The Mongol and Ming EmpiresThe Mongol and Ming Empires

Focus Question Focus Question What were the effects of the Mongol invasion and the rise of the What were the effects of the Mongol invasion and the rise of the

Ming dynasty on China?Ming dynasty on China?

Mongol Armies Build an Empire Mongol Armies Build an Empire

The Mongols were a nomadic people who grazed their horses The Mongols were a nomadic people who grazed their horses and sheep on the and sheep on the steppessteppes, or vast, treeless plains, of Central , or vast, treeless plains, of Central Asia. Rival Mongol clans spent much of their time warring with Asia. Rival Mongol clans spent much of their time warring with one another. In the early 1200s, however, a brilliant Mongol one another. In the early 1200s, however, a brilliant Mongol chieftain united these warring tribes.chieftain united these warring tribes.

This chieftain took the This chieftain took the name name Genghis KhanGenghis Khan meaning “Universal meaning “Universal Ruler.” Under his Ruler.” Under his leadership, Mongol leadership, Mongol forces conquered a forces conquered a vast empire that vast empire that stretched from the stretched from the Pacific Ocean to Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe Eastern Europe

Genghis KhanGenghis KhanOriginally called Temüjin, Genghis Khan (Originally called Temüjin, Genghis Khan (c.c. 1162–1227) 1162–1227) was renowned for being ruthless, determined, and was renowned for being ruthless, determined, and courageous. When Temüjin was nine years old, a rival courageous. When Temüjin was nine years old, a rival Mongol clan poisoned his father. At the age of 15, Mongol clan poisoned his father. At the age of 15, Temüjin was taken prisoner. For the rest of his life, he Temüjin was taken prisoner. For the rest of his life, he never forgot the humiliation of being locked in a wooden never forgot the humiliation of being locked in a wooden collar and paraded before his enemies.collar and paraded before his enemies.

When he regained his freedom, Temüjin wandered When he regained his freedom, Temüjin wandered among drifting clans. He took revenge on the clan that among drifting clans. He took revenge on the clan that had imprisoned him and in time, became supreme ruler had imprisoned him and in time, became supreme ruler of all the Mongols. Once despised, Genghis Khan would of all the Mongols. Once despised, Genghis Khan would be admired and feared across two continentsbe admired and feared across two continents

Mongols Invade ChinaMongols Invade China

Genghis Khan imposed strict military discipline and demanded Genghis Khan imposed strict military discipline and demanded absolute loyalty. His highly trained, mobile armies had some of the absolute loyalty. His highly trained, mobile armies had some of the most skilled horsemen in the world. Genghis Khan had a reputation most skilled horsemen in the world. Genghis Khan had a reputation for fierceness. He could order the massacre of an entire city. Yet he for fierceness. He could order the massacre of an entire city. Yet he also could be generous, rewarding the bravery of a single fighter.also could be generous, rewarding the bravery of a single fighter.

Mongol armies conquered the Asian steppe lands with some ease, but as they Mongol armies conquered the Asian steppe lands with some ease, but as they turned on China, they encountered the problem of attacking walled cities. turned on China, they encountered the problem of attacking walled cities. Chinese and Turkish military experts taught them to use cannons and other new Chinese and Turkish military experts taught them to use cannons and other new weapons. The Mongols and Chinese launched missiles against each other from weapons. The Mongols and Chinese launched missiles against each other from metal tubes filled with gunpowder. This use of cannons in warfare would soon metal tubes filled with gunpowder. This use of cannons in warfare would soon spread westward to Europe.spread westward to Europe.

Genghis Khan did not live to complete the conquest of China. Genghis Khan did not live to complete the conquest of China. His heirs, however, continued to expand the Mongol empire. His heirs, however, continued to expand the Mongol empire. For the next 150 years, they For the next 150 years, they dominateddominated much of Asia. Their much of Asia. Their furious assaults toppled empires and spread destruction from furious assaults toppled empires and spread destruction from southern Russia through Muslim lands in Southwest Asia to southern Russia through Muslim lands in Southwest Asia to China. China.

Protected by steep mountain ranges, India avoided invasion, Protected by steep mountain ranges, India avoided invasion, but the Mongols arrived in China, devastated the flourishing but the Mongols arrived in China, devastated the flourishing province of Sichuan (see chwahn), and annihilated its great province of Sichuan (see chwahn), and annihilated its great capital city of Chengdu.capital city of Chengdu.

Rulers Establish Order and PeaceRulers Establish Order and Peace

Once conquest was Once conquest was completed, the completed, the Mongols were not Mongols were not oppressive rulers. oppressive rulers. Often, they allowed Often, they allowed conquered people to conquered people to live much as they had live much as they had before—as long as before—as long as they regularly paid they regularly paid tribute to the tribute to the Mongols.Mongols.

Genghis Khan had set an Genghis Khan had set an example for his example for his successors by ruling successors by ruling conquered lands with conquered lands with toleration and justice. toleration and justice. Although the Mongol Although the Mongol warrior had no use for city warrior had no use for city life, he respected life, he respected scholars, artists, and scholars, artists, and artisans. He listened to artisans. He listened to the ideas of Confucians, the ideas of Confucians, Buddhists, Christians, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, Jews, and Muslims, Jews, and Zoroastrians.Zoroastrians.

In the 1200s and 1300s, the sons and grandsons of In the 1200s and 1300s, the sons and grandsons of Genghis Khan established peace and order within their Genghis Khan established peace and order within their domains. Today, many historians refer to this period of domains. Today, many historians refer to this period of order as the order as the Pax Mongolica,Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace. or Mongol Peace.

Political stability set the stage for economic growth. Under the protection of Political stability set the stage for economic growth. Under the protection of the Mongols, who now controlled the great Silk Road, trade flourished the Mongols, who now controlled the great Silk Road, trade flourished across Eurasia. According to a contemporary, Mongol rule meant that across Eurasia. According to a contemporary, Mongol rule meant that people “enjoyed such a peace that a man might have journeyed from the people “enjoyed such a peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head land of sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering the least violence from anyone.”without suffering the least violence from anyone.”

Cultural exchanges increased as foods, Cultural exchanges increased as foods, tools, inventions, and ideas spread along tools, inventions, and ideas spread along the protected trade routes. From China, the the protected trade routes. From China, the use gunpowder moved westward into use gunpowder moved westward into Europe. Techniques of papermaking also Europe. Techniques of papermaking also reached parts of Europe, and crops and reached parts of Europe, and crops and trees from the Middle East were carried into trees from the Middle East were carried into East Asia.East Asia.

How did the Mongol How did the Mongol Empire change once Empire change once conquest was over?conquest was over?

How might Temüjin’s How might Temüjin’s experiences have experiences have motivated him to motivated him to unite the Mongol unite the Mongol clans?clans?

Although Genghis Khan had subdued northern China, the Mongols Although Genghis Khan had subdued northern China, the Mongols needed nearly 70 more years to conquer the south. Genghis Khan’s needed nearly 70 more years to conquer the south. Genghis Khan’s grandson, grandson, Kublai KhanKublai Khan ( (kookoo bly bly kahnkahn), finally toppled the last Song ), finally toppled the last Song emperor in 1279. From his capital at Khanbaliq, present-day Beijing, emperor in 1279. From his capital at Khanbaliq, present-day Beijing, Kublai Khan ruled all of China as well as Korea and Tibet. Kublai Khan ruled all of China as well as Korea and Tibet.

An All-Mongol GovernmentAn All-Mongol Government

Kublai Khan tried to prevent Kublai Khan tried to prevent the Mongols from being the Mongols from being absorbed into Chinese absorbed into Chinese civilization as other conquerors civilization as other conquerors of China had been. He of China had been. He decreed that only Mongols decreed that only Mongols could serve in the military. He could serve in the military. He also reserved the highest also reserved the highest government jobs for Mongols government jobs for Mongols or for other non-Chinese or for other non-Chinese officials whom he employed. officials whom he employed. Still, because there were too Still, because there were too few Mongols to control so vast few Mongols to control so vast an empire, Kublai allowed an empire, Kublai allowed Chinese officials to continue to Chinese officials to continue to rule in the provincesrule in the provinces

Under Mongol rule, an uneasy mix of Chinese and foreign Under Mongol rule, an uneasy mix of Chinese and foreign customs developed. Kublai adopted a Chinese name for his customs developed. Kublai adopted a Chinese name for his dynasty, the dynasty, the YuanYuan (yoo (yoo ahnahn), and turned Khanbaliq into a ), and turned Khanbaliq into a Chinese walled city. At the same time, he had Arab architects Chinese walled city. At the same time, he had Arab architects design his palace, and many rooms reflected Mongol steppe design his palace, and many rooms reflected Mongol steppe dwellings. dwellings.

Kublai rebuilt and Kublai rebuilt and extended the Grand extended the Grand Canal to his new capital, Canal to his new capital, which made the shipment which made the shipment of rice and other goods of rice and other goods easier. He also welcomed easier. He also welcomed many foreigners to his many foreigners to his court, including the court, including the African Muslim world African Muslim world traveler Ibn Battuta. traveler Ibn Battuta.

Marco Polo Writes About ChinaMarco Polo Writes About ChinaThe Italian merchant The Italian merchant Marco PoloMarco Polo was one of many visitors to was one of many visitors to China during the Yuan dynasty. Although there is some debate China during the Yuan dynasty. Although there is some debate on whether Marco Polo reached China, most historians on whether Marco Polo reached China, most historians acknowledge that he did indeed reach Cathay (northern acknowledge that he did indeed reach Cathay (northern China)..China)..

In 1271, Polo left Venice with his father and uncle. He crossed In 1271, Polo left Venice with his father and uncle. He crossed Persia and Central Asia to reach China. He then spent 17 years Persia and Central Asia to reach China. He then spent 17 years in Kublai’s service. Finally, he returned to Venice by sea, in Kublai’s service. Finally, he returned to Venice by sea, visiting Southeast Asia and India along the way.visiting Southeast Asia and India along the way.

In his writings, Marco Polo left a vivid account of the wealth and splendor of In his writings, Marco Polo left a vivid account of the wealth and splendor of China. He described the royal palace of Kublai Khan (see Traveler’s Tale) China. He described the royal palace of Kublai Khan (see Traveler’s Tale) and also described China’s efficient royal mail system, with couriers riding and also described China’s efficient royal mail system, with couriers riding swift ponies along the empire’s well-kept roads. Furthermore, he reported swift ponies along the empire’s well-kept roads. Furthermore, he reported that the city of Hangzhou was 10 or 12 times the size of Venice, one of that the city of Hangzhou was 10 or 12 times the size of Venice, one of Italy’s richest city-states. In the next centuries, Polo’s reports sparked Italy’s richest city-states. In the next centuries, Polo’s reports sparked European interest in the riches of Asia.European interest in the riches of Asia.

Mongols Continue Outside ContactMongols Continue Outside Contact

As long as the Mongol empire As long as the Mongol empire prospered, contacts between prospered, contacts between Europe and Asia continued. Europe and Asia continued. The Mongols tolerated a The Mongols tolerated a variety of beliefs. The pope variety of beliefs. The pope sent Christian priests to sent Christian priests to Beijing, while Muslims set up Beijing, while Muslims set up their own communities in their own communities in China. Meanwhile, some China. Meanwhile, some Chinese products moved Chinese products moved toward Europe. They included toward Europe. They included gunpowder, porcelain, and gunpowder, porcelain, and playing cardsplaying cards

How did Kublai How did Kublai Khan organize Khan organize Mongol rule in Mongol rule in China?China?

The Ming Restore Chinese Rule The Ming Restore Chinese Rule The Yuan dynasty declined after the death of Kublai The Yuan dynasty declined after the death of Kublai Khan, which occurred in 1294. Most Chinese despised Khan, which occurred in 1294. Most Chinese despised the foreign Mongol rulers. Confucian scholars retreated the foreign Mongol rulers. Confucian scholars retreated into their own world, seeing little to gain from the into their own world, seeing little to gain from the barbarians. Heavy taxes, corruption, and natural barbarians. Heavy taxes, corruption, and natural disasters led to frequent uprisings. disasters led to frequent uprisings.

Finally, Zhu Yuanzhang Finally, Zhu Yuanzhang (dzoo (dzoo yoo ahndyoo ahnd zahng), zahng), a peasant leader, forged a peasant leader, forged a rebel army that toppled a rebel army that toppled the Mongols and pushed the Mongols and pushed them back beyond the them back beyond the Great Wall. In 1368, he Great Wall. In 1368, he founded a new Chinese founded a new Chinese dynasty, which he called dynasty, which he called the the MingMing, meaning , meaning brilliant. brilliant.

The Ming restored the The Ming restored the civil service system, civil service system, and Confucian learning and Confucian learning again became the road again became the road to success. The civil to success. The civil service exams became service exams became more rigorous than more rigorous than ever. A board of ever. A board of censors watched over censors watched over the bureaucracy, the bureaucracy, rooting out corruption rooting out corruption and disloyalty. and disloyalty.

The Economy Grows The Economy Grows

Economically, Ming China was immensely productive. Economically, Ming China was immensely productive. The fertile, well-irrigated plains of eastern China The fertile, well-irrigated plains of eastern China supported a population of more than 100 million. In the supported a population of more than 100 million. In the Chang River valley, peasants produced huge rice crops. Chang River valley, peasants produced huge rice crops. Better methods of fertilizing helped to improve farming Better methods of fertilizing helped to improve farming

Reshaping the landscape helped as well. Some farmers cut Reshaping the landscape helped as well. Some farmers cut horizontal steps called terraces into steep hillsides to gain soil in horizontal steps called terraces into steep hillsides to gain soil in

which to grow crops. In the 1500s, new crops reached China from which to grow crops. In the 1500s, new crops reached China from the Americas, especially corn and sweet potatoes. the Americas, especially corn and sweet potatoes.

Chinese cities, such as Nanjing, were home to many industries, Chinese cities, such as Nanjing, were home to many industries, including porcelain, paper, and tools. The Ming repaired the including porcelain, paper, and tools. The Ming repaired the

extensive canal system that linked various regions, made trade extensive canal system that linked various regions, made trade easier, and allowed cities to grow. New technologies increased easier, and allowed cities to grow. New technologies increased

output in manufacturing. Better methods of printing, for example, output in manufacturing. Better methods of printing, for example, led to the production of a flood of books.led to the production of a flood of books.

Culture Flourishes Culture Flourishes

Ming China also saw a Ming China also saw a revival of arts and revival of arts and literature. Ming artists literature. Ming artists developed their own developed their own styles of landscape styles of landscape painting and created painting and created brilliant blue and white brilliant blue and white porcelain. Ming vases porcelain. Ming vases were among the most were among the most valuable and popular valuable and popular Chinese products Chinese products exported to the West.exported to the West.

Confucian scholars continued to produce classical poetry. At the Confucian scholars continued to produce classical poetry. At the same time, new forms of popular literature to be enjoyed by the same time, new forms of popular literature to be enjoyed by the common people began to emerge. Ming writers composed novels, common people began to emerge. Ming writers composed novels, including including The Water MarginThe Water Margin about an outlaw gang that tries to end about an outlaw gang that tries to end injustice by corrupt officials. Ming writers also produced the world’s injustice by corrupt officials. Ming writers also produced the world’s first detective stories.first detective stories.

How did Ming rulers restore a previous How did Ming rulers restore a previous style of Chinese government?style of Chinese government?

How did Ming rulers restore a previous How did Ming rulers restore a previous style of Chinese government?style of Chinese government?

Answer: They restored the Civil Service Answer: They restored the Civil Service System, and Confucian learning again System, and Confucian learning again became the road to successbecame the road to success

Chinese Fleets Sail the Seas Chinese Fleets Sail the Seas

Early Ming rulers proudly Early Ming rulers proudly sent Chinese fleets into sent Chinese fleets into distant waters to show distant waters to show the glory of their the glory of their government. The most government. The most extraordinary of these extraordinary of these overseas ventures were overseas ventures were the voyages of the the voyages of the Chinese admiral and Chinese admiral and diplomat diplomat Zheng HeZheng He (jeng (jeng he).he).

Zheng He and His Fleets Zheng He and His Fleets Starting in 1405, Zheng He commanded the first of seven Starting in 1405, Zheng He commanded the first of seven expeditions. He departed at the head of a fleet of 62 huge ships and expeditions. He departed at the head of a fleet of 62 huge ships and over 200 smaller ones, carrying a crew of about 28,000 sailors. The over 200 smaller ones, carrying a crew of about 28,000 sailors. The largest ships measured 400 feet long. The goal of each expedition largest ships measured 400 feet long. The goal of each expedition was to promote trade and collect tribute from lesser powers across was to promote trade and collect tribute from lesser powers across the “western seas”.the “western seas”.

Between 1405 and 1433, Zheng He explored the coasts of Between 1405 and 1433, Zheng He explored the coasts of Southeast Asia and India and the entrances to the Red Sea and the Southeast Asia and India and the entrances to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. He also visited many ports in East Africa. In the wake Persian Gulf. He also visited many ports in East Africa. In the wake of these expeditions, Chinese merchants settled in Southeast Asia of these expeditions, Chinese merchants settled in Southeast Asia and India and became a permanent presence in their trading and India and became a permanent presence in their trading centers centers

Exotic animals, Exotic animals, such as giraffes, such as giraffes, were imported were imported from foreign from foreign lands as well. lands as well. The voyages The voyages also showed also showed local rulers the local rulers the power and power and strength of the strength of the Chinese empire. Chinese empire.

What was the What was the relevance of relevance of Zheng He’s Zheng He’s overseas overseas expeditions?expeditions?

““The countries beyond the The countries beyond the horizon and from the ends of horizon and from the ends of the earth have all become the earth have all become subjects. . . . We have subjects. . . . We have traversed immense traversed immense waterspaces and have behold waterspaces and have behold in the ocean huge waves like in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising skyhigh, and mountains rising skyhigh, and we have set eyes on barbarian we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away . . . while our regions far away . . . while our sails loftily unfurled like clouds sails loftily unfurled like clouds day and night continued their day and night continued their course, traversing those course, traversing those savage waves as if we were savage waves as if we were treading on a public thorough treading on a public thorough fare.”fare.”——Zheng He, quoted in Zheng He, quoted in The The True Dates of the Chinese True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fifteenth CenturyEarly Fifteenth Century (Duyvendak)(Duyvendak)

Exploration Ends Exploration Ends

In 1435, the year Zheng He died, the Ming emperor suddenly In 1435, the year Zheng He died, the Ming emperor suddenly banned the building of seagoing ships. Later, ships with more than banned the building of seagoing ships. Later, ships with more than two masts were forbidden. Zheng He’s huge ships were retired and two masts were forbidden. Zheng He’s huge ships were retired and rotted away.rotted away.

Why did China, with its advanced naval technology, turn Why did China, with its advanced naval technology, turn its back on overseas exploration? Historians are not its back on overseas exploration? Historians are not sure. Some speculate that the fleets were costly and did sure. Some speculate that the fleets were costly and did not produce profit. not produce profit.

Also, Confucian scholars Also, Confucian scholars at court had little interest at court had little interest in overseas ventures and in overseas ventures and commerce. To them, commerce. To them, Chinese civilization was Chinese civilization was the most successful in the the most successful in the world. They wanted to world. They wanted to preserve its ancient preserve its ancient traditions, which they saw traditions, which they saw as the source of stability. as the source of stability. In fact, such rigid loyalty In fact, such rigid loyalty to tradition would to tradition would eventually weaken China eventually weaken China and once again leave it and once again leave it prey to foreign prey to foreign domination domination

Fewer than 60 years after China halted overseas Fewer than 60 years after China halted overseas expeditions, the explorer Christopher Columbus would expeditions, the explorer Christopher Columbus would sail west from Spain in search of a sea route to Asia. We sail west from Spain in search of a sea route to Asia. We can only wonder how the course of history might have can only wonder how the course of history might have changed if the Chinese had continued the explorations changed if the Chinese had continued the explorations they had begun under the Ming.they had begun under the Ming.

1. What military equipment is illustrated in the painting?

2. How did the Mongols come across this equipment (Did they invent it?)

3. What skills are emphasized by the artist?