The Philosophy of Warring States China. A Ridiculously Brief History Xia 夏 (2205-1766 B.C.E.)...

The Philosophy of Warring States China

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A Ridiculously Brief History

Xia 夏 (2205-1766 B.C.E.)

Shang 商 (1751-1122 B.C.E.)

Western Zhou 西周 (1122-770 B.C.E.)

Eastern Zhou 東周 (770-221 B.C.E.)

Qin 秦 (221-206 B.C.E.)

Former Han 漢 (206 B.C.E. -9)


Xia 夏 (2205-1766 B.C.E.)

May not have existed (so far there's no archaeological evidence) Traditional histories say that its last ruler, King Jie 桀 , was an evil tyrant

Shang 商 (1751-1122 B.C.E.)



Xia 夏 (2205-1766 B.C.E.)

Shang 商 (1751-1122 B.C.E.)

Has been partially corroborated by archaeological evidence (oracle bones) Can trace it back to about 1250 B.C.E.

Traditional histories say that its last ruler, King Zhow 紂 , was an evil tyrant



Shang 商 (1751-1122 B.C.E.)


Traditional histories say that King Wen 文 (“The Cultured King”) tried to reform evil King Zhow through virtuous example

But King Wu 武 (“The Martial King”), son of King Wen, defeated King Zhow in battle According to traditional histories, King Zhow had lost the “Mandate of Heaven” due to his

immoral conduct, and it was granted to the Zhou instead





For reasons involving concubines (of course), the king is killed and the Zhou capital sacked The Zhou capital is moved East (hence the name)

The traditional Zhou rulers begin to lose their real power The Zhou begins to decline

The Eastern Zhou dynasty is traditionally split into two periods

Qin 秦（ 221-206 B.C.E.)

Eastern Zhou

Spring and Autumn Period (722-481 B.C.E.)

The Zhou dynasty's decline The time of Confucius (551-479) – we'll come back to him later. Try to contain your excitement.

Warring States Period ( 403-221 B.C.E.)

Eastern Zhou




The Zhou kings officially recognise the partitioning of the state of Jin This inspires the rulers of formal vassal states to start usurping power for themselves

Essentially, everything goes to Hell and countless people die horribly

Eastern Zhou





Essentially, everything goes to Hell and countless people die horribly But on the bright side: awesome philosophy!

Eastern Zhou





Essentially, everything goes to Hell and countless people die horribly But on the bright side: awesome philosophy!

So, it was definitely worth it



Qin 秦 (221-206 B.C.E.)

During the Warring States period, the number of states grew smaller and smaller Eventually, the state of Qin was victorious and united China

Thus, he is often called the “First Emperor”




Qin 秦 (221-206 B.C.E.)


Thus, he is often called the “First Emperor” His tomb is guarded by the famous “Terracotta Army”


Terricotta Army



Qin 秦 (221-206 B.C.E.)



He was awesome




Qin 秦 (221-206 B.C.E.)



He was awesome Oh, except he outlawed all rival philosophies, burned their books, slaughtered and buried

philosophers alive



Qin 秦 (221-206 B.C.E.)


A form of Confucianism is made the orthodox philosophy/religion of China This is combined with a form of Legalism

This would essentially form the basis of the Chinese government for the next 2000 years

On to the philosophers....

Who am I skipping?

Laozi (Lao-tzu) 老子 and the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching)

Mozi (Mo-tzu) 墨子 The School of Logicians

Mencius 孟子 Xunzi (Hsun-tzu) 荀子 And more

Confucianism 儒家

This is Confucius EXACTLY as he looked in real life

ConfuciusName: Kongzi or Kongfuzi 孔子

551-479 B.C.E.

“Confucius said of the Ji Family, “They have eight rows of dancers performing in their courtyard. If they can condone this, what are they not capable of?”

Analects III:1 (transl. E Slingerland)

Take THAT, Ji Family!

Confucius in the West


In the 17th and 18th centuries, China was likely the most economically successful nation on Earth

It was also in many ways the most politically sophisticated




Viewed by many Europeans as an enlightened nation ruled by philosopher kings

Confucius was used by Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers as an example of rational morality






Later on, Hegel and Weber would criticise Confucianism

There was one thing the Enlightenment thinkers had in common with Hegel and Weber






Later on, Hegel and Weber would criticise Confucianism

There was one thing the Enlightenment thinkers had in common with Hegel and Weber

None of them really knew much of anything about Confucianism

Why is Confucius difficult to understand today?

Context of Chinese history and culture of his time



Unaware of how highly ritualised human behaviour is

Or how much clearer and stricter it was until very recently




Or how much clearer and stricter it was until very recently The book written by his students, “The Analects of Confucius” (Lun

Yu 論語 ) is unclear without commentary (remember the eight rows of dancers?)






The modern, “Western” secular, liberal view of morality is focused on the individual







Confucianism believes that people are inescapably part of a social network of relations with the family at its core








People develop their morality by learning how to care for their family, and then extending that feeling to others








People develop their morality by learning how to care for their family, and then extending that feeling to others

I would argue this is a more accurate view of human nature

The Philosophy of Confucius Confucius never wrote a book

He didn't seem interested in establishing a unique philosophical system

He appears to have been at least sceptical about the supernatural

Seems to imply spirits do not exist

Has a clear focus on the here and now

Xunzi (Hsün-tzu) 荀子300-230 B.C.E.

“You pray for rain and it rains. Why? For no particular reason, I say. It is just as though you had not prayed for rain and it rained anyway.”

Xunzi – A Discussion of Heaven (transl. B Watson)




So what did he believe?




So what did he believe?

Virtue Ethics: self-cultivation

A return to the heyday of the Zhou

The Virtue Ethics of Confucius

Emphasis on character rather than consequence



A strict and conservative view of ritual propriety

A person cultivates his character by means of the rites

But the rites must be performed with genuine emotions behind them

Confucius probably believed that the rites of the Zhou had some kind of cosmological significance: they were revealed by Heaven (Tian 天 )







Self-cultivation is a life-long journey







Self-cultivation is a life-long journey

He taught his disciples primarily through example

He had 72 disciples, according to tradition

He taught each one differently based on their individual flaws and strengths

His greatest student was Yan Hui 顔回 who died at a young age

Return to the Zhou

Confucius lived during the Spring and Summer period, as the Zhou was declining, but before the Warring States period began

Return to the Zhou


He believed society would be better ordered and better run if Zhou culture returned and a true king ruled over the world

For him, a true king would care about the common people, would employ worthy ministers (preferably Confucius or his disciples) and would follow the rites of Zhou

Return to the Zhou




For him, following the rites of Zhou not only helped individuals cultivate themselves, but also provided a framework where people in the government would know how to act and not rise above their station unless they were morally worthy

Return to the Zhou




For him, following the rites of Zhou not only helped individuals cultivate themselves, but also provided a framework where people in the government would know how to act and not rise above their station unless they were morally worthy

This takes us back to the strange quote at the beginning....

What was he prattling on about?

Different ranks in society were allowed different numbers of dancers to perform outside the ancestral hall during ceremonies.

Only the Son of Heaven was allowed eight rows. Thus the Ji Family was effectively taking on the ritual observances of the Zhou King – in effect claiming the title for themselves

Perhaps Confucius was right to be angry: once the vassals finally usurped the traditional positions of the Zhou dukes, it led to 200 years of war and the deaths of countless people

Confucius said of the Ji Family, “They have eight rows of

dancers performing in their courtyard. If they can

condone this, what are they not capable of?”

The Most Awesomest Philosopher

Zhuangzi dreaming he is a butterfly

Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu)莊子

4th Century B.C.E.

“There is a beginning. There is a not yet beginning to be a beginning. There is a not yet beginning to be a not yet beginning to be a beginning. There is being. There is nonbeing. There is a not yet beginning to be nonbeing. There is a not yet beginning to be not yet beginning to be nonbeing. Suddenly there is being and nonbeing. But between this being and nonbeing, I don't really know which is being and which is nonbeing. Now I have just said something. But I don't know whether what I have said has really said something or whether it hasn't said something.”

Zhuangzi – Discussion on Making Things Equal (transl. B Watson)

Chinese philosophy on acid

What made Zhuangzi unique?

Uses hilarious humour, brilliant word-play, satire, is apolitical, has stories about talking trees, talking animals, fish that turn into gigantic birds and on and on....

Uses language and philosophy to deconstruct language and philosophy

Pointedly takes the side of the lowest stratum of human society: things and people deemed freakish, lowly or useless

Zhuangzi's philosophy

What did Zhuangzi believe?


What did Zhuangzi believe? Umm... good question



The world is a complicated place, and things in it are always changing. We're always changing, too.




People should all just chill out and stop exhausting themselves trying to pin down moral absolutes

Zhuangzi's philosophyWhat did Zhuangzi believe? Umm... good question



As far as we know, even death may not be so bad. In any case, there's no point worrying about it





He argues for a “Great Understanding” which understands the world as a complete whole which contains within it changes and contradictions






His book seems to be “therapeutic” as well as generally philosophical






His book seems to be “therapeutic” as well as generally philosophical

It's probably worth noting that Zhuangzi was the primary influence for the Chan school of Buddhism – what we know today as “Zen”

Zhuangzi the Critic

He believed that Confucians and Moists – bitter philosophical opponents both suffered from the same problem: they were obsessed with fixed, moral absolutes

He took particular relish is making fun of the logicians who tried to use language and logic to define and understand the world

“What one calls right the other calls wrong; what one calls wrong the other calls right. But if we want to right their wrongs and wrong their rights, then the best thing to use is clarity.”


Zhuangzi the Critic

He believed that Confucians and Moists – bitter philosophical opponents both suffered from the same problem: they were obsessed with fixed, moral absolutes

He took particular relish is making fun of the logicians who tried to use language and logic to define and understand the world

This takes us back to the quote at the beginning....

“What one calls right the other calls wrong; what one calls wrong the other calls right. But if we want to right their wrongs and wrong their rights, then the best thing to use is clarity.”


So, if you thought this quote didn't make any sense earlier... that's because to a large degree it's probably meant as a satire of the logicians

But, with Zhuangzi you can never be sure that he didn't have his own point as well.... Did what he said really say something, or did it not say something?

“There is a beginning. There is a not yet beginning to be a beginning. There is a not yet beginning to be a not yet beginning to be a beginning. There is being. There is nonbeing. There is a not yet beginning to be nonbeing. There is a not yet beginning to be not yet beginning to be nonbeing. Suddenly there is being and nonbeing. But between this being and nonbeing, I don't really know which is being and which is nonbeing. Now I have just said something. But I don't know whether what I have said has really said something or whether it hasn't said something.”


Zhuangzi the Critic

The Butterfly Story

“Once Zhuang Zhou dreamt he was a butterfly, a butterfly flitting and fluttering around, happy with himself and doing as he pleased. He didn't know he was Zhuang Zhou. Suddenly he woke up and there he was, solid and unmistakable Zhuang Zhou. But he didn't know if he was Zhuang Zhou who had dreamt he was a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming he was Zhuang Zhou. Between Zhuang Zhou and a butterfly there must be some distinction! This is called the Transformation of Things.”

Zhuangzi – Discussion on Making Things Equal (trans. B Watson)

This is an extremely famous story. But what does it mean?

The Butterfly Story

There's no consensus really on any of Zhuangzi's stories


The Butterfly Story


But Zhuangzi did believe that living in the world means that we are all part of a constant process of change – the Great Transformation


The Butterfly Story



All we can do is accept and understand who who are are where we exist and deal with that This is an extremely

famous story. But what does it mean?

The Butterfly Story



All we can do is accept and understand who who are are where we exist and deal with that

Cook Ding story


Legalism 法家

Hanfeizi, looking badass!

Han Feizi韓非子

280-233 B.C.E.

“Once in the past, Marquis Zhao of Han got drunk and fell asleep. The keeper of his royal hat, seeing that the marquis was cold, laid a robe over him. When the marquis awoke, he was pleased and asked his attendants, 'Who covered me with a robe?' 'The keeper of the hat,' they replied. The marquis thereupon punished both the keeper of the royal hat and the keeper of the royal robe.”

Hanfeizi – The Two Handles(transl. B Watson)

Who was Han Feizi?

Of the major philosophers, the only member of the ruling aristocracy

He was a student of the Confucian scholar, Xunzi

His classmate was Li Si, who was later Prime Minister of the state of Qin

He lived at the very end of the Warring States period – but died shortly before the state of Qin conquered all of China

According to traditional accounts, he had a strong speech impediment and this is why he wrote his philosophy down in a book – rather than trying to get his ideas across in person

Han Feizi's Philosophy

What did he believe? Han Feizi's book is entirely about statecraft

For this reason he has been called the “Machiavelli of Ancient China”

He urged rulers to rule from behind the scenes

This was done by having set and clear rules and standards for people to follow

Then, these rules and standards are enforced through the “two handles” of rulership: harsh punishment and generous reward

The king should never allow anyone else to have access to these “two handles”

This way, the king maintains power, but the government runs smoothly and nobody acts beyond their station

The Five Punishments


Tattoo on the face


Tattoo on the face

Cut off a foot


Tattoo on the face

Cut off a foot

Cut off the nose


Tattoo on the face

Cut off a foot

Cut off the nose

Castration


Tattoo on the face

Cut off a foot

Cut off the nose

Castration

Death


Tattoo on the face

Cut off a foot

Cut off the nose

Castration

Death (not infrequently of both yourself and your entire family)

According to Han Feizi's system, then, the reason these two were punished is because the keeper of the hat acted beyond his station. And the keeper of the robe failed in his duties.

“Once in the past, Marquis Zhao of Han got drunk and fell asleep. The keeper of his royal hat, seeing that the marquis was cold, laid a robe over him. When the marquis awoke, he was pleased and asked his attendants, 'Who covered me with a robe?' 'The keeper of the hat,' they replied. The marquis thereupon punished both the keeper of the royal hat and the keeper of the royal robe.”

Hanfeizi – The Two Handles(transl. B Watson)



Han Feizi was also unique in that he did not believe in adhering to the way of the Ancients: the Xia, Shang and Zhou culture and its legacy



Almost every other philosophy in this period believed that China had a golden age in the past and should try to imitate the ancients to achieve that golden age again

But Han Feizi thought it was stupid to mindlessly ape the past. Even if the way of the Ancients worked in the past, that doesn't guarantee it would work now.



Almost every other philosophy in this period believed that China had a golden age in the past and should try to imitate the ancients to achieve that golden age again

But Han Feizi thought it was stupid to mindlessly ape the past. Even if the way of the Ancients worked in the past, that doesn't guarantee it would work now.

E.g. The man from Song story, and the Letter from Ying story



Han Feizi's cynical attitude probably suited the times – much had changed since Confucius was alive

China was in a state of constant warfare

Kings were in constant danger of having their power usurped by ambitious people

Cities and populations had grown

So Han Feizi believed a dispassionate system of legal standards would make the world a better place

Han Feizi's Death and Legacy

The ruler of the state of Qin was extremely interested in Legalism, and implementation of this philosophy seemed to have made his state flourish

He invited Han Feizi to Qin to present his ideas




However, his former classmate, Li Si, told the ruler that because Han Feizi was part of the aristocracy of the state of Han, he could not be trusted

The Qin ruler imprisoned him, and Li Si fooled him into committing suicide




However, his former classmate, Li Si, told the ruler that because Han Feizi was part of the aristocracy of the state of Han, he could not be trusted

The Qin ruler imprisoned him, and Li Si fooled him into committing suicide

The Qin ruler later regretting Han Feizi's death. Eventually he would unify China and implement the Legalist system – standardising the governmental system, the written language and many other things

In the end, the Chinese government would adhere to a combination of Legalism and Confucianism and would develop an extremely sophisticated centralized bureaucracy

Oh, the irony

So in other words...

Oh, the irony


Han Feizi, the student of a famous Confucian scholar, would develop a philosophy that urged merciless punishments by rulers to maintain their own power

Oh, the irony



He later died as a result of being imprisoned by a ruler who was worried about maintaining his own power

Oh, the irony



He later died as a result of being imprisoned by a ruler who was worried about maintaining his own power

That ruler then implemented Han Feizi's philosophy and then proceeded to persecute and kill the Confucians and ban their teachings.

The End終

The Philosophy of Warring States China. A Ridiculously Brief History Xia 夏 (2205-1766 B.C.E.)...

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