The origin and evolution of earth---By Jiang Fashi

The earth is a planet in the solar system, tilting in the ecliptic plane around the sun once a year, and rotates once a day.

The earth following the sun turn around the galactic center, tilting in the galactic plane, turning around the galactic center for more than 200 million years.

The earth and the moon are the earth-moon system, and the moon turns around the earth once a month.

The earth is a sphere with a layered structure. There are volcanic eruptions, earthquakes. The rocks and strata have been moved or bent.

The south pole of earth is lower then the sphere but with high mountains, which is Antarctica. The north pole is higher and covered by the Arctic ocean.

The earth exist the magnetic filed, the geomagnetic poles reverse and pole movement happened in the geological history.

There are plenty of living creatures on the earth. Lower plants and higher plants, lower animals and higher animals live on earth together. Prokaryotic low fossils is mainly seen in per- Paleozoic strata. In Paleozoic, the orginism began explosive appearance and there were tall plants and large animals in the Mesozoic. During the Cenozoic there were higher beings.

There are a large number of coals in Antarctica. Coal was formed by plants through the coal geology. The environment of Antarctica is the snow and ice, it is impossible to grow a lot of plant.

There are many times of transgressions and regressions in the geology history. Where did the formation of earth come from , in what time and what position.

Why does the earth rotation and revolution, and why the earth exists activities in its internal.

How did the lives in earth form?A complete theory of the origin and evolution of earth shall make a reasonable

explanation for those phenomenon and questions.

1.Galaxy1.1 Galaxy

The earth with the Milky Way, the solar system, and the moon formed galaxy relations, under the control of the galactic center and the sun’s gravity around the rotation, the influence of moon’s gravity, turning around the center of mass to the moon and earth. By researching and discussing on origin and evolution of the earth, it is necessary to study and explore the galaxy.1.1.1 Galaxy and Classification

In the universe, Galaxy formed by two or more than two planet orbiting movement combination.

There are two planets orbiting form: one is galactic center type, that many tight planets rotate around the huge heavy center planet., such as many planets and comets orbit around the sun. The other is called Companion galaxy type, that two planets rotate around a common center of mass. Such as the earth and moon, they all rotate around the center of mass of earth-moon system. Most galaxies belong to the former.

In the universe, there are many galaxies, they have different sizes and morphology, like independent galaxies, a galaxiy of galaxies, galaxies that have linear motion or curve movement around centersome, the young galaxies and the old one.

In order to study the formation of a galaxy, we need to classify galaxies in the universe.The Hubble galaxies classified:

American astronomer Hubble divided galaxies in the universe into three categories according to its shape or structure types:(1) Elliptical galaxy

Elliptical galaxies evolved from galaxy development. Fig 1-1 is a group of photos that show the globular galaxy developing into the elliptical galaxy.

Fig 1-1 Photo of elliptical galaxy(2) Spiral galaxy

Spiral galaxy has many kinds of form in universe, but also has a process of evolution, which is developed from the irregular form to the regular form. Fig 1-2 is an open model of spiral galaxies in the Ursa major, fig 1-3 is an intermediate connected through the cloud of the companion spiral galaxy photo.

Fig 1-2 spiral galaxy fig 1-3 companion galaxy fig 1-4 rodlike spiral galaxy(3) Irregular galaxy

Fig 1-4 is a photo of rodlike spiral galaxy, irregular galaxy would develop into regular galaxy. 1.1.2 The classification of galaxies in this issue(1) According to whether they have subordinate relations between galaxies

We divide galaxies into two part in the universe--Independent galaxies and subordinate galaxies. Some galaxies, operated independently in space, not rotated around the central body, are called independent galaxies, such as Milky Way Galaxy. Whereas, some, rotated around the central body, like solar system rotated around the Galactic center, earth-moon system rotated around sun, are called subordinate galaxies. (2)According to whether central star rotate

They are divided into nuclear rotated galaxies and nuclear non rotated galaxies. In the universe, some independent galaxies’ nuclear are rotating, some not rotating.

But subordinate galaxies’ nuclear are all rotating.(3)According to the path of galaxies

They are divided into linear motion galaxy and curved motion galaxy. Those independent galaxy led by central star move in the direction of ray of the central star formed in the universe. Some galaxies rotated around central star as a curved line.(4)According to the spatial position of galaxies

They are divided into internal galaxy and universal galaxy. Those who move in the galaxy are called internal galaxy, like solar system. Those who move independently in the universe space are called universal galaxy, like Milky Way Galaxy.(5)According to the age of galaxies

They are divided into old galaxy and young galaxy. Those who have formed for a long time are called old galaxy in the universe. They have almost evolved into regular galaxy. Those who formed just for a little time are called young galaxy, whose state are irregular. (6)According to the relation between the stars in the galaxy

They are divided into central galaxy and companion galaxy. Those much of small stars rotate around heavy star are called central galaxy, such as solar system and Milky Way galaxy. That heavy star is central star or main star. Two stars each rotated around the center of galaxies called companion galaxies, such as earth-moon system.

1.2 Solar systemSolar system is made up of planets, comets and other celestial bodies orbiting

around the center of the sun planet movement combination.In the solar system, it has internal system, such as planets and moons of

planetary systems, satellite and its rotation around the son of satellites system, and so on.Solar system is the center of an old, rules, elliptical galaxies.

Some characteristic of solar system(1)The path shape of star

The shape of planets orbit around the sun: nearly circular, elliptic, parabolic and double curved shape. In the solar system, mercury, Venus, earth, Mars, etc., and their shape to suborbicular, orbit around the sun and the periphery of the other planets orbit is elliptical.The solar system comets orbit for elliptic, parabolic and double curved shape, figure 1-5 is a solar system model, figure 1-6 is a comet orbital diagram.

Fig 1-5 solar system model

Fig 1-6 comet orbital diagram.(2) Planet revolution directional characteristics

Those nine planets orbiting the sun had to orbit counterclockwise, while other comets such as Halley's comet is clockwise around the sun.(3) Planet rotation direction characteristics

Venus rotation is clockwise, its rotation and its revolution are in the opposite direction. And other eight planets are for counterclockwise rotation the same as those revolution direction. (4) Stars distribution characteristics

The nine planets of the solar system revolution plane is near the both side of equator plane of sun, and the revolution surface of a comet distribute on all the latitude of the sun from the poles to the equator. Figure 1-7 is comets orbit inclination that the distribution of different latitude around the sun.

Fig 1-7 distribution of comet around sun(5) Planet motion characteristics

The earth is tilted rotation in the orbit, Uranus is lying down rotation in the orbit, several other planets in orbit rotate for vertical or inclined state.(6) Characteristics of stars in our solar system

The five characteristics of comet and planet rotated around solar systems, are similar to those planetary system formed by the planets rotated by satellites.

1.3 Simulation experimentA solar system origin theory or hypothesis can explain not only the

characteristics of the solar system, but also the characteristics of the galaxy and other galaxies.

In order to study the origin of the solar system and explains the characteristics of the solar system, we use a magnet and a small metal ball to do the following test:1.3.1 Test One

A small metal ball is hanging motionless in the air. The hanging magnet piece is

in the same plane with the small metal ball, which is in the west of metal ball, moving from north to south direction. See from fig 1-8.

Fig 1-8 Magnet piece movement from the west side of iron ball The results of test are shown as the follow(see fig 1-9)When both are at a appropriate movement distance, if magnet piece move slowly,

the metal ball would be attracted while magnet piece is close to the metal ball (fig 1-9A). When magnet piece move as an appropriate velocity, the metal ball would rotate around the magnet piece in a circle path(fig 1-9B). When the magnet piece move with a high velocity from the side of small metal ball, the ball would move with a parabola or a hyperbola path(fig 1-9C). The metal ball also has the rotation direction E in fig.

Fig 1-9 the results of test one1.3.2 Test Two

Be similar to the test one, the difference is making the magnet piece move from south to the north in the east of metal ball. See from fig 1-10.

Fig 1-10 magnet piece move in the east of metal ballThe results of test:The direction of revolution and rotation are completely inversion.

1.3.3 Test Three Be similar to the test one, but, let the metal ball rotate in direction F, then

magnet piece move from north to the south in the west of ball. See from fig 1-11.

Fig 1-11 the result of test threeThe result of test :The metal ball still move in the direction F, but the rotation velocity is slower.

1.3.4 Test FourBe similar to the test one, but, when the size of magnet piece is same as the metal

ball size. The result is that they revolve for each other. As the fig 1-12 show.

Fig 1-12 The result of test fourWill the above test, in turn, let the small ball move, and result is the same.

1.3.5 Artificial earth satellite pathFig 1-13 shows the possible path shape of launching the artificial earth satellite.

The orbits of satellites reply on the final-stage rocket’s velocity. If the final-stage rocket velocity is lower, the path of satellites would be shape A in fig 1-13, the satellites would come back to the earth. If final-stage rocket velocity is proper, the path would be shape B in fig 1-13,which is a circle orbit. If its velocity is higher, the path of it would be like shape C in fig 1-13, which is a ellipse. If its velocity is the same as the escape velocity, its path would be like shape D in fig 1-13, as a parabola curve. If its velocity is high then the escape velocity, its orbit would be hyperbola. The height and movement direction of artificial earth satellite are also depended by the final-stage height and direction.

Fig 1-13 satellite movement path1.3.6 The path of chang’e No.2

Fig 1-14 shows the chang’e No.2 ‘s orbit. Though chang’e No.2 is an artificial

object. It form the moon satellite system with moon.

Fig 1-14 The orbit of chang’e No.2

1.4 The origin of solar systemThe sun captures the planets and comets form the universe to form the rotation

combination, that is solar system.1.4.1 The reason of revolution orbit around sun

The orbit of member in solar system is decided by their relative velocity and relative distance they move into the solar system. The velocity of those planets and comets captured by sun slow down, then they drop into the sun. If the velocity is proper, its orbit is a circle. If the velocity is a little higher, the orbit is ellipse, and if its velocity much higher, its orbit is parabola or hyperbola.1.4.2 The reason of every latitude of sun has star distribution

Independent operating objects in the universe can be from all directions and all kinds of Angle to close to the side of the sun, they were captured from the celestial poles of the sun and the latitude and the equator and be a member of the solar system. So in the sun near the equator and poles and latitude distribute planets.1.4.3 The reason of planets concentrated in the sun equator

The sun is a huge gravity ball, the ball is axial rotation, gravity's rotation will generate centrifugal force. Centrifugal force on pole of the ball is the smallest, and near the equator centrifugal force is largest. So the old planets in the solar system under the action of centrifugal force field focus around the sun equator.

Li siguang, founder of geological mechanics, do the sphere of centrifugal test, as following show:

Fig 1-15 is a geological mechanics simulation test: Cover poly vinyl acetate emulsion with 16 layer On the foam plastic ball with diameter 20 cm, as a 3 mm thick film, add rotating strength by motor(500r/min). In close to a sphere equator, in a series of nearly east-west fold is formed on the sample. The simulation experiment of geological mechanics is a complete proof, all rotating sphere will emerge from the poles to the equator in the direction of centrifugal force, the surface material will change under the action of centrifugal force.

Fig 1-15 The simulation test of geological mechanics1.4.4 The reason that stars upright, leaning and lying in the orbit

In the solar system, the planets rotating vertically, are captured by the sun on the equatorial plane. The planets leaning on the orbit, are captured at the corresponding latitude of sun, then move into this position under the action of centrifugal force field. Uranus, lying on the orbit, is captured at the poles of sun, then move into the sun equator plane under centrifugal force of gravitational field. 1.4.5 The cause of planets revolution in a reverse (e.g., Halley's comet)

The celestial bodies with the same revolution orbit are captured at the same side of sun. Celestial bodies with reverse revolution orbit, are captured at the other side of sun.1.4.6 The reason of planet’s rotation reversely

Venus, rotating reversely, indicate that it rotates clockwise before it is captured. When it is captured by the sun, the tidal twist is smaller than the original existing rotation force. So Venus still hold the original rotation direction. But the rotation speed has been particularly slow and rotation period longer. 1.4.7 The origin of planet system

The forming process of satellites around planets is similar to solar system. And there are subsatellites and grand-satellites around the satellite. Asteroids and comets could have satellites around them, and could form rotation movement combination which is galaxy. The origin of them is same as solar system’s.

The origin of all galaxies in the universe is the same.

1.5 Introduction of the solar system origin hypothesisThere are some typical theories and hypothesizes of the origin of solar system:

1.5.1 Buffon theory Buffon, France zoologist, presented in 1745 that there was once a great comet

met the sun, make the sun rotate. Some of the material from the sun formed planets and low level satellite, and turns around the center object. This theory is called comet collision theory.1.5.2 Chamberlain theory

American geologist chamberlain presented in 1900: there was once a star move somewhere close to the sun, due to the effect of tidal forces, two sides of sun have a huge boom, as we now can see prominences. There are gas, liquid and solid in the two great tide. Solid gathered into pieces called planetesimals, these planetesimals develop into a planet orbiting the sun. This theory is also called planetesimals.1.5.3 Shea theory

American astronomer Shea presented in 1910: there are two nebula collision, formed the sun in the nebula after collision, other substances to form planets. Also called nebulae collision theory.1.5.4 Hennessy theory

Swedish chemist, Hennessy presented in 1908: there are two stars collided side along a Angle, make the two stars into a star, because of the side collision it produced rotation. The material objects flying out after collision form such planets. This theory is also called the merge of side impact star theory.1.5.5 Bickerton theory

New Zealander scientist Bickerton presented in 1881 that when a star is close to the sun, due to tidal action, it makes deformation of both sun and other stars. It separated the oval objects from them. And these objects become the planets rotating around the sun. With the vividly description of himself, the objects pulled from two star due to the tidal forces is like a spark in the universe. Someone called the theory of cosmic spark. 1.5.6 Russell theory

American astronomer Russell presented in 1935: the sun was a pair of stars, then one of them approach to the other and pull it away, left a strip of material at the same time. These materials formed the planets later. This theory is also called the double stars theory.1.5.7 Weizcker theory

German astronomer Weizcker presented in 1944: after the sun is surrounded by a gas dust cloud, the cloud got flat due to rotating, formed the nebula plate, then the cloud plate formed the planets. This theory can be called the sun into the cloud theory.1.5.8 Faison Krakow theory

Astronomers Faison Krakow from the Soviet Union presented in 1919: the materials formed the planets all come from the ejection of the sun. The original sun was heavy, high hydrogen content, high rotation speed and unstable, so there are the mass ejection to form planets. This theory is called the theory of sun projectile. 1.5.9 Birkeland theory

Norwegian scientists Birkeland in 1912 pointed out that the electromagnetic play an important role in the formation of the solar system. The sun has a magnetic field from the beginning. Ions, ejected from the sun, move outward along the lines of magnetic force in spiral orbit, stay on some circles, the radius of the circle determines the ratio of electronic charge to quality of ion, forming a series of ball, different ball made up of different ions. The ball later gathered to form a planet. The theory is called ion concentration theory1.5.10 McRae theory

British astronomer McRae presented in 1960: the big nebula that formed the solar system broke into lots of small nebula first. These small nebulas were with stochastic motion and rotation speed and direction. Small cloud often collide with each other, for the most part combine to form the sun, the other part formed the planet. This theory can be called the theory of original cloud broken before gathered. 1.5.11 Yanukovich theory

Romania physicists Yanukovich presented in 1964 : Earth-like planets in our solar system is with the outer part of the solar nebula or forced outward substance formed by the sun, and Jupiter-like planets are captured from the clouds of interstellar material, while the sun is moving in interstellar space. The theory is called

predestination step formation theory.1.5.12 Brown theory

American physicist Brown presented in 1971: in the past there was a supernova explosion whose quality is 50-100 times of the sun, one of ejecting fragments formed today's solar system. The theory is called a supernova debris formation theory.1.5.13 Mitra theory

Indian astronomer Mitra presented in 1975: The solar system is formed as collective cluster. There is a large interstellar clouds appearing turbulence because of self-attracting in the universe, then come into a cluster. This cluster scatter gradually, and the sun is one of the member whose initial angular momentum is almost zero. Then, in the process of rotating around the galactic center, the sun attract those particle which have similar track with it, forming a spherical cladding around the sun, then evolving into the cloud plant. And make the sun rotate itself, because of transform of its angular momentum. This theory can be called the theory that cluster scatter and form the sun. 1.5.14 Kant and Laplace theory

Kant is a German philosopher, was born in 1724, died in 1804.Laplace was a French mathematician and physical mechanics, born in 1749, died in 1827.The two founders of the theory of the solar nebula in the case of not know each other, respectively, published content is approximately the same, namely the nebula doctrine theory of origin of the solar system.

Theory about the origin of the solar system nebula is approved by most astronomers. From now to more than two hundred years have passed since the eighteenth century, during which many scientists put forward the relevant theory of the origin of the solar nebula, although some have their own opinions in some aspects on the formation mechanism and theories, but not apart from the general purpose from Kant, Laplace theory.

Theory of the origin of the solar system nebula is a words: the solar system formed from a nebula. There are gas and dust, ice, large and small solid matter in the nebula. Under the effect of gravity material attract each other, the cloud volume shrinking. In the center of the nebula sun was formed. Because of nebula original rotation, when the volume is shrinking, nebulae rotational speed up, form into a flat ball, by the reason of conservation of angular momentum. Nebula continues to shrink on the surface of the flat form now coplanar same direction of rotation of the planet.

1.6 The traditional theory of origin of the solar systemThere are number of theories about the origin of the solar system, according to

the material sources of the sun around the planet, these theories can be divided into three parts: separation school, capture school, form-together school.(1) Separation school

It is also called catastrophe theory. People believed that the other star collided to the sun, ejected some substance, which formed the planet.

Some argue that the sun have appeared lager scale variation, such as the higher speed of sun’s rotation. one star separated into two, one of them left for some reason, the substance left form the planets.

Some argue that the sun is a double star before, one of them was captured by other large star, and something left has become the planets.

And also some believe that the companion of the sun explode as supernovae, material left to form the planets. Another view is the substance of sun itself mass

ejection out to form the planets(2) Capture school

The common view of this school is that the sun formed first, and after that it captured the other interstellar substances around or from the universe. Those substances formed the planets. (3) form-together school

All sorts of all kinds of nebula theories belong to this school. This school believes that the solar system was formed by a nebula. Although the scholars have their own opinions about the planets in the solar system of their formation and rotation and revolution, but they are common think that solar system is changed by an original nebula evolution gradually, or the substances of planet come from the sun or other star relating to the sun.

1.7 The difference between this issue views and traditional capture

theoryTraditional capture theory believe that the sun capture those substances form the

universe, which formed in the inner solar system planets, comets and other celestial bodies, the sun formed first, and planets, comets and other celestial bodies formed after that.

The views of this issue is that the sun capture the planets and comet in the universe directly, and formed the rotation-movement combination , that is solar system. Some planets may be born before the sun.

2. Earth Structure2.1 Structure of the solid earth

When we do geometry problem, drawing a guides would solve the problem. We could get the solution by changing the way we think, when we meet something hard to solve.

In order to research and discuss its origin and evolution, we redefined the structure of solid earth.

On the basis of inter-substances’ status and of solid earth and characteristics of seismic waves, we classified the solid earth into primary and secondary layers. We can see from the table2-1, and the traditional solid earth structures are shown in fig 2-1,fig 2-2,fig 2-3.

The primary layer is to study the movement of inside of earth and outside of earth, then study the origin of geomagnetism, earthquake, volcano and diastrophism.

The secondary layer is to study the origin of earth.Table 2-1 Structure of solid earth

The name of earth's spheres dee

p

（km）

Vp

（km/s）

Vs

（km/s）densit

y（g/

cm3）status

Primar

y layer

Secondary

layer

Traditional

layer

Outsid

lithosphere lithospher

e

0—

33

5.6—7.0 3.4—4.2 2.6—2.9 Solid

substanc

e of

earth

e

Out-

transitio

n layer

Out-

transitio

n

laye

r（upper

）

Upper

mantle

33—

980

8.1—

10.1

4.4—5.4 3.2—3.6 Part of

molten

substanc

e

Out-

transition

layer

（lower）

Lower

mantle

980

—2900

12.8—

13.5

6.9—7.2 5.1—5.6 Liquid

and solid

substanc

e

Liquid

layer

Liquid layer Outer-core 2900—

4700

8.0—8.2 unaccepte

d

10.0—

11.4

liquid

Inside

of

earth

in-transition layer transition

layer

4700—

5100

9.5—

10.3

12.3 Liquid

and solid

substanc

e

core Inner-core 5100—

6371

10.9—

11.2

12.5 Solid

substanc

e

Fig 2-1 structure of earth(primary layer)外球：outer ball 液态球：liquid ball 内球：inner ball

Fig 2-2 structure of solid earth(secondary layer)地核：core 内过渡层：inner transition layer 液态层：liquid layer 外过渡层：outer transition layer 地壳：crust

Fig 2-3 traditional structure of solid earth

2.2 Outside structure of earthThe outside of solid earth exist the hydrosphere, biosphere and the atmosphere.The surface of the earth is made up of water which is called the hydrosphere, The

water exist by three status which is gas liquid and solid. According to the position and environment, we classified water into sea water, land water and atmospheric water. The total water of earth is about 1.36×1015 m3 , if all of them cover on the surface of earth averagely, it can be as deep as 2700 meter.

The continuous circle layer of biological existence and activity, in the earth’s surface, made up of the biosphere, most of creatures live at the range of 200 meters water depth and 200 meters high in the sky. Some creatures can survive in the extreme conditions, there are fish in thousands of meters below the ocean, and biological spores in space.

The gas around the earth is called atmospheres. According to the physical property and motion characteristics, we classified it into from the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and thermosphere ,and the exosphere the surface to the atmospheres. In 3000 km above the earth, the air is very thin, the air particles break free of earth's gravity to escape into space, outside of them is a cosmic space.

3. The origin and evolution of the earth

3.1 The origin of earth

3.1.1 The doctrine of earth originAccording to the position of the earth, the earth's origin is divided into two

schools: the traditional school thought that the earth is formed in the inner solar system; This paper argues that the earth is formed outside our solar system.

Like solar system origin, we think that the earth formed in the inner solar system can be divided into three schools: there are divided theory also called catastrophism, capture theory, common form theory also called nebulae theory.

This paper views: the earth is form outside our solar system space, when move near to the sun, it was captured to become the planet rotated around the sun.3.1.2 The origin of earth

The earth originated from the universe outside our solar system, earth in 4.6 billion (?)Years ago, the earth's core captured the molten substances, plastic substances, solids, gases and liquids to form the earth.

3.2 The evolution of earthIn the process of evolution of the earth, some astronomy and geological events

happened, and the time of events happened is called a geological period.In each geological period, in the space associated with the earth and the solar

system and earth big events happened in the earth itself, crustal movement, formation, rock, tectonic, paleontology, paleomagnetism, the ancient glacier, ancient climate have left a record in many aspects.

In different geological periods, different geological processes have different characteristics.

the earth history is divided into earth formation period, the earth's crust formation period, before entering the solar system period, into the solar system period, earth-moon system formation period, new period, shown in table 3-1.3.2.1 Earth formation period [Archaeorigin Eon]

This period begin with the core captured the high temperature molten substances and small amounts of plastic substances, solids, gases and liquids, to the surface of the molten substances to form the earth's original shell of a geological time.

In 4.6 billion (?)Years ago, in the space outside the solar system, composed of iron nickel substances core capture the high temperature molten substances and small amounts of plastic substances, solids, gases and liquids, outside the core to form high temperature molten substances thick layer.

The inner transition layer is formed between the core and high temperature molten substances.

With the temperature of earth surface decreasing, the molten substance solidified, and formed the primary shell of earth.

The outer transition layer is formed with outer shell and high temperature melting substances which formed liquid layer.

In this geological period, the earth form a hierarchy, from the inside-out: within the earth's core, the transition layer, the liquid layer, transition layer, outside shell.

On the surface of the earth, because of the molten material solidification and contraction, it formed tensile fracture, valleys, and mountains. Because of the universe celestial collision, it formed hole in the earth's surface depressions.3.2.2 The earth’s crust forming period [Archaean]

This period began with the surface molten substances forming the earth’s original shell, and ended up with sedimentary rock forming.

The earth crust and the molten solidified shell are not the same.The earth's crust is made up of volcanic rocks, sedimentary rocks and

metamorphic rocks of earth crust, and the meteorite after a long-term evolution and formation of the earth.

During this geological time:With lower temperature, the water from the molten substances solidification

process and the captured water flow into tensile fracture valley and hole depression. It formed primary oceans and lakes on the earth. The generated gas and captured gas stay on the surface of the earth, to form the atmosphere.

Due to the substance captured by the core unevenly, the different temperature of the earth’s surface generated the air flowing.

In the earth's crust formation period, with the water and atmosphere, the weathering, denudation and handling, sedimentary rock was formed.

Table 3-1 The table of geological time and feature

Geological

time Fearture

Erat

hem

Erat

hem

Isotop

e age

Ma

Ti

me

of

ent

erin

g

the

sola

r

syst

em

T

im

e

of

for

mi

ng

th

e

ea

rth

-

m

oo

n

sys

te

m

N

eo

na

tal

pe

rio

d

This period began with a comet hitting the earth.

The comet cracked in the solar system, and form the

asteroid belt around the sun.

The compositions of comet are rock, ice and the

atmosphere. There are all kinds of creatures in the ice.

During this geological period, the earth increases the

water, atmosphere and new biological species. The

original creatures change or evolve.

Cenoz

oic Phane

rozoic

This period began with the forming of earth-moon

system when the moon was captured by the earth.

The moon rotating around the earth, change the

gravitational field and magnetic field. Under the shaking

action of moon gravity, the outer ball of earth spinning,

and generated the movement of earth and magnetic

pole.

In the nature, all the animals and plants have

variation, and forming tall trees and large creatures.

Mesoz

oic

65

This period began with the earth entering the solar

system as a planet.

In this geological period, the earth with the light of

the sun, formed the revolution and rotation around the

sun, with the change of day and night.

In the interior of the earth, the earth's core may be

the opposite direction of the sun's gravity, not in the

center of the earth.

In the earth's crust, as a result of the earth's rotation

from the poles to the equator of the centrifugal force; In

the sun’s gravity, due to the earth's rotation from west

to east, the earth's crust form the movement from east

to west, forming the mountain, plateau, gullies

depressions and plains.

In the biological world, began to appear explosive

resurrection.

With the evolution of the solar system, earth by

enters solar system orbit plane that rail surface and the

sun equatorial plane at angle of about 23 ° 26 ', evolve

to now of the earth's orbital plane parallel to the

equator near the sun, the earth's axis by vertical orbit

plane is a tilt in orbit, form the four seasons of a year.

About the rock, a large number of limestone

appeared.

Paleoz

ic 250

Time

before

entering the

solar system

This period is from the time of crust formed to the

time of earth entering the solar system.

This is a geological period without sunshine.

In this section, with the early crust of weathering,

erosion, transportation and deposition action strongly,

mountain was low, the thick of the original deposition

was deposited in the valleys and potholes

Later in this section, with the tectonic activity weaker,

the surface temperature reduces gradually, below

freezing point, and form a global glaciers.

In biology, prokaryotes landing on earth began to

resurrect and reproduct. Because there is no sunshine,

the other plants and animals down to the earth is in a

dormant state. Prokaryotes begin to reproduce.

Precambrian 543

Time of

generating crust

This period is from the melting surface substances

solidification to the formation of sedimentary rock

With lower temperature, the water from the molten

substances solidification process and the captured water

flow into tensile fracture valley and hole depression. The

generated gas and captured gas stay on the surface of

the earth, to form the atmosphere.

Due to the substance captured by the core unevenly,

the different temperature of the earth’s surface

generated the air flowing.

In the earth's crust formation period, with the water

and atmosphere, the weathering, denudation and

handling, sedimentary rock was formed.

Archean1800

Time of

generating

earth

This period is from the time of earth’s core capturing

the high temperature melting substance to the time

surface melting substances forming the original shell of

earth.

In 4.6 billion (?)Years ago, the core consisting of the

iron nickel material captured the high temperature

melting substances forming the thick melting layer. With

the decreasing of the molten layer temperature which

contact with the core part, it form the transition layer;

Parts contacted with the shell form the transition layer ;

Molten layer form a liquid layer.

In this geological period, it formed layers structure of

the earth.

The molten substance solidify and shrink, the tensile

fracture in the earth’s surface formed the mountain.

Cosmic body colliding the earth, form the earth’s surface

depressions.

Archaeorigin

Eon

3600

3.2.3 Time before entering the solar system(Precambrian)This period is from the time of crust formed to the time of earth entering the

solar system.This is a geological period without sunshine.In this section, with the early crust of weathering, erosion, transportation and

deposition action strongly, mountain was low, the thick of the original deposition was deposited in the valleys and potholes

Later in this section, with the tectonic activity weaker, the surface temperature reduces gradually, below freezing point, and form a global glaciers.

In biology, prokaryotes landing on earth began to resurrect and reproduct. Because there is no sunshine, the other plants and animals down to the earth is in a dormant state. Prokaryotes begin to reproduce.

3.2.4 Time of entering the solar system(Phanerozoic)This period began with the earth entering the solar system as a planet. In

phanerozoic eon, the beginning of the Paleozoic, earth with the light of the sun, formed the revolution and rotation around the sun, with the change of day and night.

Now the earth ecliptic plane is near the sun’s equator plane, the angle is small. The earth is tilting in the orbit of earth, the angle between the direction of earth’s axis and ecliptic plane is 66 ° 34 ', namely the angle of earth’s equator and ecliptic plane is 23 ° 26 '. see from the fig 3-1

Fig 3-1 The movement of earth tilting in the orbit春分：spring equinox 秋分：Autumnal equinox 夏至：Summer solstice 冬至：Winter solstice

Earth is captured when the angle between sun’s equator plane and earth is about 23°26′,and it become a planet rotating around the sun.

Fig 3-2 The direction of earth entering the orbit地球进入轨道方向：direction of earth entering the orbit 赤道面：equator plane 地轴 earth

axisThe earth is captured by the sun like test one, generating the revolution and

rotation. When it generated, the earth’s axis is vertical to the orbit plane, and the angle between earth’s axis and equator plane is about 66°34′

The solar system is the same as other galaxies, under the trend of evolution, the earth move from the beginning orbit plane to the direction of sun equator plane about 23°26′. And it has moved near the sun equator plane. (fig 3-3)

Fig 3-3 The evolution of earth from the orbit plane captured by sun to sun equatorial plane地球：earth 太阳：sun 轨道面：orbit

In the evolution process of the solar system, under the condition of no other celestial bodies, orbit around the planet shape remains unchanged, the spin axis tilt direction and tilt angle are constant.

When the earth is captured by the sun, the earth's axis and orbit plane is vertical, and the sun equatorial plane angle is about 66 ° 34 '.Due to earth's orbit moving to sun equatorial plane's direction for 23 ° 26 ', it form now of the earth's equator and the ecliptic plane at the angle of about 23 ° 26 '.

When the earth was captured by the sun, the earth's axis and orbit plane is vertical, and its poles were without sunshine all of the year, and the earth was without the four seasons. As the earth's orbit for movement of the sun equatorial plane evolution, the earth's axis tilt in orbital, and the earth have changable season all the year round.

In this geological period, the earth with the light of the sun, formed the revolution and rotation around the sun, with the change of day and night.

In the interior of the earth, the earth's core may be the opposite direction of the sun's gravity, not in the center of the earth.

In the earth's crust, as a result of the earth's rotation from the poles to the equator of the centrifugal force; In the sun’s gravity, due to the earth's rotation from west to east, the earth's crust form the movement from east to west, forming the mountain, plateau, gullies depressions and plains.

In the biological world, began to appear explosive resurrection.About the rock, a large number of limestone apeared.

3.2.5 Time of forming the earth-moon system(Mesozoic)This period began with the forming of earth-moon system when the moon was

captured by the earth. The earth enter the time of Mesozoic. The moon rotating around the earth, change the gravitational field and magnetic

field. Under the shaking action of moon gravity, the outer ball of earth spinning, and generated the movement of earth and magnetic pole.

In the nature, all the animals and plants have variation, and forming tall trees and large creatures.3.2.6 Neonatal period(Cenozoic)

This period began with a comet hitting the earth. The earth enter the time of Cenozoic.

The comet cracked in the solar system, and form the asteroid belt around the sun.The compositions of comet are rock, ice and the atmosphere. There are all kinds

of creatures in the ice.During this geological period, the earth increases the water, atmosphere and new

biological species. The original creatures change or evolve.

4. The movement of earth’s inner and outer ball

4.1 Earth’s inner ball movmentThe sun capture the earth, generating the revolution and rotation around the sun.

The earth captured the moon, generating the rotation around the mass center around the moon.

The inner ball and outer ball form the different movement, because of the function of sun and moon.

In different geological period, the earth inside and outside movement are different. Before the earth into the solar system, the inner ball is in the center of the earth, and both the inside and outside ball rotation are the same.

After captured by the sun, earth generated the rotation and revolution, the inside and outside ball have some change about the position and rotating angular velocity.4.1.1 The inner ball or the core not at the center of the earth

Follow the simple simulation test: put a stone in a bottle full of water, rotating around the hand tying a rope. From the fig 4-1, result: the stone of the bottle always inclined to the other side of gravity.

Similarly, the earth revolve around the sun, under the sun attractive force, the ball will incline to the opposite direction of the sun's attractive force, not in the center of the earth.4.1.2 The inner ball or the core rotating faster than outer ball

Due to the inside the ball is not in the center of the earth, it is always in the opposite direction of the sun attractive force, leading to the angular velocity of the ball inside and outside the ball not same, the inner ball rotating fast, outer ball slower, as shown in figure 4-2.

Fig 4-2 The inner ball incline to the opposite direction of sun attractive force太阳引力：sun gravity 地轴：earth axis 内球：inner ball 外球：outer ball

Angular velocityω=V / R v is linear velocity, R is radius.At the A point, the inner ball’s radius is shorter than the distance from A to

earth’s center. Due to the function of angular velocity, inner ball angular velocity is higher than outer ball’s.

4.2 The earth outer ball movementThe earth captured the moon to form the earth-moon system.

4.2.1 The force conditions of earth northern hemisphere and earth southern hemisphere.

The earth revolute in the leaning orbit and rotating around the sun, when the summer solstice comes, the earth's northern hemisphere closer to the sun, the southern hemisphere distance to the sun, as shown in figure 4-3.

Fig 4-3 The distance between the earth poles to the sun 春分：spring equinox 秋分：Autumnal equinox 夏至：Summer solstice 冬至：Winter solstice

From the law of universal gravitation, F=GmM/R2 , planet gravity is directly proportional to the product with the quality of the planet, varies inversely as the square of the distance. During the summer solstice, the sun's gravity of  the southern hemisphere is greater than one of the northern hemisphere; When the winter solstice comes, the sun's gravity of the southern hemisphere is greater than one of the northern hemisphere. When the vernal equinox and autumnal equinox, the sun's gravity of the earth north and south two hemispheres  is equal.4.2.2 Shake of earth

The following movement would lead to the shaking of earth:Earth rotating around mass point of earth-moon, earth’s nutation, earth axis’s

precessional motionResult of shake functionPut the bean on the dustpan, shaking the dustpan, the bean rolling along the

direction of dustpan tilting. As shown in fig 4-4.

Fig 4-4 shaking the dustpan, the bean rolling along the direction of dustpan tiltingDue to the shaking of earth, the outer ball would roll to the direction whose

gravity is higher, the inner ball would roll in the opposite direction of sun gravity, with the same tilting angle. Shown in fig 4-5.

Fig 4-5 Earth’s shake and inner and outer ball’s rotating内球：inner ball 外球：outer ball 黄道面：eclipse plane

The earth outer ball’s rolling make the original pole position move to the direction whose sun’s gravity is higher, and the original earth’s equator change at the same time.

Now of Antarctica local the position that earth outer ball reach to the south pole now. Antarctica coal moves to the present place along with the earth outer ball’s rotation.

The original magnetic pole position changed along with the earth outer ball’s rotation. That is the reason magnetic pole change.

5. The crust movement

5.1 The crust movementThe crust and the rock with similar substances do have some change to a

reference position, that is called the crust movement. The crust is solid earth hard outer layer, and it is made up of all kinds of rocks.The crust and its rock have position change in their process of formation, and

weathering of the earth’s crust and denudation of the rock, and carrying all belong to the earth’s crust movement.

In different geological period, it produces different types of crustal movements, and different types of crustal movements have causes.

5.2 The classification of crust movementTo study the cause of crust movement, we should classify to the crust movement. Due to the different standard and causal theory, crust movement could classify

into lots of types.Table 5-1 Table of crust movement types

standard Crust movement typesThis issue Reference 1、Galactic plane as the reference of the crust movement；2、Ecliptic plane as

the reference of the crust movement； 3、Earth axis as the reference of the

crust movement；4、Geographic coordinates as the reference of the crust

movement； 5、Surface objects as the reference of the crust movement；6、Spherical surface as the reference of the crust movement。

Move

direction

Longitudinal direction(north and south) crust movement；2、latitudinal

direction(west and east) crust movement；3、northeast and southwest

Traditional

classification

direction crust movement；4、northwest and southeast crust movement。Way to move 1、horizontal crust movement；2、vertical crust movement；Move result 1、Flex crust movement；2、fracture crust movement。Geological age 1、Precambrian crustal movement；2、The Paleozoic crustal movements；

3、The Mesozoic crustal movement；4、 recent crustal movement；5、modern crustal movement。

Toponymy+age 1、Fuping crustal movement；2、Luliang crustal movement；3、Jinning

crustal movement；4、caledonian crustal movements；5、Variscan tectonic

movements；6、 Indo-China crustal movement；7、Yanshan crustal

movement；8、Himalayan crustal movements。Source of

force

Inner force crust movement；2、outer force crust movement。Movement

scale

Global crustal movement；2、Regional crustal movement；3、Local crustal

movement。Cause The earthquake crustal movement；2、Volcanic crustal movements；

3、Weathering denudation crustal movement；4、Subsidence crust

movement；5、The sedimentary crustal movements；6、Impact of

meteorolite crustal movement；7、Artificial crustal movement。Depth 1、The surface crust movement；2、Shallow crust movement；3、Deep

crustal movement。Mechanical

properties

1、Compressional crustal movements；2、Extensional crustal movements；3、Shear crustal movements；4、Hybrid mechanical properties crustal

movement。

5.3 Traditional crustal movement theory

5.3.1 The contraction theoryIn the 16th century, Italian astronomer Bruno point that : bending earth strata is

caused by earth's contraction. The earth is like a dried apples, and apple skin contracted and folded when it is dried. This theory believe that the earth was a molten state, due to the heat cooling solidification form the earth's crust. Then the theory developed by the rise of cloud theory. Fig 5-1 is the constructed profile of contraction mechanism.

Fig 5-1 The constructed profile of contraction mechanism.地幔：mantle 地核：core 挤压：extrusion 软弱带：weakness 大洋块：ocean 大陆地块：

continental land5.3.2 Expansion theory

Expansion theory is based on the principle of phase change of material. Basalt is in the lower crust, but peridotite is in the upper mantle. The chemical composition of the two kinds of rock is approximately the same. But the basalt is bigger than peridotite with small density. Two kinds of rock can be mutual transformation, peridotite, formed under high temperature and high pressure, basalt formed under relatively low temperature low pressure. At lower temperature of the earth, peridotite turns into basalt, so the earth's crust increase volume and density smaller. So the theory believe that the earth is not in contraction, but in inflation.

Expansion effect makes the earth's surface produce tensile cracks, mutual extrusion, and the gap between block so that the surface of the earth formed the bending fold and fracture of rock. Because of the earth's heat imbalance as well as the material of each part is not balanced, it will produce the differences between the extrusion and fracture.5.3.3 Equilibrium theory

From the fig 5-2A, Put the same cross section area and the same weight and different density three objects into the liquid, and three pieces of the object in the liquid are in a plane, but the heights above the liquid surface are different, the height of small density one above the liquid surface is higher than dense objects.

From the fig 5-2B, Under the same cross section and the same density, put three pieces of objects of different weights into the liquid, the heavy one is deeper than others, this is the sense of equilibrium in the liquid. Equilibrium theory thinks that the high mountains on the surface of the earth under the weathering become low, denudation off transported to depression deposited (fig5-2C). In order to keep balance, eroding lower place will rise, and accept denudation in low-lying place will drop, so as to keep balance, due to the rise and decline, it causing the earth's crust movement.

Fig 5-2 The constructed profile of Equilibrium theory

5.3.4 Plate tectonics theoryThis theory is now the mainstream of the geological theory, recognized by many

geologists. The predecessor is this theory of continental drift, and it further develop to the seafloor spreading theory, eventually become a plate tectonic theory.

In 1910, German meteorologists Wegener sick in bed, he found  map of the world hanging on the wall, h correspond to outline on both sides of the Atlantic, so he thought the continent of Africa and South America continent in the geological period

used to be together, the Atlantic ocean is formed from  the two continents of continental drift.

Later, Wagner found evidence of continental drift from the paleontological. On correspondent sides of the Atlantic, the continent have the same ancient group of distribution. Before the continental drift theory, some proposed bridge theory to explain the phenomenon of the ancient group of similar or identical.

In addition to the existing ancient land from both sides of the Atlantic on evidence to support continental drift, Wagner found the evidence of continental drift from both sides of the Atlantic land corresponding strata rock and geological structure. From the data collected, it is useful to prove the theory of continental drift.

The glacier data obtained in the ancient glaciology research, also some scholars used to prove that on both sides of the Atlantic continents were once together.

Wegener collected strata, structure and ancient geography, ancient climate, paleontology, etc, systematicly. In 1915, he published the book the origin of the land and sea, and the theory of continental drift was born.

Wegener thought that the earth is only one continent called pangea, the continent is together before Paleozoic carboniferous. Figure 5-3 is Wegener's distribution of land, sea and pangea drift form now.

Fig 5-3 Wegener's distribution of land, sea and pangea drift form now.晚石炭纪：Carboniferous 中第三纪：Mid-Tertiary 早第四纪：Early-Quaternary

Then someone put forward some different ideas with Wagner, thought that the original earth have two old continent, the one in the northern hemisphere is called the Laurasia , the one in the southern hemisphere is called gondwana, as shown in figure 5-4.

Fig 5-4 Theory of continental drift divided both old continent by north and south劳亚古陆：Laurasia land 古地中海地槽：Tethys geosynclines 岗瓦纳古陆：Duty land

The direction of the continental drift is from the equator to the west. Drift to the

equator is due to the earth's rotation of the centrifugal effect. What is the source of continent westward drift force, Wegener thought it is the tidal friction force produced by the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon. Earth's rotation speed is slow due to tidal friction, the most obvious slowing performance is to the earth's surface, so as to make the earth's surface, especially  the continent above sea level,it has tend of lag to the earth rotating from west to east, resulting in continent slowly westward drifting. But geophysicists calculate that the earth's rotation centrifugal force is the biggest at latitude 45 °, and it is about one over three million of the gravity, and tidal friction is also quite limited. So the geophysicists think the above two kinds of force is too small, not enough to push continent to do such a long drift. Theory of continental drift gradually depressed.

In 1950s, the ancient geomagnetic theory began to rise. By paleomagnetic study, depicts the ancient geomagnetic pole on the earth's orbit, figure 5-5 are two pole migration path respectively measured according to continental Europe and North America rocks .

Fig 5-5 Paleomagnetic migrationStudy of paleomagnetism, proved that in geological history period the mainland

turned out to be connected together. Unless it is proved that terrestrial magnetic pole change is not because of continental drift.

As with the development of ocean survey, We have a summarized understanding on the ocean floor topography and geologic. In the middle of the Atlantic areas exist a Atlantic ridge throughout north and south; In the Indian Ocean. A Chinese characters "ren" glyph of ocean ridge exists; Lots of ocean trench exist around the Pacific Ocean, the ocean ridge and plateau are in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.

On ocean ridge, especially on the Atlantic ridge, there is a ridge rift valley, high heat flow value in the rift valley. In the rift valley are symmetrical on both sides of the sediment age, the farther away they are, the older they are. The strike-slip fault exists in the mid-ocean ridge, scholars called this fault the ocean plate transform fault.

Dietz, in 1961,first put forward the idea "sea-flood spreading" in the British journal 'Nature'. In this view, the Atlantic ocean is from the mid-Atlantic ridge outward expansion. The outputting mantle magma in the rift valley of mid-ocean ridge, push both sides of the ocean to expand. Figure 5-6 is the Atlantic ridge expansion mechanism schematic diagram. Figure 5-7 is the schematic diagram of continental subduction of oceanic front basin.

Fig 5-6 the Atlantic ridge expansion mechanism schematic diagram大洋中脊：Ocean mid-ridge 海沟：trench 岩石圈：lithosphere 软流圈：asthenosphere 非洲：

Africa 南美洲：South America 大西洋：Atlantic Ocean

Fig 5-7 The schematic diagram of continental subduction of oceanic front basin.大洋盆地：oceanic basin 大陆碰撞边缘：edge of continent collision 大洋尾部：tail of oceanIn June 1968, Le Pichon, on the basis of predecessors' work,divided global

continent into six major parts (see figure 5-8). At this moment, the plate tectonic theory has been forming. The source of driving force from the plate tectonic theory is not the same with one of the theory of continental drift. Plate tectonics theory believed that the mantle thermal convection drive plate movement. Ocean floor formed at the mid-ocean ridge, and then expanding in both sides. At last when it touched the continental plate and subducted to the mantle asthenosphere, it melt there.

Fig 5-8 Plate tectonics theory divided the earth into six large plates欧亚板块：Eurasian plate 非洲板块：Africa plate 太平洋板块：Pacific plate 印度板块：Indian

plate 美洲板块： America plate 南极洲板块： Antarctic plate

The problems and errors of plate tectonicsProblems and errors 1:

The so-called ancient land does not existPlate theory about ancient land has two views: one is now continent on earth was

together, called pangea, see from fig 5-9; the second one is that continent on the planet now originally divided into two continents, called Laurasia in the northern hemisphere, in the southern hemisphere is called gondwana, see from fig 5-10.

Then continental drift and seafloor spreading happened, they built the continental and ocean distribution pattern, see from fig 5-11 and fig 5-12.

Fig 5-9 Paleozoic of pangea Fig 5-10 The two old continent

Fig 5-11 The Mesozoic land distribution map fig 5-12 Cenozoic land distribution map

泛古陆： Pangea 劳亚古陆：Laurasia land 古地中海地槽：Tethys geosynclines 岗瓦纳古陆：Duty land欧洲：Europe 亚洲：Asia 非洲：Africa 印度：India 南美洲：South America 北美洲：North America 南极洲： Antarctica 澳大利亚：Australia

Due to the comparison of the above map, The so-called ancient land from ancient to now, is the continent, its overall area did not change, just from large to small, and the position changed.

In terms of Chinese mainland, the field geological investigation proved that the different geological period from Paleozoic to Mesozoic, in different areas there are many kinds of limestone formed by Marine sedimentary. Plate tectonics agreed that the Chinese mainland located in the Eurasian plate is an ancient land from ancient to now.

Around the world each geological period, there are all kinds of limestone and Marine fossils formed by Marine sedimentary.

Field geological facts proved that the view of plate theory is wrong, the so-called ancient land does not exist.Problems and errors 2:

Where is the original crust?Fig 5-13 is the dissolution of the plate tectonics map of plate growth. The

Atlantic ocean and the Indian Ocean are spread out on both sides. In the south of

Atlantic ocean, the Atlantic ocean expand from the ridge to the east by more than 3000 kilometers, because of the Atlantic ocean 6000 km in width. The Indian Ocean expand to the west more than 3000 km. Total of them are more than 6000 km, where is this crust more than 6000 km in wide?

Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean expansion to south, make the Antarctic plate move to the South Pole position now, so where did the original Antarctica crust go to?

Fig 5-13 the dissolution of the plate tectonics map of plate growth欧亚板块：Eurasian plate 非洲板块：Africa plate 太平洋板块：Pacific plate 印度板块：Indian

plate 美洲板块： America plate 南极洲板块： Antarctic plateProblems and errors 3

How to explain the contradiction of the ridge expansion direction and the plate collision direction?

Fig 5-14 is the ocean ridge distribution and morphology

Fig 5-14 Ocean ridge distribution and morphology太平洋：Pacific Ocean 大西洋：Atlantic Ocean 印度洋：Indian Ocean 青藏高原：Tibet

Plateau

India Ocean ridge "into" Chinese character word, north ridge for the north and

south, and there are two secondary north-south ridge parallel distributed, the ocean expand from the side of ridge, and the northern Indian Ocean expand to the east-west.

So, why would the Indian Ocean plate collide with the Eurasian plate? How to form the qinghai-tibet plateau uplift?Problems and errors 4:

How to explain the misfit of the submarine topography and seafloor spreading?The point of the plate tectonics is that oceanic crust is made up of mid-ocean

ridge expansion in both sides. The formed ocean ridge terrain would not disappear, as the ocean ridge expand at the two side to move to each side. In this theory, the ocean floor terrain should be full of the ridge.

By the fig 5-14, it is clearly indicate that the mid-ocean ridge is located in the middle of the ocean, and two side of ridge are ocean basin. Ocean terrain denied the plate tectonics.Problems and errors 5:

How did the intersection of the two mid-ocean ridge expand?Mid-Atlantic ridge and mid-Indian ridge contact with pattern “ ”, the direction⊥

of two ocean ridge expansion is “withstand”. How to expand to the outside?

Fig 5-15 the direction of two ocean ridge expansion is “withstand”Problems and errors 6:

How to explain the contradictions between the earthquake cause and epicenter distribution?

Theory of plate tectonic earthquake is considered to the plate collision when the elastic rebound. We do the elastic steel deformation test to prove it, as shown in figure 5-16.

Fig 5-16 elastic rebound earthquake causeA-钢片受力变形，产生断开震动：Mechanical deformation of the steel, disconnect occurred

B-推测地层受力变形，产生地震：Layer stress deformation, earthquake occurred

When elastic deformation occurred after the elastic force on both ends of the steel, elastic strain energy accumulation, when the bending deformation of the steel reaches the limit, will suddenly disconnected, and on both sides of the sheet steel to bending deformation in the opposite direction of the rapid rebound, respectively, in the process of back to release the original accumulated energy and generate elastic wave.

Figure 5-17 is the world's earthquake epicenter distribution, in the southern Atlantic ocean, Indian Ocean and the southern Pacific Ocean ridge is a seismic zone, but plate tectonic believes these mid-ocean ridge is the birth place of sea-floor expansion, it is tensional. Earthquake causes and the epicenter distribution of plate tectonics is contradictory with the mid-ocean ridge expansion.

Fig 5-17 World earthquake epicenter distributionFig 5-18 is earthquake magnitude stronger than 6 epicenter distribution in China.

How did those earthquakes happen in the plate?

Fig 5-18 earthquake magnitude stronger than 6 epicenter distribution in ChinaIn July 28st, 1976, an earthquake occurred in Tangshan, whose magnitude is 7.8,

the epicenter depth is 12 km. Tangshan is apart from western Pacific subduction zone which is in the plate tectonics nearly more than 2000 kilometers. The epicenter is almost on a level with Japanese thousand-island profile projection. See from the fig 5-19, how could the pacific continent pitch down to the Tangshan ?

Fig 5-19 Profiles of Tangshan earthquake epicenter and Japanese thousands-islands Problems and errors 7:

There are two trenches in the floor of the Atlantic, how to explain this?The Puerto Rico trench in Atlantic ocean : the deepest is 9219 meters, located in

the north Atlantic ocean, 9218 kilometers north of Puerto Rico, long approximately 1550 kilometers, the average width is 120 km.

The new Hebrides trench in Atlantic ocean: the deepest is 9174 meters, located in vanuatu (new Hebrides islands) and the edges of the coral sea between new Caledonia. About 1200 kilometers long, with an average width is 70 km.

Plate tectonics purpose that oceanic plate was generated from the mid-ocean ridge, and then expand to the both sides, pitch down the continental plate in the trench

and disappeared.The western Atlantic divided into American plate with North America, South

America by a mid-atlantic ridge. How to explain the two trenches of the Atlantic Ocean? Problems and errors 8:

How do the intersection of two ocean mid-ridge convect?The mobile mechanism of the plate tectonics is thermal convection. See from 5-

20.

Fig 5-20 The convection mechanism of plate tectonic火山孤岛：Volcano islet 海沟：trench 洋中脊：ocean mid-ridge 大洋：ocean 地幔：mantle

对流图：convection pictureWe can paint the convection mechanism in a mid-ocean ridge, but what is the

convection mechanism in the intersection of two mid-ocean ridges? Fig 5-21 is the two ridge intersection between the Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean.

Fig 5-21 the two ridge intersection between the Atlantic Ocean and Indian OceanPlate tectonics explain the heat source of convection come from radioactive

decay heat. But the problem is that : where did those radioactive elements come from? Now the found radioactive element deposit is high radioactive elements of rock, the rock is solid. Besides, if the heat that radioactive decay produced make the magma convection those elements would stay in the magma, and the magma erupt out should have those elements. But we didn’t see such reports.

Problems and errors 9:If we put the distorted mainland straight, could they splice together?Fig 5-22 and fig 5-23 are the photos of upright Qinghai-tibet plateau layer. Fig 5-

24 is the photo of distorted Qinghai-tibet plateau layer.Plate tectonic thinks now of the continents can splice together, so that the

mainland once together. The continental strata had been bending, tilting and upright. If the bending, tilted vertical layers even were unbend, continental shape changed, they could not stitch together.

Fig 5-22 Qingzang Yanshiping area tilting layers fig 5-23 Qingzang Yanshiping area vertical layers

Fig 5-24 Qingzang Yanshiping area bending layers

Problems and errors 10:How did those oceans and continents generate before the Paleozoic?This theory argue that before the Paleozoic, the crust on the earth is together,

with the plates movement, the mid-ocean ridge formed between two plates, and it expand to both sides, forming the oceanic crust.The question is :

How did those ocean and continent form?Conclusion:The views of plate tectonic are unconformity with the facts, and they are wrong.

5.3.5 Geological mechanicsThe theory is a set of geological tectonics summed up by Li Siguang through

observation of field geological tectonic phenomena, and indoor simulated mechanics test. Occurred in the geological period of the crustal movement in geological strata have left corresponding traces. All the variants of geological body or tectonic movement are formed under the action of force.

Geological mechanics called the tectonic system as a combination of geological and geological structure which have genetic relationships. In the world, they were divided into three types of tectonic system: latitudinal tectonic system, longitude tectonic system, shear tectonic systems.

Sometimes, we called some appearances of geological body and geological structure or unique characteristics as tectonic pattern in geological mechanics.

Such as “山” pattern, “多”pattern, “入” pattern, board type format, those tectonic pattern are straight shear tectonic system. There is also a bending tectonic

system in the geological mechanics, such as brush structure, “S” type structure, “歹” type structure, turbine or radial type structure and lotus flower structure, etc.

In order to prove that the structure of the crust, the geological mechanics do a lot of simulation test.

There are lots of structures existing as “ 山 ” type. Fig 5-25 is “ 山 ” type structures.

Fig 5-25 “山” type structures.褶皱：fold 挤压带：extrusion 冲断层：thrust fault 扭断层：wrench fault 张断层：tension

fault 主压应力方向：stress direction of main pressure 扭旋方向： screwing directionFig 5-26 is geological mechanics using bending beam to do a structure of

“山”type. Fig 5-27 is distribution of stress path of bending beam.

Fig 5-26 geological mechanics using bending beam to do a structure of “山”type

Fig 5-27 distribution of stress path of bending beam

Geological mechanics use the plastic clay to do the geological tectonic pattern simulation test. Compared the clay’s formation of test with the geological tectonic pattern, they are basically the same. Fig 5-28 is a set of photos of tectonic pattern made by clay in geological mechanics.

Fig 5-28 a set of photos of clay test

Due to the geological history period is a very long. To apply a directional force to a geological body, while this force is not big, but with the time going, this force,

which is too small to calculate, would have a great power of geological force. It would give rise to the layers and rock strata deforming and breaking, that would cause earthquakes and volcanic activity, etc.

About the power source of crustal movement, the geological mechanics point out that the earth's rotation speed fast and slow lead to the earth's crust longitude and latitude pressure, then cause the crustal movement. As the earth's rotation speed up, the earth's rotation centrifugal force increased, the poles of material sliding towards the equator, the earth flat degree increase. Some of the heavier substances in the earth could flow to the upper crust with the forming of tectonic system and , it makes the earth's mass distribution change, earth’s inertia moments increases, coupled with the external effect of sliding friction and tidal friction etc. It is like the car braking, which make the earth’s rotation slow down. Then the heavier substances gradually infiltrate to the deep crust under the gravity, it makes the quality of the earth being together again, the rotation speed of earth is fast and fast again. The earth rotated fast and slow, to put the crust move continuously, and make the tectonic system generating. 5.3.6 Inset crust theory and Fault block tectonics

In 1962, Zhang Bosheng proposed the inset crust theory. The theory believe: the crust is made up of level setting with level, large and small structural belt or surface segmentation of land or rock. These different levels block inset together. The hole crust divided into three mainland, which are the Pacific mainland, north mainland, Gondwana mainland. In the three big mainland, and they can be divided into large and small level of different shades and different patches. The big block inset with the small one, and they formed a completed crust. The each size and level of land has its own development and evolution history. For the power source of insetting block, it is same as geological mechanics, being relative with earth’s rotation speed.

On the earth's crust there are all kinds of faults, some of these fracture scale is large and deep to the ground; Some fracture have the relatively small size, depth to the ground is shallow. These fractures have their own development and the formation process. These fractures cut crust into different depth, different size, different blocks in the process of development, from the direction of the horizontal and vertical directions. Zhang Wenyou proposed the fault block tectonics theory due to this phenomenon. 5.3.7 Other geosciences

For these geosciences not or rarely illustrating the mechanical sources of crustal movement, we only briefly talk about here.

There are hundreds and thousands meters sedimentary rocks in some areas of the crust. Some of them are like a long belt with large area. Most of these areas then folded and formed mountains, belong to the activity zone depressing before uplift. Some scholars have called such a zone as geosyncline. Other areas on earth that are in denudation, and the block whose performance is relatively stable for a long time were

called platform. Geosyncline and platform formation has its own development, in different stages have different ways of activities, and they also can be converted to each other. For instance, Huang Jiqing point out that: Geosyncline and platform are generally experienced a polycyclic development process from the quantitative to qualitative changes, polycycle theory is proposed. The crust on the relative activity area that the geosynclinal area turn into a relatively stable polycycle, only to achieve relatively stable, and not the earth's crust at the end of the form and development stage, it can also be converted into new regions. Chen Guoda called this area as the geodepression region,and put forward the geodepression theory.

5.4 The cause of crustal movement in this issueThis issue is based on different reference standard divided into 6 types of crustal

movement.

1、Galactic plane as the reference of the crust movement；2、Ecliptic plane as

the reference of the crust movement ； 3 、 Earth axis as the reference of the crust

movement ； 4 、 Geographic coordinates as the reference of the crust movement ； 5、Surface objects as the reference of the crust movement；6、Spherical surface as

the reference of the crust movement。Different types of crustal movement have its different power source, causes, the

movement result. All are described as follows.5.4.1 Galactic plane as the reference of the crust movement and its cause

This kind of crustal movement is that crust and its rocks change as the reference of galactic plane position. This kind of crustal movement is caused by global change of the land and sea.

After the earth formed, in addition to the meteorite landing, the earth's solid matter basicly remains the same, that is to say, there is place on the earth's crust uplift, some place has to concave. Global sea and land change is not solid crust largely change, but a global sea change.

The earth's northern hemisphere slightly pointed outward, southern hemisphere is inward concave,  the north pole 19 meters higer above the sphere, south pole  26 meters shorter below the sphere, north and south poles differ for 45 meters, looking at the earth from the equator direction, it is like the shape of a "pear".

The north pole which is above to the sphere is the Arctic Ocean covered with sea water, but the south pole below to the sphere is the Antarctic which is land. The highest peak of Antarctica is Vinson, at an altitude of 4897 meters. Prove that the arctic sea level is higher than the South Pole almost 5000 meters.

There are several global transgressive-regressive happened in geohistory, In transgressive, it formed the transgressive sedimentary, limestone and marine animal

fossils. In regressive, it formed the regressive sedimentary, coal, and terrestrial animal and plant fossils.

The above two phenomena is due to the rotation of the earth around the galactic center of the galaxy.

The earth's rotation, due to the moon and the sun's gravity, form the tides. The earth's surface water is higher in the place gravity large.

The arctic water in the earth is higher than bulge at the South Pole, suggests the earth's North Pole exist the gravity. In the earth-moon system,the solar system, through the earth's rotation and revolution, the arctic water still bulge , suggest that the gravity of the earth's North Pole is nothing to do with the solar system and earth-moon system.

The earth not only revolves round the sun, but also revolves around the Milky Way silver heart, and orbital period is of 250 million years (?).The angle between the earth's axis and the galactic plane is 27 ° 24 '(?).

Due to the earth's axis tilted(the earth's axis tilted in the ecliptic plane, whose Angle is 66 ° 34 ', an Angle between the earth's equator plate and the ecliptic plate is 23 ° 26 '), The earth rotates around the sun, in the summer solstice, the earth's northern hemisphere is close to the sun, stress more gravity of the sun. When the winter solstice, the southern hemisphere stress more sun's gravity, cause the earth's outer ball rotating.

Similarly, because of the earth's axis tilt in the galactic plane around the galactic center orbit, in the summer solstice of the galactic surface, the earth's north pole stess more gravity of galactic heart, which make the earth's water level of north pole higher than the South Pole. In the winter solstice of the galactic plane position, the earth's South Pole stress more gravity of galactic heart, which make the earth's water level of south pole higher than the north Pole. When the earth is on the position of the vernal equinox and autumnal equinox of the galactic plane, the earth's equator position stress the gravity of the galactic heart, the sun and the moon together, which make the water level higher. This kind of change of the earth's water, forming a global sea and land changes, the cycle is determined by the period of revolution of the earth around the galactic heart. Global sea and land change in the arctic and Antarctic cycle is for 250 million (?) In other parts of the global sea and land change cycle is for 125 million (?).

Global sea and land change direction of transgressive-regressive is for the north-south direction. Its direction would change influenced by land.

The depth of global sea and land change, according to the difference of the earth now the Antarctic and arctic sea plane with spherical surface, is up to 5000 meters.

At present, the distance from the sun to the galactic center is approximate,the period of the sun revolves around the galactic heart is approximate. Therefore, global sea and land change cycle is approximate.

the angle between the earth's axis and the galactic plane is 27 ° 24 ' which is calculated from the celestial sphere, that is artifical ball make the earth as the center, galactic heart is the center in the Milky Way system, the sun rotates around the galactic heart, and earth rotates around the galactic heart as with the sun. Therefore the angle between the earth axis and galactic plane is 27 ° 24 ' which is approximate.

This type of crustal movement is that the galactic heart captured the sun goes around it. 5.4.2 Ecliptic plane as the reference of the crust movement and its cause

The earth's orbit around the sun is called the ecliptic plane. This kind of crustal movement is that crust and its rocks change as the reference of ecliptic plane position.

This kind of crustal movement divided into three parts: the first is, the crust change as the reference of ecliptic plane in the earth’s rotation; the second is, the crust change as the reference of ecliptic plane in the earth’s revolution; the third is, the crust change as the reference of ecliptic plane when the earth axis tilt angle change.

This kind of crustal movement causes day and night, seasons, and climate change, causes the change of the gravity field of the earth, the sun, the moon and other types of crustal movement.

The cause of this kind of crustal movement is caused by the origin and evolution of the solar system5.4.3 Earth axis as the reference of the crust movement and its cause

The crust and its rock movement change as the reference of the earth axis, and its scale is just inferior to the second category crustal movement, that cause the displacement of the earth pole and magnetic pole.

Changes relative to the earth's axis, that is, the earth's pole shifted. This type of crustal movement, cause the earth's crust and  the geographical coordinates change, also cause the change of seasons and climate, break the balance of gravity in earth-sun, and earth-moon .

The cause of this kind of crustal movement:Layered earth is formed under the gravity of the sun and the moon, when the

earth outer ball rotated.5.4.4 Geographic coordinates as the reference of the crust movement and its cause

The crust and its rocks change as the reference of geographic coordinates, and this crustal movement caused the large scale of the earth's crust uplift and depression sedimentation, form the mountain, plateau, plains, basins, formed from majestic mountains and valleys.

This kind of crustal movement of basically has the following four kinds of power sources:

First , Water and wind erosion and transport and depositionThis geological process not only formed the different size scale of the earth's

crust movement, and the formation of the sediments and sedimentary rocks are the

base of the mountain, plateau.Water erosion and transport and deposition Water erosion and transport and deposition are divided into two parts: one is the

geologic process of ocean current, and the other is the geologic process of rivers. Ocean currents can be long-distance transport materials such as gravel and

sediment, forming large areas of sediments and sedimentary rocks.The geologic process of rivers depend on its length to see its handing distance,

and depend on its elevation difference and flow to form the denudation and handing strength. Water erosion and transportation can make mountain and plateau into valleys and the ground; from low-lying to land; form a large area of river delta deposits.

Crustal movement formed by water erosion and transport and deposition, reduces the relative height of the mountains of the crust, high filling depression, balance the earth's crust.

The wind erosion and transport and depositionThe characteristics of the wind erosion and transport and deposition:Wind erosion occurs in larid regions without raining, not only denudate to the

plateau, but also to the valleys depressions.The transportation of the wind, have different handing distance, the close one

just leave the denudation in situ, the far one can amount to tens of thousands of kilometers. Its sedimentary area size, can reach several million square kilometers.

The deposition of the wind, can on the ground, can be in waters; Can be in depressions and plain, in the mountain and plateau; Peneplain sedimentary formation, which will also be able to deposit formation of mountains.

The Taklamakan desert in Tarim basin are sand dunes and small sand peak terrain, a Alxa plateau in Inner Mongolia , the Badain Jaran desert is sand hill terrain. (fig 5-13)

Fig 5-13 the photo of the Badain Jaran desertIn the Badain Jaran desert, there are many sizes of haizi (lake), some of these

haizi is for salt water some for  fresh water,there are fish and other organisms in the water.

Eolian topography is easy to change and migration.

Aeolian deposits, can form the occurrence of high dip angle of clastic rock, sedimentary fold structure can be formed.

Wind deposition can happen with the river, lake and sea water deposits at the same time or alternately.

The second, The centrifugal force from the poles to the equator due to the earth's rotation 

About crustal substances under the action of centrifugal force of earth rotation moving in the direction of the earth's equator experiment, geological mechanics simulation test have been done to prove

The third, In the sun and the moon's gravity, the earth rotates from west to east, crustal blocks having different quality move from east to west and have speed difference.

Without other planet gravity, in all parts of the earth's crust substances do uniform circular motion with the earth's rotation. Under the sun and the moon's gravity, because all parts of the earth's crust material uneven, move along the latitudinal velocity difference, form the extrusion and separation.

Lift a basin of water, add different substances, rotating the basin, some of these lumps crowd together, or separate, like the fig 5-14.

Crust on the large area or small area of the substances is uneven. On the large area, there are Eurasian land, Africa, north and South America, Antarctica in the land, ocean with the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic ocean and the arctic ocean and so on several big block. These large blocks are different in material composition, size, geometry, location, quality, structure, etc. The big block contains numerous small areas. The block on the crust, the sun, the moon's gravity is different, when the earth is rotating, their movement speeds are different. Because the earth rotates from west to east, the crust's blocks generate the relative movement  from east to west.

Fig 5-14 Blocks rotating in the basin The forth, Different rocks have different physical properties, and different

deformationDifferent rocks have different physical properties, under the action of force,

formed different geological structure.(1), Sedimentary rock

Rocks are divided into: clastic rock, clay stone, chemical and biological chemical rocks

It is layer state, interlayer sliding resistance is strong, especially the clay rock class, chemical and biological chemical rocks, in water lubrication between the lower sliding resistance make it stronger. and it is more flexible, plastic than volcanic rocks.

Under extrusion pressure, the action of bending deformation and interlayer sliding happened,  form the fold structure. When extrusion effect is further, it causes dislocation and faulted structure.(2), magmatic rock

Rocks are divided into: Intrusive rock and extrusive rock (also called volcanic rock).

Volcanic rocks include two types: volcanic lava and volcanic clastic rock. Lava types are: kimberlite, basalt, andesite, rhyolite, glassy lava, trachyte, accomplished rock. Basalt is the most widely distributed in the nature of the lava, in the first place of extrusive rock .The rigidity and brittleness of the rock is strong. Under the effect of extrusion prone to rupture, and formed faulted structure.

In different period, under the action of force, geological structures the rocks formed are different

Crustal movement extrudes to today with rock formation, in different periods rock formed, the same force on the rock, it would form different geological structure. At the beginning of the rock formation, under the action of force, it is easy to form bending deformation. After consolidation, the rock under the action of force, it is easy to form the faulting and deformation.5.4.5 Surface objects as the reference of the crust movement and its cause

The crust move as the reference of surface objects, the relative movement distance of crust’s rocks is small, it belongs small range’s crustal movement. In addition to a wide range of crustal movement can cause this kind of crustal movement, earthquakes, volcanoes, collapse, meteorite impacts, biological activities and so on can cause this kind of crustal movement.5.4.6 Spherical surface as the reference of the crust movement and its cause

This kind of crustal movement is based on spherical earth reference and change of the crust and the position of the crustal substance, the five front the crustal movements can cause this kind of crustal movement.

6. Earthquakes and avoid earthquake

6.1 EarthquakeAny place within the earth quickly shaking called earthquake.

On July 28, 1976, 7.8 -magnitude earthquake in Tangshan, China, killed nearly 250000 people. On May 12, 2008, 8.0 -magnitude earthquake in Wenchuan, China, killed nearly 100000 people. On April 14, 2010,  7.1 -magnitude earthquake in yushu, China, killed more than 2000 people. These earthquakes caused huge casualties and property loss to people.6.1.1 The classification of earthquake

Traditional view will be divided into the following four types of the earthquake: Tectonic earthquakeTectonic movement of lithospheric deformation suddenly fracture which caused

the earthquake, that referred to as a tectonic earthquake. Tectonic earthquake is the highest number of earthquake in the earth, about accounted for over 90% of the total number of earthquakes. Its characteristics are big power, wide influence, the most intense destruction of the ground and buildings, and it often causes lives and property heavy losses. This kind of earthquake activity is frequently, distribution widespread, long duration, has caused the most disasters.

Tectonic earthquakes seldom occur in isolation, in a region of a certain period they tend to be stable in a series of earthquakes, called the earthquake sequence. In the earthquake sequence, one of the most intense earthquake known as the main shock, before the main shock of a series of earthquakes is called foreshocks, main shock after a series of earthquake known as the aftershocks.

The volcanic earthquakeRefers to the earthquake caused by volcanic activity. This kind of earthquake can

be directly caused by a volcanic eruption, also may be caused by volcanic activity structure changes, resulting in the earthquake. Therefore, tectonic earthquakes and volcanic earthquakes often have close ties. This kind of earthquake are of is hallow-focus earthquake, characterized by a small magnitude, small earthquake intensity, and influence scope is small, rarely cause big loss, accounting for 7% of total global earthquake.

Collapse earthquakeRefer to ground subsidence and steep cliff rock collapse suddenly fall as a result

of the earthquake. This kind of smaller magnitude earthquake, its scope is also small, destructive is not big, accounting for 3% of the total number of earthquake.

Induced earthquakeIt refers to that because of the artificial explosion, reservoirs, deep well injection

and mining of the human production activities caused artificial induced earthquake. When the human factor induces stress of the underground rock savings beyond a certain limit, sudden release was formed in earthquake. This kind of earthquake generally is difficult to cause great harm.

This issue divided earthquake into two categories:Internal force (or internal cause) earthquakes

It refers to that earthquake caused by force produced by the earth's interior activities is called the internal forces, such as the traditional classification of tectonic earthquake, volcano earthquake.

The external force (or external) earthquakeIt refers to that the earthquake caused by the force produced by the earth's

external activities is called the external force, such as traditional classification of collapse earthquake induced earthquake, meteorite landing in earthquake.6.1.2 earthquake’s characteristics

Time of earthquakes Through the seismograph records, there are more than 5 millions earthquakes on

the earth each year. See from the table 7-1. Table 7-1 Earthquake magnitude and frequency statistics

Earthquake magnitude

8.0-8.9 7.0-7.9 6.0-6.9 5.0-5.9 4.0-4.9 3.0-3.9 2.5-2.9 <2.5

Times of earthquake

1 18 120 800 6.200 49.000 100.000 4.850.00

The epicenter distributionOn the earth, most of the earthquake haopened on the ocean ridge and

ocean edge and strong bending zone of land mountains.Focal depthMost Earthquakes occurred in the 5-20 km underground of the earth's crust,

some of the earthquake focal depth can reach more than 700 kilometers underground.Change before the earthquake Before the earthquake, there are some abnormal changes in natural phenomenon,

these changes has internal relations with earthquakes, also called earthquake precursors.

Earthquake precursors are: (1) The magnetic field intensity and magnetic declination change in local anomalies; (2) The ground occurs up and down, horizontal displacement and tilt; (3) The current value or any natural potential anomalies between two points; (4) Abnormity in water level, water taste, color, clear-mixing degree, air bubble, and so on; (5) Some animals anomalies reflect; (6) Appear to sound, sound is varied, such as the muffled thunder, wind roar, rock burst, etc, shortly after that the earthquake will happen; (7) Before and after the earthquake, especially the moment before the earthquake, the earthquake often produce luminescence over the region.

Change after the earthquake The ground cracks, cause depression in the ground, cause the ground elevation,

caused by the tsunami, caused landslides, caused building collapsed houses, etc.

6.2 Earthquake genesis theory

6.2.1 Traditional theory of earthquake genesisAbout the cause of tectonic earthquake, at present more popular is the result of

the tectonic plates elastic rebound said. Use the elastic deformation of the steel as an example.

A- Mechanical deformation of the steel, the disconnect cause shaking. B - pressure caused deformation, earthquake occured.

Fig 6-1 Elastic rebound seismic genesis schematic diagramWhen elastic deformation occurred after the elastic force on both ends of the

steel, elastic strain energy accumulation, when steel bending deformation reaches the limit, will suddenly disconnected, and on both sides of the sheet steel bend in the opposite direction of the rapid rebound, respectively, in the process of back to release the original accumulated energy and generate elastic wave. Similarly, the earth's crust or lithosphere is also a flexible rigid material, under the action of tectonic stress produced by tectonic movement, also can produce elastic strain, and accumulated a large amount of strain energy, when the stress is gradually increased to more than the ultimate strength of the rock, the rock suddenly break or make originally existing faults in the crust broke again suddenly, fracture rock on either side of the recovery in the form of elastic rebound deformation, and release a great deal of strain can produce earthquakes. Elastic rebound, the root cause of the earthquake in 1910 by the American scholar Michael Redd, the hypothesis is not only has been demonstrated in the laboratory, and conform to the field of earthquake deformation measurement results, and universally recognized. But some people think that this theory can only explain shallow earthquake, can not explain, in the deep source earthquake, where the rock under high temperature and high pressure, plasticity, fracture and elastic rebound may not happen. In 1960s, the lithosphere plate tectonic theory is raised, the medium and deep source earthquake obtained reasonable explanation of the cause of this problem.

The problems are:(1) Force disconnect and rebound of the steel, this is a single laboratory test

results of the steel, if there is a non rigid material in clip on both sides of the steel, steel elastic rebound cannot occur. All the surrounding geological body is other geological body, elastic rebound earthquake genesis theory is not accord with the objective existence of the geological body.

(2) Earthquake took place at a certain point, the point pattern. If it is a plate

tectonic extrusion, should be a line or plane.(3) Based on the theory of plate tectonic theory, oceanic plate form in mid-ocean

ridge and expand outward , then dive in the continental plate and display. According to the theory of extrusion collision happened just in contact with two plates, the earthquake also can occur in this area, so it can't explain that the earthquake occur in the plate.6.2.2 High pressure reservoir

This geological space with high pressure molten lava and the gas and liquid is called high pressure reservoir.

There are high temperature and high pressure molten magma gas and liquid in the earth. By a volcanic eruption, the inside of the earth exist the  high temperature and high pressure molten magma and gas with liquid.

There is a lot of space in earth.  Especially in the earth's crust, there is a lot of space.Formation of the high pressure reservoirHigh pressure molten magma and gas with liquid go into the space of earth form

high pressure reservoir.6.2.3 The type of the high pressure reservoir

According to different standards, it could be divided into many types. See from the table 6-1.Table 6-1 table of the type of high pressure reservoir

Classified basis Type of high pressure reservoir

Space cause Joint high pressure reservoir, fault of high pressure reservoir, fold high pressure

reservoir, deposition pressure reservoir, reservoir pressure dissolution, weathering

crust high pressure reservoir, shrinkage cracking of high pressure reservoir.

Component Molten magma high pressure reservoir，Non combustible high pressure

reservoir，High pressure gas reservoir，Water high pressure reservoir，Oil high

pressure reservoir，Hybrid high pressure reservoir。Quality Single high pressure reservoir，Combined high pressure reservoir。Distribution Horizontal combined high pressure reservoir，Upper and lower combined high

pressure reservoir，Inclined combined high pressure reservoir。Size Extra large type high pressure reservoir，Large high pressure reservoir，Medium

high pressure reservoir。Small high pressure reservoir

Depth Shallow high pressure reservoir，Middle shallow high pressure reservoir，Middle

deep high pressure reservoir，Deep high pressure reservoir。The interior of the earth, especially in the earth's crust, as a result of faulting,

folding, sedimentation, and lava, many geological spaces can be formed. Fig 6-2 is faulting formed by  up and down combination of geological space

Fig 6-2 Faulting formed by up and down combination of geological space断层：fault 空间间隔：space interval 空间：space

The interior of the earth's liquid molten body and high pressure along the fracture, would be the geological space form high pressure reservoir, under the effect of high pressure, the interlayer space or space of surrounding rock of pop and the knock-on effect occurs, see from the fig 6-3, formed the interior earthquake.

Fig 6-3 Schematic diagram of space of high-pressure reservoir interlayer pop-up form earthquake空间隔层弹起：space interlayer upspring 高压藏：high pressure reservoir 气液体：gas-liquid

bodyOn June 23, 2014 CCTV news broadcast: Tianhe ii for the earthquake simulation

research, the result is a collection of high pressure surrounding rock elastic deformation to form an earthquake. Figure 6-4, 6-5 is a CCTV video.

Fig 6-4 CCTV screen screenshots

Fig 6-5 CCTV screen screenshots

6.3 Internal force (or internal) earthquake predictionThat high pressure reservoir occuring elastic deformation or the impact of

surrounding rock formed the internal force of the earthquake.

6.4 Avoid earthquake In this paper, it is to point to by artificial measures to relieve earthquake hazards,

prevent the earthquake happened, rather than after the earthquake disaster relief. Avoiding earthquake method is: in the high pressure area drilling, drilling hidden deep in high pressure reservoir, see from fig 6-6. lead the high pressure gas drilling liquid through the ground to release or to take advantage of.

Fig 6-6 Drilling to release high pressure gas liquid 空间隔层：space interlayer 空间：space 钻孔：drill 高压熔断气液体：high pressure fusing gas-liquid body 断层：fault

6.5 Earthquake causes validationTo judge whether this earthquake causes is right, we can choose the epicenter of

the earthquake, hit a borehole to verified.

7. Volcano Humans have saw the spectacle of volcanic eruptions on earth, and breathtaking

scene of fiery magma outputting from underground.

7.1 The source of the magmaLava magma is divided into primary magma and renewable magma.Primary magma is formed by capturing the molten material of core. The molten

substance core captured and other substance form the huge thickness melting layer. These substances' compositions are uneven. Primary magma solidified and formed the most original crust.

Now we can see all kinds of intrusive rocks, such as ultrabasic rock, rock, neutral

rock, acid and alkaline rocks, and volcanic eruption of magma, they are all renewable magma, just be different in source depth, channel, material composition and the degree of differentiation.

Renewable magma included magma of  primary magma variation and lava magma.

Now the earth liquid layer is consist of renewable magma which varied by primary magma - form after the change of temperature, composition and state of matter.

7.2 The power of magma migrationMagma from deep inside of earth to move to the earth's crust formed the

intrusive rock or erupt to the surface to form volcanoes, magma mobile power mainly have two:

First, due to the earth inner ball's proportion is greater than the one of liquid layer and outer ball, in orbit around the sun, the ball is always bias of gravity in the opposite direction, the ball is not in the center of the earth. Formed extrusion force from the inner ball to the liquid layer and from inside to the outside, magma and other gas liquid substances move outward from the earth's interior or erupt to the surface.

Second, the magma crystallization or other physical and chemical reaction, generate some water and gas and other substances, generating expanding extrusion, make the magma and other gas liquid substances move outward from the earth's interior or erupt to the surface.

7.3 The cause of volcanic ashThe tufa formed in the geological period and the modern volcanic eruption of

ash, so how do those ashes form?Water under pressure by the small nozzle jet the fog, see from the fig 7-1

Fig 7-1 the photos of spraySimilarly, molten magma under enormous pressure, formed fog from the volcano

magma, fog magma solidification into tiny particles to form the ash, the magma spray formed by volcanic ash.

8. The origin of life

8.1 The relevant data

8.1.1 Information about plantsWe know: after the carrot mash, that the cells are grown in the nutrient solution

can cultivate a plant full of carrots. Plant cloning technology conditions required relatively low and simple.

Plants can reproduce by spores, seeds, even asexual reproduction. Humans put plant's seeds to space, with the space radiation, some plants get the optimization. Some plant spores and seeds can be long-term preservation under extreme conditions, such as low temperature conditions. The plant that can be asexual reproduction, its root system can also be long-term preservation in extreme conditions.8.1.2 Information about human being

(1) During the second world war, the German fascist did the freezing test: make the Soviet red army captured alive to freeze to death, and resurrection. Some people can back from a deep freeze to death. By experiments in the German fascists, freezed people have high rate of resurrection by using human warming. Among them, one woman warmed a frozen man with the highest rate of resurrection, the rate of that with two women was low.

(2) Borrow abdomen parturient, ivf and cloning, these human beings reproduce technologies have been successfully implemented. In theory it can be achieved by genetic replication of life. With a single hair can replicate the life, of course it requires considerable technical and laboratory conditions.

(3) The animal and human embryo and sperm and eggs and so on carries on the low temperature cold storage, thawed with life as usual.

8.2 If the earth destroyed, how would the life of earth exist?In order to study and explore the origins of life on earth, we first make a reverse

thinking: If the earth destroyed, how would the life of earth exist? One situation is in which the sun destroyed or earth caught by a massive body of

planet, the earth is still there. Sun destruction or explosion independently, the earth would be just get a certain impact, and well-preserved. Without the sun, the earth lost the gravity and light and heat of the sun, not the photosynthesis, become cold, plants may die due to no photosynthesis, or because of the cold froze to death. Animals or starve or freeze to death. May also be other reasons led to the deaths of animals and plants. No matter what the reason led to the deaths of animals and plants, they will stay on earth.

Another kind of circumstance is the earth break up.After the earth crushing, all plants and animals will be broken or by individual

floating in the universe.

Animal, may die from broken, or loss of oxygen to death, or freeze to death.The amount of earth's water is about 1.4078 x 109 km3, two over ten thousand of

the earth's mass. If the water spread on a flat surface of the earth, can form a depth of more than 2700 meters of the ocean.

On earth, there are plant and animal hibernation.After earth broken, because the temperature is reduced, many plants and animals

will be frozen in the ice, floating in the universe.

8.3 The origin of life on earthBy the state animal and plant after the destruction of the earth being, as well as

animal and plant breeding and resurrection phenomenon, make the following corollary:

The plants on the earth are made up of floating in the universe of spore plants, seeds, roots to take root on the earth.

Animals on the earth are made up of floating in the universe of individual animals (such as freeze to death or dormant individual) in the resurrection of the earth.

9. The cause of several crusts

9.1 Antarctica crustDue to the crust in Antarctica exists large amounts of coal, and coal is formed

from the ancient plant with coal function. Antarctica is under ice and snow all the year round, can not grow a lot of plants. So, Antarctica is in the low latitudes in geohistory, now came to the  position of South Pole.

Antarctica's movement, is made up of earth outer ball  rotation under the action of the shake, which have been discussed in previous section of this paper.

9.2 The cause of the Tibetan plateauThe Tibet plateau is known as is the roof of the world, is the long-term evolution

of the earth or the earth's crust movement for a long time.9.2.1 The thick sedimentary strata

In the Tibetan plateau, the combination function of water and wind form the huge thick sedimentary strata. According to the geological report that the geological survey institute of Chengdu University of technology put forward, which is about 1:250000 hot spring stations, the Paleozoic sedimentary strata that above the ground is 6969 meters,thickness of the Mesozoic sedimentary strata that above the ground is 5353 meters, thickness of the Cenozoic sedimentary strata that above the ground is 2197 meters, total thickness is: 14519 meters. Due to reasons such as cover, the geologic section is got in the different locations. Sedimentary strata lithology

characters mainly are clastic rocks and limestone.The thick sedimentary strata is material base of the uplift of the Tibet plateau.

9.2.2 Simulation testPave the sweater on the table, with two hands on it, and push in the direction

shown by the arrow, as shown in figure 9-1. Then it would appear the flexing pattern in the fig 9-2

Fig 9-1 photos of sweater test Fig 9-2 photos of deformation of the force

9.2.3 The cause of the Tibet plateauSedimentation formed a thick Eurasia, In the joint action of the force from north

to the equator and from east to west direction, see from the fig 9-3, it form the apophysis whose shape is like the simulation test.

the force from east to west is great near the equator, the force is smaller toward the poles. The arrow is great near the equator,  shrunk near the arctic.

Fig 9-3 Eurasia force diagram (source reproduction baidu picture)

9.4 The cause of the trenchThere are lots of trench around the Pacific and Indian Ocean and the Atlantic

ocean, trench's length is about thousands of kilometers, and thousands of meters deep, the deepest in western Pacific is Mariana trench that is as deep as 11034 meters.

In order to study the cause of the trench, do the following test:Hang a basin full of water, and put into two different objects, then the two

objects connected respectively with mass block on the basin bottom by the rope. Put the two objects in together, see from the fig 9-4.Rotate the basin, the two objects separated, the pattern of the rope which connected with two objects become “V”. See from fig 9-5.

Fig 9-4 test photo Fig 9-5 test photo

There are volcanic rocks on the ocean submarine, and they are incorporated into the deeps. Under the action of force it can't slide between cambium, split as the pattern of "V".

Under the influence of earth rotation centrifugal force, the earth's crust substance move from the poles to the equator; The earth rotates from west to east, under the gravity of the sun and the moon, the earth's crust substances generate the relative movement t from the east to west. Trench is formed by these two kinds of movements, as shown in fig 9-6.

Fig 9-6 Crustal block movement forms trench (source reproduction baidu picture)

9.5 The cause of the Atlantic mid-ridgeThe earth's rotation generated the centrifugal force from the poles to the equator.

Substances above the surface, its centrifugal force is greater, substances below the surface, its centrifugal force is smaller. Average water depth of atlantic is 3627

meters, there are land near the north and south ends. Under the action of gravity of the sun and the moon, with the earth's rotation, the

earth's crust substances are extruded from east to west.Atlantic submarine structure is formed under the action of the above two kinds of

force.Liquid viscosity of Basaltic magma is small but with high mobility, it formed the

basalt cover in the long and narrow Atlantic basement.Brittle object bend into a certain degree, it will split in the bending parts.Test:Shown as the fig 9-7, Extrude the brittle object - benzene slat in the direction

shown by the arrow, after bending into a certain extent, it break in the middle of slat, as shown in figure 9-8. 

Fig 9-7 Photos of benzene slat stress bending fig 9-8 Photos of benzene slat stress breakingThe Atlantic mid-ridge composed of the basalt is like the above test, the crack of

ridge generate in the central valley and secondary rift valley. The central rift valley and secondary rift valley become channels of later

volcanic eruption, the later cover at the top of the previous eruption of the volcano and the area is small. Produced the phenomenon that the age of rock get older from the central rift to both sides.

The Atlantic mid-ridge's last volcanic eruption, cover on the central valley and on both sides of it, formed longitudinal ridges in the rift valley and on both sides of the continuous distribution.

Because the Atlantic mid-ridge is composed of basalt, and the characteristic is brittle. Under the action of forces from east to west, it generate strike-slip fault on the ridge from the east to west.