THE JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - Gwern · 642 The Journal of Educational Psychology Gates2...

THE JOURNAL OF

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYVolume XXX December, 1939 Number 9

STUDIES IN RETENTIONHERBERT F. SPITZER

State University of Iowa*

The present investigation was planned with special reference to(1) the effect of recall on retention, (2) the relationship between therate of forgetting and the ability of the subjects, and (3) the effect ofitem difficulty on the form of retention curves.

PROBLEM

The importance of retention is shown by the fact that growth orimprovement in skills, knowledges, and attitudes is dependent uponthe learner's retention of the effects of previous experience. The useof recall as an aid to retention has been emphasized by theorists onmethods of study and by investigators in the field of memory. Thelack of experimental evidence on the effect of recall on retention whereconditions approach those of actual schoolroom practice prompted thisinvestigation. The primary purpose of the investigation was to deter-mine the effect of recall on retention of facts which children acquirethrough reading when the materials and the methods of study aresimilar to those used in classroom situations. Two subsidiary prob-lems of the investigation relate to the effect of item difficulty upon theform of retention curves and to the relationship between the learningability of the students and the rate of forgetting.

Related Research.—A number of experimental studies have dealtwith various aspects of the problem of this investigation. Myers8

found that immediate recall in the form of written reproduction wasbeneficial to later reproduction of a list of unrelated words. An indi-rect or incidental method of learning the words had been employed.

* This article reports, in part, an investigation conducted by the writer as apartial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in the College ofEducation of the State University of Iowa. The assistance of Dr. Ernest Horn,under whose direction the study was conducted, is gratefully acknowledged.

641

642 The Journal of Educational Psychology

Gates2 found that some recall in the form of recitation was an aid inmemorizing biographical prose. This was true when tests were givenimmediately and also after four hours. Gates also reports finding ahigh positive correlation between immediate and delayed recall.Yoakam7 concluded that an immediate recall in the form of a test wasof more value to retention than was a single reading. Jones3 foundthat recall tests aided the retention of information acquired fromlectures by college students Other studies which are related to somephases of this study are reported by Dietze,1 Keys,4 Raffel,6 andYoung.8

SUBJECTS AND MATERIAL

The subjects for this experiment were thirty-six hundred fivesixth-grade pupils of nine Iowa cities. This was the entire sixth-gradepopulation of ninety-one elementary schools. These schools werearbitrarily divided into ten groups. Groups I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII,and VIII, each comprising approximately four hundred children, wereused to obtain the data for the main part of the experiment. Group IXwas used to obtain data on the effect of immediate repetition of tests,and Group X was used to obtain information on previous knowledge.Thus Groups IX and X were, in a sense, used as control groups.

The reading materials used in this study were two articles, sixhundred four and five hundred seventy-seven words in length, printedin a six-page folder. The first of these articles entitled "Peanuts,"designated A, and the accompanying test, were used as a sectioningdevice; while the second article, entitled "Bamboos," designated B,and the accompanying test, were used to obtain the data on retention.An attempt was made to write articles with content that would berelatively new to the children, highly factual, authentic, of the properdifficulty, and similar in type to the material that children read in theirregular school work. Both of the topics dealt with are treated brieflyif at all in geography books used by the children. The first paragraphof Article B and five of the items of Test B, which are wholly or partiallybased on the content of this paragraph, are given below.

Near Savannah, Georgia, is the Plant Introduction Garden of the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture. In one section of this garden are thebamboos. These plants are members of the grass family. They resembletheir relatives, corn and wheat, in structure of stem which is rounded, dividedinto joints, and more or less hollow. Bamboos also resemble pines andspruces by having tall, straight trunks and cone shaped heads or crowns, and

Studies in Retention 643

by being evergreens. Although they are evergreens, a new set of leavesappears each spring. On rare occasions bamboos flower and produce seeds.After flowering, the plant usually dies.

1. Who maintains an experimental garden near Savannah, Georgia?( ) The Bamboo Growers Association ( ) The U. S. Government ( )The U. S. Custom Office ( ) The florists of Savannah ( ) The State ofGeorgia.

2. To which family of plants do bamboos belong? ( ) trees ( ) ferns( ) grasses ( ) mosses ( ) fungi.

4. Which two trees do the bamboos resemble most? ( ) royal and datepalms ( ) willow and tamarack ( ) white oak and burch ( ) walnut andhickory ( ) pine and spruce.

18. How often do bamboos produce seed? ( ) every spring ( ) never( ) on rare occasions ( ) every other year ( ) every third year.

19. What usually happens to a bamboo plant after the flowering period?( ) It dies ( ) It begins a new growth ( ) It sends up new plants fromthe roots ( ) It begins to branch out ( ) It begins to grow a rough bark.

A twenty-five item test (see example above) on each article wasused to measure retention. Through an item analysis of each test, thedifficulty and discriminating power (tetrachoric " r " ) of each itemwere obtained. Items too difficult or of poor discriminating powerwere eliminated after the preliminary trials, leaving a total of twenty-five items in each test. The reliability of the two tests determined byequal halves technique was .77 and .80, respectively. The correlationbetween Test A and Test B based on scores of six hundred twenty-twopupils who took both tests immediately after reading the articleswas .76.

PROCEDURE

Both the reading material and the tests were presented to thepupils by their regular teachers according to directions supplied bythe investigator. In the printed directions given at the beginning ofthe experiment, the children were told that they were taking part in alearning experiment. They were also told that they were to try toremember the information given in the articles. Similar directionswere printed at the top of each article.

On the first day of the experiment, all the children in Groups I-VIIIread Article A and took Test A. They also read Article B, but onlyGroups I and II took Test Bi.* The other six groups took a test

* The first time pupils took Test B, it was labeled Bi\ the second time they tookTest B, it was labeled Bi\ and the third time, it was labeled B».


TABLE I.—DIAGRAM OP PROCEDUBB

Time in days

GroupsI

IIIIIIVV

VIVII

VIII

0

B,B,

1

B,

B,

7

B,

Bi

14

B\

B.

21

B,

B2

B,

• •

28

B,

B,••

63

B,

B,

B,

which had little relation to the content of Article B. This test wasgiven in order to keep them from expecting a later test. The realTest B was given to these six groups (III-VIII) at varying timeintervals after the start of the experiment. A diagram of the testingprocedure followed is given in Table I. This table shows that thepupils of Group I took Test Bi immediately after reading Article B,repeated the test (Test 2?2) after one day, and again repeated the sametest (Test B3) after twenty-one days. The pupils of Group IV tookTest JBI seven days after reading Article B and repeated the test(Test B^ twenty-one days after reading the article. The procedurefollowed by the other six groups is shown in the table.

The reading materials were not referred to after the initial studyperiod, nor did the pupils know that there were to be delayed tests.The teachers were instructed not to discuss the articles or the testswith the pupils. Pupils were given eight minutes to read the articlesand ten minutes for each of the tests.

The pupils of Group IX read both articles and took both tests onthe first day of the experiment. They took Test B a second timeimmediately after completing the first attempt. For this second testthey were instructed to try to improve their first score. This pro-cedure was followed for the purpose of obtaining information on theeffect of repetition of the tests. The pupils of Group X took Test Bwithout having read Article B, for the purpose of obtaining data onprevious knowledge.

RESULTS

Effect of Recall.—From a single frequency distribution of the scoreson Test A, the mean score and the standard deviation of scores of the


population studied were determined. The means and standarddeviations of the scores of the pupils on Test A in each of Groups I-VIIIwere then calculated. A comparison of these means with the meanfor the entire population showed that each of the groups was practicallyrepresentative of the population. However, some pupil scores weredeleted from two of the groups in order to make the groups morenearly equal. The means of these equated groups are given inTable II. The critical ratio of the largest difference between meanson Test A of any two of these equalized groups is only .18.

TABLE II.—TEST B RESULTS OF THE GROUPS THAT MADE EQUIVALENT SCORES ONTEST A

Group

III

IIIIII

IIIIIIIVIVVV

VIVI

VIIVIII

N

286284266338335312367349337323371353379352365350

M test A

15.03

15 05

15.00

15.00

15.04

15 04

15 0015.03

Test*

B,B ,B,B,B,B,B,Bt

B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,

M test B

13 2313 0712.1813 2011 8410 749 568.937 878.156 977 106.497.076.806 38

SD test B

4 694 574 594.504 644.224.244 063 563.833 533.212 913 083 032.71

* For identification of various Test B's and the tune after learning that eachwas taken, see Table I.

The mean scores of all groups of pupils who took Test B are shownin Table II. In interpreting the data of this table the assumption ismade that the eight groups of pupils profited equally from the readingand that the groups possessed equal ability to retain the effects of thereading. This assumption is based on the fact that the groups wereequated on the sectioning test (Test A). According to the assumptionstated above, Group I would have made a mean score of approximately9.56 (mean score of Group III on Test Bi) one day after reading thearticle if the group had not been given the immediat erecall test. Thislast statement is based on the fact that Groups I and III were originally


equal. Therefore, had Group I delayed taking Test B until one dayafter reading, the mean score made by the group would have beenthe same as that made by Group III, or 9.56. On the same basis, hadGroups III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII been tested immediately after read-ing Article B, each group would have made a mean score of approxi-mately 13.22. The data of this table show that more is forgotten in oneday without recall than is forgotten in sixty-three days with the aid ofrecall, as is shown by a comparison of the scores of II B3 and VIII Bt.The differences between originally comparable groups and now differingby only one recall and the critical ratio of these differences are shownin Table III. These critical ratios would have been larger had thestandard error of difference formula for matched groups been used.*This formula was not used because a statistically significant differencewas obtained without its use. The data summarized in Tables IIand III show clearly that retention benefited significantly by recall.

The effects of recall on retention are shown graphically in thefigures (see Figs. 1, 2,3, and 4). The points on the graph represent themean performance of the different groups. For example, the "PointIII Bi" represents the mean score of the pupils of Group III on their

TABLE III.—COMPARISON OP TEST B RESULTS FOB GROUPS DIFFERING BY ONLTONE RECALL

Group

IIII

IIVII

IVII

VIIII

VIVVIV

VII

Test

B,B,B,B s

Bt

B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,Bx

AM

13 079.56

12.188.15

11.847.87

10.747.078.936.978 156.497.106.80

SE, AM

.27

.2228

.21

.25

.19

.24

.16

.22

.18

.21

.1618

.16

Difference

3.51

4.03

3 97

3 67

1 96

1 66

.30

SEdifference

346

.350

317

288

286

.264

241

CR

10.10

11.51

12 50

12.74

6.85

6.29

1.25

* Lindquist, E. F. and Wilks, S. S.: "The Significance of a Difference betweenMatched Groups." J. Educ. Psycho., Vol. xxn, 1931, pp. 197-204, 205-208.


first attempt on Test B. This trial was taken one day after readingArticle B. Since the eight groups were equalized according to theirperformance on Test A, which was quite similar to Test B, it isassumed that the facts which Groups I and II acquired through readingwould have been forgotten at the rate shown by the solid line if theyhad not been given the intervening recall tests. Thus, the spaceseparating a point on the solid line and a vertical point on any of thebroken lines represents the effect of the recall test on retention for thatparticular situation. Figures 1 and 2, which are based on the entirepopulation, show that immediate forgetting unaided by recall was veryrapid and that in every case recall was beneficial to retention.

18

12

10

a g

»-

P «* .to

to

0

\ wM-1

SB,

M7B,JVS,

r- . 1

Unaided tv

Aided ty

SB,

FIG

14 21

TIME IN DATS (

CURVES OF RETENTION FOR THE ENTIRE POPULATION WHEN THEAMOUNT RETAINED IS EXPRESSED IN RAW SCORES

When the papers were corrected for guessing through use of theWformula, S = R — (N _ ,y the critical ratios of differences remained

practically the same as those shown in Table III.The one hundred sixty-nine children of Group IX who were given

a second Test B immediately after taking the first test improved theirmean score only .03. Thus, an immediate repetition of the test did notresult in a large increase in the number of facts acquired.

The mean score of the three hundred one children of Group X whowere tested for previous knowledge was 5.27. The assumption thatthis score represents the previous knowledge of Groups I-VIII israther questionable since the foils or wrong responses of items in thetest were not as plausible for those who had not read the article(group tested for previous knowledge) as these responses were for those


pupils who had read the article. The previous knowledge of GroupsI-VIII, then, was probably less than 5.27. Since no other measure ofprevious knowledge was available, this amount was subtracted fromthe mean score of each group in obtaining the data from which Fig. 2was constructed. This figure, subject to the limitation given above,shows the curves of retention when the amount retained is given as aper cent of the amount learned. The figure shows the same trend asthat shown in Fig. 1. In this case, however, forgetting is more rapid

100

• • 5 ,

» - O

• h

•

1—

VA

JUS*

s52.

' • *

re,

A'c/rtY ty

— _va,

7 M 21

TIME IN DAYS

FIG. 2 CURVES OF RETENTION FOR THE ENTIRE POPULATION WHENTHE AMOUNT RETAINED IS EXPRESSED AS A PER CENT OF THE

AMOUNT LEARNED

and the curve of retention unaided by recall begins to level muchnearer the zero line.

LEARNING ABILITY AND RETENTION

In order to determine whether ability to learn affected the shape ofthe retention curve, the Test B scores of those pupils who scored in theupper one third on Test A were compared with the Test B scores ofthose in the lower one third on Test A. The data for making thesecomparisons are shown in Tables IV and V. The data on the upperand lower thirds are shown graphically in Figs. 3 and 4. An examina-tion of these figures shows that the curve of retention of pupils ofinferior learning ability begins to level or to have reached the horizontalseven days after learning. At the same time the curve for the pupilswith superior learning ability does not begin to level until twenty-onedays after the learning period.


TABLE IV.—TEST B RESULTS OF PUPILS WHO MADE SCORES IN THE UPPER ANDLOWER THIRDS ON TEST A

Group

IIIIII

IIIIIIIII I

IIIIII I IIVIVVV

VIVI

VIIVII

VIIIVIII

Division

UpperUpperUpperLowerLowerLowerUpperUpperUpperLowerLowerLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLowerUpperLower

N

959588959589

112120111112120111123123113113124124130130122122117117

AMtest A

19.62

10.42

19.17

10.92

19.3310.9019.2710.9219.5410.8419.5810.7619.4710.5719.4310.79

Test

B,BtB,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,

AMtest B

17.0216.7615.479.679.679 19

17.1816.1014.5710.018.557.39

12.587.09

10.395.489.285.228.466.338.505.577.745.16

SDofB scores

3.573.363.873.403.213.362.70*3.64f3.42f3.233.252.494.022.523.362.433.472.303.212.033 112.132.841.95

* Unusually small because high scores were deleted in the equalizationprocedure.

t Not equalized.TABLE V.—COMPARISON or TEST B RESULTS OF UPPER AND LOWER THIRDS FOB

GROUPS DIFFERING BY ONLY ONE RECALL

Group

IIII

IIII

IIIVII

IV

Division

UpperUpperLowerLowerUpperUpperLowerLower

Test

B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,

AM

16.7612.589.677.09

16.1010.398.555.48

SE,AM

.34

.36

.33

.23

.3331

.30

.23

Differ-ence ofAM's

4.18

2.58

5.71

3.07

SE

differ-ence

.495

.402

.463

.378

CR

8.44

6.41

12.33

8.12


Because of the fact that the data of Tables IV and V and Figs. 3and 4 are based on scores neither corrected for guessing nor correctedfor previous knowledge, the rate of forgetting shown is probably muchless rapid than the true rate of forgetting. According to the data aspresented the pupils in the upper one third forgot twenty-six per cent

' \\l&MB,

' l?4-~-

-

\l!B,

.aw1

'% —

zae,

Una/dec/ £y

MO,

7 14 21TIME IN DAYS

FIS. 3 CURVES OF RETENTION FOR THE PUPILS IN THE UPPER ONETHIRD OF SCORES ON TEST A

14 1

-

ire,

W

TIME IN

21

DAYS

FIG 4 CURVES OF RETENTION FOR PUPILS IN THE LOWER ONETHIRD OF SCORES ON TEST A

of their original score in one day while the pupils in the lower one thirdforgot twenty-eight per cent. For one week, the figures were thirty-nine per cent and forty-four per cent. When scores were correctedfor guessing the upper one third forgot within one day thirty-threeper cent while the lower one third forgot forty-nine per cent. Itshould be remembered that the upper and lower thirds referred to are


based on the pupils' scores on Test A. The data show that the pupilsin the lower third tend to have a more rapid initial rate of forgetting.

Additional data on the relationship between learning ability andretention were secured by correlating the immediate score of pupils onTest A with their delayed score on Test B. The score on Test A wasconsidered a measure of the pupils' ability to learn, while the delayedscore on Test B was considered as a measure of the pupils' ability toretain. The " r ' s " obtained in the above manner ranged from .60 forone day to .44 for sixty-three days. Since the correlation between thetwo tests on immediate recall was only .76, the " r ' s " given for the rela-tionship between immediate and delayed recall, or between ability to

—

~- "-—1

_ - ^ —

_

14 21

- TIME IN DAYS -63 PREVIOUS

KNOWLEBGC

FIG S CURVES OF FORGETTING FOR ITEMS NUMBER 9, I I , 15, 0 23.(PER CENTS UNCORRECTEO)

learn and retention, are probably very conservative. In connectionwith the relationship between immediate and delayed recall, the atten-tion of the reader is called to the fact that in some previous studies thisrelationship was found by correlating the immediate and delayed scoreson the same test. The results of such a procedure are almost certainto be spuriously high because of the effect of recall on retention. Whenthis procedure was used in the present investigation, a correlation of.91 between the scores on immediate recall and recall after one daywas obtained.

EFFECT OF ITEM DIFFICULTY ON THE FORM OF RETENTION CURVES

From an item analysis of the papers of all pupils who took Test B,the data on forgetting of individual items shown in Table VI were


obtained. The first seven columns represent the per cent of pupilstested at various times who answered each item correctly. The lastcolumn shows the per cent of the pupils tested for previous knowledgewho answered the items correctly. An examination of the data inTable VI will show that there is little relationship between the rate offorgetting of items and the initial difficulty of the items. This fact isshown graphically in Fig. 5. The four items (9, 11, 15, and 23) forwhich curves of retention are shown were approximately of equaldifficulty on the initial test. Two of the items (11 and 23) were alsoabout equal on the previous knowledge score. In spite of these simi-larities, widely differing curves of retention were found. The onegeneral characteristic of the data on each item is the fact that the rate

TABLE VI.—THB PER CENT OP CORRECT RESPONSES FOR EACH OF THE ITEMS ONTEST B

Item

number

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

I andII

40

61

81

80

55

76

4332

75

55

7229

67

77

73

41

40

37

68

53

63

24

73

35

31

III

28

30

62

56

42

57

4024

60

28

50

22

30

64

46

28

28

20

39

39

27

17

56

31

21

IV

21

20

52

38

40

573318

53

21

29

19

245734

27

22

1932

32

16

14

54

27

21

V

19

15

45

36

3755

29

19

46

20

23

16

19

44

24

17

18

17

22

34

14

19

52

2719

VI

17

16

43

31

39

59

2522

45

14

23

15

20

46

26

13

19

14

17

33

16

16

50

26

17

VII

20

16

43

33

41

61

24

18

44

18

23

14

2541

22

17

19

14

17

27

13

13

51

29

21

VIII

14

15

50

28

46

61

25

19

40

13

31

10

26

3314

14

13

9

9

32

13

17

50

28

20

X

10

14

60

18

56

66

17

9

26

11

38

6

19

20

9

78

4

4

21

14

934

22

10

SE of the per cents varies from 2.1 to 2.7.


of forgetting is more rapid during the first day than during any sub-sequent period.

The data for items 3, 5, 6, and 11 (Table VI) show that reading orstudy of material can be detrimental to success on a test over thecontent of that material. Children who had read the article madelower scores on some tests over these four items than those who had notread the articles. In the case of these four items, the differenceascribed to this interference was statistically significant.

The data on items 13, 24, and 25 seem to be evidence for reminis-cence. However, none of the differences or gains ascribed to reminis-cence are statistically significant.

When the amount of previous knowledge (last column in Table VI)is subtracted from the per cents given in the other columns of Table VI,a very different picture is presented. (See Table VII.) The difficulty

TABLE VII.—ITEMS IN RANK ORDER OF PER CENT ANSWERED CORRECTLY AFTERSUBTRACTION OP THE AMOTJNT CREDITED TO PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE

Item number

15194149132121023111618172017812325222465

I and II

646462574948474744393434333232302623232121131310

- 1

III

3535384434111316172212211620181823151621189

- 9-14

IV

25282037275261020

- 9201514111116913

- 81155

- 9-16

V

1518182420001918

-15101310139121010

-159105

-11-19

VI

1713132619122316

-15610111278139

-17774

- 7-17

VII

13131521186

- 12717

-15101011610798

-171147

- 5-15

VIII

551013147

- 11216

- 77551148104

-101086

- 5-10


rank of some items changes considerably. However, even after thischange, no relationship between difficulty and rate of forgetting isevident.

TABLE VIII.—THE EFFECT OF RECALL ON RETENTION FOR INDIVIDUAL ITEMS

Item number

12345678910111213141516171819202122232425

GroupII percent

correcton Bi

39618180557642317451722863767241403768545926693531

GroupII percent

correcton B,

25406367618133176537412143655533353752363722683726

GroupVTTTV XXX

per cent

141550284661251940133110263314141399321317502820

Differ-ence

Bt-B,

14211813

- 6- 5

91491431720111785016182221

- 25

Per centfor-

gotten

36342216

-11- 72145122743253214242013024333781

- 616

Differ-ence

B.-VIII

25463152915171234384118374358272728582246919711

Per centfor-

gotten

64753865162040394675576459578166687685417835282035

In order to determine what effect recall had on the retention ofindividual items, a comparison of the amount forgotten by Group II(with recall) and Group VIII (without recall) was made. In each casethe time elapsed was sixty-three days. The data for making thi6comparison are given in Table VIII. The data show that recall wasbeneficial to retention for every item. When the pupils were dividedinto an upper and a lower group on the basis of their Test A scores and


data similar to that of Table VIII prepared, it was found that thesuperior pupils benefited more from recall.

The high scores made by the pupils of Groups I and II on therepeated tests might be attributed to the pupils' remembering how thetest was marked the first time. If this assumption were valid, then,both correct and incorrect responses would be repeated with equalconsistency. In order to test the assumption, one hundred of theTest Bi and Test B2 papers of Group II were analyzed to determine theconsistency of responses. It was found that right answers wererepeated seventy-nine per cent of the time; while wrong answers wererepeated only fifty per cent. Since right answers were repeated moreconsistently than wrong answers, only a small portion of the unusuallyhigh scores on the second trial of the test can be ascribed to the pupils'remembering how the test was marked the first time. Chance alonewould give twenty per cent repetition of responses. The fact thatwrong answers were repeated more often than chance would allow isnot in conflict with the assumption that recall and not mere repetitionis the factor that aids retention. In giving some wrong responses, thepupils were sometimes recalling information given in the article, formany of the false responses were taken from the content of the article.Thus, recall can also aid the retention of erroneous ideas.

Limitations.—The findings of this study are subject to a numberof limitations. The most important of these are the following: (1)The method of measurement employed a type of cue not used inrecalling information in everyday school or life situations. (2) Thetests were repeated. (3) The learning was of little practical use tothe children. (4) The children were given no opportunity to refer tothe material after the initial learning period. (5) The pupils did notknow whether their responses were correct or incorrect. (6) Theeffect of reacting to one item upon the response to other items is notknown.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

The findings of this study seem to warrant the following educa-tional implications: (1) Immediate recall in the form of a test is aneffective method of aiding the retention of learning and should, there-fore, be employed more frequently in the elementary school. (2)Because recall can aid in fixing erroneous ideas, all tests or examina-tions should be returned to the pupil corrected, or the pupil should begiven an opportunity to correct his own paper. (3) Achievement


tests or examinations are learning devices and should not be consideredonly as tools for measuring achievement of pupils. (4) Since readingabout a topic can interfere with the knowledge the subject alreadypossesses, careful consideration should be given to what is supposedto be learned and to the thoroughness of learning. (5) In all studieswhere the same tests are repeated, the possible effects of recall onretention should be recognized.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Dietze, A. G., and Jones, G. E.: "Factual Memory of Secondary-School Pupilsfor a Short Article Which They Read a Single Time." / . Ed. Psycho., Vol.xxn, 1931, pp. 586-598, and 667-676.

2. Gates, A. I.: "Correlation of Immediate and Delayed Recall." / . Ed.Psycho., Vol. ix, 1918, pp. 489-496.

3. Jones, H. E.: "Experimental Studies of College Teaching." Archives ofPsychology, No. 68, 1923.

4. Keys, Noel: "The Influence on Learning of Weekly as Opposed to MonthlyTests." J. Exp. Psycho., Vol. xxv, 1934, pp. 427-436.

5. Myers, G. C : "Recall in Relation to Retention." J. Ed. Psycho., Vol. v, 1914,pp. 119-130.

6. Raffel, Gertrude: "The Effect of Recall on Recognition." J . Exp. Psycho.,Vol. xvn, 1931, pp. 828-837.

7. Yoakam, G. A.: The Effect of a Single Beading on the Retention of Various Typesof Materials in the Content Subjects of the Elementary-School Curriculum asMeasured by Immediate and Delayed Recall. Ph. D. Thesis, State Universityof Iowa, 1922, p. 254.

8. Young, William E.: The Relation of Reading Comprehension and Retention toHearing Comprehension and Retention. Ph. D. Thesis, State University ofIowa, 1930.

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