“THE LIVELIHOOD CRISIS OF FARMERS – A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE FROM AUSTRALIA AND THE SOUTHWEST...

“THE LIVELIHOOD CRISIS OF FARMERS – A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE FROM AUSTRALIA AND THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO WEATHER

AND CLIMATE RISKS AND UNCERTAINTIES”

Roger Stone, University of Southern Queensland, Australia.

WMO International Workshop on “Addressing the Livelihood Crisis of Farmers: Weather and Climate Services”, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 12-14 July 2010

Acknowledgement : Australian Managing Climate Variability Program (MCVP)

Outline•Both a detailed analyses - eg: climate and farm cash income + some case study reports and an overview of climate systems affecting this region – (strong ENSO impact).

• Focus on aspects associated with extremes of climate variability and how these impact on farmer well-being and livelihood – links to agricultural yield – also vulnerability associated with stocking rates.

•Climate variability – yield - farm profit – linking to decisions at a wide range of temporal scales.

• Forecasting farm cash income - using key climate indicators – links to seasonal climate management issues –

•The sensitivity of farm-cash income to climate variability.

•Whole value-chain approaches (farm/mill/transport) valuable in understanding farmer livelihood.

•Value in taking an ‘optimality approach’ according to the type of climate decade..

In this region, Australia, in particular, has very high year-to-year rainfall variability

Variability of Annual rainfall

0

2

4

6

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10

12

14

16

18

20

Australia S. Africa Germany France NZ India UK Canada China USA Russia

Country

Coe

ffic

ient

(%)

(100 years of data for Australia and generally also for the other countries)

(Love, 2005)

And parts of Australia have also long-term shifts in rainfall (mm/decade)

10-year running mean rainfall Rockhampton

The relevance of the ‘intersection’ of climate variability and longer-term climate shifts

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-10

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20

1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002

Year

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nu

al S

OI

0.5

1.0

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2.0

2.5

Wh

eat

yie

ld (

ton

nes/h

ecta

re)

Variability in Australian wheat yield - annual variation in Australian rainfed wheat yield and the SOI (Nicholls).

Variation in shire wheat yield (Moree Plains Shire) - stronger relationship in eastern regions - new insurance, derivative products?

Motivation

by Birchip Cropping Group, Victoria, Australia (courtesy D Rodriguez)

Cereal yield, climate (growing season rainfall) and farm profit - in southern regions (note the shift to major loss of profits, due to the

continued run-down in resources, capital, ‘farmer energy’, income).

Decision type (eg. only) Frequency (year)

Logistics (eg. scheduling of planting / harvest operations)

Intraseasonal (>0.2)

Tactical crop management (eg. fertiliser/pesticide use)

Intraseasonal (0.2-0.5)

Crop type (eg. wheat or chickpeas) Seasonal (0.5-1.0)

Crop sequence (eg. long or short fallows) Interannual (0.5-2.0)

Crop rotation (eg. winter or summer crop) Annual/biennial (1-2)

Crop industry (eg. grain or cotton, phase farming)

Decadal (~10)

Agricultural industry (eg. crop or pasture) Interdecadal (10-20)

Landuse (eg. Agriculture or natural system) Multidecadal (20+)

Landuse and adaptation of current systems Climate change

The key issue of agricultural management decisions on many scales - and connecting to climate systems on many scales (Meinke and

Stone, 2005)

Climate change

IPO

Climate change

IPO

BoM

Logistics (intra-seasonal, >0.2 years) Sowing / harvesting Application of agrochemicals

Tactical (intra-seasonal, 0.2-0.5 years) Crop nitrogen management Crop agrochemicals

Tactical (seasonal, 0.5-1 years) Crop type (e.g. wheat or chickpea, maize or sorghum) Marketing (e.g. sell, buy or store) (Rodriguez, 2010)

The costs of inputs – inputs required to make operational and tactical

farm management decisions.....

AU$50-200K pa

AU$200 – 500K

AU$100-200K (based

on farmer interviews)

Climate change

IPO

Climate change

IPO

Crop sequences (inter-annual, 1-4 years) Long or short fallows (CI, summer/winter cropping) To irrigate cotton or grains

Crop rotations (multi-annual to decadal, 2-10 years) Grains or cotton

Cropping or livestock / fodder

Transformational (inter-decadal, 10-20 years) Irrigated or dryland cropping Cropping or livestock / fodder Farm investment (storages, land, machinery, etc) Succession planning (Rodriguez, 2010)

Medium to longer-term farm business planning

and climate systems

AU$300-500K pa

AU$500K – 1M

AU$1m-$20m

BoM

Nelson and Kokic,

2004

It possible to forecast farm cash incomes? (in

order to develop improved planning

strategies or identify those years when

government aid may be more in demand) –

method is to forecast farm cash income using

climate indicators –

“probability that simulated farm cash income will exceed the long-term median value”

(1900-2003)

Based on ABARE’s AgFIRM model for forecasting the

impact of climate variability on farm incomes

– utilises hindcasting forecasts of crop yields and pasture

growth combined with prices available at the end of June to forecast farm incomes for

the coming year.

WA

NT

SA

NSW

VIC

TAS

Legend:0-10%10-20%20-30%30-40%40-50%50-60%60-70%70-80%80-90%90-100%No data

#

#

#

#WA

NT

SA

NSW

VIC

TAS

Roma

Dalby

Emerald

Goondiwindi

Legend:0-10%10-20%20-30%30-40%40-50%50-60%60-70%70-80%80-90%90-100%No data

(a) (b)

Strong relationship to the forecast of agricultural commodities: Probabilities of exceeding long-term median wheat yields for every wheat producing shire – July 2001 and July 2002. – combining crop simulation modelling with climate modelling (Potgieter et al)

July 2001 July 2002

Use of AgFIRM to simulate mean farm cash income - Nelson and Kokic, 2004 (Kokic et al. (2004) developed and tested a hybrid modelilng system, the Agricultural Farm Income Risk Model (AgFIRM), that brought together the best available biophysical models of Australian crop and pasture yield, with ABARE’s econometric model of farm incomes. The model provides a capacity to simulate the regional impact of climate variability on farm incomes. It can also provide conditional forecasts of the likely impact of climate variability on farm incomes one year into the future, using well established methods of seasonal climate forecasting.)

Large variability in farm cash income by ENSO impact

ENSO/SOI phase probability distributions/boxplots and simulated farm cash income (Nelson and Kokic, 2004)

Nelson and Kokic, 2004

A regional perspective – central NSW – large variability in farm cash

income depending on ENSO state

Probability distribution (boxplots) of simulated mean farm cash income by ‘SOI phase’ (Nelson

and Kokic, 2004)

Nelson and Kokic, 2004

Sensitivity of farm incomes to climate

variability - “The relationship between forecast seasonal

conditions and the sensitivity of Australian crop farm

incomes to climate variability.

“The sensitivity of farm cash income to climate variability is generally

lower in years when the SOI phase is ‘consistently positive’ or ‘rapidly rising’

at the end of May and June”.

“Conversely, in years when the SOI phase is

‘consistently negative’ or ‘rapid fall; incomes are much more sensitive to

climate variability”. This is true even for regions with low income variability

such as SW Western Australia and the Eastern Darling

Downs”.

-200000

-100000

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100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

0102030405060

1020

3040

50

Dry decade

Dry decade

Also take an optimality approach according to the type of decade–Example of present farm business position (red dot) and the range of possible outcomes in terms of profit, economic risk and soil loss, for a 2000ha farm-during a ‘dry decade’ (the value of decadal forecasting?) (Cox et al, 2009).

Up to 50%95Late sorghum

Up to 70%85Sorghum

Up to 46%60Early sorghum

Up to 70%60Spring sorghum

Up to 80%90Wheat

Up to 26%95Maize

Up to 90%95Chickpea

Exposure (%farm land)

Risk (mm PAW)

Enterprise


Up to 70%85Sorghum



Up to 80%90Wheat

Up to 26%95Maize

Up to 90%95Chickpea


Risk (mm PAW)

Enterprise

Improved strategyEnterprise

Be more risk averse Wheat

Be more risk averse particularly with late plantingsSorghum

Be more risk averse & reduce exposure by reducing areas or do not sowMaize

Increase areas as the opportunity arisesChickpea


Be more risk averse Wheat

Be more risk averse particularly with late plantingsSorghum

Be more risk averse & reduce exposure by reducing areas or do not sowMaize

Increase areas as the opportunity arisesChickpea

-200000

-100000

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100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

0102030405060

1020

3040

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Op

era

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re

turn

($

/fa

rm.y

ear) Wet decade

Wet decade

Optimality Approach – Example of present farm business position (red dot) and the ‘landscape’ of possible outcomes in terms of profit, economic risk and soil loss, for a 2000ha farm -during a wet decade-the value of decadal forecasting? (Cox et al, 2009).


Up to 65%60Sorghum



Up to 100%95Wheat

Up to 60%100Maize

Up to 45%80Chickpea


Risk (mm PAW)

Enterprise


Up to 65%60Sorghum



Up to 100%95Wheat

Up to 60%100Maize

Up to 45%80Chickpea


Risk (mm PAW)

Enterprise


Be prepared to increase area even if prices are close to averageWheat

Be less risk averseSorghum

Be less risk averse & prepare to increase areas in the good seasonsMaize

Be less risk averse & increase areasChickpea


Be prepared to increase area even if prices are close to averageWheat

Be less risk averseSorghum

Be less risk averse & prepare to increase areas in the good seasonsMaize

Be less risk averse & increase areasChickpea

-500000

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

3000000

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eb-8

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ratin

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etu

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$/f

arm

)

Present farm management

SOI driven area planted

APSFARM simulation

And…The value of a whole-farm systems approach in linking climate forecasting to farmer’s decisions and operating returns..

Rodriguez et al., 2006

Assessing likely yields according to decision options -the key value in the linking role of simulation modelling

• Provides historical yield of crops and pastures

• Assimilates key soil processes (water, N, carbon)

• Assimilated surface residue dynamics & erosion

• Provides a range of management options

• crop rotations + fallowing• short or long term effects

Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) simulatesAgricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) simulates

APSIM: precise daily time step

model that mathematically reproduces the

physical processes taking place in a

cropping system

“The value of climate forecast information for farming decisions impacts on likely yields – use of Whopper Cropper which utilises pre-run APSIM simulations – examples: When to sow my sorghum crop to achieve the highest potential yield? Effect of sowing date on sorghum yield range at Miles, Southern QLD with a ‘consistently negative’ SOI phase for September/October (Other parameters - 150mm PAWC, 2/3 full at sowing, 6pl/m2, medium maturity. Source; WhopperCropper

Sow date & SOI Phase

15-SepNegative

15-OctNegative

15-NovNegative

15-DecNegative

15-JanNegative

Yie

ld (

kg/h

a)6000

5500

5000

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

• A general over-expectation of safe carrying capacity of stock by farm managers, investors and governments.

•Stock numbers, other herbivores (eg rabbits and kangaroos) and, in some cases, woody weed seedlings, increase in response to periods of above-average rainfall that precede drought episodes and thus lead to subsequent high levels of land degradation.

Cattle industry - insights into management practices leading to producer livelihood vulnerability related to climate variability:

•Intermittent dry seasons within an otherwise wetter period (decade) result in heavy grazing pressure, damage to the ‘desirable’ perennial species and ultimately the grazing land resource. This leads to the rapid collapse of the land to carry animals at the onset of major drought.

•Extreme utilisation in the first years of drought by retaining stock causes further loss of perennial species, exacerbating the drought impacts in subsequent years.

•A rapid decline in, or generally low, commodity prices results in some managers retaining stock in the hope of better prices or the fear of a high cost of restocking.•Continued retention of stock through a long drought period compounds damage to the resource and delayed recovery from the drought.

•A sequence of drought years results in a rapid decline of surface cover, which reveals the extent of previous resource damage and further accelerates the degradation process, thereby further increasing the vulnerability to subsequent drought (Stone et al., 2003; McKeon et al., 2004).

Salinger, 2009.

New Zealand issues – case studies

• NZ Case Study One - ‘lack of reliable rainfall in both summer and winter is the biggest climatic challenge’.....’this has become more of a factor in recent years’ ...

• El Niño and La Niña events both cause problems....

• the main challenge with unreliable rainfall is that the hills dry out quickly and so farmers try to get rid of their lambs early....

• A downstream consequence of dry summers is poorer lambing percentages....

• Also because of the land committed to pine-trees, most of which was in gorse, and effectively under pressure to reafforest, these farmers do not have any land to fall back on when conditions do get dry...” (Ian and Barbara Stuart - Adapting to climate change in eastern New Zealand”)...

Case Study Two - “Carry over effects - key points for the Bay of Plenty region, New Zealand

•The carryover effects of the 2007/8 drought - combined with variable weather, including a very dry autumn in 2009, production only recovered partially (up 7 percent compared with 2007/08) to 97 500 kilograms of milksolids.

• Reduced payout, down to $5.20 per kilogram of milksolids, net cash income dropped 28 percent to $519 500, compared with 2007/08.

• Higher costs and lower payout resulted in a significant cash loss of $53 800 in 2008/09 –

• As a result of the combination of losses in 2008/09 and the lower than expected $4.55 per kilogram of milksolids payout in 2009/10, “farmer morale is subdued”.

Carry-over impacts on farm profit in New Zealand - Bay of Plenty Region (Courtesy: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 2009)

Fiji (Fiji Meteorological Service Headquarters in Namaka, Nadi

Airport)..

Aspects related to the sugar industry in the

overall region -

Farmer decisions and viability relate to issues across the whole value chain in sugar industry

Understanding issues across the whole value chain

The CanePlant

Sugarcane Production

Harvest & Transport

Raw Sugar Milling

Marketing & Shipping

• Best use of scarce/costlywater resources

• Better decisions onfarm operations

• Improved planningfor wet weatherdisruption

• Best cane supplyarrangements

- crush start andfinish times

• Better schedulingof mill operations- crop estimates- early season

cane supply

• Better marketing decisions basedon likely sugar quality

• More effective forward sellingbased on likely crop size

• Improved efficiency of sugarshipments based on supplypattern during harvest season

Everingham et al, 2002

Climate information application for sustained profitability in the sugar industry – Fiji and Australia (Everingham, et al 2002).

Farm Harvest, Transport, Mill Catchment Marketing PolicyFarm Harvest, Transport, Mill Catchment Marketing Policy

Industry Scale Axis

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Tar

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C l i m a t e forecast information

•Irrigation•Fertilisation•fallow practice• land prep • planting• weed manag.• pest manag.

• Improved Planning for wet weather disruption – season start and finish•Crop size forecast•CCS, fibre levels•Civil works schedule

• Land & Water Resource Management

•Environmental Management

• Water allocation•Planning and policy associated with exceptional Events

Industry

Business and Resource ManagersBusiness and Resource Managers

GovernmentGovernment

• Crop size Crop size ForecastForecast•Early Season Early Season SupplySupply•Supply PatternsSupply Patterns-ShippingShipping-Global SupplyGlobal Supply

Fiji Sugar farmer and miller: case study decisions related to climate in order to improve viability:

Grower decisions:•Land preparation – ‘after the wet spell the land needs to be dry for tractors to move in the field’ – important April onwards...•Seed cane planting – rain necessary for good establishment of cane – important April/May.•Herbicide and fertiliser efficiency is improved if advanced knowledge of weather/climate is known.

Miller decisions:• Mill opening and closing – high value in advanced knowledge-Eg: high rainfall in May/June and low rainfall in December there is high value in late opening and late closing.-: low rainfall in May/June and high rainfall in December there is high value in early opening and early closing.

Shipping decisions:• Good knowledge of possible weather conditions can assist in predicting sugar production and thus arrange for shipments in advance (Gawander, 2009).

Ways to prevent a crisis? Case study example - better sugar farm management decisions – Farmer Darren Reinaudo, 22 April 2002.

• ‘Climate pattern in transitional stage so I keep a watchful eye on the climate updates

• I take special interest in the sea surface temperatures (SST) particularly in the Nino 3 region.

• There is currently some indications of warming in the Niño 3 region which hints at a possible El Niño pattern developing

• Replant would be kept to a minimum

• Harvest drier areas earlier, even if CCS maybe effected.

• We don’t run the farm based solely on climate information and forecasts, it’s just another tool to consider when making decisions”.

ExposureVulnerabilityConsiders only:

natural and physical capital

Considers all sources of capital:

natural, physical, financial, and social

10% (most extreme) 10 to 25% (extreme)10 to 25% (extreme) < 25% (least extreme)

ExposureVulnerabilityConsiders only:

natural and physical capital

Considers all sources of capital:

natural, physical, financial, and social

10% (most extreme) 10 to 25% (extreme)10 to 25% (extreme) < 25% (least extreme)

Additional factors contributing to livelihood? A wide range of other aspects besides climate - vulnerability exposure variation in Australia for rainfed pasture producing regions, depending on whether a suite of measures are included (left-hand image) (and including such aspects as significant land degradation) or only natural and physical capital is included (right-hand image) (Nelson et al., 2005).

Also - the potential for more extreme climate and weather events – further crises for

farmers….

P. J. Webster et al., Science 309, 1844 -1846 (2005)

Intensity of hurricanes according to the Saffir-Simpson scale(categories 1 to 5):

100% increase in Category 5 and Category 4 systems since 1970.

‘Based on a range of models, it is likely that future tropical cyclones will become more intense, with larger peak wind speeds and more heavy

precipitation associated with ongoing increases in tropical SSTs’

Finally - fisher livelihood?

Aspects related to climate

‘drivers’ may also be

important.

Relationships between

Spanner Crab Catch off eastern

Queensland and the Nino3 SST (Stone, Meinke, and

Williams, 2005).

Summary• Overall, high relationship between climate variability (ENSO), yield and farm profit/farm cash income with potential links to crisis periods for producers and farmers– value in linking to decisions at a wide range of temporal scales – and value in forecasting farm cash as well as yield to assist preparedness (by government or farmers).

•Climate variability and agricultural yield vary enormously in the region –strong relationship to ENSO and decadal patterns – over expectation of good seasons and thus excessively high stocking rates (cattle) and subsequent poor returns and high land degradation in subsequent drought .

•The likely sensitivity of farm cash income to climate variability - generally lower than normal income sensitivity in years when indicators suggest break of El Niño or La Niña pattern at the end of May and June - higher income sensitivity under developing El Niño.

•Key aspects related to whole-farm and also whole-industry and value chain – example of sugar industry (eg Fiji).. •Flow on impacts in years beyond major droughts (eg New Zealand)..key aspects of more extreme events impacting on farm viability.

Thanks to the following colleagues:

Dr Rohan Nelson (Federal Department of Climate Change), Canberra.

Dr Daniel Rodriguez, Agricultural Production Systems Research Unit (APSRU/DEEDI), (Queensland Government, Toowoomba).

Howard Cox, Agricultural Production Systems Research Unit (APSRU/DEEDI), (Queensland Government, Toowoomba).

Sid Plant, Farmer, Kulpi, Queensland.

Anthony Clark, NIWA, New Zealand.

Thank youThank youThank youThank you

Best practice in the delivery of seasonal forecasting systems to farmers - the important aspect of co-learning with farmers if we are serious about improving the livelihood of farmers- ‘Participative R&D in action’. Tully Consultative Group sugar/climate project (Russell Muchow; Yvette Everingham, Roger Stone; CSIRO/JCU/DPI&F/USQ)

Assessing the potential for ‘exceptional drought assistance’ for farmers- use of simulation models to determine the relevance of recent

agricultural droughts in an historical context.

5-year running mean - Wentworth, 1950 to 1998

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Simulated Wheat Yield 1950+

??

Simulated Wheat Yield 1890+5-year running mean - Wentworth, 1884 to 1998

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New Caledonia

•The term “drought” ‘not well defined’ in New Caledonia – its definition depends on its use...

•For agricultural purposes New Caledonia uses a weekly estimation of the Penman Monteith potential evapotranspiration for various sites which gives a proxy of the stress imposed by meteorological conditions for plants ..

•Drought also monitored indirectly with the bushfire weather forecasting systems based on the MacArthur index.

(Source: Alexandre Peltier, Meteo-France, Nouvelle Caledonie).

Conclusions:

Degradation increasing overall vulnerability in rainfed pasture producing regions

Average profit versus the risk of making a loss for a range of urea rates applied as fixed amounts each year at sowing (full line and filled diamonds), applied each year at top dressing (broken line and empty diamonds), and top-dressed adjusting the rate each year depending on the June-July SOI phase (squares). The numbers in italic associated with

the continuous and broken lines indicate the total amount of urea applied at sowing or applied at topdressing (sowing + topdressing) irrespective of the SOI. The numbers in the framed legend associated with each square indicate the

total amount of urea (sowing + topdressing) applied when the June-July SOI was consistently negative (CN), consistently positive (CP), rapidly falling (RF), rapidly rising (RR), and near zero (NZ), respectively. The different

figures represent different initial conditions reset every year on the 1st of January in the simulations. This is 10 or 50% of plant available water (PAW) and 10 or 60 kg N / ha in the soil profile.

Input parameters Number of factors

Crop type the common summer and winter crops

Soil water-holding capacity up to five levels

Soil water at planting 1/3, 2/3 and full

Planting date up to five dates

Maturity length three categories

Plant population typically three levels

Row configuration wide rows in sorghum and cotton

Effect of soil nitrogen content typically three levels

Nitrogen fertiliser rate (planting and in-crop)

typically six nitrogen rates

Southern Oscillation Index phase system five-level phase system

Main input factors and numbers of factor included in WhopperCropper

“THE LIVELIHOOD CRISIS OF FARMERS – A REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE FROM AUSTRALIA AND THE SOUTHWEST...

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