ans wer
period are from National Security Adv iser Henry Kis singer's press
conference in W as hington a s reported in the " New York Times"
December 17, 1972 (su bhead s ad ded) .
LADIES AND GENTLEMEN : As YOU K NOW, I h a v e b e e n r e p o r t i n g t o t h e
P r e s i d e n t a n d m e e t i n g w i t h t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e , t h e V i c e P r e s i d e n t , S e c r e t a r y
o f D e f e n s e , C h a i r m a n o f t h e J o i n t C h i e f s , a n d o t h e r s e n i o r o f f i c i a l s , a n d I ' m
meeting with you today becau se we wa nted to give you an ac count of the
n e g o t i a t i o n s a s t h e y s t a n d t o d a y .
I ' m s u r e y o u w i l l a p p r e c i a t e t h a t I c a n n o t g o i n t o d e t a i l s o f p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s , b u t
I w i l l g i v e y o u a s f a i r a n d h o n e s t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d o f t h e
n e g o t i a t i o n s a s I c a n .
F i r s t l e t m e d o t h i s i n t h r e e p a r t s : W h a t l e d u s t o b e l i e v e a t t h e e n d o f O c t o b e r
t h a t p e a c e w a s i m m i n e n t ? S e c o n d , w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d s i n c e ? T h i r d , w h e r e d o w e
g o f r o m h e r e ?
A t t h e e n d o f O c t o b e r w e h a d j u s t c o n c l u d e d t h r e e w e e k s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h
the North Vietnamese . As y ou all know, on October 8 the North Vietnamese
p r e s e n t e d t o u s a p r o p o s a l w h i c h a s i t l a t e r b e c a m e e l a b o r a t e d a p p e a r e d t o u s t o
r e f l e c t t h e m a i n p r i n c i p l e s t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h a s a l w a y s e n u n c i a t e d a s b e i n g p a r t
o f t h e A m e r i c a n p o s i t i o n .
T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s w e r e t h a t t h e r e h a d t o b e a n u n c o n d i t i o n a l r e l e a s e o f A m e r i -
c a n p r i s o n e r s t h r o u g h o u t I n d o c h i n a .
S e c o n d l y , t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e a c e a s e - f i r e i n I n d o c h i n a , b r o u g h t i n t o b e i n g b y
v a r i o u s m e a n s s u i t a b l e t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e c o u n t r i e s c o n c e r n e d .
T h i r d , t h a t w e w e r e p r e p a r e d t o w i t h d r a w o u r f o r c e s u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i n a
t i m e p e r i o d t o b e m u t u a l l y a g r e e d u p o n .
F o u r t h , t h a t w e w o u l d n o t p r e j u d g e t h e p o l i t i c a l o u t c o m e o f t h e f u t u r e o f S o u t h
Vietna m . W e w o u l d n o t i m p o s e a p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n . W e w o u l d n o t i n s i s t o n o u r
p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n .
Reprinted by permiss ion from the New York Times, December 17,1972 ; © 1 9 7 2 b y t h e
New York Times Compan y .
7 1
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72 KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS
The agreement as it wa s d eveloped du ring October seemed to us to reflec t these
principles precisely .
Then towards the end of October we encoun tered a nu mber of difficu lties . Now
at th e time, beca us e we wa nted to maintain the atmosphere lead ing to A rapid
settlement, we mentioned them at our briefings bu t we did n ot ela borate on th em .
But let me sum u p wh at the probl ems were at the end of October .
It became apparent that th ere was in preparation a mas sive Communist eff ort
to lau nch an attack through out South Vietnam to begin s everal day s b efore the
ceas e-fire woul d ha ve been decla red an d to continu e for some weeks a fter the
ceas e-fire came into being .
Second, there was an interview b y the North Vietna mese prime minister wh ich
implied tha t the political s olution tha t we had al wa ys insisted wa s part of our
principl es, namely , that w e would not impose a coal ition government, was not as
cl ear-cu t as our record of the negotiations indica ted .
And thirdly , as no one could miss , we encoun tered s ome specific objections
from Saigon .
`ONE MORE ROUND'
In these c onditions w e proposed to Hanoi tha t there shoul d b e one other roun d
of negotiations to clear u p these difficu lties . W e were convinced tha t with good
will on both sides these difficulties coul d be rela tively easily s urmounted, and that
if we cond uc ted ourselves, on both s ides, in the spirit of the October negotiations,
a s ettlement woul d be very rapid . It wa s our conv iction that if w e were going to
bring to an end ten y ears of warfa re, we shou ld not do so with a n armistice, but
with a peace that had a cha nce of la sting .
And th erefore we proposed th ree ca tegories of cl arifica tions in the a greement :
First, we wa nted the so-ca ll ed linguistic difficul ties cl eared up so that they
woul d n ot provide the seed for unending dispu tes and an other eruption of the wa r .
I will s peak about those in a minu te .
Secondly , the agreement a lw ay s ha d provided tha t international machinery be
put in pla ce immediately a fter the cease-f ire was decla red . W e wanted to spell out
the operationa l mean ing of the word "immediately " b y d eveloping the protocols
tha t were requ ired to bring the internationa l mac hinery into being simul taneous ly
with the ceas e-fire agreement . This, to us , seemed a l argely techn ical matter .
And, thirdly , we w an ted some reference in th e agreement-h owever vagu e,
however elu sive, however indirect-wh ich did n ot, wh ich woul d make clear that
the two parts of Vietnam woul d l ive in peac e with each other and that n either side
woul d impose its sol ution on the other by force .
These seemed to us modest requ irements, rela tively eas ily a ch ieva bl e .
Let me now tell you th e sequ ence of events since tha t time .
We al l know of the disa greements tha t hav e existed b etween Saigon an d
Washington. These disagreements are to some extent u nderstand abl e . I t i s i n e v i t -
ab le that a people on wh ose territory the war ha s b een f ought an d tha t for
twenty-five years ha s been exposed to deva station a nd s uff ering and a ss ass ination
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KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS 7 3
wou ld look at the prospects of a s ettlement in a more, in a more detailed wa y a nd
in a more angu ished w ay than w e who are 10,000 miles aw ay .
Many of the provisions of the agreement, inevitabl y, w ere seen in a d ifferent
context in Vietnam tha n in Wa sh ington . A n d I t h i n k i t i s s a f e t o s a y t h a t w e f a c e d ,
with respec t to both Vietnamese parties, this probl em . The people of Vietna m,
North and South, ha ve fough t for so long tha t the risks and perils of wa r, however
difficu lt, s eem sometimes more bearabl e to them than the un certainties an d th e
risks a nd perils of peace .
Now it is no secret either tha t the United States h as not agreed w ith al l th e
objections tha t were raised by Saigon . In particu la r, the Un ited States position
with respect to the ceas e-fire ha d b een mad e clear in October, 1970 . I t h a d b e e n
reiterated in the President's proposal s of Ja nu ary 2 5, 1972 . I t w a s r e p e a t e d a g a i n
in the President's proposal of May 8, 1972 . None of these proposa ls ha d a sked for
a w ithdraw al of North Vietnamese forces .
And therefore we coul d n ot agree with our al lies in South Vietnam w hen they
ad ded cond itions to the establ ished position af ter an agreement h ad been reac hed
that reflected these establ ished positions .
And a s w as made cl ear in the press conf erence here on October 26, as th e
President ha s reiterated in his s peech es, the United States w ill n ot continu e the
wa r one da y l onger tha n it believes is n ecessa ry to reac h a n ag reement we
consider just and fair . So, we wan t to leav e no doub t about the fac t that if an
agreement is reach ed tha t meets the stated c onditions of the President-if an
agreement is reach ed that w e consider ju st-tha t no other party will ha ve a veto
over our action .
But I am al so-today this qu estion is moot becau se we hav e not yet reach ed an
agreement tha t the President considers ju st an d fa ir . And therefore I wan t to
expla in to you th e process of th e negotiations s ince they resumed on November 20
and where we are . The three obj ectives tha t we were seeking in these negotiations
were stated in th e press c onferenc e of October 26, in many speech es by the
President af terwa rds, an d in every communica tion to Hanoi sinc e . They could not
hav e been a su rprise .
THE `LINGUISTIC DIFFICULTIES'
Now l et me sa y a word first ab out wha t were call ed linguistic difficul ties, wh ich
were cal led th ese in order not to infl ame the situation . How did they arise?
They arose becau se the North Vietnamese presented u s a docu ment in English
wh ich we then discus sed with them, and in many pla ces throughout this docu ment
the original wording was ch an ged as th e negotiations proceeded and th e phras es
were frequ ently weakened c ompared to the original formula tion .
It was not un til we received th e Vietnamese text af ter those negotiations were
concl ud ed that we foun d that wh ile the Engl ish terms ha d been cha nged the
Vietnamese terms had been l eft unch anged, an d s o we sudd enly f ound ourselves
engaged in two negotiations, one ab out the English text, the other about the
Vietna mese text .
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7 4 KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS
H a v i n g c o n d u c t e d m a n y n e g o t i a t i o n s , I m u s t s a y t h i s w a s a n o v e l p r o c e d u r e ,
a n d i t l e d t o t h e v i e w t h a t p e r h a p s t h e s e w e r e n o t s i m p l y l i n g u i s t i c d i f f i c u l t i e s b u t
s u b s t a n t i ve d i f f i c u l t i e s . N o w I m u s t s a y t h a t a l l o f t h e s e e x c e p t o n e h a v e n o w b e e n
e l i m i n a t e d .
THE PROBLEM OF PROTOCOLS
T h e s e c o n d c a t e g o r y o f p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n e d b r i n g i n g i n t o b e i n g t h e i n t e r n a -
t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y s o t h a t i t c o u l d o p e r a t e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e c e a s e - f i r e a n d s o
a s t o a v o i d a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e c e a s e - f i r e r a t h e r t h a n b r i n g p e a c e w o u l d u n l e a s h
a n o t h e r f r e n z y o f w a r f a r e . T o t h a t e n d w e s u b m i t t e d o n N o v e m b e r 2 0 , t h e f i r s t
d a y t h a t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s r e s u m e d , a l i s t o f w h a t a r e c a l l e d p r o t o c o l s - t e c h n i c a l
i n s t r u m e n t s t o b r i n g t h i s m a c h i n e r y i n t o b e i n g .
T h e s e p r o t o c o l s - I w i l l n o t g o i n t o t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e s e p r o t o c o l s a n d t h e y ' r e
n o r m a l l y t e c h n i c a l d o c u m e n t s - a n d o u r s w e r e c e r t a i n l y i n t e n d e d t o c o n f o r m t o
n o r m a l p r a c t i c e d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s o c c u r r e d f o u r w e e k s a f t e r w e h a d m a d e
c l e a r t h a t t h i s w a s o u r i n t e n t i o n a n d t h r e e w e e k s a f t e r H a n o i h a d p r e s s e d u s t o s i g n
a c e a s e - f i r e a g r e e m e n t . T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e r e f u s e d t o d i s c u s s o u r p r o t o c o l s
a n d r e f u s e d t o g i v e u s t h e i r p r o t o c o l s , s o t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f b r i n g i n g t h e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y i n t o b e i n g c o u l d n o t b e a d d r e s s e d .
T h e f i r s t t i m e w e s a w t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p r o t o c o l s w a s o n t h e e v e n i n g o f
D e c e m b e r 1 2 , t h e n i g h t b e f o r e I w a s s u p p o s e d t o l e a v e P a r i s , s i x w e e k s a f t e r w e
h a d s t a t e d w h a t o u r e n d w a s , f i v e w e e k s a f t e r t h e c e a s e - f i r e w a s s u p p o s e d t o b e
s i g n e d - a c e a s e - f i r e w h i c h c a l l e d f o r t h i s m a c h i n e r y t o b e s e t u p i m m e d i a t e l y .
T h e s e p r o t o c o l s r e o p e n e d - t h e y ' r e n o t t e c h n i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s - b u t r e o p e n e d a
w h o l e l i s t o f i s s u e s t h a t h a d b e e n s e t t l e d - o r w e t h o u g h t h a d b e e n s e t t l e d - i n t h e
ag reement . T h e y c o n t a i n e d p r o v i s i o n s t h a t w e r e n o t i n t h e o r i g i n a l a g r e e m e n t a n d
t h e y e x c l u d e d p r o v i s i o n s t h a t w e r e i n t h e o r i g i n a l a g r e e m e n t . T h e y a r e n o w i n t h e
p r o c e s s o f b e i n g d i s c u s s e d b y t h e t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t s i n P a r i s , b u t s o m e e f f o r t w i l l b e
n e e d e d t o r e m o v e t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o v i s i o n s f r o m t h e m , a n d t o r e t u r n t h e m t o a
t e c h n i c a l s t a t u s .
S e c o n d l y , I t h i n k i t i s s a f e t o s a y t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p e r c e p t i o n o f
i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y a n d o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y i s a t
d r a s t i c v a r i a n c e . A n d t h a t , l a d i e s a n d g e n t l e m e n , i s a n u n d e r s t a t e m e n t .
W e h a d t h o u g h t t h a t a n e f f e c t i v e m a c h i n e r y r e q u i r e d , i n e f f e c t , s o m e f r e e d o m
of movement . A n d o u r e s t i m a t e w a s t h a t s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d p e o p l e w e r e n e e d e d t o
m o n i t o r t h e m a n y p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e a g r e e m e n t .
T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e p e r c e p t i o n i s t h a t t h e t o t a l f o r c e s h o u l d b e n o m o r e t h a n
2 5 0 , o f w h i c h n e a r l y h a l f s h o u l d b e l o c a t e d a t h e a d q u a r t e r s , t h a t i t w o u l d b e
d e p e n d e n t f o r i t s c o m m u n i c a t i o n , l o g i s t i c s , a n d e v e n p h y s i c a l n e c e s s i t i e s e n t i r e l y
o n t h e p a r t y i n w h o s e a r e a i t w a s l o c a t e d . S o i t w o u l d h a v e n o j e e p s , n o t e l e -
p h o n e s , n o r a d i o s o f i t s o w n ; t h a t i t c o u l d n o t m o v e w i t h o u t b e i n g a c c o m p a n i e d b y
l i a i s o n o f f i c e r s o f t h e p a r t y t h a t w a s t o b e i n v e s t i g a t e d - i f t h a t p a r t y d e c i d e d t o
g i v e i t t h e j e e p s t o g e t t o w h e r e t h e v i o l a t i o n w a s t a k i n g p l a c e , a n d i f t h a t p a r t y
w o u l d t h e n l e t i t c o m m u n i c a t e w h a t i t f o u n d .
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KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS 75
It is our impress ion th at th e members of this commission w ill not exert them-
sel ves in frenzies of ac tivity if this procedu re were ad opted .
Now, third ly , the s ub stan ce of the agreement . The negotiations sin ce
November 20 real ly hav e taken plac e in two phases : t h e f i r s t p h a s e , w h i c h l a s t e d
for three day s, continu ed the spirit and the attitud e of th e meetings in October.
We presented our proposal s- some were ac cepted, others w ere rejected . But by
the end of the third day we had made very s ub stan tial progress. And wethought-al l of us thought-that w e were within a day or two of c ompleting the
arran gements .
WITHIN REACH, BEYOND REACH
We do not know wh at decisions w ere mad e in Hanoi at tha t point, bu t from tha t
point on the negotiations ha ve ha d the cha racter wh ere a settlement was al wa ys
ju st within our reach, and wa s al way s pull ed just beyond our reach when we
attempted to gras p it . I d o n o t t h i n k i t i s p r o p e r f o r m e t o g o i n t o t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e
specific iss ues, bu t I think I shoul d give you a general a tmosphere and a general
sens e of the procedu res th at w ere followed .
Wh en we returned on December 4, w e were-w e of th e American team-
thought that the meetings c ould not las t more than two or three day s b ecaus e
there were onl y tw o or three issu es l eft to be resolv ed .
You a ll know that the meetings la sted nine day s . They began with Han oi
withdraw ing every ch an ge tha t had been agreed to two weeks previous ly . W e then
spent the rest of the week getting b ac k to where we ha d a lready been two weeks
before, and by Saturday we thought we had narrowed the issu es su fficiently
wh ere, if the other side had ac cepted a gain one section tha t they had al read y
agreed to two weeks previousl y, the agreement coul d h av e been c ompleted .
At that point the President ordered General Haig to return to Was hington so
that he woul d be ava ilab le for the mission tha t would th en follow of presenting the
agreement to our a ll y . At that point we though t we were suf ficiently cl ose so that
experts cou ld meet to conform the texts s o that we w oul d n ot again encou nter the
linguistic difficulties w hich w e had experienced previously and so that w e could
make sure that the cha nges that ha d b een n egotiated in English would al so be
refl ected in Vietnamese .
Wh en the experts met they w ere presented with s eventeen n ew ch an ges in the
guise of linguistic c han ges . W hen I met aga in with the special ad viser, the one
problem which w e though t remained on Saturday ha d grown to two an d a new
demand w as presented . W hen we accepted that it was withdrawn the next day an d
s h a rpened u p . So we spent our time going through the sev enteen lingu istic
cha nges an d redu ced them again to two .
Then on the la st d ay of the meeting we asked our experts to meet to compare
wh ether the fifteen ch an ges that h ad b een settled of the seventeen tha t had b een
proposed, wh ether those n ow c onformed in the two texts . At tha t point w e were
presented with sixteen new ch an ges, inc lu ding f our sub stan tive ones, some of
wh ich now still remain un settled .
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7 6 KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS
N o w I w i l l n o t g o i n t o t h e d e t a i l s o r i n t o t h e m e r i t s o f t h e s e c h a n g e s. T h e m a j o r
d i f f i c u l t y t h a t w e n o w f a c e i s t h a t p r o v i s i o n s t h a t w e r e s e t t l e d i n t h e a g r e e m e n t
a p p e a r a g a i n i n a d i f f e r e n t f o r m i n t h e p r o t o c o l s , t h a t m a t t e r s o f t e c h n i c a l
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n w h i c h w e r e i m p l i c i t i n t h e a g r e e m e n t f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g h a v e
n o t b e e n a d d r e s s e d a n d w e r e n o t p r e s e n t e d t o u s u n t i l t h e v e r y l a s t d a y o f a s e r i e s
o f s e s s i o n s t h a t h a d b e e n s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n e d t o d i s c u s s t h e m , a n d t h a t a s s o o n a s
o n e i s s u e w a s s e t t l e d a n e w i s s u e w a s r a i s e d .
I t w a s v e r y t e m p t i n g f o r u s t o c o n t i n u e t h e p r o c e s s w h i c h i s s o c l o s e t o
e v e r y b o d y ' s h e a r t i m p l i c i t i n t h e m a n y m e e t i n g s o f i n d i c a t i n g g r e a t p r o g r e s s . B u t
t h e P r e s i d e n t d e c i d e d t h a t w e c o u l d n o t e n g a g e i n a c h a r a d e w i t h t h e A m e r i c a n
people .
A n d w e a r e n o w i n t h i s c u r i o u s p o s i t i o n . G r e a t p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n m a d e i n t h e
t a l k s . T h e o n l y t h i n g t h a t i s l a c k i n g i s o n e d e c i s i o n i n H a n o i t o s e t t l e t h e r e m a i n i n g
i s s u e s i n t e r m s t h a t t w o w e e k s p r e v i o u s l y t h e y h a d a l r e a d y a g r e e d t o - s o w e a r e
n o t t a l k i n g o f a n i s s u e o f p r i n c i p l e t h a t i s t o t a l l y u n a c c e p t a b l e - a n d s e c o n d l y t o
c o m p l e t e t h e w o r k t h a t i s r e q u i r e d t o b r i n g t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e r y i n t o b e i n g
i n t h e s p i r i t t h a t b o t h s i d e s h a v e a n i n t e r e s t o f n o t e n d i n g t h e w a r i n s u c h a w a y t h a t
i t i s j u s t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n o t h e r r o u n d o f c o n f l i c t .
S o w e a r e i n a p o s i t i o n w h e r e p e a c e c a n b e n e a r b u t p e a c e r e q u i r e s a d e c i s i o n .
A n d t h i s i s w h y w e w a n t e d t o r e s t a t e o n c e m o r e w h a t o u r b a s i c a t t i t u d e i s :
W i t h r e s p e c t t o S a i g o n w e h a v e s y m p a t h y a n d c o m p a s s i o n f o r t h e a n g u i s h o f
t h e i r p e o p l e a n d f o r t h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t . B u t i f w e c a n g e t a n
a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t c o n s i d e r s j u s t w e w i l l p r o c e e d w i t h i t .
W i t h r e s p e c t t o H a n o i o u r b a s i c o b j e c t i v e w a s s t a t e d i n t h e p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e o f
October 26 . W e w a n t a n e n d o f t h e w a r t h a t i s s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n a n a r m i s t i c e .
W e w a n t t o m o v e f r o m h o s t i l i t i e s t o n o r m a l i z a t i o n a n d f r o m n o r m a l i z a t i o n t o
c o o p e r a t i o n . B u t w e w i l l n o t m a k e a s e t t l e m e n t w h i c h i s a d i s g u i s e d f o r m o f
c o n t i n u e d w a r f a r e a n d w h i c h b r i n g s a b o u t b y i n d i r e c t i o n w h a t w e h a v e a l w a y s
s a i d w e w o u l d n o t t o l e r a t e .
W e h a v e a l w a y s s t a t e d t h a t a f a i r s o l u t i o n c a n n o t p o s s i b l y g i v e e i t h e r s i d e
e v e r y t h i n g t h a t i t w a n t s . W e h a v e - w e a r e n o t c o n t i n u i n g a w a r i n o r d e r t o g i v e
t o t a l v i c t o r y t o o u r a l l i e s . We want to give them a reasonable opportunity to
p a r t i c i p a t e i n a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t . B u t w e a l s o w i l l n o t m a k e a s e t t l e m e n t w h i c h
i s a d i s g u i s e d f o r m o f v i c t o r y f o r t h e o t h e r s i d e .
T h e r e f o r e w e a r e a t a p o i n t w h e r e w e a r e a g a i n - p e r h a p s w e a r e c l o s e r t o a n
a g r e e m e n t t h a n w e w e r e a t t h e e n d o f O c t o b e r i f t h e o t h e r s i d e i s w i l l i n g t o d e a l
w i t h u s i n g o o d f a i t h a n d w i t h g o o d w i l l .
B u t i t c a n n o t d o t h a t e v e r y d a y a n i s s u e i s s e t t l e d a n e w o n e i s r a i s e d , t h a t w h e n
a n i s s u e i s s e t t l e d i n a n a g r e e m e n t i t i s r a i s e d a g a i n a s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d i f i t i s
s e t t l e d i n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t i s r a i s e d a g a i n a s a p r o t o c o l . We will not be
bl ackmailed into an a greement. We will not be stampeded into an agreement .
A n d , i f I m a y s a y s o , w e w i l l n o t b e c h a r m e d i n t o a n a g r e e m e n t , u n t i l i t s c o n d i t i o n s
a r e r i g h t .
F o r t h e P r e s i d e n t , a n d f o r a l l o f u s w h o h a v e b e e n e n g a g e d i n t h e s e n e g o t i a -
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KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS 77
tions, nothing tha t we ha ve done ha s meant more than attempting to bring a n end
to the war in Vietnam . Nothing that I ha ve done since I am in this position ha s
made me feel more the trus tee of so many hopes as the negotiations w hich I
hav e-in w hich I hav e recently participated .
And it was painfu l a t times to think of the hopes of mill ions -a nd ind eed of the
hopes of many of you l adies an d gentlemen who were stand ing outside these
va rious meeting pl ac es-expecting momentous events to b e occu rring, wh ile
inside one frivolous issue af ter another was su rfaced in the las t three days .
And so wh at w e are sa ying to Han oi is : W e a r e p r e p a r e d t o c o n t i n u e i n t h e s p i r i t
of the n egotiations tha t were started in October . W e are prepared to mainta in an
agreement tha t provides f or the u nconditional releas e of al l American and al lied
prisoners, that imposes n o political solu tion on either side, that b rings ab out an
international ly su pervised cease-fire an d the withdraw al of al l American forces
within sixty day s .
I t i s a s e t t l e m e n t t h a t i s j u s t t o b o t h s i d e s , a n d t h a t r e q u i r e s o n l y a d e c i s i o n t o
maintain provisions that h ad al ready been a ccepted, an d a n end to procedu res
that ca n only mock the hopes of hu manity . And on that basis we can h ave a peace
that j us tifies the hopes of mankind and the sense of ju stice of al l pa rticipants .
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Now I'll be gla d to ans wer some of y our qu estions .
Q . Wha t do you think Hanoi's motive was in playing su ch a c harade?
A. I don't wan t to specula te on Hanoi's motives, and I hav e no doubt that
b e f o r e t o o l o n g w e w i l l h e a r a v e r s i o n o f e v e n t s t h a t d o e s n o t e x a c t l y c o i n c i d e w i t h
ours . I hav e attempted to give you as honest an a cc ount as I'm capabl e of. I
believe-and this is pure specul ation-tha t for a people that h av e fought for so
l o n g , i t i s p a r a d o x i c a l l y p e r h a p s e a s i e r t o f a c e t h e r i s k s o f w a r t h a n t h e u n c e r t a i n -
t i e s o f p e a c e . A n d i t m a y b e t h a t t h e y a r e w a i t i n g f o r a f u r t h e r a c c e n t u a t i o n o f t h e
divisions between u s and Saigon, for more pub lic pressu res on us , or perhaps they
simply c an not make up their minds .
Q. Dr. Kiss inger, from your ac coun t, one could concl ud e tha t the talks a re now
ended in terms o f the series y ou h av e completed . I s t h a t t r u e ? A n d , s e c o n d l y , i f i t i s
not true, on w ha t bas is will they be resu med?
A. W e do not consider the talks completed . W e believe that it would be a
rela tively simple matter to conc lu de the agreement b ecau se many of the issu es
tha t I mentioned in the press conference on October 26 h av e either been s ettled or
su bs tantial progress toward settling them ha s been made .
Therefore, if th ere were a determination to reach an agreement, it coul d be
reach ed relatively q uickly . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r a i s i n g t e c h n i c a l
objections is endles s . So if we hav e-as Le Duc Tho said yesterda y- we woul d
remain in contac t through mess ages . W e can then decide whether, or when, to
meet aga in .
Q. You ha ve not discus sed at a ll the proposal s tha t the United States made on
beha lf of Saigon, wh ich required ch an ges in the existing a greement that ha d been
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78 KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS
n e g o t i a t e d . C a n y o u d i s c u s s w h a t t h e y w e r e a n d w h a t e f f e c t t h e y h a d o n s t i m u l a t i n g
Hanoi-if they did-to making further proposal s .
A . A s I p o i n t e d o u t , t h e r e w e r e t w o c a t e g o r i e s o f o b j e c t i o n s o n t h e p a r t o f
Saigon : o b j e c t i o n s w h i c h w e a g r e e d w i t h , a n d o b j e c t i o n s w h i c h w e d i d n ' t a g r e e
w i t h .
T h e o b j e c t i o n s t h a t w e a g r e e d w i t h a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o n t a i n e d i n t h e l i s t t h a t I
p r e s e n t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g , a n d t h o s e w e r e t h e o n e s w e m a i n t a i n e d . A l l o f t h o s e , I
b e l i e v e , d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t c h a n g e s i n t h e a g r e e m e n t b u t e i t h e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n s ,
r e m o v a l o f a m b i g u i t i e s , o r s p e l l i n g o u t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a g r e e d p o s i t i o n s .
In the first sequence of meetings, between November 20 an d November 26,
most of those w ere-or many of those-were taken ca re of . S o t h a t w e h a v e
l i t e r a l l y - a s I h a v e p o i n t e d o u t b e f o r e - b e e n i n t h e p o s i t i o n w h e r e e v e r y d a y w e
t h o u g h t i t c o u l d a n d i n d e e d a l m o s t h a d t o b e t h e l a s t d a y .
T h e c o u n t e r p r o p o s a l s t h a t H a n o i h a d m a d e w e r e , a g a i n , i n t w o c a t e g o r i e s . O n e
s e t o f c h a n g e s t h a t w o u l d h a v e t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e a g r e e m e n t a n d
w h i c h , i n e f f e c t , w i t h d r e w t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n c e s s i o n s t h e y h a d m a d e . I d i d
n o t m e n t i o n t h o s e i n m y s t a t e m e n t b e c a u s e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s t h e y
t e n d e d t o d i s a p p e a r . T h e y t e n d e d t o d i s a p p e a r f r o m t h e a g r e e m e n t , t o r e a p p e a r i n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , a n d t h e n t o d i s a p p e a r f r o m u n d e r s t a n d i n g s t o r e a p p e a r i n p r o -
t o c o l s . B u t I s u s p e c t t h a t t h e y w i l l , i n t i m e , a f t e r t h e n e r v o u s e x h a u s t i o n o f o u r
t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t s , d i s a p p e a r f r o m t h e p r o t o c o l s a s w e l l .
B u t t h e n t h e r e w e r e a w h o l e s e r i e s o f t e c h n i c a l c o u n t e r p r o p o s a l s w h i c h w e r e
a b s o l u t e l y u n e n d i n g a n d w h i c h h i n g e d o n s u c h p r o f o u n d q u e s t i o n s w h e t h e r i f y o u
s t a t e a n o b l i g a t i o n i n t h e f u t u r e t e n s e y o u w e r e t h e r e f o r e l e a v i n g o p e n t h e
qu estion wh en it would come into operation a nd whether you-a matter that
reach ed the metaphy sical at moments a nd w hich a s s oon a s one of them was
settled another one appeared and wh ich made one believe tha t one wa s not
e n g a g e d i n a n e f f o r t t o s e t t l e f u n d a m e n t a l i s s u e s b u t i n a d e l a y i n g a c t i o n f o r
wh atever reason .
N o w i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n S a i g o n a n d H a n o i i s o n e o f t h e
c o m p l i c a t i n g f e a t u r e s o f t h i s n e g o t i a t i o n . B u t t h e b a s i c p o i n t t h a t w e w a n t t o m a k e
c l e a r i s t h i s : W e h a v e h a d o u r d i f f i c u l t i e s i n S a i g o n . B u t t h e o b s t a c l e t o a n
agreement a t this moment is not Saigon becau se we do not as yet ha ve a n
a g r e e m e n t t h a t w e c a n p r e s e n t t o t h e m .
Q. C a n a n a g r e e m e n t b e m a d e o p e r a t i v e w i t h o u t S a i g o n ' s s i g n a t u r e ?
A. W e l l , t h i s i s a q u e s t i o n t h a t h a s n o t y e t h a d t o b e f a c e d b u t - a n d w h i c h w e
h o p e w i l l n o t h a v e t o b e f a c e d .
Q. M u s t t h e r e b e , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s t e r m s , a s u b s t a n t i a l w i t h d r a w a l o f
N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e t r o o p s f r o m t h e S o u t h ?
A. T h e q u e s t i o n o f N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e f o r c e s i n t h e S o u t h h a s t w o e l e m e n t s :
t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e f o r c e s n o w t h e r e - i t h a s t h r e e e l e m e n t s - t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e
f o r c e s n o w t h e r e , t h e i r f u t u r e , a n d t h e g e n e r a l c l a i m t h a t N o r t h V i e t n a m m a y
m a k e w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s r i g h t t o i n t e r v e n e c o n s t a n t l y i n t h e S o u t h.
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KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS 79
With respect to the la st q ues tion, we ca nn ot accept the proposition tha t North
Vietnam ha s a right of consta nt intervention in the South . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f i r s t
qu estion of the forces now in th e South, the Un ited States ha s mad e three
cease-fire proposals since October 1970, a ll of them based on the de f acto
situa tion a s it existed a t the time of the ceas e-fire, al l of th em approved b y th e
government of South Vietna m, and th erefore we did n ot ad d th at con dition of
withdraw al to our present proposa l, w hich reflected exactly the positions w e had
taken on Jan ua ry 25 a nd on May 9 of this year, both of wh ich ha d been agreed to
by the Government of the Repub lic of Vietnam .
Q. Are we bac k to the beginning n ow in negotiations?
A. No, we hav e an a greement that is 99 per cent completed a s f ar as the text of
the agreement is c oncerned . We al so ha ve an agreement whose ass ociated im-
plementations a re very simple to concl ud e if one takes the bas ic provisions of
interna tiona l su pervision tha t are in the text of the agreement, provisions tha t
ha ppen to be s pell ed out in greater detail in the a greement than al most a ny other
as pect, and th erefore we are one decision aw ay from a s ettlement, an d Hanoi can
settle this any day by an excha nge of messa ges after which there would be requ ired
a c ertain a moun t of work on the agreement wh ich is n ot very muc h a nd s ome work
in bringing th e implementing ins truments into being .
Q. Could y ou tell us wh at that 1 per cent is?
A. You know, I hav e found that I get into troubl e when I give figures . Let me
not insist on 1 per cent . It is a n a greement tha t is s ub stan tial ly completed, bu t I
ca nnot go into that . B u t t h a t i n a n y e v e n t i s n o t t h e - t h a t a l o n e i s n o t t h e p r o b l e m .
Q. Of wh at remains, woul d you d escribe it as fu nd amental or one of these
technica l problems? Beca us e you've ranged between the two, I'm a l ittle lost as to
w h a t i s l e f t .
A. The tech nical implementing instruments that they h av e presented are to-
tally una cceptable for the reasons which I gav e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , I c a n n o t r e a l l y
b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y a r e s e r i o u s . W ha t remains on the agreement itself is a fu nda men-
tal point . It is, howev er, a point that ha s b een a cc epted al read y two weeks
previous ly and la ter withdrawn , so we are not raising a n ew fu ndamental point .
We are raising the acc eptance of something that h ad al ready once been a ccepted.
Q. I s i t p o l i t i c a l ?
A. I r e a l l y d o n ' t w a n t t o g o i n t o t h e f u t u r e o f t h e P a r i s p e a c e t a l k s . I t h i n k t h a t
the sort of discu ss ions tha t hav e been going on in the Paris peac e talks a re not
aff ected by su ch temporary u ps a nd downs as the private peace tal ks, so I'm sure
that Minister Xuan Thu y a nd Ambas sad or Porter will find many su bj ects for
mutu al recrimina tion .
Q. Isn't the fu nd amental point the one you raised ab out the right of North
Vietna mese troops to intervene in th e fu ture of South Vietna m?
A. I w ill not go into the sub stan ce of the negotiations .
Q. I t i s t h e U. S. i n s i s t e n c e t h a t t h e t w o p a r t s o f V i e t n a m s h o u l d l i v e i n p e a c e w i t h
eac h oth er . Is that not the fu nda mental disagreement here?
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80 KISSINGER'S STATEMENT ON THE PARIS TALKS
A. I c a n ' t c o n s i d e r i t a n e x t r e m e l y o n e r o u s d e m a n d t o s a y t h a t t h e p a r t i e s o f a
p e a c e s e t t l e m e n t s h o u l d l i v e i n p e a c e w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , a n d w e c a n n o t m a k e a
s e t t l e m e n t w h i c h b r i n g s p e a c e t o N o r t h V i e t n a m a n d m a i n t a i n s t h e w a r i n S o u t h
Vietna m .
Q I s n ' t i t t h a t V i e t n a m i s o n e c o u n t r y a n d t h i s p e a c e a g r e e m e n t i s s u p p o s e d t o
r a t i f y t h a t p o i n t ?
A. T h e q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r t h e i r p o s i t i o n i s n ' t t h a t V i e t n a m i s o n e c o u n t r y a n d
t h i s a g r e e m e n t i s s u p p o s e d t o r a t i f y t h a t p o i n t .
[ A n o t h e r v o i c e ] T h i s w i l l b e t h e f i n a l q u e s t i o n a s H e n r y h a s t o l e a v e n o w .
A. I w a s w o n d e r i n g h o w h e w o u l d c o n c l u d e t h i s t h i n g .
Q. D i d y o u t e l l H a n o i a h e a d o f t i m e t h a t y o u w o u l d t a l k t o u s ?
A. T h e a n s w e r t o t h a t i s n o , b u t I s u s p e c t y o u w i l l g e t t h a t m e s s a g e f r o m t h e m
v e r y q u i c k l y .
Q. W a s t h e r e a n y u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n P a r i s b e f o r e y o u l e f t t h a t e a c h s i d e w o u l d b e
f r e e t o e x p r e s s i t s e l f w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f u t u r e t a l k s ?
A. L e D u c T h o c o r r e c t l y s t a t e d o u r a g r e e m e n t a t t h e a i r p o r t - t h a t w e w o u l d
n o t g o i n t o t h e s u b s t a n c e o f t h e t a l k s . N o w I r e c o g n i z e t h a t w h a t I ' m d o i n g h e r e
g o e s t o t h e e d g e o f t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g . B u t t h e P r e s i d e n t f e l t t h a t w e c o u l d n o t
p e r m i t a s i t u a t i o n t o c o n t i n u e i n w h i c h t h e r e w a s d a i l y s p e c u l a t i o n a s t o s o m e t h i n g
t h a t w a s a l r e a d y a c c o m p l i s h e d w h i l e t h e r e c o r d w a s s o c l e a r l y c o n t r a r y , a n d
t h e r e f o r e w e o w e d y o u a n e x p l a n a t i o n n o t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r i s s u e s b u t o f t h e
p r o g r e s s o f n e g o t i a t i o n s a n d e x a c t l y w h e r e t h e y s t o o d .
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APPENDIX B
North Vietnam's Statements
O n t h e P a r i s T a l k s
December 17 and 21, 1972
These three comments on the Kiss inger press c onference (s ee
Appendix A) an d the breakdown o f n egotiations were broadc as t by the
(North) Vietnam News Agency and recorded by the Foreign Broadca st
Information Service .
1 Broadc as t in Engl ish, December 17 ; d a t e l i n e P a r i s ,
December 16 :
Comments of Mr. Nguy en Than h Le, spokesman for the Delega tion of the Demo-
cratic Repub lic of Vietnam Government to the Pa ris Conferenc e on Vietna m, on the
statements mad e by Dr. Kis sing er at h is press conf erenc e on December 16, 1972 .
We wou ld like to make the fol low ing preliminary remarks on the sta tements
made by Dr. K issin ger at his press c onference on December 16, 1972 .
W e h a v e n o t y e t t h e o f f i c i a l f u l l t e x t o f D r . K i s s i n g e r ' s s t a t e m e n t s t o t h e p r e s s . I f
the reports of the news agenc ies are correct, we feel it regrettabl e that the U . S .
side has acted once aga in at va rianc e with the agreement that both parties s ha ll not
publ icly comment on the su bs tanc e of th e private tal ks between th e Democratic
Repub lic of Vietnam [DRV] an d th e United States .
Moreov er, the U . S . s ide has d eliberately distorted the fact, cl aiming that the
DRV side had demand ed chan ges to many q uestions a nd tha t it had thus created
obstac les to the concl us ion of the a greement . That is completely u ntrue .
It is known to everyone that in th e October 20, 1972 , mess age a ddress ed on
beh al f of President Nixon to the Prime Minis ter of the DRV, the U . S . s i d e
ac knowledged th at th e text of the agreement might be cons idered completed, a nd
it proposed Oc tober 31, 1972 , as the da te for the signing of the agreement .
Afterwards, the United States ha s insisted on ch ang ing many su bs tantive ques-
tions, inclu ding many q uestions of principle .
The position of the DRV side is th at th e text of the agreement agreed u pon on
October 20, 1972, sh ould be maintained . B u t i f t h e U . S . s i d e i n s i s t s o n c h a n g i n g i t ,
our side will ha ve al so to propose necessa ry cha nges . The negotiations are
81
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82 NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENTS ON THE PARIS TALKS
prolong ed, th e wa r increases its violence, [and ] the responsibility for such a
situation befall s on the U . S . s i d e .
The Government of the DRV and the Vietnamese entire people ha ve a lw ay s
desired a peacef ul settlement of the Vietna m problem on the ba sis of respect for
the fu nda mental na tiona l rights of the Vietnamese people an d the right to self-
determina tion of th e South Vietnam popul ation . The Vietna mese people wil l
resol utely maintain th eir correct position a nd, at th e sa me time, show their
constant good will .
I f t h e U . S . Government reall y d esires to peac eful ly settle the Vietnam probl em,
respond to the as pirations of the America n people an d th e world people, to ensu re
the America n c aptu red s ervicemen's early return to their families, an d to repa-
triate al l American sold iers participating in the w ar, it shoul d sign the agreement
agreed upon, wit hout de la y a n d wit hout a n y c h a n ge .
For its part, the DRV side will strictly respect th e entire text of the agreement
an d is prepared to sign it w ith the U . S . s ide, the sooner the better .
2 Broad ca st in Vietnamese, December 17 (tra ns la tion) :
Commenting on K iss inger's 16 December press c onf erenc e, VNA [Vietna m
News Agency ] pointed out cl early tha t all attempts by the U . S . s ide to deceive
publ ic opinion a nd s hrug off its respons ibility w ill certainly be doomed .
On 16 December Kissing er, as sis tan t to U . S . President Nixon f or national
security a ffa irs, su ddenly held a press conference to try to explain the reason w hy
the United States ha d d elay ed signing the agreement on ending the wa r and
restoring peace in Vietnam wh ich it ha s reach ed with th e DRV on 20 October .
In his speech as well as in his an swers to newsmen, Kiss inger held the DRV
completely respons ible for the negative resu lts of the latest meetings in Paris an d
for the agreements n ot yet signed . W hile wa iting to stud y th e whole text of this
press c onference so we may h av e a more complete anal ys is, it is n ow necessa ry to
stress again the basic truth of this matter . W e c a n a s s e r t t h a t K i s s i n g e r ' s j u s t i f i c a -
tions a nd d enials at this press conference were completely un true . No one ca n
b e l i e v e h i s e f f o r t t o c a s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e d e l a y i n t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e a g r e e m e n t
on th e DRV sid e .
Sinc e 26 October everyone in the world h as cl early s een tha t than ks to the good
wil l a nd s eriou sn ess of th e Vietna mese side, [the DRV Government,] with th e
conc urrence of the PRGRSV [Provisiona l Revolu tiona ry Government of the
Republ ic of South Vietnam], initiated an important step by putting forth the draf t
of an agreement on end ing the wa r and restoring peac e to Vietnam. Everyone
knows that this initiative wa s disc us sed in great detail, an d l ater the delegates of
the DRV Government a n d the U . S . Government approved the d raft agreement
on ending th e war a nd restoring peac e to Vietnam . U . S . President Nixon himself
conf irmed, in his messa ge to the DRV premier la te in October, that th e text of th e
ag reement might b e considered complete, an d proposed 31 October 1972 a s th e
da te for signing the a greement .
The DRV Government, in its 2 6 October statement, pointed out c learl y how
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NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENTS ON THE PARIS TALKS 83
the Nixon administration h ad un ilateral ly delay ed signing of the agreement and at
the sa me time tried to soothe and d eceive pu bl ic opinion, sa ying th at the remain-
ing questions w ere only q uestions of techn ical details w hich coul d be solved in a
new meeting of a few da ys .
Later the U . S . s ide proposed tha t the two sides meet aga in for further discu s-
sion, an d tw ice the DRV side met the as sista nt to the U . S . P r e s i d e n t f o r n a t i o n a l
sec u rity a f f a irs, on 2 0 November an d on 4 December . This again sh owed
maximum good will an d the very s erious attitude of our delegation . At a time
w hen the U . S . s ide adopted a n a bout-fac e attitude in delay ing the signing of the
agreement a nd demand ing reexamination of many ba sic points of the a greement,
Kiss inger held a press conf erence in the United States wh ich ga ve to the press a
f a l s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e f a c t s a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e l a i d t h e b l a m e a t t h e d o o r o f
the Vietnamese side . Nevertheless, a ll these attempts by the U . S . s i d e c a n f o o l n o
one and can never su cceed .
Everyone real izes that the DRV has a lw ay s a ss erted its read iness to sign
immediately the a greement a greed in the month of October 1972 . Everyone als o
r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e U . S . Government ha s a dopted a d oubl e-cross attitud e towa rd the
agreement, den ied th e U . S . President's c onfirmation that the text of the agree-
ment w as cons idered completed, an d ignored the da y f or signing th e agreement
set forth by the U . S . P r e s i d e n t . Although Mr . Kissinger has repeatedl y ca st the
bl ame on the DRV side, everyone knows tha t sinc e the meeting of 2 0 November
the U . S . s i d e h a s i n s i s t e d o n c h a n g i n g a w h o l e s e t o f p o i n t , p o i n t s w h i c h a r e b a s i c
a n d e s s e n t i a l a n d h a v e t h e f o r c e o f p r i n c i p l e s a n d n o t l i n g u i s t i c , t e c h n i c a l d e t a i l s
an d so forth .
Moreover, al ong with its negative attitude a t the conference tabl e, the U . S .
ad ministration h as given pu ppet Nguy en Van Th ieu f ree rein to oppose the
agreement, in words a nd deeds, an d h as su pplied the Saigon pu ppet administra-
tion w ith more weapons to step up th e war an d c rack down more violently on the
people u nd er its control . More seriousl y, th e U . S . side has al so sought to
strengthen the military apparatus in South Vietna m by s ending tens of thousa nds
of disgu ised military a dv isers to provide c ommand for the Saigon army . In
add ition, it is us ing B-52 s trategic b ombers to la y w as te to many popul ous a reas in
South Vietna m, inc lu ding th e areas su rround ing Saigon . At the s ame time it is
using U . S . a ir an d na va l f orces to attack the DRV and B-52 s to carpet-bomb many
areas f rom Tha nh Hoa to Vinh Linh z one .
I t i s t h u s c l e a r t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s n o t g i v e n u p i t s d e s i g n t o p e r p e t u a t e i t s
neocolonialist rul e of South Vietnam, tha t it is s triving to ca rry ou t its pl an to
Vietnamize the wa r there wh ile prompting Ngu yen Va n Thieu to resist s igning th e
peace agreement a nd even to reject the ess ential s of this a greement .
Wh atever sophistry the Un ited States may indu lge in, it can not av oid its
respons ibility for the present s ituation in the Vietnam peac e talks . I t s a b o u t - f a c e
attitud e in deman ding reexamina tion of the ba sic points of the ag reement is the
only obstac le to the agreement on end ing the wa r and restoring peac e in Vietnam,
which thu s fa r has not been signed .
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84 NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENTS ON THE PARIS TALKS
Once again the DRV side serious ly demand s th at the U . S . s ide adhere to the
context of the agreement mutu al ly agreed to on 20 October and sign th at a gree-
ment without fu rther dela y . More than th at, the U . S . s i d e m u s t s e e t o i t t h a t t h e
agreement, once signed, is implemented s crupul ousl y so that th ere will be a la sting
peace in Vietna m and the rest of Indochina .
3 Broadc as t in Engl ish, December 21 :
At the 171st plenary s ession of the Paris c onference on Vietna m this morning, Dinh
Ba Thi, who deputized for the head d elegation of th e PRGRSV [Prov isiona l
Revol utionary Government of the Repub lic of South Vietnam] delegation, strongl y
denou nc ed the Nixon ad ministration for the extremely serious steps of war escal a-
tion it has made in the past few d ay s a gains t the whole territory of the DRV, an d
d em a n d e d t he U . S . to put a n immediate end to these crimina l acts .
Refu ting the U . S . d i s t o r t i o n s of t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e of negotiations , he pointed out :
It is the U . S . side that ha s obstructed the talks . Wa shington ha s prompted
Nguyen Van Thieu to make extremely a bs urd c la ims, wh ich, in essenc e, is a
revision of al l the points a greed . The pu rpose is to bl ur th e line between the
Un ited States-th e aggressor-an d th e Vietna mese people, wh o resist it, and to
deny the holy resis tan ce of the South Vietnamese people and the PRGRSV, whil e
making the U . S .- rigged ad ministration "the only l egitimate, constitutional " one .
These cla ims are als o mean t to turn the temporary military demarcation l ine at the
seventeenth pa rall el into a territorial boun da ry to perpetua te the partition of
Vietnam, and South Vietnam into a s eparate state und er the neocolonialis t rule of
the Un ited States .
After cond emning the Nixon ad ministration for pumping tens of thousa nds of
tons of weapons a nd w ar mean s into South Vietnam, maintaining disgu ised military
ad visers an d introdu cing new ones to continu e providing command to the Saigon
army, and making the Nguy en Van Thieu c liq ue condu ct one terror campaign af ter
an other against patriots and a dv ocates ofpeace a nd national concord, Dinh Ba Th i
pointed ou t :
It is c lear tha t the United States does not wan t peac e . It is stepping u p the
"Vietnamization" policy an d prolonging an d expand ing its involv ement in Viet-
nam . An irrefuta bl e proof of this is th e hectic, reckless w ar esca la tion it is
un dertaking now .
Dinh Ba Thi said in conclu sion :
The adventurous a cts a nd war esca la tion of the United States will provoke due
riposts a nd pun ishment from the entire Vietnamese people f rom the sou th to th e
north . The Vietnamese people wan t peac e and independenc e and freedom. The
more the United States prolongs an d intens ifies the war, the more resol utel y th e
Vietnamese people, united mill ions as one man a nd c los ely s iding with the brother
peoples of Cambodia an d Laos, wil l s tep up their wa r of resistanc e for na tiona l
sa lv ation, till complete victory .
Nguy en Minh Vy, on behal f of the DRV delegation, sa id :
It is pu blic knowl edge that al though the United States ha s not'kept its w ord b y
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NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENTS ON THE PARIS TALKS 85
not signing the agreement reac hed on October 20 at th e date fixed for October 31
proposed by the Un ited States itself , the DRV Government, as well -meaning a s
ever, continued to take part in th e priva te meetings on the requ est of th e United
States . Y e t , w h i l e t h e t a l k s w e r e g o i n g o n , t h e U . S . side, on December 16, pla yed a
different tu ne, making groun dl ess cha rges aga inst the DRV side in an attempt to
l a y a t t h e l a t t e r ' s d o o r t h e b l a m e f o r t h e o b s t r u c t i o n o f t h e t a l k s . Immediately a fter
tha t, the Un ited States esca la ted the war aga inst North Vietna m in a n extremely
serious man ner, on an u nprecedented sca le, and w ith rare violenc e .
Refu ting the al legations made by the Nixon administration to ju stify the resu mp-
tion of the bombing of North Vietnam, h e pointed out :
T h e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e U . S . w a r i s t h e l o g i c a l s e q u e l o f w h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
ha s d one in the pas t month-the delay ing of the signing of the mutual ly reach ed
agreement, the prolonging of the tal ks, the demand for a revision of th e essential
points of the agreement, the intensifica tion of military operations a gain st th e
liberation f orces, the la un ching of many terror campaigns aga inst the people, and
the preparations for the sa botage of th e agreement .
Nguy en Minh Vy stress ed :
The DRV Government a nd the RSV Prov isional Revol utiona ry Government
ha ve sh own the maximum good will . If th e United States opts for the path of
peace, it mus t negotiate serious ly , an d promptly sign the agreement reac hed on
October 20 . Shoul d th e United States stu bbornly continue the "Vietnamization"
policy in South Vietna m and the bombing, mining, a nd bl ockading of North
Vietnam, it would ha ve to bear al l th e serious consequ ences of these criminal acts .
A f t e r r e a d i n g t h e t e x t o f h is speech an d proposing December 28 as the date for the
next session, Nguy en Minh Vy decl ared:
As a protest to the war esca la tion a nd th e about-f ac e of the United States in
negotiations , the DRV Government del egation with th e conc urrence of the PRG
Government decl ares the 171st sess ion c losed n ow .
And the del egation of the DRV an d tha t of the PRG wal ked out of the conf erence
h a l l a t 1 1 :30 A . M. P a r i s t i m e .
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APPENDIX C
North Vietnam's Statement
On the Bombing
December 2 7 ,1972
T h i s s t a t e m e n t b y t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y o f t h e D e m o c r a t i c R e p u b l i c o f
Vietnam was b roadca st in English b y the (North) Vietna m News
A g e n c y a n d r e c o r d e d b y t h e F o r e i g n B r o a d c a s t I n f o r m a t i o n S e r v i c e .
THE DRV FOREIGN MINISTRY TODAY ISSUED t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t r e -
g a r d i n g t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n B - 5 2 b o m b i n g s c o n d u c t e d o n t h e n i g h t o f D e c e m b e r 2 6
b y t h e U . S . i m p e r i a l i s t s a g a i n s t m a n y d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s i n t h e c a p i t a l c i t y o f
H a n o i , t h e p o r t c i t y o f H a i p h o n g a n d o t h e r p l a c e s i n N o r t h V i e t n a m :
C o n t i n u i n g t h e f r e n z i e d w a r e s c a l a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e D R V t h e U . S . i m p e r i a l i s t
a g g r e s s o r s o n t h e n i g h t o f D e c e m b e r 2 6 , 1 9 7 2 , a g a i n s e n t m a n y f l i g h t s o f B - 5 2
s t r a t e g i c b o m b e r s a n d d o z e n s o f o t h e r p l a n e s f o r e x t e r m i n a t i o n b o m b i n g s a g a i n s t
m a n y a r e a s i n s i d e a n d a r o u n d H a n o i , i n H a i p h o n g c i t y , T h a i N g u y e n c i t y , a n d
m a n y o t h e r p l a c e s . T h e s e a r e b r u t a l a c t s a i m e d a t m a s s a c r i n g c i v i l i a n s , a c r i m e
t h a t f a r e x c e e d s i n b a r b a r i t y t h e o n e s p e r p e t r a t e d i n t h e p a s t b y t h e H i t l e r i t e
f a s c i s t s .
B y c o n d u c t i n g B - 5 2 c a r p e t - b o m b i n g s a n d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e r a i d s b y o t h e r a i r c r a f t
a g a i n s t t h e d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s , t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s i n f l i c t e d
t h o u s a n d s o f c a s u a l t i e s a n d d e s t r o y e d t h o u s a n d s o f h o u s e s a n d d o z e n s o f m e d i c a l
s t a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l , o n e o f t h e l o n g e s t - s t a n d i n g c e n t e r s f o r
m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h i n N o r t h V i e t n a m , m a n y s c h o o l s , i n c l u d i n g t h e E c o n o m i c a n d
Planning College and the Poly technics in Hanoi, many cu ltu ral works, many
p u b l i c u t i l i t y i n s t a l l a t i o n s, e t c . U . S . b o m b s a n d r o c k e t s h a v e a l s o c a u s e d d a m a g e
t o e i g h t e m b a s s i e s i n H a n o i a n d a n u m b e r o f f o r e i g n s h i p s a n c h o r e d a t H a i p h o n g
h a r b o r .
W h i l e f r a n t i c a l l y e s c a l a t i n g t h e w a r , t h e N i x o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s a t t e m p t i n g t o
d e c e i v e p u b l i c o p i n i o n w i t h e n d l e s s c o n t e n t i o n s a b o u t i t s " d e s i r e t o n e g o t i a t e
s e r i o u s l y " a n d " t o f i n d o u t a t a n e a r l y d a t e a s o l u t i o n t o t h e w a r " w h i l e , i n f a c t ,
r e s o r t i n g t o a c t s o f w a r e s c a l a t i o n t o b l o c k t h e r o a d t o a s e t t l e m e n t . T h e N i x o n
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n p r e t e n d s t h a t i t i s c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e c a p t u r e d U. S
. m i l i t a r y m e n
a n d d o i n g e v e r y t h i n g t o b r i n g t h e m h o m e , w h i l e , b y m a s s i v e b o m b i n g s , t h r e a t e n -
i n g t h e f a c t [ s i c ] t h e l i v e s a n d l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f h u n d r e d s o f U . S . p i l o t s b e i n g
86
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NORTH VIETNAM'S STATEMENT ON THE BOMBING 87
detained a nd f urther lengthening the list of ca ptured U . S . military men .
The Nixon a dministration's internationa l b rigan da ge acts an d policy to
negotiate on a position of strength ha ve aroused profound ha tred a mong th e
Vietnamese people and high ind ignation among the world people . The whole
progressive mankind is un an imous ly raising its voice to demand th e Nixon admin-
istration to stop immediately th e cu rrent frantic wa r esca l ation step aga inst the
DRVLet the U . S . i m p e r i a l i s t a g g r e s s o r s h a r b o r n o i l l u s i o n a b o u t s u b d u i n g t h e h e r o i c
Vietnamese nation b y the f orce of bombs a nd shell s . The U . S . a g g r e s s o r s w i l l
certainly b e dul y pun ished for every step of their wa r esc al ation . On the night of
December 26, 1972 , the armed forces an d people in Hanoi, Haiphong, a nd Thai
Nguyen fought va liantly a nd stau nch ly , and shot down eight B-52 s and w iped out
or ca ptured many America n pilots . All in al l, in more than a week, the armed
forces an d people of North Vietnam h av e shot down sixty-two U . S . a i r c r a f t
incl ud ing twenty-s ix B-52 s an d wiped out or ca ptured man y air pirates . T h i s i s a n
ignominious fa ilure of the U . S . imperial ist aggressors, and a b ig victory of our
people .
So long a s th e Nixon a dministration pursu es its bruta l w ar policy, the Viet-
na mese people will resolu tely c arry out the testa ment of venerated President Ho
Chi Minh , persis t in an d promote their fight aga inst U . S . a g g r e s s i o n , f o r n a t i o n a l
s a l v a t i o n i n t h e m i l i t a r y , p o l i t i c a l , a n d d i p l o m a t i c f i e l d s t i l l t o t a l v i c t o r y s o a s t o
liberate the south, defend an d b uild up the social ist north, and proceed towa rd a
peacefu l reun ification of the coun try . The Vietna mese people are resol ved to
sta nd s houl der to shoul der with the brother peoples of Laos and Cambod ia,
fu rther tighten their ran ks, an d promote the fight so a s to drive th e U . S . i m -
perial ists out of the Indoch inese peninsu la , and regain na tional independence and
freedom for eac h c oun try .
The Government of the Democratic Republ ic of Vietnam onc e aga in s everely
denoun ces to world pub lic opinion the new, extremely serious s tep of wa r esc al a-
tion ta ken by the U . S . imperial ist aggress ors a gains t North Vietnam . I t r e s o l u t e l y
demand s tha t the Nixon administration put a n end to the bomba rdments , the
bl ockade, and a ll other acts of encroachment upon the sovereignty a nd s ecurity of
the DRV, stop its a ggressiv e war in Vietna m, and give up its " Vietnamization of
the war" policy .
The Government of th e Democratic Repub lic of Vietna m an d the Vietna mese
people tha nk the governments an d peoples of the other socialist c ountries, th e
governments an d peoples of the peac e- and j us tice-loving coun tries in the world,
the va rious internationa l organ izations , an d the American people for hav ing
timely an d firmly cond emned the Nixon ad ministration's f renzied w ar ac ts . The
DRV Government an d th e Vietna mese people earnestl y c al l on th eir friends in al l
the five continents to continue to struggl e in order to check the bl oods tained
han ds of the U . S . i m p e r i a l i s t a g g r e s s o r s , w h o a r e d e l i b e r a t e l y m a s s a c r i n g c i v i l i a n s
an d exterminating towns a nd popul ous a reas in the DRV, and to lend stronger
su pport to the Vietnamese people's j us t ca us e till complete victory .
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APPENDIX D
" T e r r o r F r o m t h e S k i e s "
A New York Times Editoria l
December 22,1972
ASKED WHETHER CIVILIAN CENTERS w o u l d n o t i n e v i t a b l y b e h i t d u r i n g t h e
r e s u m e d m a s s i v e a i r a s s a u l t o n N o r t h V i e t n a m , a P e n t a g o n s p o k e s m a n r e p l i e d ,
" N o , w e d o n o t s t r i k e c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s ." He then amended his comment to sa y :
" W e d o n o t t a r g e t c i v i l i a n t a r g e t s . "
T h e d i f f e r e n c e i s c r u c i a l .
T h e b i g B - 5 2 b o m b e r s t h a t a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e o v e r t h e h e a v i l y
p o p u l a t e d H a n o i - H a i p h o n g a r e a a r e n o t p r e c i s i o n w e a p o n s . N o r m a l l y t h e y o p e r -
ate in f lights of three that l ay down a pattern of bombs- twenty tons to a
p l a n e - w h i c h s c a t t e r o v e r a n a r e a m o r e t h a n h a l f a m i l e w i d e a n d m o r e t h a n a
m i l e a n d a h a l f l o n g .
E v e n i f t h e " t a r g e t s " w e r e s t r i c t l y m i l i t a r y , a g r e a t d e a l m o r e t h a n m i l i t a r y
w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y b e c a u g h t u p i n s u c h s w e e p i n g d e v a s t a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n a b l i t z
t h a t i n t h e f i r s t t w o d a y s i s e s t i m a t e d t o h a v e d r o p p e d 2 0 , 0 0 0 t o n s o f e x p l o s i v e s -
t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e H i r o s h i m a b o m b . I m a g i n e w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n t o N e w Y o r k
o r a n y o t h e r A m e r i c a n c i t y i f a c o m p a r a b l e e n e m y w e r e u n l e a s h e d t o a t t a c k s u c h
t a r g e t s o n t h e P e n t a g o n ' s a u t h o r i z e d l i s t a s r a i l y a r d s , s h i p y a r d s , c o m m a n d a n d
c o n t r o l f a c i l i t i e s , w a r e h o u s e a n d t r a n s s h i p m e n t a r e a s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f a c i l i t i e s ,
v e h i c l e - r e p a i r f a c i l i t i e s , p o w e r p l a n t s , r a i l w a y b r i d g e s , r a i l w a y r o l l i n g s t o c k , t r u c k
p a r k s , a i r b a s e s , a i r - d e f e n s e r a d a r s , a n d g u n a n d m i s s i l e s i t e s .
I t r e q u i r e s n o h o r r o r s t o r i e s f r o m H a n o i r a d i o t o d e d u c e t h a t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
a n d h u m a n s u f f e r i n g m u s t b e v e r y e x t e n s i v e i n d e e d . A n d t o w h a t e n d ?
O f f i c i a l s i n W a s h i n g t o n a n d S a i g o n h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r a i d s a r e i n t e n d e d
t o d i s r u p t a C o m m u n i s t o f f e n s i v e . B u t m i l i t a r y m e n i n S a i g o n s a y t h e y h a v e s e e n
n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e a r e p r e p a r i n g f o r s u c h a s t r i k e .
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n s p o k e s m e n h a v e a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t t h i s b r u t a l a s s a u l t i s i n -
t e n d e d t o c o n v e y t o N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e l e a d e r s P r e s i d e n t N i x o n ' s d i s p l e a s u r e o v e r
H a n o i ' s i n t r a n s i g e n c e a t t h e P a r i s p e a c e t a l k s . O n l y l a s t w e e k , h o w e v e r , a r e s p o n -
s i b l e A m e r i c a n o f f i c i a l i n P a r i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e i m p a s s e c e n t e r e d o n P r e s i d e n t
T h i e u ' s i n s i s t e n c e , b a c k e d b y P r e s i d e n t N i x o n , t h a t a n y a g r e e m e n t s p e c i f i c a l l y
R e p r i n t e d b y p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e New York Times, December 22, 1972 ; ©1972 b y t h e
New York Times Company .
. 8 8
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TERROR FROM THE SKIES 89
recognize Saigon's a uthority over all of South Vietnam . This amoun ts to a
d e m a n d t h a t t h e C o m m u n i s t s a c k n o w l e d g e a d e f e a t t h e y h a v e n o t s u f f e r e d o n t h e
b a t t l e f i e l d .
N o m a t t e r w h o i s t o b l a m e f o r t h e b r e a k d o w n i n t a l k s , t h e m a s s i v e , i n d i s c r i m i -
n a t e u s e o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ' o v e r w h e l m i n g a e r i a l m i g h t t o t r y t o i m p o s e a n
A m e r i c a n s o l u t i o n t o V i e t n a m ' s p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s i s t e r r o r i s m o n a n u n p r e c e -
d e n t e d s c a l e , a r e t r e a t f r o m d i p l o m a c y w h i c h t h i s n a t i o n w o u l d b e t h e f i r s t a n d
l o u d e s t t o c o n d e m n i f i t w e r e p r a c t i c e d b y a n y o t h e r m a j o r p o w e r . I n t h e n a m e o f
c o n s c i e n c e a n d c o u n t r y , A m e r i c a n s m u s t n o w s p e a k o u t f o r s a n i t y i n W a s h i n g t o n
a n d p e a c e i n I n d o c h i n a .
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APPENDIX E
" Terror Bombing
In the Name of Pea ce"
A W a s hington Pos t E d i t o r i a l
December 28, 1972
How DID WE GET IN A FEW s h o r t w e e k s f r o m a p r o s p e c t f o r p e a c e t h a t
" y o u c a n b a n k o n , " i n t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s w o r d s , t o t h e m o s t s a v a g e a n d s e n s e l e s s a c t
o f w a r e v e r v i s i t e d , o v e r a s c a n t t e n d a y s , b y o n e s o v e r e i g n p e o p l e u p o n a n o t h e r ?
A n d p e r h a p s m o r e t o t h e p o i n t , w h a t i s t h e l o g i c a n d w h e r e a r e t h e l e s s o n s o f
h i s t o r y t h a t s a y w e c a n r u n t h i s r e e l b a c k w a r d a f t e r a t i m e a n d p r o c e e d f r o m t e r r o r
b o m b i n g t o " p e a c e " - t h a t t h e r e i s , i n o t h e r w o r d s , s o m e r a t i o n a l c a u s e a n d e f f e c t
h e r e , r u n n i n g e i t h e r w a y ?
T h e s a d , h a r d a n s w e r i s t h a t w h i l e t h e r e a r e f e w c o n c l u s i v e l e s s o n s f r o m h i s t o r y
i n t h i s m a t t e r , t h e s u p p o s e d " l o g i c " o f p r o c e e d i n g f r o m b a r g a i n i n g t o b o m b i n g
and back to bargaining, in the name of peace, ha s been f un damental to this
c o u n t r y ' s V i e t n a m s t r a t e g y o f " l i m i t e d w a r " b y " g r a d u a t e d r e s p o n s e " o v e r m o r e
t h a n e i g h t y e a r s a n d t w o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . I n t h e b e g i n n i n g , i t w a s a c c e p t e d , w i t h
p r e c i o u s l i t t l e p r o t e s t , b y D e m o c r a t s a n d R e p u b l i c a n s a l i k e ; a n d i t w a s q u i e t l y
a c q u i e s c e d i n b y a g o o d m a n y o f t h e p e o p l e w h o n o w t a l k o f " g e n o c i d e " a n d " w a r
c r i m e s " a n d o f t h e i n t o l e r a b l e " i m m o r a l i t y " o f o u r c u r r e n t p o l i c y .
T h a t w e r e c i t e t h i s b a c k g r o u n d i s i n n o w a y t o s u g g e s t t h a t w e t h i n k M r . N i x o n i s
s o m e h o w m a n d a t e d t o c o n t i n u e t o c o m p o u n d p a s t f o l l i e s . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , h a v i n g
p r o m i s e d u s s o m a n y t i m e s t o e n d t h i s w a r w i t h i n h i s f i r s t f o u r y e a r s a n d h a v i n g
f a i l e d s o d i s m a l l y , f o r a l l t h a t h e m i g h t h a v e l e a r n e d f r o m r e c e n t h i s t o r y , h e i s
u n d e r g r e a t e r o b l i g a t i o n t h a n a n y o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s w e r e t o r e - e v a l u a t e t h e
m i s s i o n , t o r e a s s e s s o u r c a p a b i l i t i e s , t o r e c o g n i z e o u r l i m i t a t i o n s - a n d t o c h a n g e
o u r s t r a t e g y . B u t t h e c h a n g e t h a t i s n e e d e d i s n o t l i k e l y t o b e e n c o u r a g e d b y
d e n o u n c i n g t h e h o r r o r n o w u n f o l d i n g i n t h e s k i e s o v e r N o r t h V i e t n a m a s s o m e -
t h i n g e n t i r e l y n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t a n d e s s e n t i a l l y N i x o n i a n . I f t h i s s t r a t e g y i s
c o n t r a r y t o a l l w e h o l d s a c r e d , i t w o u l d s e e m t o f o l l o w t h a t i n s o m e m e a s u r e i t
always was . I n s h o r t , w e a r e n o t g o i n g t o f i n d i t e a s y t o w o r k o u r w a y o u t o f a
t e n - y e a r - o l d w a r e f f o r t t h a t h a s d e m o n s t r a b l y f a i l e d o f i t s e a r l y h i g h h o p e s u n l e s s
R e p r i n t e d b y p e r m i s s i o n f r o m T h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t , December 2 8 , 1 9 7 2 ; © T h e W a s h -
i n g t o n P o s t .
90
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TERROR BOMBING IN THE NAME OF PEACE 9 1
w e a r e p r e p a r e d t o b e g i n b y a d m i t t i n g t h a t t h i s i s s o ; t h a t w e ar e a ll c a ug h t up , i n
o n e d e g r e e o r a n o t h e r , w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a w a r p l a n g o n e h o r r i b l y w r o n g ;
t h a t t h i s c o u n t r y u n d e r t o o k a n e n t e r p r i s e i t c o u l d n o t h a n d l e , a t l e a s t i n a n y t i m e
f r a m e a n d a t a n y e x p e n d i t u r e o f l i v e s a n d r e s o u r c e s w o r t h y o f t h e o b j e c t i v e ; a n d
t h a t i t w o u l d b e t h e m a r k o f a b i g p o w e r t o c u t o u r l o s s e s a n d s e t t l e f o r t h e o n l y
r e a s o n a b l e o u t c o m e t h a t w e n o w m u s t k n o w c o u l d e v e r h a v e b e e n r e a l i s t i c a l l y
expected .
W e s h o u l d b e g i n , i n o t h e r w o r d s , n o t s i m p l y b y s h o u t i n g a b o u t t h e i m m o r a l i t y
o f w h a t w e a r e n o w d o i n g , b u t b y f i r s t a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e t r a g i c i m p r a c t i c a l i t y o f
w h a t w e s e t o u t t o d o , a n d t h e e n o r m i t y o f t h e m i s c a l c u l a t i o n s a n d m i s j u d g m e n t s
t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e , h o w e v e r h o n e s t l y , f r o m t h e v e r y s t a r t . F o r o n l y f r o m t h i s
a d m i s s i o n c a n w e p r o c e e d r a t i o n a l l y t o d e a l w i t h t h e m o n u m e n t a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n
t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s c u r r e n t s t r a t e g y . T h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e g i n s w i t h t h e a d m i n i s -
t r a t i o n ' s s e e m i n g i n s i s t e n c e o n a f u l l y - e n f o r c e a b l e , g u a r a n t e e d s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e
war on the old, familiar, original terms-"freedom" an d "independence" an d
" e n d u r i n g p e a c e " f o r S o u t h V i e t n a m ; a n y t h i n g s e r i o u s l y s h o r t o f t h a t , M r . N i x o n
w o u l d h a v e u s b e l i e v e , w o u l d b e a b j e c t s u r r e n d e r , t h e a b a n d o n m e n t o f a n a l l y ,
a n d a " s t a i n u p o n t h e h o n o r " o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
L e a v i n g a s i d e t h e c l i c h e s w h i c h h a v e c o m e t o b e s o i n e v i t a b l y a p a r t o f e v e r y
s e r i o u s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o u r p o l i c y , t h e r e a r e t w o t h i n g s t r a g i c a l l y w r o n g a b o u t t h i s
s t a t e m e n t o f o u r a i m s , a n d t h e f i r s t i s t h a t s u c h o b j e c t i v e s a r e d e m o n s t r a b l y
unobtainabl e . T h e v i o l e n t a n d e m b i t t e r e d c o n f l i c t t h a t h a s e n g u l f e d I n d o c h i n a f o r
s e v e r a l d e c a d e s i s n o t g o i n g t o b e " s e t t l e d " b y a n y p i e c e o f p a p e r t h a t D r . H e n r y
Kissinger coul d conceiva bl y persu ade both North and South Vietnam to sign .
T h a t i s t h e l o u d l e s s o n o f t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e l a s t p e a c e p l a n ; i t a s k e d t o o m u c h o f a
s i t u a t i o n w h i c h c a n o n l y b e r e s o l v e d i n a m b i g u i t y . S u c h i s t h e c o n f l i c t o f p u r p o s e
o n b o t h s i d e s , i n f a c t , t h a t i t c a n f a i r l y b e s a i d t h a t i n n e g o t i a t i n g a " s e t t l e m e n t " w e
a r e i n f a c t m e r e l y w r i t i n g t h e r u l e s o f e n g a g e m e n t f o r a c o n t i n u i n g s t r u g g l e f o r
c o n t r o l o f S o u t h V i e t n a m b y o t h e r l e s s o p e n l y m i l i t a r y m e a n s .
S o w e a r e n o t t a l k i n g a b o u t " p e a c e , " a n d s t i l l l e s s a b o u t " a b a n d o n i n g a n a l l y , "
f o r t h e r e c a n b e n o r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e f i g h t i n g w h i c h w i l l n o t p r e s e n t e a c h s i d e b o t h
w i t h r i s k s a n d w i t h o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f l o s i n g - o r w i n n i n g - i n l a r g e m e a s u r e w h a t
e a c h h a s b e e n f i g h t i n g f o r . T o p r e t e n d t h a t w e a r e d o i n g o t h e r w i s e - t h a t w e a r e
making "end uring peace" by c arpet-bombing our way ac ross downtown Hanoi
w i t h B - 5 2 s - i s t o p r a c t i c e y e t o n e m o r e c r u e l d e c e p t i o n u p o n a n A m e r i c a n p u b l i c
a l r e a d y c r u e l l y d e c e i v e d . I t i s , i n b r i e f , t o c o m p o u n d w h a t i s p e r h a p s t h e r e a l
i m m o r a l i t y o f t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s p o l i c y - t h e c o n t i n u i n g r e a d i n e s s t o d i s s e m -
b l e ; t o t a l k o f " m i l i t a r y t a r g e t s " w h e n w h a t w e a r e h i t t i n g a r e r e s i d e n t i a l c e n t e r s
a n d h o s p i t a l s a n d c o m m e r c i a l a i r p o r t s ; t o s p e a k o f o u r d e d i c a t i o n t o t h e r e t u r n o f
o u r P O W s a n d o u r m i s s i n g i n a c t i o n e v e n w h i l e w e a d d m o r e t h a n s e v e n t y t o t h e i r
n u m b e r i n l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a w e e k .
W e t h i n k t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e c o u l d f a c e t h e t r u t h o f h o w l i t t l e t h e r e i s w e c a n
real ly count on ac complishing in Vietnam-if they were to hear it from the
P r e s i d e n t . B u t w e h a v e n o t h e a r d f r o m t h e P r e s i d e n t - n o t s i n c e " p e a c e w a s a t
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92 TERROR BOMBING IN THE NAME OF PEACE
hand. " Instead , we hav e heard f rom su rrogates and spokesmen an d military
headq ua rters, cryptical ly , about the loss of men an d aircraft a nd the al leged
m i l i t a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e r a i d s . It is from others, a roun d the world , that w e hear
ab out the hav oc our bombers a re wreaking on innocent civilians with the heav iest
aerial onsl au ght of this or any other war . All this we are presumabl y d oing to
redeem the "h onor of America," a nd th is is the second pa rt of w ha t's wrong-a nd
contradictory-ab out the President's b ombing policy . F or it is h ard to envisa ge
an y settlement that we could realistica ll y hope to negotiate wh ich coul d ju stify the
effort now being expended to ac hieve it or was h a wa y the stains on this country's
honor of the pas t ten da ys .
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APPENDIX F
Commentary by Eric Sev areid
CBS Ev ening News
December 29, 1972
AN INNOVATTON OF THISa d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s b e e n t h e a n n u a l s t a t e - o f -
t h e - w o r l d m e s s a g e . L a s t w i n t e r t h i s N i x o n - K i s s i n g e r d o c u m e n t s a i d : " V i e t n a m
n o l o n g e r d i s t r a c t s o u r a t t e n t i o n f r o m t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s s u e s o f g l o b a l d i p l o m a c y
o r d i v e r t s o u r e n e r g i e s f r o m p r i o r i t i e s a t h o m e . " T h a t i s t h e w a y i t w a s b e g i n n i n g
t o l o o k t h e n . T h e r e w e r e t h e g i a n t s t e p s t a k e n t o w a r d C h i n a a n d R u s s i a , a n d t h e
r e l e n t l e s s p e a c e n e g o t i a t i o n s i n P a r i s i n a n a t m o s p h e r e o f d r a m a , t h e n e l a t i o n ,
t h e n n o t h i n g .
T h e y e a r e n d s i n t h e s t a r k e s t o f c o n t r a s t s w i t h a g r a p h i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e
t w o d e e p - s e a t e d p a r a d o x i c a l s t r e a m s i n t h e A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c a l t e m p e r w h i c h s o
p u z z l e s t h e w o r l d - k i n d n e s s a n d b e l l i g e r e n c e . T h e P r e s i d e n t h a s o r d e r e d a n
a l l - o u t e f f o r t t o s a v e t h e l i v e s o f t h e s t r i c k e n p e o p l e o f M a n a g u a r i g h t a f t e r h i s
o r d e r f o r a n a l l - o u t b o m b i n g o f V i e t n a m ' s i n d u s t r i a l b a s e , w h i c h h a s t o m e a n t h e
m a s s k i l l i n g o f c i v i l i a n s . H o w m a n y w e d o n o t k n o w , b u t a g o v e r n m e n t s t u d y t h r e e
y e a r s a g o e s t i m a t e d t h a t a t t h e p e a k o f o u r b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m i n p r e v i o u s
y e a r s , a b o u t a t h o u s a n d p e o p l e w e r e k i l l e d o r i n j u r e d e a c h w e e k . T h e m o s t
i n t e n s i v e b o m b i n g c a m p a i g n s i n t h a t ' 6 5 - ' 6 8 p e r i o d d i d n o t m a t c h t h e i n t e n s i t y o f
t h e c u r r e n t c a m p a i g n .
C o n g r e s s m e n a r e b e g i n n i n g t o f i l t e r b a c k t o W a s h i n g t o n , a n d t h e i r q u e s t i o n s
a r e n o w f i l l i n g t h e n e w s v a c u u m h e r e . I s i t p o s s i b l e t o g e t w h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t c a l l s
a n h o n o r a b l e p e a c e b y d i s h o n o r a b l e m e a n s ? H o w i s i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e s e r v e
A m e r i c a n l e a d e r s h i p a n d c r e d i b i l i t y i n t h e w o r l d , w h i c h t h e P r e s i d e n t s a y s i s t h e
i m p o r t a n t g o a l , w h e n t h e m o r a l b a s e f o r t h a t n a t i o n a l p o s t u r e i s b e i n g h a c k e d
awa y? Wh en Mr. N i x o n s p e a k s o u t , a s h e w i l l h a v e t o d o s o o n , w e m a y a l l k n o w
m o r e t h a n w e d o a b o u t w h a t w e n t w r o n g a n d w h a t o p t i o n s r e m a i n .
I f p r o d u c t i v e n e g o t i a t i o n s a r e n o t r e s u m e d , t h r e e a l t e r n a t i v e s o c c u r t o o b s e r -
v e r s h e r e . O n e i s m o r e p u n i s h i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m . T h e s e c o n d i s j u s t t o g e t o u t
w i t h n o n e g o t i a t e d a g r e e m e n t a t a l l , k e e p i n g a i r p o w e r i n T h a i l a n d a n d o f f e r i n g
e c o n o m i c h e l p t o H a n o i i n a c a r r o t - a n d - s t i c k a p p r o a c h t o g e t t h e p r i s o n e r s h o m e .
A n d i t m a y b e s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t c e r t a i n w r i t e r s w h o h a v e g e n e r a l l y a p p r o v e d t h e
© 1 9 7 2 , C B S I n c o r p o r a t e d ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .
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94 COMMENTARY BY ERIC SEVAREID
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n l i n e a r e n o w s u g g e s t i n g t h i s , e v e n t h o u g h w e ' v e a l l b e e n t o l d f o r
y e a r s t h a t a n e g o t i a t e d p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t w a s t h e o n l y w a y . T h e t h i r d c o n c e i v -
a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e i s f o r t h e P r e s i d e n t t o l e t t h e C o n g r e s s t a k e t h e b a l l a n d t h e
p r o b l e m a w a y f r o m h i m b y v o t i n g t o c u t o f f t h e w a r f u n d s .
T h e r e w i l l b e s u c h a c o n g r e s s i o n a l e f f o r t i n a n y c a s e . A l r e a d y s o m e s e n a t o r s a r e
r e s u r r e c t i n g a n o l d a n d b a s i c p o i n t - a r g u i n g t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t h a s n o l e g a l
a u t h o r i t y f o r m a k i n g w a r . T h e T o n k i n G u l f r e s o l u t i o n h a s b e e n r e p e a l e d . T h e
au thority th e President ha s b een going on is the inherent right of the
Commander-in-Chief to protect American troops . V e r y f e w s u c h t r o o p s r e m a i n
i n V i e t n a m , a n d t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i r s a f e t y a n d t h e H a n o i b o m b i n g h a s
n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d .
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APPENDIX G
" Ab ou t th e Bombin g"
A W a l l S t r e e t J o u r n a l Editorial
December 27,1972
WE THINK THERE ARE CERTAIN p o i n t e d q u e s t i o n s t o b e a s k e d a b o u t t h e
r e n e w e d b o m b i n g o f N o r t h V i e t n a m , b u t i t s e e m s t o u s i n t e l l i g e n t q u e s t i o n i n g
o u g h t t o s t a r t b y r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t M r . N i x o n w a s r i g h t a b o u t C a m b o d i a a n d r i g h t
ab out Haiphong .
T h e i n v a s i o n o f t h e C a m b o d i a n s a n c t u a r i e s , s o w i d e l y a n d w i l d l y d e c r i e d a t t h e
t i m e , s p e e d e d t h e n o w n e a r l y c o m p l e t e w i t h d r a w a l o f A m e r i c a n g r o u n d t r o o p s .
The mining of Haiphong an d a ss ociated bombings in the North helped, wh en
combined with th e peacefu l overtures to Peking a nd Moscow, to bring North
V i e t n a m i n t o t h e f i r s t t r u l y s e r i o u s n e g o t i a t i o n s o f t h e w a r . I n b o t h c a s e s t h e
P r e s i d e n t ' s b o l d m i l i t a r y g a m b l e s u l t i m a t e l y c o n t r i b u t e d n o t t o e x p a n d i n g t h e w a r
bu t to winding it down . T h u s i t s e e m s t o u s f o o l i s h t o d i s m i s s e n t i r e l y t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e m a y b e l u c k y a t h i r d t i m e .
M a n y o f t h e P r e s i d e n t ' s c r i t i c s m a d e u p t h e i r m i n d s i n 1 9 6 7 a n d h a v e n o t b e e n
p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n s i n c e . S o t h e i r s t a r t i n g p r e m i s e i s n o t t h a t t h e H a i p h o n g m i n i n g
a n d b o m b i n g w o r k e d , b u t t h a t b o m b i n g i s a n u t t e r l y d i s c r e d i t e d a n d w o r t h l e s s
i n s t r u m e n t. A n y o n e s t a r t i n g w i t h t h i s p r e m i s e p r o c e e d s n a t u r a l l y t o " b a r b a r i s m , "
" s t o n e - a g e , " " s h a m e , " a n d t h e o t h e r t i r e s o m e r h e t o r i c w e h a v e h e a r d t h i s l a s t
w eek. O f c o u r s e t h e b o m b i n g i s i m m o r a l i f t h e f i r s t g i v e n c o n d i t i o n i s t h a t i t h a s n o
h o p e o f s p e e d i n g t h e e n d o f t h e w a r . B u t w h e t h e r i t w i l l s p e e d t h e e n d o f t h e w a r i s
n o t a " g i v e n " b u t t h e i s s u e i t s e l f .
A f t e r a l l t h a t i s s a i d , o f c o u r s e , t h e r e r e m a i n s p l e n t y o f r o o m f o r q u e s t i o n i n g .
O n e p e r t i n e n t l i n e o f i n q u i r y c o n c e r n s t h e p r e c i s e r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e b o m b i n g . T h e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s b e e n e x c e p t i o n a l l y s i l e n t o n t h i s i s s u e , a n d t h e b o m b i n g s c a m e
s o s u d d e n l y e v e n s o m e o f t h e u s u a l s u p p o r t e r s a r e w o n d e r i n g w h e t h e r i n f a c t
t h e r e i s a c o g e n t r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d t h e m , o r w h e t h e r t h e y a r e c h i e f l y a n e x p r e s s i o n
o f f r u s t r a t i o n .
E s p e c i a l l y s o s i n c e , c o n t r a r y t o t h e s t y l e o f M r . N i x o n ' s p r e v i o u s m i l i t a r y
m o v e s , t h e p r e s u m e d p u r p o s e o f t h e r a i d s c a n n o t b e a c c o m p l i s h e d u n i l a t e r a l l y .
T h e i n v a s i o n o f C a m b o d i a n e u t r a l i z e d t h e s a n c t u a r i e s , t h e m i n i n g o f H a i p h o n g
c l o s e d t h e p o r t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e C o m m u n i s t r e a c t i o n . S u c c e s s i n t h e n e w b o m b -
R e p r i n t e d b y p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e Wal l Street Journal , December 27,1972 ; ©Dow Jones
a n d C o m p a n y , I n c o r p o r a t e d , 1972 ; a l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d .
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96 ABOUT THE BOMBING
i n g s d e p e n d s o n a r e a c t i o n f r o m H a n o i , n a m e l y t h e r e t u r n t o s e r i o u s n e g o t i a t i o n .
Wha t will Mr . N i x o n d o i f t h i s r e a c t i o n i s n o t f o r t h c o m i n g ? H a v e t h e r a i d s
f o r e c l o s e d m o r e o p t i o n s t h a n t h e y h a v e o p e n e d ?
A second a nd even more importan t line of qu estioning c oncerns American
p u r p o s e s a t t h i s j u n c t u r e . A t h i s p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e j u s t b e f o r e t h e b o m b i n g w a s
r e s u m e d , H e n r y K i s s i n g e r t a l k e d q u i t e a b i t a b o u t w a n t i n g a s e t t l e m e n t t h a t i s
" m o r e t h a n a n a r m i s t i c e , " a n d r e f u s i n g o n e t h a t i s " a d i s g u i s e d f o r m o f c o n t i n u e d
w a r f a r e . " W e w o n d e r w h e t h e r t h i s r e p r e s e n t s a n e s c a l a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n p u r p o s e s
i n t h e c o n c l u d i n g s t a g e s o f t h e w a r .
I s t h e p u r p o s e a c t u a l l y t o s e t t l e t h e w a r a n d b r i n g p e a c e t o I n d o c h i n a ? I s t h a t
wh y the bombing is necess ary? W e have us ua ll y taken the objective of Mr .
N i x o n ' s V i e t n a m i z a t i o n p o l i c y t o b e s e c u r i n g a n h o n o r a b l e A m e r i c a n e x i t f r o m
t h e w a r , w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e o u t c o m e t o b e d e t e r m i n e d b y s o m e k i n d o f s t r u g g l e
b e t w e e n t h e V i e t n a m e s e p a r t i e s . W e h a v e t h o u g h t , a n d c o n t i n u e t o t h i n k , t h a t a n
o b j e c t i v e o f g u a r a n t e e i n g p e a c e i s a n u n r e a l i s t i c o n e , g i v e n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e
c o n f l i c t , a n d b y f a r a n o v e r l y a m b i t i o u s o n e , g i v e n t h e c o s t o f t h e w a r t o A m e r i c a n
s o c i e t y .
I t ' s e a s y t o p u t t o o f i n e a p o i n t o n t h i s d i f f e r e n c e , o f c o u r s e , s i n c e a n y n e g o t i a -
t i o n s t h a t w o u l d a l l o w a n A m e r i c a n e x i t w o u l d i n e v i t a b l y b e c o m e i n v o l v e d w i t h
t h e g r o u n d r u l e s f o r a n e n s u i n g s t r u g g l e . And even Mr. K i s s i n g e r t o l d u s r e l a t i v e l y
l i t t l e a b o u t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f n e g o t i a t i o n t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e c o n t e x t f o r t h e
renew ed bombing. L a c k i n g k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d e t a i l s o f t h a t b a c k g r o u n d , w e f i n d
o u r s e l v e s n o t s o m u c h d i s t r a u g h t a s p u z z l e d , n o t c o n d e m n i n g b u t q u e s t i o n i n g .
T h e n e g o t i a t i o n s c a m e s o c l o s e t o a s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e w a r t h e s e p a s t f e w m o n t h s
i t i s a l m o s t u n i m a g i n a b l e i t w i l l n o w s l i p a w a y , o r w o u l d b e a l m o s t u n i m a g i n a b l e
w e r e i t n o t f o r t h e l o n g h i s t o r y o f t r a g e d y i n V i e t n a m . W e c a n o n l y h o p e t h a t t h e
l a t e s t b o m b i n g i s n o t t h e o p e n i n g o f a n e w c h a p t e r i n t h a t t r a g e d y b u t a s t e p i n t h e
d e n o u e m e n t o f t h e o l d o n e . M r . N i x o n ' s s u c c e s s w i t h h i s f i r s t t w o g a m b l e s s u g g e s t s
t h a t h o p e i s n o t a n i m p o s s i b l e o n e , b u t w e c e r t a i n l y p r a y t h a t h i s l u c k d o e s n o t t u r n
s o u r t h e t h i r d t i m e a r o u n d .
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APPENDIXH
"The Peace That Wa sn't"
F rom Th e Economist (London)
Dec ember 2 3,197 2
THERE IS NO REASON THAT A LIBERAL sh ould acc ept wh y the two Viet-
nams ought to be reun ited un til it has been sh own tha t a maj ority of th e people in
b o t h o f t h e m , o r a t l e a s t o f t h o s e i n t h e s o u t h , w i s h i t t o b e s o . Until that happens, a
liberal woul d ad d, South Vietnam sh ould ha ve a government of its own b as ed on
some sort of reasona bl y a ccu rate measu rement of the preferenc es of the South
Vietna mese . Most people in the w est woul d a ccept those principles ; a f t e r a l l , i t i s
wha t they say about that other divided nation, Germany , and they would be
outraged if one ha lf of German y s ent its army into the other hal f in order to insist
on pu tting its own preferred sort of government into power there . The d ifference
in Vietnam is th e reluc tanc e of s o man y people to apply these principles as the
necessa ry test of the terms on wh ich the wa r is ended . It w as imprecision in
applying this test tha t led Mr . Kiss inger to sa y on October 26th tha t "peace is at
han d," wh en it turns out that it was not . The s ame imprecision is n ow making
many bone-weary people sa y tha t he coul d n evertheless embrace in December
the conseq uenc es of wha t he let his eye slide over too easil y in October .
By sending h is bombers ba ck north of the twentieth paral lel th is week, and
losing q uite a l ot of them, President Nixon ha s reverted to the argu ment of force to
end the war . He is us ing the means at his d isposal , as th e North Vietna mese us ed
the mean s a t their disposal wh en they s ent their army over the seventeenth
paral lel in the spring . Th ey employed th e firepower carried by their army ; h e i s
u s i n g t h e f i r e p o w e r o f h i s a i r f o r c e . The pictures from An Loc an d Qu an g Tri sh ow
tha t there is not much difference between them in wha t they do to the pla ces
where the artill ery s hell s or the bombs fal l . But there is a f un damental d ifference,
and it shoul d b e recognized, between the purposes for which Mr . Nixon and the
North Vietnamese politbu ro are us ing the diff erent sorts of power av aila bl e to
them. Mr. Nixon is u sing the argument of force to try to get the North Vietnamese
to ag ree that the next government of South Vietnam sh oul d be ch osen by a more
or les s violence-f ree election . Th e North Vietna mese a re usin g their sort of f orce
to try to insist th at tha t government shoul d itself be the produc t of the further
violence wh ich they a nd their friends in th e south w ould bring to bear after a
Reprinted by permiss ion from The Economist, London, December 23, 197 2 .
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98 THE PEACE THAT WASN'T
nomina l ceas efire . These are the two very d ifferent meanings tha t la y c oncealed
beneath the skin of the ag reement tha t seemed so cl ose in October .
Mr. Kiss inger, and those wh o hoped he wa s right, had their eyes fixed on the
pass age in cla us e 4 of the agreement which s aid that " the internal matters" of
South Vietnam were to be settl ed between " the two South Vietnamese parties . "
By sa ying th at, North Vietna m seemed to be renou nc ing its own cl aim to decide
wha t should happen in the south ; a nd if the North Vietna mese kept out of it al l
there was l ittle doubt tha t the non-c ommunists w ould win a l arge maj ority in the
election President Thieu ha s long been offering to hold af ter the ceas efire . I t i s
true, of course, tha t cl au se 1 of the a greement paid du e respect to the unity of
Vietnam . But it was h oped that that w as the equ ival ent of the letter the west
German s h av e sent to the east German s a bout German u nity, a formal bu t at the
moment non-operative remind er of their right to bring th e su bj ect up a ga in la ter
on. If North Vietnam carried out its promise (cl au se 7) to withdraw its troops from
Laos and Cambodia, an d if its men in South Vietnam ha d a real team of truce
su pervisors w atch ing over them, it seemed th at th e North Vietnamese army cou ld
be more or les s n eutral ised . And f rom 1965 onwa rds th e removal of the North
Vietnamese intervention ha s b een the main argu ment u sed to ju stify the Ameri-
ca n intervention .
That wa s th e pattern Henry Kiss inger thought h e saw in the agreement, but Le
Duc Tho pla inly s aw a different one . It ha s b een known f or some time-f rom
Cosv n- 6, the docu ment the c ommunist h eadq ua rters issu ed in mid-September-
that th e Vietcong ha s b een tell ing its men to organise u ndercover sq ua ds for a
campaign of "tyrant elimination, ab du ction a nd ass as sination" after the ceasefire .
Mr. Thieu's a rmy a nd police force coul d proba bl y c ope with tha t if North Viet-
nam's fou rteen regul ar divisions reall y did s tay out of the war . Bu t the sort of
interna tiona l inspection sy stem the North Vietna mese tu rn out to ha ve b een
ca ll ing for makes it highly un likely that they ever intended to stay out of it . They
apparently proposed a total of 250 men for the whole of Indochina, only hal f of
wh om woul d ac tual ly b e al lowed to trav el around the coun tryside, and even those
few w ould ha ve ha d to rely for transport on the people they w anted to inspect .
TWO STATES IN ONE NATION
It would be a ba d joke, if the old control c ommiss ion s et up in 1954 h ad not
stopped people la ugh ing about s upervisors w ho su pervise nothing . Such a handfu l
of inspectors coul d n ot poss ibly know wh at General Giap's men were doing in
South Vietna m, let alone check that th ey ha d got out of Laos and Cambodia . T h i s
is not the proposal of men w ho, in the Guardian's bl and phrase on Wednesday,
"know tha t they . . . can not win ." It seems only too likely th at North Vietna m's
lead ers w an ted nobody wa tching their army wh ile it pursued its own d efinition of
victory in the south a fter the la st American h ad l eft . The qu estion of the su pervis-
ory force is not in itself the one las t decision that Mr . K issinger says the North
Vietnamese still ha ve to take . T h a t d e c i s i o n i s t o l e a v e t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e s o u t h t o
the south erners, within the procedu res a lready agreed to in October ; but the
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THE PEACE THAT WASN'T 99
powers of the supervisors are a decisively important test of whether North
V i e t n a m i s r e a l l y r e a d y f o r t h a t .
Wh at Mr . N i x o n i s s t i l l t r y i n g t o g e t i s t h e V i e t n a m e s e v e r s i o n o f w h a t H e r r
B r a n d t h a s s e t t l e d f o r i n G e r m a n y - t h e a c c e p t a n c e b y N o r t h V i e t n a m ' s l e a d e r s
t h a t t h e r e a r e " t w o s t a t e s w i t h i n o n e n a t i o n . " T h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e w e n t p a r t o f
t h e w a y t o a c c e p t i n g t h a t i n O c t o b e r , w h e n t h e y d r o p p e d t h e i d e a t h a t t h e U n i t e d
States should remove Mr . T h i e u f r o m p o w e r , a n d p u t a c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t i n
h i s p l a c e , b e f o r e t h e y w o u l d a g r e e t o a c e a s e f i r e . B u t t h e y w i l l s t i l l b e e v a d i n g t h e
c e n t r a l i s s u e s o l o n g a s t h e y r e f u s e t o a c c e p t a n y r e a l l i m i t a t i o n s o n w h a t t h e i r
a r m y c a n d o a f t e r a c e a s e f i r e . P e r h a p s t h e y a r e t r y i n g t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e
difficu lt moment Mr . N i x o n h a s c r e a t e d f o r h i m s e l f j u s t b e f o r e C h r i s t m a s , b y
a l l o w i n g t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p e a c e t o o u t r u n r e a l i t y a n d t h e w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s t o
t h i n k t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n p r i s o n e r s w e r e a s g o o d a s h o m e . P e r h a p s t h e y b e l i e v e
t h a t t h e n e w S e n a t e , w i t h t w o m o r e D e m o c r a t s i n i t , w i l l c u t o f f f u n d s f o r t h e w a r .
B u t t h e y k n o w t h a t , i f t h a t d o e s n o t h a p p e n , M r . N i x o n i s p r e t t y w e l l f r e e f r o m
p o l i t i c a l c o n s t r a i n t s a t h o m e u n t i l 1 9 7 4 o r 1 9 7 5 , w h e n h e w i l l w a n t t o s t a r t m a k i n g
h i s p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r A m e r i c a ' s b i c e n t e n a r y ; a n d a l t h o u g h h e i s n o t g o i n g t o m a k e
i t h i s p o l i c y t o b o m b t h e m b a c k i n t o t h e s t o n e a g e - t h a t b r u t a l p h r a s e u s e d y e a r s
a g o b y o n e f o o l i s h A m e r i c a n g e n e r a l , a n d s o o f t e n p u t i n t o o t h e r A m e r i c a n s '
m o u t h s s i n c e t h e n - h e c a n c a u s e a g r e a t d e a l o f d a m a g e t o N o r t h V i e t n a m . T h e y
h a v e t h e i r c a l c u l a t i o n s t o m a k e .
THE BREZHNEV CALCULATION
So do the Russians . W hat happens now will be a meas ure of w hether there
r e a l l y i s a n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e S o v i e t U n i o n a n d t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t i s
R u s s i a n - s u p p l i e d m i s s i l e s , a n d R u s s i a n t r a i n i n g i n u s i n g t h e m , t h a t s h o t d o w n s i x
B-52s by Thursday ; s i n c e t h e B - 5 2 s s e e m e d a l m o s t i n v u l n e r a b l e u n t i l r e c e n t l y , i t
i s e v e n p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e e q u i p m e n t w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e m d o w n w a s s e n t i n t o N o r t h
V i e t n a m d u r i n g t h e t w o - m o n t h h a l t o f b o m b i n g n o r t h o f t h e t w e n t i e t h p a r a l l e l . I t
i s a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y R u s s i a n o i l p u m p e d i n o v e r t h e C h i n e s e b o r d e r t h a t k e e p s
N o r t h V i e t n a m ' s w a r m a c h i n e i n a c t i o n .
There is a ss umed to be a tacit un derstanding between Mr . Nixon a nd Mr .
Brezh nev . I f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o v i d e s t h e h e l p t h a t R u s s i a n e e d s t o o v e r c o m e
t h e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f i t s e c o n o m y , a n d u n d e r w r i t e s t h e p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n o f E u r o p e ,
t h e a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e S o v i e t U n i o n w i l l h e l p , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t o e n d t h e
Vietna m war in a w ay compatible with Mr . N i x o n ' s d e f i n i t i o n o f p e a c e w i t h
honour . I t i s h a r d t o i m a g i n e M r . N i x o n q u i e t l y p r o c e e d i n g w i t h h i s p a r t o f t h a t
u n d e r s t a n d i n g i f t h e R u s s i a n s c o n t i n u e t o h e l p t h e N o r t h V i e t n a m e s e t o m a k e t h e
o t h e r p a r t i m p o s s i b l e : i f t h e c e n t r e p i e c e o f M r . N i x o n ' s s e c o n d t e r m h a s t o b e a
c h o i c e b e t w e e n c o n t i n u e d w a r i n V i e t n a m a n d t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f d e f e a t . T h a t i s
not how Mr . N i x o n w a n t e d h i s n e x t f o u r y e a r s t o b e . T h e V i e t n a m w a r s t r e t c h e s
o u t i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s i n t o m a n y p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . T h a t i s w h y i t h a s b e e n s o l o n g
a n d t e r r i b l e a w a r , a n d w h y i t i s s o d i f f i c u l t t o e n d ; and wh y Mr . B r e z h n e v , o n
r e f l e c t i o n , m a y n o t c h o o s e t o u s e i t a s a r u g t o w h i p f r o m u n d e r M r . N i x o n ' s f e e t .
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Index of Names
ABC, 5,18,19, 4 2
A l s o p , S t e w a r t , 5 1
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e
A d v a n c e m e n t o f S c i e n c e , 2 2 - 2 3
A m i r ( s o n o f I n d i a n o f f i c i a l ) , 2 8
An Duong, 26
A n L o c , 8 , 5 7
Arbu ckle, Tammy, 58
A r m s t r o n g , H a m i l t o n F i s h , 4 1
A s a h i , 36
A s s o c i a t e d P r e s s , 5 5
A u r o r e , L ' , 36
A u s p i t z , J o s i a h L e e , 5 1
A u s t r a l i a , 3 4
B a b i Y a r , 3 6
B a c h M a i h o s p i t a l , 2 4 - 2 8 , 5 6 , 5 8 , 5 9
B a l t i m o r e S u n , 58
B a n g l a d e s h , 3 4
B e l g i u m , 3 5
B e r g e r , M a r i l y n , 3 8
B e r l i n , W e s t , 3 4 , 3 7
B e r r i g a n , P h i l i p , 4 1
B i n h , M m e N g u y e n T h i , 2 1 , 3 8 , 3 9
B o s t o n G l o b e , 4 1
B r a d y , P h i l , 2 6 , 2 8
B r e z h n e v , L e o n i d , 8 , 3 5
B r o n f m a n , F r e d , 5 1
B r o o k e , E d w a r d , 4 1
Browne, Malc olm W . , 5 7 , 5 8
B u c k l e y , W i l l i a m F . , 4 1
B u e n o s A i r e s , 3 7
Cambodia, 34
C a n a d a , 3 4
C a s e , C l i f f o r d , 4 1
C a s t r o , F i d e l , 3 5
C B S , 5 , 1 5 , 1 8 , 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 3 0 , 3 1 ,
3 4 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 4 4 , 5 2 , 6 4 - 6 6
C h i n a , P e o p l e' s R e j u b li c o f , 3 , 7 , 8 , 3 4 ,
37- 39,50
C h i P e n g - f e i , 3 8 , 3 9
C h o u E n - l a i , 3 8 , 6 6
C o d e o f B r o a d c a s t N e w s E t h i c s , 4
C o v e n t r y , 2 3
C e n t r a l H i g h l a n d s , 7
C l a u s e w i t z , C o u n t v o n , 6 8
C r a w f o r d , K e n n e t h , 5 0
C r o n k i t e , W a l t e r , 2 6 , 3 1 , 3 5 , 4 4
D a i l y M i r r o r ( L o n d o n ) , 1 7 , 3 5
D a i l y T e l e g r a p h ( L o n d o n ) , 1 7
DeHann , Dal e S . , 5 9
Denmark, 34
D M Z ( D e m i l i t a r i z e d Z o n e ) , 1 1 , 1 9 , 2 0
D r e s d e n , 3 , 2 3 , 4 9
D r i n a n , R o b e r t , 4 1
E c o n o m i s t , T h e ( L o n d o n ) , 3 6
E i s e n d r a t h , M a u r i c e , 4 1
E n g l a n d , 3 6
E x p r e s s , L ' , 36
Federal Commun ications Commission
( F C C ) , 4 , 4 4
F i g a r o , L e , 36
F i n l a n d , 3 4
F r a n c e , 2 2 , 3 6
F r a n k f u r t e r A l l g e m e i n e Z e i t u n g , 36
F r i e d h e i m , J e r r y , 2 4
G a l s t o n , A r t h u r , 2 2
G e l b , L e s l i e , 4 7
G e r m a n y , W e s t , 3 4 , 3 6 , 5 4
G i a L a m , 2 5 , 2 9
G i a p , V o N g u y e n ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 2
G u e r n i c a , 2 3 , 3 6 , 4 7
H a i g , A l e x a n d e r , 6 2
H a i p h o n g , 1 , 6 , 8 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 3 0 , 3 1 ,
3 2 , 4 2 , 4 6 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 6 9
Hamburg, 3
H a n o i , 1 , 6 , 8 , 1 2 , 1 9 , 2 3 - 3 2 , 4 2 , 4 6 , 4 9 ,
54- 60,69
H a r r i m a n , A v e r e l l , 4 1
Hayd en, Tom, 21
H e b e r t , F . E d w a r d , 4 0
H i r o s h i m a , 4 2 , 4 6 , 4 9
H o n g , T r a n D u y , 5 5
H o p e , B o b , 4 1
H u g h e s , H a r o l d , 4 1 , 4 2
Humphrey, Hubert, 41
10 1
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1 0 2 INDEX OF NAMES
I n d i a , 3 4
I n d o c h i n a , 4 6
I n s t i t u t e o f D e f e n s e A n a l y s i s , 2 1
I r a n , 1 1
J a p a n , 3 6 , 5 4
J a v i t s , J a c o b, 2 2 , 4 1 , 4 2
J e n k i n s , R o y , 3 5
K a t y n , 3 6
K e n n e d y , E d w a r d , 4 1 , 5 9
K h a m T h i e n , 2 6 , 3 3 , 5 8 , 5 9
K h e S a n h , 5 7
Kim No, 56
K i r k p a t r i c k , C a r r o l l , 1 8
K i s s in g e r , H e n r y, 2 , 4 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 1 , 1 3 ,
1 5 , 1 6 , 1 8 - 2 0 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 5 0 - 5 2 ,
60-62,66
K o c h , E d w a r d , 4 1
L a i r d , M e l v i n , 1 5
L a k e , A n t h o n y , 4 7
L e , N g u y e n T r i n h , 2 1
L e f e v e r , E r n e s t W . , 5 n
L e w i s , A n t h o n y , 4 0 , 4 7 , 4 9
L e w y , G u e n t e r , 5 6
L i d i c e , 3 6
L i v i n g s t o n , D a v i d , 2 1
L o n d o n , 3 7 , 4 0
L o s A n g e l e s T i m e s , 41
L u r i a , S a l v a d o r e , 2 2
M c G o v e r n , G e o r g e , 9 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 5 0 , 5 1
M a i n i c h i , 36
M a n s f i e l d , M i k e , 4 1 , 4 2
M a r d e r , M u r r a y , 3 4 , 5 1
M a t h i a s , C h a r l e s , 4 1 , 4 3
M i d d l e t o n , D r e w , 5 9
M i l w a u k e e J o u r n a l ,4 1
Monde, Le, 46
M o o r e r , T h o m a s , 6 0 , 6 9
M o s c o w , 8 , 9
Moss, Robert V. , 4 1
Muskie, Edmun d, 41
N a g a s a k i , 4 2
" N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f N a t i o n a l
R e c o n c i l i a t i o n a n d C o n c o r d , " 1 0 , 1 3
N B C , 5 , 1 8 , 2 7 , 4 2
N e t h e r l a n d s , t h e , 3 4
Newsw eek, 2 , 1 7 , 2 1 , 2 2 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 3 6 , 3 7 ,
52,64-66
N e w Y o r k , 2 2 , 4 6
N e w Y o r k T i m e s , 1 , 5 , 1 5 , 1 8 n , 1 9 , 2 1 ,
2 2 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 3 0 , 3 2 - 3 4 , 3 6 , 3 7 , 3 9 , 4 0 ,
4 1 , 4 4 - 5 0 , 5 2 , 5 4 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 4 - 6 6
N i x o n , R i c h a r d , 6 , 8 , 9 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 5 , 2 1 ,
3 0 , 3 6 , 3 8 , 4 1 , 4 2 , 4 5 - 4 8 , 5 0 , 5 1 , 5 8 ,
6 0 - 6 2 , 6 5 , 6 6 , 6 9
N u r e m b e r g , 2 6 , 6 8
O p e r a t i o n s E n h a n c e a n d E n h a n c e - P l u s ,
11,13
O p i n i o n , L a , 37
O r a d o u r , 3 6
P a l m e , O l o f , 3 6
P a r i s , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 9 , 2 0 , 4 5 , 5 0 , 6 5 ,
66
P e a r l H a r b o r , 5 3
P e k i n g , 2 1 , 3 8
P i e r p o n t , R o b e r t , 1 5
P o l a n d , 3 4
P o p e P a u l V I , 3 5
Q u a n g T r i , 7 , 2 3
Q u i n t , B e r t , 2 7
R a d i o H a n o i , 1 1 , 2 2 , 2 7 , 5 3
R i c h a r d s o n , E l l i o t t , 1 5
R i e g l e , D o n a l d , 4 1
S a b l o n , J e a n L e c l e r c d e , 2 6 , 3 3
S a i g o n , 1 4 , 1 5 , 2 0 , 2 2 , 2 3 , 3 0 , 4 5 , 6 3
S a n F r a n c i s c o C h r o n i c l e , 4 1
S a n k e i S h i m b u n , 36
S a x b e , W i l l i a m , 4 1 , 4 2
S c o t t , H u g h , 4 1
S e v a r ei d , E r i c , 5 2 , 5 3
S h a r p e v i l l e , 3 6
S h a s h a n k ( I n d i a n d i p l o m a t ) , 2 7 , 2 8
S i n g a p o r e , 3 4
Smith, Howa rd K . , 1 9
S o u t h K o r e a , 1 1 , 3 4
S o v i e t U n i o n , 3 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 2 1 , 3 4 , 3 8 , 5 0
S w e d e n , 3 4
S z e n t - G y o r g y i , A l b e r t , 2 2
S z u l c , T a d , 2 n
T a i w a n , 1 1 , 3 4
T a s s , 2 7 , 5 4
T a y l o r , M a x w e l l , 4 7
T a y l o r , T e l f o r d , 2 6 , 5 8 , 6 8
T e l e v i s i o n N e w s I n d e x a n d A b s t r a c t s
( V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y ) , 1 8
T e t o f f e n s i v e , 7
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T h a i N g u y e n , 2 8 , 5 6
Thanh Hoa, 8
T h i e u , N g u y e n V a n , 4 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 4 5 ,
51
T h o , L e D u c , 6 , 1 2
T h o m p s o n , W i l l i a m , 4 1
T h u y , X a n , 2 1
T i m e , 2 , 1 7 , 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 3 6 , 5 2 ,
64-66
Timmons, Will iam E . , 4 1
T o k y o , 3 , 4 9
T r e b l i n k a , 3 6
T u n n e y , J o h n , 4 1
U n i t e d S t a t e s C a t h o l i c C o n f e r e n c e , 4 1
V i e n t i a n e , 2 7
V i e t C o n g , 7 , 9 , 1 1 , 2 0 , 3 8
Note: T h i s i n d e x w a s p r e p a r e d b y R i c h a r d E . S i n c e r e .
W a l d , G e o r g e , 2 2
W a l d h e i m , K u r t , 3 5
W a r d , P e t e r , 5 8
Wa shington Post, 2 , 5 , 1 6 - 1 8 , 2 2 , 2 5 , 2 6 ,
2 8 , 3 0 , 3 2 , 3 4 - 4 4 , 4 8 - 5 2 , 5 5 , 5 8 , 5 9 ,
64-66
Was hington Star, 58
W a t e r g a t e , 6 3
W e s t , R o b e r t N e l s o n , 4 1
W h i t e m a n , G i l b e r t , 1 6
Wicker, Tom, 47 ,49
W o l f f , L e s t e r , 4 1
Y o s t , C h a r l e s W . , 5 0
Y u g o s l a v i a , 3 4
Z i e g l e r , R o n a l d , 6 , 1 5 , 1 6
Z o r z a , V i c t o r , 5 0
INDEX OF NAMES 1 0 3
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E t h i c s a n d P u b l i c P o l i c y R e p r i n t s
1 . N u c l e a r E n e r g y P o l i t i c s : Moral ism vs . E t h i c s , Marga ret N. Maxey
2 . The World Council of Churches a nd Radical Chic, Richard Neuhaus
3 . Western Guilt an d Third World Poverty, P . T . Bauer
4 . The United States in Opposition : Anti-Americanism in the United Nations
D a n i e l P a t r i c k M o y n i h a n
5 . P a t t e r n s o f B l a c k E x c e l l e n c e , Thomas Sowell
6 . Wh y Arms Control Has F ailed, Edward N . L u t t w a k
7 . Environmentalism an d the Leisure Cla ss , W i l l i a m T u c k e r
8 . A Search f o r S a n i t y i n A n t i t r u s t , W a l t e r G u z z a r d i , J r
9 . Ethics a nd the New Clas s, P e t e r L . B e r g e r
1 0 . Will Lawy ering Strangle Capitalism? L a u r e n c e H . S i l b e r m a n
1 1 . Is Capital Pu nishment J u s t ? E r n e s t v a n d e n H a a g
1 2 . The Case for Doing Busines s in South A f r i c a , Herman Nickel
1 3 . Regulation and the New Class, Paul H . W e a v e r
1 4 . Trend ier Tha n Th ou : The Episcopal Church a nd the Secula r World , P a u l S e a b u r y
1 5 . The Press an d America n Politics
J . W i l l i a m F u l b r i g h t , R a y m o n d P r i c e , a n d I r v i n g K r i s t o l
16 . I s .th e New Morality Destroying America ? C l a r e B o o t h e L u c e
17 . P o l i t i c i z i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y : F o c u s o n S o u t h A f r i c a , Edwa rd Norman
1 8 . Aliena tion an d U . S . F o r e i g n P o l i c y , P a u l C r a i g R o b e r t s
1 9 . The Cost o f A m e r i c a ' s R e t r e a t , B e n J . W a t t e n b e r g
I n t h e w a k e o f V i e t n a m , A m e r i c a ' s p o w e r a n d i n f l u e n c e h a v e d a n g e r o u s l y r e c e d e d . We must
d e f e n d f r e e d o m b y a p o s t u r e o f " p e a c e t h r o u g h s t r e n g t h . "
2 0 . The Soul of Man U nder Social ism, V l a d i m i r B u k o v s k y
A n e x i l e w h o s p e n t t w e l v e y e a r s i n S o v i e t p r i s o n s v i v i d l y p o r t r a y s t h e i m p a c t o f a t o t a l i t a r i a n
s y s t e m o n h u m a n d i g n i t y a n d s e l f - r e s p e c t .
2 1 . W ha t It Mean s to Be Number Two
F r e d C h a r l e s I k l e , W i t h a R e s p o n s e b y R a d o m i r B o g d a n o v a n d L e v S e m e i k o
A f o r m e r t o p S A L T n e g o t i a t o r s a y s A m e r i c a n w e a k n e s s , b o r d e r i n g o n i n f e r i o r i t y , e n c o u r a g e s
S o v i e t e x p a n s i o n . T w o S o v i e t o f f i c i a l s d i s p u t e h i s c l a i m s .
2 2 . Dictatorships and Doubl e Stand ards : A C r i t i q u e o f U . S . P o l i c y , J e a n e K i r k p a t r i c k
A c a r e f u l l y d o c u m e n t e d i n d i c t m e n t o f t h e C a r t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s s e l e c t i v e i n d i g n a t i o n t o w a r d
a l l i e d a n d f r i e n d l y T h i r d W o r l d r e g i m e s .
2 3 . Taiwa n : P a w n o r P i v o t ? P a r r i s H . C h a n g , G e r a l d M c B e a t h , and Ralph N. C l o u g h
T w o p r o f e s s o r s a n d a f o r m e r d i p l o m a t a n a l y z e T a i w a n ' s p a s t , p r e s e n t , a n d f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s .
2 4 . Crus ad e Against the Corporation : Church Militants on the March, Herman Nickel
C h u r c h a c t i v i s t s , w o r k i n g t h r o u g h t h e I n t e r f a i t h C e n t e r o n C o r p o r a t e R e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a r e l e a d i n g
a c a m p a i g n t o c u r b t h e p o w e r o f m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s . A m a j o r o b j e c t i v e i s t o s t o p t h e s a l e o f
i n f a n t f o r m u l a i n t h e T h i r d W o r l d ; t h e i r m a j o r t a c t i c i s t o b o y c o t t N e s t l e p r o d u c t s .
2 5 . America the Enemy : P r o f i l e o f a R e v o l u t i o n a r y T h i n k T a n k , R a e l J e a n I s a a c
A thorough e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r P o l i c y S t u d i e s s u g g e s t s t h a t i t i s t h e h u b o f a
r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i t i c a l n e t w o r k m a s q u e r a d i n g a s a n a u t h e n t i c " t h i n k t a n k . "
Reprints a r e $ 1 each . Postpaid if payment ac companies order .
O r d e r s o f $ 1 0 o r m o r e , 1 0 p e r c e n t d i s c o u n t .
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Ethics an d Pu bl ic Policy Studies
Solz henitsyn a t Harva rd :
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George F . W i l l , A r t h u r S c h l e s i ng e r , J r . , A r c h i b a l d M a c L e i s h , J a m e s R e s t o n , M a r y
M c G r o r y , a n d o t h e r s .
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Roy Gods on 1980 176 pages c l o t h $ 9 .50 , paper $5
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N o v a k , J a c k K e m p , P a u l S e a b u r y , A l b e r t S h a n k e r , J a m e s C o n e , a n d o t h e r s .
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