Origin and Evolution of Life on Earth

Bennett et al. Chapter 5

HNRS 228 Astrobiologyw/Prof. Geller(slides by Taylor and Geller)

Lectures 9 and 10

Origin and Evolution of Life on Earth - Chapter 5 Overview

• Searching for the origin• Functional beginnings of life

– From chemistry to biology at the molecular level• Prokaryotes and oxygen• Eukaryotes and explosion of diversity• Mass extinctions, asteroids and climate change• Evolutions of humans• Conclusions

But FirstRemember Morowitz

• Order from Chaos vs. Order from Order• Origins Questions

– origin of universe– origin of solar system– origin of life– origin of mind

• Stars and the nucleosynthesis of heavy elements• Pauli Exclusion Exclusion

– importance in bonding

Morowitz II• Emergence of chemistry from physics

• underlying simplicity

• Amphiphile– An amphiphile is a molecule that has a polar head attached to a long

hydrocarbon tail. The result is that one part of the molecule (the polar head) interacts strongly with water, while the other part of the molecule (the long hydrocarbon tail) interacts strongly with nonaqueous phases or with the hydrocarbon tails of neighboring same-species molecules via dispersion forces (van der Waals forces).

• All metabolism => 500/600 molecules• 1850 catalog of organics by Beilstein

• Computational techniques• in search of an algorithm for distilling the 500/600 molecules of

life out of millions of organics (a type of Pauli principle)

Morowitz III• Citric acid cycle

– reductive vs. oxidative

Morowitz IV

• Autotrophs vs. heterotrophs– autotrophs first

• “Impossible by random interactions”• Glutamic Acid

– generation without enzymes• Emergence Principle• “Hell and Heaven Theory” of origins• Occam’s Razor

Morowitz V• Calvin-Benson Cycle

– glucose biosynthesis

Taylor Hierarchy of Life

Community Population

Organism Organ Tissue

Cell Organelles Macromolecules Atoms

Taylor Hierarchy of Ecology

EarthBiosphere

BiomeEcosystem

CommunityPopulation

Organisms

Morowitz Emergences

• Primordium• Large-scale structure• Stars• Elements• Solar systems• Planets• Geosphere• Biosphere• Prokaryotes• Eukaryotes• Multicellularity• Neurons• Protostomia/Deuterostomia• Chordates & Vertebrates

• Fish• Amphibians• Reptiles• Mammals• Arboreal mammals• Primates• Great apes• Hominids• Toolmakers• Language• Agriculture• Technology/urbanization• Philosophy• Spiritual

Searching for the Origin

• What is the question?• The tools and methodologies

– Principles of physics (e.g., 1st and 2nd Law of TD)– Principles of geology (e.g., relative/absolute dating)– Principles of chemistry (e.g., chemistry of water)– Principles of biology (e.g., key macromolecules)– Occam’s razor

• Conclusions: plausible scenario of the events and processes that lead to the origin of life

Searching for the Origin

• When did life begin?• Evidence

– Widespread life forms (3.5 B years ago)– Stromatolites (3.5 B years ago)– Fossilized cells (3.5 B years ago)– Radiometric dating: carbon isotopes (3.85 B years ago)

• Carbon 12 versus Carbon 13

• Range of dates: 4.1 to 3.85 B years ago• Conclusions

– Life arose late in the Hadean Eon– Life colonized planet in very short time frame (< 500 M

years)

Searching for the Origin: Comparative Genomics

• Comparative morphology versus comparative genomics

• “Living Fossils” of DNA and RNA– Sequence of nucleotides in DNA and genome– Pattern and process of change in sequences– Comparing sequences reveals a pattern/order

• Methodology of comparison – rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

Searching for the Origin: Three Branches of Life Forms

• Results from comparative genomics– Three major domains

• Bacteria• Archaea• Eukarya

• Common ancestor analysis• Comparison to organisms today

– Deep sea volcanic vents– Thermophiles (hyperthermophiles)– Comparison to environment of Hadean Eon

Searching for the Origin

Domain Domain DomainBacteria Archaea Eukarya

Common Ancestor

Searching for the Origin: At What Place on Earth?

• Options– Continental landscapes– Shallow pools– Hot springs– Deep sea vents

• Data to support one or the other– Comparative genomics– Chemical energy (hydrogen sulfide)

FeS + H2S FeS2 + H2 + Free Energy• Conclusion: deep sea vents

– Probability of bombardment

Beginnings of Life on Earth

• Organic chemistry*• Transition from chemistry to biology• Panspermia• The evolution of sophisticated features of

metabolism and information brokers• Conclusions_________* Enzymes first or TCA or ?

Catalysis in Living Systems: Enzymes

• Introduction– Most reactions are “very slow” (insufficient to sustain life)– Mechanisms to accelerate specific reactions: preferential

acceleration– Evolutionary significance: positive fitness

• Accelerants => Catalysts => Enzymes– Proteins (relate to information brokers)– Change rate of reactions– High degree of specificity– Regenerated (not consumed)

Enzymes: How They Work

• Base case for reactions to occur– Reactants (A-B and C-D)– Products (A-D and B-C)

• Energy analysis– Free energy (net change in energy between

reactants and products; G)• Exothermic reactions (release energy/spontaneous)• Endothermic reactions (require energy to proceed)

– Energy of activation (transition state or “hill”)• EA in diagram

Catalysis in Living Systems: Enzymes

Free Energy %G A-B

C-D

A-DB-C

Transition State

EA

%G

Catalysis in Living Systems: Enzymes

• Efficacy of enzymes– “Hill”/transition state is the key

• Mechanism– Lower energy of activation (EA) needed to surmount the

“hill)– Selectivity/specificity (lock and key analogy)

• Active site of protein due to 3-D conformation

– Regeneration• Conclusion

– Absence of enzymes: minutes to hours for reaction– Presence of enzymes: 1,000 times per second

Catalysis in Living Systems: Enzymes

Free Energy %G A-B

C-D

A-DB-C

Transition StateEA

%G

Enzymes: Modification of the Rate of Reaction

• Factors controlling efficacy of enzymes– Concentration of enzyme– Concentration of reactants– Factors affecting proteins (enzymes)

• Temperature (compare humans versus thermophiles in hot springs)• pH • Mechanism (3-D conformation of proteins and lock & key analogy)

– Inhibitors

Evolutionary Perspective of Enzymes

• Evolutionary advantage of enzymes– Specific acceleration of reactions– Fitness value: positive– Information broker: coded in the DNA

• Mutation• Reproduction

• How did enzymes come to be?

Ribozymes

• What are ribozymes in current biochemistry?– NOT ribosomes– mRNA (small fragments)– Functions

• Synthesis of RNA, membranes, amino acids, ribosomes– Properties

• Catalytic behavior (enhance rates ~20 times)• Genetically programmed• Naturally occurring (60-90 bases)

Ribozymes (continued)

• Laboratory studies of ribozymes– Creation of RNA fragments at random with existence

of enzyme-like properties– Variety of enzyme-like properties

• Cleavage of DNA• Cleave of DNA-RNA hybrids• Linking together fragments of DNA• Linking together fragments of RNA• Transformation of polypeptides to proteins• Self-replication (2001)

Summary of Ribozymes

• mRNA fragments• 3-D conformation like proteins (e.g., fold)• Functional ribozymes created at random in test

tube• Exhibit catalytic behavior• Self replicate• Play a prominent/key role in any scenario for

understanding the evolution of life at the biochemical and molecular level

RNA World

Chemical Beginnings

Urey-Miller Experiment

Significance of and Sequel to Urey Miller Experiment

• Multiple variations of the study (e.g., atmosphere)– 20+ amino acids, sugars, bases for DNA and RNA, ATP,

etc.• Significance: scenario for the abiotic formation of

key carbon polymers (macromolecules)• Probable environments

– Deep sea vents– Tidal pools (role of repeated evaporation and

concentration – “evapoconcentration”; asteroid bombardment)

• Chemical events leading to an “RNA World”

Panspermia

Functional Beginnings of Life: Transition from Chemistry to Biology

• Ribozymes– Enzyme activity– Self replicating

• Generation of biomacromolecules (C polymers; e.g., sugars, nucleotides, ATP)– via abiotic processes on Earth (Urey-Miller)– via Panspermia– via biotic processes (e.g., ribozymes)

• Role of mutations, natural selection and environment: incremental changes in biomacromolecules that are inherited via RNA and DNA)

Functional Beginnings of Life: Transition from Chemistry to Biology

Glycolysis/Fermentation

6 Carbon Sugar/ Glucose

3 Carbon Sugar/ Pyruvate

2 Carbon Sugar/ Acetyl Coenzyme A

ATP (2)

CO2

Functional Beginnings of Life: Transition from Chemistry to Biology

• Evolution of PhotosynthesisCO2 + H2O + Light = CH2O + O2

• Key processes– Absorption of light (pigments)– Conversion of light energy into chemical energy

(ATP)– Synthesis of simple carbon compounds for storage

of energy• Purple bacteria and Cyanobacteria

– Primitive forms (~3.5 BYA)

Prokaryotes and Oxygen

% of Present

Billions of Years Before Present

4.8 4 3 2 1 0.7 0.1 0

Functional Beginnings of Life: Transition from Chemistry to Biology

Glycolysis to Respiration

2 Carbon

6 Carbon

5 Carbon

4 Carbon

ATPATP

Glycolysis/Fermentation

AerobicMetabolism (TCA)

Prokaryotes and Oxygen

• Evolution of PhotosynthesisCO2 + H2O + Energy = CH2O + O2

• Evolution of respirationCH2O + O2 = CO2 + H2O + Energy

• Possibility that respiration is simply the reverse of photosynthesis

• Oxygen crisis and the oxygen stimulation to evolution

Eukaryotes and an Explosion of Diversity

• Incremental changes in evolution: role of oxygen and diversification of organisms (explain ATP fitness)

• Quantum changes in evolution– Symbiosis– Lynn Margulis theory: eukaryotes are derived from

prokaryotes– Compartmentalization and organelles– Bacterial origins of chloroplast and mitochondria

Mass Extinctions, Asteroids and Climate Change

• Mass extinctions– Dramatic declines in a variety of species, families and

phyla (>25%)– Timing of decline is concurrent– Rate of decline is precipitous (geological sense)– Example of catastrophism

• Best example– Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary (65 M years ago)– K-T boundary and Alvarez theory of catastrophism

Mass Extinctions, Asteroids and Climate Change: K-T Boundary

• Observations– Iridium deposits in distinct layers: suggestion of an

asteroid (10-15 Km)– Other trace elements (characteristics of asteroids)– Shocked quartz– Soot deposits

• Conclusive Evidence– Impact crater 200 km off Yucatan Peninsula

(Chicxulub Crater)

Mass Extinctions, Asteroids and Climate Change: Other examples

• Other mass extinctions– Five major extinctions over last 600 M years

• Evidence for gradualism– First principles: evolution– Pattern in the data

• Recovery response• Overall increment in number of families over geological time

• Conclusions: Catastrophism coupled with gradualism

Origin and Evolution of Life on Earth: Conclusions

• Plausible scenarios for the early origin of life on Earth (abiotic and biotic)

• Role of mutation and evolution in origin of increasingly more complex forms of metabolism

• Role of major evolutionary and climatological events as “pulses” of diversification in biota