Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REFLECTION FOR ACTION Canadian...

Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition

EDUCATIONAL EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGYREFLECTION FOR ACTIONREFLECTION FOR ACTION

Canadian EditionCanadian EditionO’Donnell, D’Amico, Schmid, Reeve, Smith


CHAPTER 4CHAPTER 4Individual Differences Among Individual Differences Among

LearnersLearners


Chapter 4 Chapter 4 Individual Differences Among Individual Differences Among

LearnersLearners• Themes of the chapterThemes of the chapter

– Conceptualizations of intelligence Conceptualizations of intelligence have changed over have changed over

– Identifying and accommodating Identifying and accommodating students with special needsstudents with special needs

– Poverty affects children in schoolsPoverty affects children in schools


Guiding QuestionsGuiding Questions

• How was intelligence understood initially, How was intelligence understood initially, and how have views of intelligence and how have views of intelligence changed over time?changed over time?

• How is intelligence measured, and how How is intelligence measured, and how is it related to achievementis it related to achievement

• What happens when students are What happens when students are grouped by ability?grouped by ability?

(continued)(continued)


Guiding Questions Guiding Questions (continued)(continued)

• How does talent develop?How does talent develop?• In general, how do schools identify In general, how do schools identify

children with special needs?children with special needs?• How are learning disabilities and How are learning disabilities and

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder attention deficit hyperactivity disorder identified?identified?

• How do differences in socioeconomic How do differences in socioeconomic status and culture affect students’ status and culture affect students’ success in schoolsuccess in school??


Variability in the ClassroomVariability in the Classroom

• A teacher’s challenge is to acknowledge A teacher’s challenge is to acknowledge and celebrate the differences among and celebrate the differences among children and work to maximize the growth children and work to maximize the growth in each childin each child

• A teacher must also adhere to the A teacher must also adhere to the mandates of the curriculummandates of the curriculum


History of IntelligenceHistory of Intelligence

• Galton (1869)Galton (1869)– Interested in the study of individual Interested in the study of individual

differences and in eugenics which was a differences and in eugenics which was a political and scientific movement that political and scientific movement that argued for selective reproduction of argued for selective reproduction of individuals and immigration laws based on individuals and immigration laws based on intelligence levelsintelligence levels

• Binet (1905)Binet (1905)– Published (with Simon) the first set of Published (with Simon) the first set of

intelligence scales to identify low-achieving intelligence scales to identify low-achieving students who might need helpstudents who might need help



• Binet (1916)Binet (1916)– Intelligence is judgment and adapting to Intelligence is judgment and adapting to

one’s circumstancesone’s circumstances• Stern with Terman (1920)Stern with Terman (1920)

– Devised the intelligent quotient (IQ)Devised the intelligent quotient (IQ)– IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100

• Goddard (1920)Goddard (1920)– Intelligence is an innate ability, or present Intelligence is an innate ability, or present

at birthat birth



• Spearman (1923)Spearman (1923)– Factor analyzed a large number of Factor analyzed a large number of

measures of mental ability and concluded measures of mental ability and concluded that intelligence was one factor he called that intelligence was one factor he called gg (general) along with a variety of specific (general) along with a variety of specific factorsfactors

• Thurstone (1957)Thurstone (1957)– Proposed a model of intelligence with Proposed a model of intelligence with

seven primary mental abilitiesseven primary mental abilities


• Thurstone’s Primary Mental AbilitiesThurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities– Verbal comprehensionVerbal comprehension

– Word fluencyWord fluency

– Number facilityNumber facility

– Spatial visualizationSpatial visualization

– Associate memoryAssociate memory

– Perceptual speedPerceptual speed

– ReasoningReasoning



• Cattell (1963) Cattell (1963) – Fluid intelligence – the ability to solve – the ability to solve

problems, figure out what to do when one problems, figure out what to do when one is not sure what to do, and acquire new is not sure what to do, and acquire new skillsskills

– Crystallized intelligence – the use of – the use of acquired skills and knowledge such as acquired skills and knowledge such as reading and language skillsreading and language skills



Controversies in IntelligenceControversies in Intelligence

• Nature/nurture – a shorthand term for the – a shorthand term for the debate over whether mental abilities are debate over whether mental abilities are developed by the individual’s environment developed by the individual’s environment (nature) or inherited (nurture)(nature) or inherited (nurture)

• Eugenics – a movement that argued that – a movement that argued that intelligence is genetic, so governments intelligence is genetic, so governments should encourage reproduction of those should encourage reproduction of those with high intelligence and not those with with high intelligence and not those with lower intelligencelower intelligence


More Recent Views of IntelligenceMore Recent Views of Intelligence

• Gardner’s (1983) theory of multiple Gardner’s (1983) theory of multiple intelligencesintelligences

• Sternberg’s (1985) triarchic theory of Sternberg’s (1985) triarchic theory of intelligenceintelligence

• Sternberg’s (1997) idea of successful Sternberg’s (1997) idea of successful intelligenceintelligence


Sternberg’s Theory of IntelligenceSternberg’s Theory of Intelligence

• Triarchic theory holds that intelligence has three holds that intelligence has three main facets each of which is the top of a main facets each of which is the top of a hierarchyhierarchy– Analytical: ability to respond effectively to Analytical: ability to respond effectively to

problemsproblems• Metacomponents, performance components, and Metacomponents, performance components, and

knowledge acquisition componentsknowledge acquisition components

– Creative: ability to generate new ideas Creative: ability to generate new ideas • Novelty or insight and automaticity (ability to Novelty or insight and automaticity (ability to

perform a task without having to think much about itperform a task without having to think much about it

– Practical: ability to handle everyday problems and Practical: ability to handle everyday problems and issuesissues


Sternberg’s “Successful” Sternberg’s “Successful” IntelligenceIntelligence

• The ability to succeed in life, given one’s The ability to succeed in life, given one’s own goals, within one’s environmental own goals, within one’s environmental contexts with four key elements for contexts with four key elements for teachersteachers– Teaching for memory learningTeaching for memory learning

– Teaching for analytical learningTeaching for analytical learning

– Teaching for creative learningTeaching for creative learning

– Teaching for practical learningTeaching for practical learning


Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences(MI)Intelligences(MI)

– Logical-mathematicalLogical-mathematical

– LinguisticLinguistic

– SpatialSpatial

– MusicalMusical

– Bodily-kinestheticBodily-kinesthetic

– NaturalisticNaturalistic

– InterpersonalInterpersonal

– IntrapersonalIntrapersonal


Views of IntelligenceViews of Intelligence

• Entity view – the belief that intelligence is – the belief that intelligence is genetically determined and not alterablegenetically determined and not alterable

• Incremental view – the belief that – the belief that intelligence can be improved through effortintelligence can be improved through effort


Your TurnYour Turn

• If someone has an entity view of their own If someone has an entity view of their own ability what does this mean for how hard ability what does this mean for how hard her or she will work at tasks? her or she will work at tasks?

• What about those with an incremental view What about those with an incremental view of their own abilities? How does this affect of their own abilities? How does this affect how hard they will work at tasks?how hard they will work at tasks?


How Is Intelligence Measured?How Is Intelligence Measured?

• VerbalVerbal– InformationInformation

– SimilaritiesSimilarities

– ArithmeticArithmetic

– VocabularyVocabulary

– ComprehensionComprehension

– Digit spanDigit span

• PerformancePerformance– picture completionpicture completion– CodingCoding– Picture arrangementPicture arrangement– Block designBlock design– Object assemblyObject assembly– Symbol searchSymbol search– MazesMazes

Standardized IQ Test – WISC IV


How Is Intelligence Measured?How Is Intelligence Measured?

• Sequential Sequential ProcessingProcessing

– Hand movementsHand movements

– Number recallNumber recall

– Word orderWord order

• Simultaneous Simultaneous ProcessingProcessing– Magic windowMagic window

– face recognitionface recognition

– Gestalt closureGestalt closure

– TrianglesTriangles

– Matrix analogiesMatrix analogies

– Spatial memorySpatial memory

– Photo seriesPhoto series

Standardized IQ Test – K-ABC II


Issues in Intelligence TestingIssues in Intelligence Testing

• Test bias – systematic unfair treatment of Test bias – systematic unfair treatment of a particular group of individualsa particular group of individuals

• Test bias problems led to the development Test bias problems led to the development of of – Culture-free tests: standardized tests that Culture-free tests: standardized tests that

do not include items that might favor one do not include items that might favor one culture over another (e.g., Ravens culture over another (e.g., Ravens Progressive Matrices, 1995)Progressive Matrices, 1995)


• Average IQ score is 100Average IQ score is 100• Standard Deviation is 15Standard Deviation is 15• 68% of people have scores that fall within 68% of people have scores that fall within

one standard deviation of the averageone standard deviation of the average• Extreme scores are those that fall outside Extreme scores are those that fall outside

of 2 standard deviations from the mean (in of 2 standard deviations from the mean (in positive and negative directions)positive and negative directions)

Extremes of IntelligenceExtremes of Intelligence


Extremes of Intelligence: Normal Extremes of Intelligence: Normal Distribution of ScoresDistribution of Scores


GiftednessGiftedness

• Difficult to identifyDifficult to identify• Individuals typically have an IQ score that Individuals typically have an IQ score that

is two standard deviations above the is two standard deviations above the average scoreaverage score

• Teacher recommendations may be used in Teacher recommendations may be used in the identification processthe identification process


TalentTalent

• Talent is the capacity to produce Talent is the capacity to produce exceptional performance in a domainexceptional performance in a domain

• There are three sources of desire to There are three sources of desire to improve in a domainimprove in a domain

• Enjoyment of activityEnjoyment of activity

• Internalization of the value of improving Internalization of the value of improving one’s skill for its own sakeone’s skill for its own sake

• External supportExternal support


Deliberate PracticeDeliberate Practice

• Deliberate practice is activity that is designed Deliberate practice is activity that is designed to improve one’s skills in a particular areato improve one’s skills in a particular area

• Is thought to produce Is thought to produce monotonic benefits, , a a one-to-one correspondence between one’s one-to-one correspondence between one’s effort and one’s gains in a skill or abilityeffort and one’s gains in a skill or ability

• Deliberate practice includes the following Deliberate practice includes the following activities:activities:– Hours of on-task skill refinementHours of on-task skill refinement– Hours of self-reflectionHours of self-reflection– Hours of coaching and feedbackHours of coaching and feedback– Hours of observational learningHours of observational learning


Effort Becomes TalentEffort Becomes Talent

• Deliberate practice alters cognitive Deliberate practice alters cognitive capacities allowing experts to store many capacities allowing experts to store many classes of schemas such as a chess classes of schemas such as a chess player having numerous plays from which player having numerous plays from which to choose to choose

• Deliberate practice changes bodily Deliberate practice changes bodily functions such as muscle patterns for functions such as muscle patterns for piano players and increased heart and piano players and increased heart and lung capacities for runnerslung capacities for runners


Differences in Ability and InstructionDifferences in Ability and Instruction

• Between-class ability grouping – Children are assigned to different classes Children are assigned to different classes

based on measured abilitybased on measured ability

• Within-class ability grouping– Children are assigned to ability groups Children are assigned to ability groups

within a classwithin a class

• Multi-age grouping – Classes include children of various agesClasses include children of various ages


Learners with Special Needs Learners with Special Needs

• Learners with Learners with special needs – those who – those who have been identified as having needs that have been identified as having needs that are significant enough to warrant special are significant enough to warrant special educational serviceseducational services

• Inclusive education – including students with – including students with special needs in the regular classroom and special needs in the regular classroom and providing the necessary servicesproviding the necessary services


The Law and Special Education The Law and Special Education

• The CanadianThe Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states that education is a right states that education is a right for every individual and every individual for every individual and every individual has the right to be educated to his or her has the right to be educated to his or her potentialpotential

• Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) governs the rights of individuals with governs the rights of individuals with disabilities in the United Statesdisabilities in the United States


The Law and Special Education The Law and Special Education

• All provinces require that each child with All provinces require that each child with special needs must have an special needs must have an individualized education plan (IEP)– IEP: an educational and behavioural

intervention plan for a student with special needs


Identifying Children with Special Identifying Children with Special NeedsNeeds

• Prereferral processes – a team approach Prereferral processes – a team approach to giving a child assistance in his or her to giving a child assistance in his or her own class before being considered for own class before being considered for special educationspecial education

• Referrals – if a child’s problems persist Referrals – if a child’s problems persist after the prereferral interventions, he or after the prereferral interventions, he or she may be referred for special education she may be referred for special education


Inclusion Inclusion

• Strategies for inclusion:Strategies for inclusion:– Establish a positive attitudeEstablish a positive attitude

– Analyze curriculum, rules, instruction, Analyze curriculum, rules, instruction, materials, and environmentmaterials, and environment

– Identify student characteristics (i.e., Identify student characteristics (i.e., strengths and weaknesses)strengths and weaknesses)

– Compare student characteristics with the Compare student characteristics with the learning environmentlearning environment


Prevalence of Disabilities in North Prevalence of Disabilities in North AmericaAmerica

• PALS survey reported that 3% of PALS survey reported that 3% of Canadians aged 0 to 14 have disabilitiesCanadians aged 0 to 14 have disabilities

• 2007 study of information provided by 2007 study of information provided by North American school systems (Canada North American school systems (Canada and United States) reported that 10-12% and United States) reported that 10-12% of school-aged population have disabilitiesof school-aged population have disabilities


Most Prevalent Learning NeedsMost Prevalent Learning Needs

1.1. Learning disabilitiesLearning disabilities

2.2. Attention deficit disorderAttention deficit disorder

3.3. Attention deficit hyperactivity disordersAttention deficit hyperactivity disorders

4.4. Students with limited English proficiency Students with limited English proficiency (LEP)(LEP)


Learning DisabilitiesLearning Disabilities

• Developmental speech and language Developmental speech and language disordersdisorders– Articulation, expressive language, receptive Articulation, expressive language, receptive

languagelanguage

• Academic skills disordersAcademic skills disorders– Reading, math, writingReading, math, writing

• Other disabilitiesOther disabilities


Attention Deficit DisorderAttention Deficit Disorder

• A condition in which children experience A condition in which children experience persistent difficulties with attention span, persistent difficulties with attention span, impulse control, and sometimes hyperactivity impulse control, and sometimes hyperactivity disorderdisorder– Becoming easily distracted by irrelevant sights Becoming easily distracted by irrelevant sights

and soundsand sounds– Failing to pay attention to details and making Failing to pay attention to details and making

careless remarkscareless remarks– Rarely following instructions carefully and Rarely following instructions carefully and

completelycompletely– Losing or forgetting things such as toys, pencils, Losing or forgetting things such as toys, pencils,

books, tools needed for a taskbooks, tools needed for a task


Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisordersDisorders

• A condition in which children or adults A condition in which children or adults consistently display inattention, hyperactivity, consistently display inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivenessand impulsiveness– Feeling restless, often fidgeting with hands or Feeling restless, often fidgeting with hands or

feet, or squirmingfeet, or squirming– Running, climbing, or leaving a seat in Running, climbing, or leaving a seat in

situations in which sitting or quiet behaviour is situations in which sitting or quiet behaviour is expectedexpected

– Blurting out an answer before hearing the Blurting out an answer before hearing the whole questionwhole question

– Having difficulty waiting in line or for a turnHaving difficulty waiting in line or for a turn


Autism Spectrum Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder and Related DisordersRelated Disorders

• Autism Autism – Impaired social responsivenessImpaired social responsiveness– Impaired communicationImpaired communication– Stereotypic or ritualistic behaviourStereotypic or ritualistic behaviour– Preoccupation with objects and narrow Preoccupation with objects and narrow

range of interestsrange of interests• Related disorders include pervasive Related disorders include pervasive

developmental disorder (PDD), autism developmental disorder (PDD), autism spectrum disorderspectrum disorder


Differences in Socioeconomic Differences in Socioeconomic Status and Their Role in LearningStatus and Their Role in Learning

• Socioeconomic status may put children at Socioeconomic status may put children at risk for developmental and learning risk for developmental and learning problemsproblems


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Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (the Canadian copyright licensing agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these files or programs or from the use of the information contained herein.

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