TheHeartofPlotinus:TheEssentialEnneads©2009WorldWisdom,INC.

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FOREWORDTheAmericanTranscendentalist,RalphWaldoEmerson,includedPlotinus(204-270C.E.)andPorphyry(235-305C.E.)in“thehighpriesthoodofpurereason,theTrismegisti...oftheoldreligion...whichmakesthesanctitiesofChristianitylookparvenusandpopular.”1Ironically,theNeoplatonicversionofreligiousHellenismhashadaseminalinfluenceonChristianity,mostnotablyontheworksofAugustineofHippointheLatinWestandDionysiustheAreopagiteintheGreekEast.ANeoplatonicunderground,asitwere,continuedthistraditioninByzantiumandtheMiddleAges,andopenlyre-emergedintheChristianNeoplatonismoftheRenaissancethroughsuchfiguresasMarsilioFicinoandPicodellaMirandola.TheRomanticMovementwasalsosignificantlyNeoplatonic,Plotinusbeingoneofitsmajorsources.

InEngland,theisolatedThomasTaylortranslatedtheirworks,andeventriedtorevivetheirnon-ChristianHellenicreligion.Plotinus,thoughmoreinterestedinphilosophythanculticworship,wasneverthelessareligiousphilosopherprimarilyconcernedwiththesoul’soriginin,andreturnto,thedivineFirstPrinciple;whilePorphyrywasinvolvedinthepreservationoftheancientmythsandrites,asunderstoodNeoplatonically.OntheCaveoftheNymphs,printedhereininTaylor’stranslation,representsanattempttointerpretapassageofGreek“sacredscripture”fromHomer’sOdysseyaccordingtoallegoricalNeoplatonicprinciples.Taylor’sinfluencewasmostpronouncedinNorthAmerica,2whereagroupoflaterTranscendentalists,learningofhisworksthroughEmersonandhisfriendA.BronsonAlcott,becameTaylor’s“disciples”,asitwere.TheHegelianinfluenceonnineteenthcenturyphilosophystillprovidedthemwithafriendlyatmosphere,despitethecontemporaryriseofmaterialismandnaturalism.Subsequently,philosophyinthetwentiethcentury—especiallyintheanalyticAnglophoneworld—movedawayfromabsoluteidealismandfrommetaphysicsofanykind.Outsideofcertainartisticandtheologicalcircles,Neoplatonicthoughtwasperipheralized;someclassicalscholarsandreligiousthinkersevensawitasagarbledandvague“perversion”ofPlato.

ThesignificantworkofseveralpioneersintheAnglophoneworldhaschangedthatperception:Plotinushas(fromaWesternperspective)cometoberegardedasthegreatestphilosopherbetweenAristotleandAquinas.Amongthese

pioneerswasStephenMacKenna,anIrishjournalistwhodevotedhislifetomakingamagnificentpoetictranslationofPlotinus’Enneads,chosenherebyAlgisUždavinysasamostcompellingintroductiontothethoughtofPlotinus,onethatdrawsthereaderinthroughtheboldnessofitsmetaphorandimagery.Throughsomeuncannyintuition,thephilosophicallyandphilologicallyuntrainedMacKennagraspedthegistofhisbeloved“Plotty,”andturnedhissoaringmetaphysicalvisionintopoetry.

AlgisUždavinys,incharacteristicfashion,haschosensomeofthemostimportantandthemostbeautifulandinspiringworksfromtheEnneadsofPlotinus.ThepassagesareorganizedaccordingtoanascendingorderpresentedinPorphyry’seditingofhisteacher’swritings,whichtakesthereaderfromthevirtues,primarilypracticedforthepurificationoftheindividualsoul,throughthedialecticofascent,allthewaytoBeautyitself.Indeed,EnneadI.6(“OnBeauty”),whichisaglossonPlato’sSymposium,celebrates(unlikePlatohimself)aestheticimaginativeperceptionandhasbeenaninspirationtoartists.Plotinus’celebratedanti-Gnostictreatise,EnneadII.9(“AgainsttheGnostics”),maintainsthetraditionalHellenicloveofthevisiblecosmos(onitsownlevel):hechidesthe“acosmicgnostics”inhislectureroomforarrogantlydespisingitsmagnificence.

FromPlotinus’EnneadIIIwegetaglimpseofhissomberStoic-flavoredviewofProvidence,moreonLoveandPlato’sSymposium,aswellashisjustlyfamousaccountofthe“effortless”contemplationofNature,inherconcreterealizationofthespatio-temporalrealm.EnneadIVpresents—perhapsmostdifficultforPlotinus—theproblemsofthesoul,itsconnectionwiththebody,anditsdescentintothematerialworld,conceivedbothasanaturalandnecessaryoccurrenceandastheresultofawillfulandself-defining“falling”awayfromhigherperfection.Yetpartofthesoulneverleavesthenoeticrealm,the“place”ofnousordivineintellect.EnneadV.8(“OntheIntelligibleBeauty”)representsoneofthemostbeautifulsectionsinPlotinus,inwhichthenoeticrealmisdescribednotintermsofabstractand“ethereal”PlatonicForms,butasalivinginterpenetratinguniverse,boilingwithlife.Sointense,weareremindedofthevisionary“imaginalworld”oftheIslamicNeoplatonists,withitsemeraldcitiesandangelicspiritsandconcretizedIdeas.AndasAlgisshowsinhisexcellentintroduction,PlotinushadamajorinfluenceonmedievalIslamic,aswellasJewishandChristian,thought.

FinallywearebroughttotheOne,theultimatefirstprinciple,beyondthought

andconception,whichcanonlybeknownthroughnegation,andthenegationofnegation.Yetwemustsomehowconceiveofitasconnectedwiththedivineintellectandasthecauseoftheuniverse.AndmysticalunionwiththeOneisthefinalgoalofthesoul;thereasonbehinditsdesire(eros)forbeauty.Plotinus,inEnneadVI,attemptstoworkoutametaphysicsinwhichtheOne,asthehighesthypostasis,issomehowresponsible,outofabundance,fortheprocessionofIntellectandthenthroughIntellect,Soul(thesemakingupthethreehypostases)andthroughSoul,Natureandthevisiblecosmos.Allthreeexistineachindividualsoul.Weareeachofusanintelligibleworldinminiature.Ifwecanrecognizethisandpurifyourselves,“carveourownstatue,”andfindourhighersoul,whichremainsinthenoeticworld,wereachastageofillumination.ThispenultimatestagepreparesusforunionwiththeOne;forwhichwecanonlywait,asonewaitsforthesunrise.AsEmersonsaysinhispoem“Brahma,”“findmeandturnthybackonHeaven!”Emerson,agreatreaderofPlotinus,whowasamajorinfluenceonhisthought,wasalsoattractedtoHinduandotherEasternscriptures:hewasawareoftheparallelsinthesetexts.Emerson’sPlatocombinedtheOneofAsia,withtheManyofEurope.

HilaryArmstrong,theleadingtwentiethcenturyPlotinusscholarintheAnglophoneworld,wasfondofpointingoutthatforWesternersinterestedin,andseekingbridgestoward,Easternthought,oneofthebestwaysistoreadandunderstandPlotinusandtheancientNeoplatonists.NottheleastvaluablethingaboutthisvolumeishowwellAlgisUždavinysunderstandsthesignificanceofthoseconnections.InhisintroductoryremarksheshowstheinfluencesofNeoplatonismonbothEastandWest;healsoconnectsitwiththePerennialPhilosophy.Itshouldalsobesaidthatheuses,anduseswell,theworksofthebestrecentandcontemporaryscholarsofNeoplatonism.Hisremarksareaccurate,helpful,andup-to-date.GenerallyhisintroductionmanagestocoverclearlyandinafewpagesthemostsalientpointsandphilosophicalissueswithinNeoplatonicthought.Further,Algis’shortintroductionstoeachsectionoftextareofgreathelptothenovicereaderwhomightneedsomeguidancethroughtheoftenopaque-seemingexpressionofideas.

AbonusinthiseditionistheThomasTaylortranslationofPorphyry.LovedinNorthAmerica,hewasalsoagreatinspirationonTaylor’sfriend,WilliamBlake,whosetypicallyvisionary“ArlingtonCourtPainting”depictsthe“CaveoftheNymphs”inHomer,butasPorphyrysawit!3Thisworkisafineexampleoflateantiquephilosophical/spiritualallegory,whichisalsoofliteraryinterest.Aseriousreadingofthistract,includingtheintroductionandnotes,willenable

thereadertoacquireagoodgraspoftheNeoplatonicwayoflookingatthings,andperhapsevencultivateinaconcreteexperientialway,“thatwayofseeing,whichallhaveandfewmakeuseof.”

OnefriendofMacKenna,whoseextensivecorrespondencewithhimhasbeenpublished,wasE.R.Dodds,lateRegiusProfessorofGreekatOxford.DoddsencouragedMacKennainhisworkandhelpedwherehecould.Heis,notably,thefounderofmodernAnglophoneNeoplatonicstudies.4ItwasDoddswhorecommendedA.HArmstrongtotheLoebClassicalLibrary,asthebestEnglishtranslatorofPlotinus.HilaryArmstrongwasbothaseriousClassicistandaveryliberalChristianPlatonist.HistranslationreflectsagraspofthespiritaswellastheletterofPlotinus.HewasalsoabletouseabettercriticaleditionofthetextthantheoneavailabletoMacKenna.ThereaderwhowishestocontinuethestudyofPlotinus,woulddowell—afterundergoingthepoeticinitiationofMacKenna’stranslation—tocarefullyworkthroughtheentiretextintheArmstrongedition.

ItwasthroughtherecommendationofHilaryArmstrongthatIfirstcametoknowAlgisUždavinys.HehasattendedmeetingsoftheInternationalSocietyforNeoplatonicStudiessince2002.HeisaseriousandscholarlystudentofNeoplatonismwhoisalsodevotedtopromotingNeoplatonismasalivingexperientiallysignificanttradition.Today,inaneraofrevivedreligiousconflict,weneedthetolerantvisionprovidedbytheNeoplatonicsensibility.TheNeoplatonistNicholasofCusa’sRenaissancenotionofmanyritesbutonlyoneultimatereligioustruth,andtheFlorentineNeoplatonists’inclusionofalltraditionsaspartofauniversal“primalrevelation”coevalwiththeMosaic,issorelylackinginourallegedlypost-Enlightenment“post-modern”world.Thenotionthat“therecannotbeonlyonepathtopenetratesuchagreatmystery”—presentedtothelatefourthcenturyChristianemperorsbytheRomansenator,Symmachus,5theHellenicphilosopherandrhetorician,Themistius,andothertolerantadherentsofGreekandRomanreligion,bythentheologicallyNeoplatonic—isonethatshouldbebroadcastloudandcleartoourworld.TheconnectionofsuchattitudeswithNeoplatonism,andexposuretothespiritualthoughtoftheHellenicNeoplatonistsPlotinusandPorphyry,mayinsomesmallwayhelpusoutinthecurrentcrisis.

JayBregman

ProfessorofHistory

TheUniversityofMaine

Footnotes1“Intellect”,inTheCompleteWorksofRalphWaldoEmerson,ed.EdwardW.Emerson(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1903-4),Vol.7,p.204.

2OnthereceptionofThomasTaylorinAmericaseeJayBregman,“TheNeoplatonicRevivalinNorthAmerica,”Hermathena:ATrinityCollegeDublinReview,No.CXLIX,Winter1990,pp.99-119.

3ReproducedasPlate18inThomasTaylorthePlatonist:SelectedWritings,eds.GeorgeMillsHarperandKathleenRaine(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1969);seealsotherein,KathleenRaine,“ThomasTaylorinEngland,”pp.3-48andGeorgeMillsHarper,“ThomasTaylorinAmerica,”pp.49-102.

4ThescholarlyconsensusisthatthefoundingtextformodernAnglophoneNeoplatonicscholarshipisProclus:TheElementsofTheology,ed.andtrans.E.R.Dodds(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1933;2nded.,1965).

5PierreHadotquotesSymmachus:“Whatmattersthepathofwisdombywhicheachpersonseeksthetruth?Onecannotreachsuchagreatmysterybyasinglepath(‘unoitinerenonpotestpervenireadtamgrandesecretum’)”(PierreHadot,TheVeilofIsis:AnEssayontheHistoryoftheIdeaofNature,trans.MichaelChase[Cambridge,MA/London:BelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2006],p.71andn.11).HilaryArmstronglikedtosay“Iamanonunoitiner(‘notasinglepath’)man”;thatforWesterncreaturestherewasBiblicalrevelation(andNeoplatonism),forEasterncreaturestherewastheBuddha,andatempleofIsisinourworldwouldbelikeaHindutemple.Agoodexampleofhisreligiousinclusivenessmaybefoundishisarticles,“TheWayandtheWays:ReligiousToleranceandIntoleranceintheFourthCenturyA.D.”and“ItinerariesinLateAntiquity,”inA.H.Armstrong,HellenicandChristianStudies(Hampshire,UK/Brookfield,VT:VariorumReprints,1990),XIIIandXIV.

THEPHILOSOPHYOFPLOTINUSTHEEGYPTIAN

PlotinusandHisMasterAmmonius

Plotinus(A.D.204-270)issometimesregardedasthegreatestphilosopherintheperiodbetweenAristotleandProclus,thoughthelaterPlatonistsbasedtheirteachingsratheronthemetaphysicsofIamblichusandSyrianus.Inthisrespect,theydidnotsharethemodernopinionofthe"radicaloriginality"andexceptionalstatusofPlotinus,customarilyviewedbytheWesternclassicistsasthefounderofareinterpretedversionofPlatonismthatcametobeknownas"Neoplatonism."ThistermitselfappearstohaveoriginatedintheeighteenthcenturyasaderisorylabelinventedbyProtestantscholarswhoregardedNeoplatonismastherootandsourceofallkindsofevils,attributing(asdidJohannLorenzvonMosheim)theinventionofsuchaphilosophytotheDevilhimself.EvensuchphilosophersasLeibnizdeclaredthatPlotinus,inhisvaincravingforthemysticalandmarvelous,hadcorruptedtheteachingofPlato.TheProtestanttheologianswerehighlysuspiciousofthe"corrupting"influenceofNeoplatonismonChristianity.Thus,asE.N.Tigerstedthaspointedout:

TheseparationofPlatonismfromNeoplatonismseemstohavebeeninspiredbythewishtodissociatePlatofromhislaterfollowers,whowereregardedasanti-Christian,andthusmaintainthevenerableviewofPlatoasanimanaturaliterchristiana.1

The"youngerPlatonists,"or"Neoplatonists,"werethosewho,"inflatedbymetaphysicaldreams"and"wildenthusiasm,"opposedPlatotoChristand"triedtocrushChristianity."

Inthestrictsense,thelabel"Neoplatonism"isusedtodescribethatformofPlatonismwhichstartedwithPlotinus,though"Neoplatonism"mayalsorefertothemuchearliertransformationsofPlatonism,includingso-called"MiddlePlatonism."Allphilosophersnowclassifiedas"MiddlePlatonists"(e.g.,AntiochusofAscalon,Gaius,Atticus,CalvenusTaurus,Alcinous)and

"Neoplatonists"(Plotinus,Amelius,Porphyry)regardedthemselvesasPlatonistspureandsimple.TheirdifferentinterpretationsofPlatowerebasedpartlyonoralteachings,partlyonthewrittenworks,bothviewedascontaininganesotericwisdomreservedonlyfortheinitiated.ThoughthebasicNeoplatonicdoctrinesmaybecollectedfromanattentiveandcreativereadingofPlato'sdialogues,thelaterPlatonistscarriedPlatonicdoctrinessomewhatfurtheranddevelopedthemintoamorecarefullyelaboratedmetaphysicsandmysticism.

AccordingtoJ.N.Findlay,theybroughtoutPlato'sdoctrines"fromhintingincompletnesstoexpositoryfullnessandcoherence,"freeingthemfromtiresomestylisticandargumentative(ifnot"sophistic")reflexes.ArguingthatPlotinusandhismasterAmmoniusrepresentednoseriousdeviationfromPlato(whohadonlyaninexplicitmetaphysicalsystemor,rather,programofinvestigation),hesays:

IseecomparativelylittledevelopmentinthetreatisesofPlotinus.Theyarethevaryingexpositionofanalreadyestablishedbodyofdoctrine,towhichPlotinusmayhavemadesomebrilliantadditions,butwhosebasicpatternhadbeenpreviouslylaiddown.2

AsPlotinushimselfclearlyattested(thoughantitraditionalscholarsregardthisassertionasanoutrageouslie):

Sothatwhatwesayrepresentsnonovelty,andwassaidnotnow,butlongago,thoughininexplicitfashion.Ourpresentexpositionismerelyanexegesisofwhatwasthensaid,andreliesforitsproofofantiquityonthewritingsofPlatohimself(Enn.V.1.8).

TheNeoplatonistsdealtwiththenoeticandineffablerealitieswhichintheancientcivilizationswereexpressedinthelanguageofmythandsacramentaltheurgicrites.However,theywereunwillingtosacrificerationalphilosophicaldiscourse,tryingtherebytomaintaintheconceptualprecisioncharacteristicofHellenicthought.Thus,seeminglycontradictorystatementswereunavoidable,anddifferentmetaphysicalformulations—basedontheesotericinterpretationofancient"theologians"(Homer,Hesiod,Orpheus,theEgyptianandChaldeanpriests)andphilosophers(Pythagoras,Parmenides,Plato,andAristotle)—mightappearequallyinadequatewheretherealmoffirstprinciplesisconcerned.

Sincethedivinetruthswereveryimperfectlyexpressible,Plotinus,beingatthe

sametimeamysticandarationalist,partlyadoptedanaporeticapproachtophilosophy.Theterm"mystic"ishereusednotinthesenseof"irrational,"or"devoidofreason";a"mystic"isonewhofollowstheanagogicpathofthespiritualorphilosophical"mysteries"totheUltimateReality,tobefinallyunitedwithGodorHisAttributes.Anda"rationalist"(inthetraditionalsenseofthisword)isonewhopossesses,andidentifieshimselfwith,the"rational"andtherefore"immortal"partofhissoul,andthusregardstheintelligibleworld,ortherealmofnoeticarchetypes,asmorerealthanthephysicalworldofimageswhich,nevertheless,arepartoftheorderedmetastructurethatmirrorsitsintelligibleparadigms.

ItisusuallymaintainedthatPlotinus"hasgatheredthelegacyofnearlyeightcenturiesofGreekphilosophyintoamagnificentlyunifiedsynthesis."3However,hesawhimselfasafaithfulinterpreterofPlato,thesuprememaster,whopossessedthewholetruthalready,likeotherinspiredteachersanddivinemessengers.Plotinusclearlyunderstoodthathehimselfbelongedtothelongchainoftradition(paradosis),constitutedbythebrethrenofthegoldenrace.AccordingtoPorphyry,theoracleofApollopresentedPlotinus(whoseemedashamedofbeinginthemortalbody)asonepureofsoul,everstrivingtowardsthedivine:

Theoraclesaysthathewasmildandkind,mostgentleandattractive,andweknewourselvesthathewaslikethis.Itsaystoothathesleeplesslykepthissoulpureandeverstrovetowardsthedivinewhichhelovedwithallhissoul,anddideverythingtobedeliveredand"escapefromthebitterwaveofblood-drinkinglifehere."Sotothisgod-likemanaboveall,whooftenraisedhimselfinthought—accordingtothewaysPlatoteachesintheSymposium,totheFirstandTranscendentGod—thatGodappearedwhohasneithershapenoranyintelligibleform,butisthronedaboveIntellectandalltheintelligibles(VitaPlot.23).

AccordingtoEunapius(VitaSoph.455)andDavid(InIsagog.91.23ff),PlotinuswasborninLycopolis,UpperEgypt,inA.D.204or205.Lycopolis(modernAsyut,ancientEgyptianZawty)wasthecapitalofthe13thnomeofUpperEgypt,situatedbetween1.Akhmim(ancientEgyptianIpuorKhen-min,CopticKhmin,GreekKhemmisorPanopolis),thefamouscenterofalchemyandPythagoreanphilosophy,inthesouth,and2.Hermopolis(modernel-Ashmunein,ancientKhmun,Khemmenu),thetownofHermes,EgyptianThoth,thegodofwisdom,sacredrites,philosophyandtheurgy,inthenorth.Thothwas

anundisputedmasterofallknowledge,thepatronofscribes,doctors,magicians,andarchitectswhobuiltthesanctuariesofthegods.InGraeco-Romantimes,HermopolisbecameacenterofpilgrimageforEgyptians,Greeks,andRomans,worshipersofHermesTrismegistus,orThoth.ThisgodissometimesregardedasasubstituteofRa(thesolarIntellect,laterturnedintothesecondhypostasisofPlotinus),andequatedwithhisheartanddemiurgiclogos.LycopolishadthefamoustempleofthelocalgodUpawet(Wepwawet),"theOpeneroftheWays,"themystagogueofinitiatesandtheguidethroughtheOsirianUnderworld(Duat),sometimesequatedwiththejackal-headedgodAnubis.

WecannotbecertainaboutPlotinus'racialorigin.HemayeitherbeaGreek,oramemberofaHellenizedEgyptianfamily,likethatofthepriestAureliusPetearbeschinis,athoroughlyHellenizedmanoflettersfromPanopolis(Akhmim).Plotinus,whowasexceedinglyreticentregardinghislife,iscalled"theEgyptian"byProclus(Plat.Theol.I.1).Attheageoftwenty-eightPlotinusbecameinterestedinphilosophy.HecametoAlexandriaand,aftertryingdifferentteachersofphilosophy,encounteredAmmonius(c.A.D.175-242),scornfullynicknamed"Saccas"bythelaterChristianauthors,thoughtheNeoplatoniststhemselvesneverusedthisdisdainfullabel,meaning"porter."FromthatdayPlotinus"followedAmmoniuscontinuously,andunderhisguidancemadesuchprogressinphilosophythathebecameeagertoinvestigatethatpracticedamongthePersiansandthatperfectedbytheIndians"(VitaPlot.3).

Ammoniuswrotenothingandverylittleisknownabouthimandhisteaching.JohnDillonarguesthat,inthepersonofAmmonius(whois"littlemorethanacharismaticpurveyorofNumenianNeopythagoreanism")Plotinuscameintocontactwiththeso-called"Neopythagoreanunderground":4"ThegreatrespectthathegeneratedinhispupilsforthewisdomoftheEastisalsoinlinewithNumenius."5A.H.Armstrong,whoassiduouslyrejectsthatPlotinuswasinfluencedbyanyHermeticteachingorbytheancientsolartheologiesthroughtheintermediaryofAmmonius,says:"ThechiefclaimtodistinctionofPlotinus'master,themysteriousAmmoniusSaccas,wastohavereconciledPlatoandAristotle,andinthishewasfollowingawell-establishedtradition."6

Numenius,thesecondcenturyA.D.PythagoreanandPlatonicphilosopher,isconnectedwiththeSyriancityofApameaintheOrontesvalleywhereAmeliusGentilianusofTuscany,thechiefpupilofPlotinusandadmirerofNumenius,wenttolivejustbeforehismasterPlotinuspassedaway.Numeniusbasedhis

"perennialphilosophy"notonlyontheteachingsofPythagorasandPlato,butalsoonthedoctrinesoftheBrahmans,Jews,Magi,andEgyptians(fr.10).Heemployedthetechniqueofsymbolicandallegoricalexegesis,explainingthewarbetweenAtlantisandtheAtheniansrecountedbyPlatoinTimaeus(23dff),forexample,asabattlebetweenthewisefollowersofAthena(thenobleandrationalsouls)andtheirrationalsubjectsofPoseidoninvolvedwithgeneration(Proclus,InTim.I.76.30ff).

AccordingtoJohnDillon,thefragmentsofNumenius'OntheGood"givestheimpressionmuchmoreofanHermeticdialoguethanofaPlatonicone":themainspeakerinthistreatiseremindsoneofHermesinstructinghisspiritual"son"Tat.7WhenPlotinuswasaccusedofappropriatingtheideasofNumeniusorevenplagiarizinghim,AmeliuswroteabookinhisdefensecalledOntheDifferencebetweentheDoctrinesofPlotinusandNumenius.AccordingtoPorphyrythePhoenician(whosenativenamewasMalchus),somepeoplenotonlythoughtthatPlotinus"wasmakingashowonabasisofplagiarismfromNumenius,"butalsoconsideredthat,

hewasabigdrivelleranddespisedhimbecausetheydidnotunderstandwhathemeantandbecausehewassocompletelyfreefromthestaginessandwindyrantoftheprofessionalspeechifier:hislectureswerelikeconversations,andhewasnotquicktomakecleartoanybodythecompellinglogicalcoherenceofhisdiscourse(VitaPlot.18).

PlotinusbelongedtotheinnercircleofAmmonius'schoolinAlexandria.Longinus,Erennius,andOrigenthePlatonist(whoproducedtwoworks,OnDaimonsandThattheKingistheOnlyMaker)werealsoinitiatesofAmmonius.Itis,however,doubtfulthattheChristianOrigenwasreallyAmmonius'pupilatall.Thelaterand,asarule,lessinformedauthors(includingtheChurchhistorianEusebius,whoperhapsmisunderstoodorsimplydistortedtheattestationsofPorphyry)sometimesfailedtodistinguishbetweenthetwoOrigens.Erenniusisotherwiseunknown,butLonginus,whorespectedPlotinuswhilerejectingsomeofhisteachingsaboutthelocationoftheFormswithintheIntellect,isknownasalearnedliterarycriticandteacherofPorphyryatAthensbeforehejoinedPlotinus.LaterLonginusbecametheministerofArabQueenZenobia(Zaynab)ofPalmyraandwasexecutedwhentheRomansdestroyedZenobia'sstateinSyria.

ThoughAmmoniushimselfissometimesdescribedasthemostlearnedscholar

oftheday,heremainsforus"ashadowyfigure,whowrotenotatallandofwhomweknownexttonothing."8Theoraland,toacertainextent,esotericcharacterofAmmonius'teachingsisattestedbyPorphyry,whosays:

AfterPhiliphadbecomeEmperorhe(Plotinus)cametoRome,attheageofforty.Erennius,Origen,andPlotinushadmadeanagreementnottodiscloseanyofthedoctrinesofAmmoniuswhichhehadrevealedtotheminhislectures.Plotinuskepttheagreement,and,thoughheheldconferenceswithpeoplewhocametohim,maintainedsilenceaboutthedoctrinesofAmmonius.Erreniuswasthefirsttobreaktheagreement,andOrigenfollowedhislead....Plotinusforalongtimecontinuedtowritenothing,butbegantobasehislecturesonhisstudieswithAmmonius.Sohecontinuedfortencompleteyears,admittingpeopletostudywithhim,butwritingnothing(VitaPlot.3).

FromthisaccountitisclearthatthepupilsofAmmoniusboundthemselvesnottorevealtheirmaster'sdoctrines.WedonotknowwhatkindofsecretsPorphyryhadinmind,butE.R.Doddsarguesthattheobvioussupposition—identifyingthehiddendoctrinesofAmmoniusasteachingsoftheineffableOneandmysticalunionwiththeOne—isperhapswrong.9However,themysteriousoresotericcharacterofAmmonius'instructionsconcerningthephilosophicalpurificationandascentofthesoultothedivineisnottobeunderestimated.

The"secrets"ofancientmysterycultsandthoseofPythagoreanphilosophy(e.g.,thedoctrinesregardingtheimmortalityofthesoul,reincarnation,separationofthesoulfromthebody,elevation,anddeification)were"anopensecret."Theyweremorerelatedtospiritualinitiation,theineffablevision,ortherealdivinepresence,thantodoctrinalexpositionatthelevelofdiscursivereasoning.AsPeterKingsleyhaspointedout,

trueesotericteachingaimsnotatfillingthediscipleorpupilwithmerefascinatingtheoriesbutwithopportunitiesformakingtheseideasandtheoriesrealinhisownexperience.Romanticnotionsofanesoterictextasadocumentcontainingearth-shatteringstatementsthatneedlockingawayfromtheprofanearenaïveandvastlyoversimplistic.Thefactisthathardlyanyonewouldrecognizesuchatextforwhatitis,letaloneknowhowtouseit.10

Somescholars,followingR.H.Schwyzer,areconvincedthattheargument

regardingAmmonius'doctrinesconsistedinnotputtingthemintowrittenform,becausetheywereoralteachings.Infact,PorphyryexplicitlystatesthatPlotinushaddrawnontheteachingsofAmmoniusforalongtimebeforehebegantowrite,bywhichtimetheagreementhadalreadybeenbrokenbyErenniusandOrigen.11However,RichardGouletthinksthattheoralteachingsofAmmoniuswerenotrevealedintheearlylectureswhichPlotinusgaveinRome.12Eventhewrittenlectureswerenotyetgivenouttoeverybodybutonlytothosewhohadbeencarefullyselectedbeforehand,sincetheschoolofPlotinusinRomealsohaditsinnercircle.ThemostimportantmembersofthisinnercirclewereAmelius,Eustachius,andPorphyry.

ThelaterNeoplatonictraditiontendstoemphasizetheroleofAmmoniusintherediscoveryoftruePlatonismafteralongperiodofitsnotbeingproperlyunderstood.AccordingtotheAlexandrianphilosopherHierocles(whosetreatiseOnProvidenceispresentedinasummarybytheByzantinewriterPhotius),AmmoniusbelongedtotheGoldenChainofPlatonism.Todescribethosephilosopherswhorediscoveredthedivinephilosophy,Hieroclesusestheexpressionhieragenea(thegoldenrace).HebelievedthatAmmoniushadpurifiedtruephilosophy(whichisregardedasarevelation)andrestoredharmonybetweentheviewsofAristotleandPlato.ThusAmmoniusisintroducedbytheepithet"divine"(theodidaktos)(Photius,Bibl.III.112;172a).AsDominicJ.O'Mearahaspointedout,Ammonius,accordingtoHierocles,"emergesashavingaccomplishedwhathadbeenanessentiallyNumenianmission:therestoralofunanimity(homodoxia)ofPlatonismthroughthepurificationofacontentiousanddegradedtradition."13

Proclusassignedthisroleof"rediscoverer"toPlotinus,sayingthatthedivinephilosophyshoneforththroughthegraceofthegods:thedivinemysteries,establishedbythegodsandguardedbythegodsthemselves,wereinthecourseoftimerevealedtosuchexceptionalmenasPlato,whomaybejustlycalledthehighpriestandthechiefmystagogueofthoseparticipatinginthemysteriesofthepuresouls(Plat.Theol.I.1).PlotinustheEgyptian,hesays,belongstothis"divinechorus"oftruepriestsandhierophants,whoaretheexegetesofthedivinemysteriesofPlatoandthepromotersofthetrueinterpretationoftheblessedvisionsintowhichtheyhavebeeninitiated.Hence,theGoldenChainofphilosophers(whichtranscendstheboundariesofspaceandtime)transmitsthesemysteriesof"themostunadulteratedandthepurestlightofthetruth"(tognesiotatonkaikatharotatontesaletheiasphos)tofuturegenerations.14IftheroleofPlotinusissomewhatcrucialinthischainoftransmission,asProclushas

suggested,hemaythenberegardedasafounderof"Neoplatonism,"understoodinthehieraticsenseof"revival"or"return"totherevealedprinciplesof"divinephilosophy"(theiaphilosophia).

PlotinusandHisSchoolinRome

InA.D.243PlotinusdecidedtomakecontactwiththesagesofPersiaandIndiainordertostudytheirphilosophy.OnleavingAlexandria,hejoinedanexpeditionoftheEmperorGordianIIItoPersiaagainstthegreatShahanshah,the"kingofkings,"ShapurI.TheSassanianEmpire,foundedinA.D.224,wasnotablyunreceptivetoWestern(Graeco-Roman)influencesandsupportedarigidZoroastrianorthodoxy,thoughMesopotamia(wheretheSassaniancapitalCtesiphonbecameanewcenteroflearning)wasanareaofmanydifferentcreedsand"philosophies."ThenewlyarisenreligiousteacherMani(A.D.216-277)waspresentintheopposingPersianarmy.However,theRomanEmperorwasassassinatedinMesopotamiabyhisowntroopsandPlotinus(whosupposedlyhadbeenincloserelationswiththeEmperor)escapeddeathbyfleeingtoAntioch.

AfterhisfailuretoreachtheEast—hehadperhapsintendedtogoasfarasAfghanistanandtheIndusvalleywhereaveneerofGreek(orGraeco-Buddhist)civilizationstillcoveredlargeareasuptothefirst-secondcenturiesA.D.—PlotinusestablishedhimselfinRomeinA.D.245.DuringhisfirstyearsinRome,PlotinuslecturedonthephilosophyofAmmonius,givingonlyoralinstructionuntilA.D.253whenhispupils(thewidercircleofPlotinus'schoolwasmadeupofRomansenatorsandlocalaristocracy)persuadedhimtocommithislecturestowriting.AmongPlotinus'patronsweretheEmperorGallienus(whosesoleruleextendsfromA.D.260to268)andhiswifeSalonina.

PorphyrydescribesthelivingambienceofPlotinusasfollows:

AnotherofhiscompanionswasZethus,anArabbyrace,whomarriedthedaughterofTheodosius,afriendofAmmonius.HewasanothermedicalmanandaclosefriendofPlotinus,whokepttryingtodiverthimfromtheaffairsofstateinwhichhewasactiveandinfluential.Plotinuswasontermsofgreatintimacywithhimandusedtogoandstayathisplaceinthecountry,sixmilesfromMinturnae.ThishadformerlybelongedtoCastricius,surnamedFirmus,whowasthegreatestloverof

beautyofallofusandveneratedPlotinus....AgoodmanymembersoftheSenatealsoattendedhislectures,ofwhomMarcellusOrrontiusandSabinillusworkedhardestatphilosophy.TherewasalsoRogatianus,asenator,whoadvancedsofarinrenunciationofpubliclifethathegaveupallhisproperty,dismissedallhisservants,andresignedhisrank.

...Therewerewomen,too,whoweregreatlydevotedtophilosophy:Gemina,inwhosehousehelived,andherdaughterGemina,whohadthesamenameashermother,andAmphiclea,whobecamethewifeofAriston,sonofIamblichus.Manymenandwomenofthehighestrank,ontheapproachofdeath,broughthimtheirchildren,bothboysandgirls,andentrustedthemtohimalongwithalltheirproperty,consideringthathewouldbeaholyandgod-likeguardian(VitaPlot.7;9).

PorphyrythePhoenicianstayedwithPlotinusonlyforthesixyearsfromA.D.263to268.PlotinusstartedtowriteonthesubjectsthatcameupinthemeetingsoftheschoolinthefirstyearofGallienus(A.D.253)andproducedtwenty-onetreatisesuntiltheappearanceofPorphyry,whoarrivedfromGreecewithAntoniusofRhodes.OnlyafewpeoplehadreceivedcopiesofPlotinus'treatisesatthattime.AccordingtoPorphyry,"Theissuingofcopieswasstilladifficultandanxiousbusiness,notatallsimpleandeasy;thosewhoreceivedthemweremostcarefullyscrutinized"(VitaPlot.4).

Nolessthanthirtyyearsafterthemaster'sdeathinA.D.270theseandothertreatiseswerearrangedbyPorphyryintosixgroupsofnineeach.Thisarrangementignoredtheactualchronologicalorderinwhichtheworkswerewritten,andsothedivisionintofifty-fourtreatisesissomewhatartificial.Sometreatisesweresplitupinordertomakesixenneads,thusgivingthetitleEnneadstothewholecollection.ThenumbernineisprominentinancientEgyptiantheologywherethegodsaregroupedintotheEnneads.TheEnnead(pesedjet)ofHeliopolisrepresentedthestructureofthenoeticcosmosconstitutedbyfourontologicallevels:1.Atum,2.ShuandTefnut,3.GebandNut,4.Osiris,Isis,Seth,andNephtys.Theninegods(neteru)ofthegreatEnneadrepresenttheintelligibleparadigmsfortheworldofmanifestation.Further,accordingtothePythagoreans:

Theenneadisthegreatestofthenumberswithinthedecadandisanunsurpassablelimit.Atanyrate,itmarkstheendoftheformationofspecificidentities....Thatnumberadmitsnothingbeyondtheennead,

butrathereverythingcirclesaroundwithinit,isclearfromtheso-calledrecurrences:thereisnaturalprogressionuptoit,butafteritthereisrepetition....Hencetheycalledit"Oceanus"and"horizon,"becauseitencompassesbothoftheselocationsandhasthemwithinitself.15

ThePlotiniantreatises,asarrangedbyPorphyry,representamovementfromtheearthlyrealmtothenoeticcosmosandtheineffableOne,thesupremeGod.Thus,theEnneadsbeginwithhumangoods,proceedtothetopicsofthephysicalworld,thesoul,andtheintelligiblereality,andfinallyreachtheOne,ortheGood.

InA.D.268theEmperorGallienus,themainpatronofPlotinus,wasassassinatedandPorphyry,followingtheadviceofPlotinus,departedtoSicily.AtthesametimeanillnessfromwhichPlotinushadsufferedbecameworseandheleftRomeforCampania,wherehediedinA.D.270inthepresenceofthephysicianEustochiusofAlexandria,hisdevoteddisciple.Porphyrydescribesthelastdaysofhismasterasfollows:

Whentheplaguebrokeoutandhismasseursdiedhe...contractedacutediphtheria.WhileIwaswithhimnosymptomsofthiskindappeared,butafterIleftonmyvoyagehisdiseaseincreased....Whenhewasonthepointofdeath,Eustochiustoldus—asEustochiushadbeenstayingatPuteoliandwaslateincomingtoseehim—thatPlotinussaid,"Ihavebeenwaitingalongtimeforyou."Thenhesaid,"TrytobringbackthegodinustothedivineintheAll"and,asasnakecreptunderthebedonwhichhewaslyinganddisappearedintoaholeinthewall,hebreathedhislast.ItwastheendofthesecondyearofthereignofClaudius,andaccordingtoEustochiushewassixty-sixyearsold.AtthetimeofhisdeathI,Porphyry,wasstayingatLilybaeum,AmeliuswasatApameainSyria,andCastriciuswasinRome;onlyEustochiuswaswithhim(VitaPlot.2).

Afterthemaster'sdeathAmeliusaskedApollowherethesoulofPlotinushadgoneandreceivedanoraclethatPlotinushadjoinedthechorusoftheblessedones:

Butnowthatyouhavebeenfreedfromthistabernacle(skenos)andhaveleftthetomb(sema)whichheldyourheavenly(daimonines)soul,youcomeatoncetothecompanyofheaven,wherewindsofdelightblow,

whereisaffectionanddesirethatcharmsthesight,fullofpurejoy,brimmingwithstreamsofimmortalityfromthegodswhichcarrytheallurementsoftheLoves,andsweetbreezeandthewindlessbrightnessofhighheaven.TheredwellMinosandRhadamanthus,brethrenofthegoldenraceofgreatZeus,thererighteousAeacusandPlato,thesacredpower,andnoblePythagorasandallwhohavesetthedanceofimmortalloveandwonkinshipwithspiritsmostblessed,therewheretheheartkeepsfestivalineverlastingjoy.Oblessedone,youhavebornesomanycontestsandnowmoveamongholyspirits,crownedwithmightylife(VitaPlot.22).

PlotinusandtheTraditionofHellenicPhilosophy

PlotinusisanheirtothegreatphilosophiesoftheancientGraeco-Romanworld,namely,thoseofPythagoras,Plato,and,toalesserextent,ofAristotleandtheStoics.HellenicphilosophyitselfisbasedonthereinterpretedandrationalizedlegacyoftheEgyptian,Mesopotamian,Syrian,andAnatoliancivilizations.ItstemsfromtheOrphicandPythagoreaninitiations,themysteriesofOsiris,andtheancientsolartheologies.ThisfactisnotrecognizedbymostmodernWesternscholars,whohavesystematicallymisunderstoodearlyHellenicphilosophyandfailedtotakeintoaccountitscloseinitialrelationswithculticliturgies,theurgicrites,andmythologicaltraditions.AccordingtoPeterKingsley,"Almosteverythingthat'sthoughtcertainandsureaboutearlyWesternphilosophyisunsure,andwillbecomeevenmoreinsecureastheyearsgoby."16

Plotinus'philosophy,whichembracesandsynthesizestraditionalPlatoniccosmogony,psychology,andmystagogy,israrelyexplicitandneverarticulatedinstrictlydefinedtheorems.BasinghimselfontheoralinstructionsofAmmonius,Plotinusproducedanddevelopedaphilosophicaldiscourseaimedatliberationfromtherealmofbecomingandtherealizationofone'struedivineidentity.Inthisrespecthedependedprincipallyonthetraditionof"divinephilosophy"transmittedbyhismasterAmmoniusandhisunknownpredecessors.LloydP.GersonthusrightlyobservesthatPlotinuswasneitheroriginalincallingthefirstPrincipleofreality"theOne,"norinmakingtheForms,orIdeas,internaltothedivineIntellect,norevenindistinguishingthemortalempiricalselffromtheimmortalnoeticSelf,tantamounttoone'strueinmostnature.17

ThetranscendentandineffableOneisthesource(arche)ofallbeingsandtheultimategoalofphilosophizing.SincetheOne"fillsallthings,"itis"everywhere"and"nowhere."ThesupremePrincipletranscendsBeingandIntellect,whichconstitutetheseconddivinehypostasis.InthisrespecttheNeoplatonicOneisanalogoustotheancientEgyptianNun(orthehiddenAmun),theineffablePrinciplefromwhichthesolarIntellect,Atum-Ra,emergesalongwiththeentirenoeticcosmos.Thus,thethreePlotinianhypostases,namely,theOne(tohen),Intellect(nous),andSoul(psuche)areclosetotheEgyptiantheologicaltriadssuchasNun,Atum-Ra,Osiris,orAmun,Ra,Ptah.AccordingtoPlotinus,Hesiod'sthreegods—Ouranos,Kronos,andZeus—arealsoequivalenttothosemetaphysicalprinciples:OuranosrepresentstheOne,KronostheIntellect,ZeustheSoul.ThemutilationofOuranosintheHesiodmythmaybeinterpretedasIntellect'sreturntowardstheOne,andthebindingofKronosinchainsmeansthatIntellectkeepsthepureIdeasapartfrommatter.18

TheconceptoftheNeoplatonicOneisrelatedtotheexegesisofPlato'sParmenides,whichunderliesthewholePlotinianmetaphysics.AccordingtothetestimonyofSimplicius(InPhys.231.724),whodependsinthisrespectonPorphyry,thePythagoreanphilosopherModeratus(firstcenturyA.D.)discerneddifferentontologicallevelsofreality,whichcorrespondtotheeighthypothesesraisedinPlato'sParmenides.HerelatedtheOneBeyondBeingtohypothesisone,andtheOneTrueBeingtohypothesistwo,basingthisviewuponametaphysicalinterpretationofthesecondpartoftheParmenides.AccordingtoModeratus,Plato

followingthePythagoreans,declaresthatthefirstOneisaboveBeingandallessence,whilethesecondOne—whichisthetrulyexistent(ontoson)andtheobjectofintellection(noeton)—hesaysistheForms;thethird,whichisthesoul-realm(psuchikon),participates(metechei)inTheOneandtheForms,whilethelowestnaturecomesafterit,thatofthesenserealm,doesnotevenparticipate,butreceivesorderbyreflectionfromthoseothers...,19

ThemetaphysicalinterpretationofthefirstthreeorfourhypothesesofPlato'sParmenidesconductedbyModeratusleadstothethreemainhypostasesofPlotinus.However,thoughthistriadicmetaphysicalstructureissupposedlydeducedfromPlato'stext,onecannotmaintainthatsuchadivisionofdivinerealityistheresultofsomesemioticgameunrelatedtotheancienttheologiesandthestructureofrealityitself.ItseemsthatPlotinusphilosophically

articulatedandsynthesizedmetaphysicalteachingsalreadydiscussedbyThrasyllus,Moderatus,Numenius,Cronius,andhisownmasterAmmonius.PorphyrycitesLonginiussayingasfollows:

Plotinus,itwouldseem,hasexpoundedtheprinciplesofPythagoreanandPlatonicphilosophymoreclearlythananyonebeforehim.TheworksofNumeniusandCroniusandModeratusandThrasylluscomenowhereneartheaccuracyofPlotinus'treatisesonthesamesubjects(VitaPlot.20).

HaroldTarrantmaintainsthatPlotinus'influencespringslessfromanynewapproachtoPlatonicexegesis(sincetheMiddlePlatonistsandNeopythagoreansareforerunnersoftheNeoplatonistsinallrespectsexceptincertainmetaphysicaldetailsanddistinctlysymbolicalinterpretations)thanfromPlotinus'abilitytomakethisexegesisinseparablefromhispersonalmysticalandphilosophicallife.ThereforehewasabletoprovideamuchmorefreshanddetailedaccountofthePythagoreanandPlatonicprinciplesturnedintothelivingexperienceoftheintelligiblerealities.20

PlotinusconcentratedhimselfnotontheSocraticaporiasandironies,butonthemysticalandmetaphysicalsideofPlato'steaching,furtherelaboratedanddevelopedinordertorepelthePeripateticandStoicassault.ThuscertaindoctrinesofAristotlearecrucialforunderstandingthePlotinianconceptofthedivineIntellectandtheSoul,includingsomeaspectsofhisphysics.Likewise,inspiteofarathercriticalattitudetowardsStoicism,theStoicaccountsofGod,logos,soul,andnaturehaveallinfluencedthePlotinianversionofPlatonism.AccordingtoPorphyry,Plotinus'writings

arefullofconcealedStoicandPeripateticdoctrines.Aristotle'sMetaphysics,inparticular,isconcentratedinthem....Inthemeetingsoftheschoolheusedtohavethecommentariesread,perhapsofSeverus,perhapsofCroniusorNumeniusorGaiusorAtticus,andamongthePeripateticsofAspasius,Alexander,Adrastus,andothersthatwereavailable.Buthedidnotjustspeakstraightoutofthesebooksbuttookadistinctivepersonallineinhisconsideration,andbroughttheintellectofAmmonius(tonAmmonioupheronnoun)tobearontheinvestigationsinhand(VitaPlot.14.4-17).

WhereasPlotinususedAristotletounderstandanddefendPlato,later

Neoplatonists(startingalreadywithPorphyry)explicitlydeclaredthat,correctlyinterpreted,Aristotle'sphilosophyagreesbothwithPlato'sandPlotinus'thought.21Forexample,theyheldthattheeventualpurposeofembarkingonastudyofAristotle(regardedasarepresentativeoftheLesserMysteriesbySyrianusandProclus)istobecarrieduptothedivineIntellectandfinallytotheineffableOne,thoughthisgoalmaybeachievedonlythroughtheGreaterMysteriesofPlatonicphilosophy.

ThePlotinianexegesisofPlatoisnotsimplycommentary:thephilosopherofLycopolissearchedforasinglepurposebeyondthedifferentintentionsofPlato'svarioustexts,thusprovidinganintegralmetaphysicalinterpretationofthem.ThescatteredpassagesfromtheTimaeus,theRepublic,theParmenides,theIIandVIEpistles(frequentlyseparatedfromtheirimmediatecontext),whenproperlyunderstood,accordingtoPlotinus,teachthedoctrineofthethreedivinehypostases,whichserveasafoundationofhisontologyandaredescribedintheEnn.V.1.Beingveryselective,Plotinusdidnotconcernhimselfwithfollowingtheletterofhismaster'swritings;hethusnevercitesPlatodirectlyortakespassagesintheircontext,buttriesinsteadtorevealaninnerandpresumablytrueintentionofPlatonicphilosophy—itsessentialmeaning.

Plotinuseliminatedtheso-calledSocraticironyandpoliticsfromphilosophy,atthesametimeturninganykindofPythagoreanorPlatonicdualismintoanextreme,bothtranscendentandimmanent,monism,thuspraisingthesupremeUnityfromwhicheverythingderivesandtowhicheverythingcomesback.LikePlato,butunlikeIamblichus,Plotinusmaintainsthatthesoul'spurification,ascent,andunionwiththedivineisaccomplishedprimarilythroughphilosophy,accompaniedbyself-disciple,dialectic,andvirtues,thoughdiscursivereasoningisratherlimitedandmustfinallybetranscended,sincethevisionoftruthculminatesinmysticalunion,whichisineffable.

Accordingly,PlotinustransposedHellenicphilosophyintoanewkey,orratherrelateditbacktotheinitialmysticalvein—notsomuchbyintroducingthemysticalexperienceitself(whichispartlydeterminedbytheparticularmythological,cosmological,andreligiousframeworkandnotalwaysidenticaltothesubjective"experience"inthelateProtestantsense),butbyrelatingthehierarchyofmetaphysicalrealitieswithstatesofconsciousness.Inthisrespecthefollowstheancienttradition(knowninitsdifferentformsfromRamessideEgypttoUpanishadicIndia)ofaninnerascent,transformation,andrestorationofone'srealdivineidentity,adaptingittothecategoriesofHellenic

"rationalism"representedbyPlatonicdialecticandPeripateticmetaphysics.However,his"rationalism"hasnothingincommonwithmodern"rationalism."Thus,iftheterm"rationalism"isunderstoodinitsmoderndeviatedsense,wecouldscarcelylabelPlotinusasa"rationalist"andthusfullyagreewithFrithjofSchuon,whosays:

ItisamistaketoseeinSocrates,Plato,andAristotlethefathersofrationalism,orevenofmodernthoughtgenerally;nodoubttheyreasoned—ShankaraandRamanujadidsoaswell—buttheyneversaidthatreasoningisthealphaandomegaofintelligenceandoftruth,norafortiorithatourexperienceorourtastesdeterminethoughtandhavepriorityoverintellectualintuitionandlogic,quodabsit.22

R.T.WallisarguesthatPlotinus'accountofconsciousnessformsaremarkablecontrastbothwithClassicalGreekthoughtandwiththeCartesianidentificationofconsciousnesswith"mentalactivity."23ForPlotinus,human"surfaceconsciousnessisonlyoneofseverallevelsofawareness,"likeoneparticularSufimaqam,orstation,whichexcludesanumberofotherstatesandstations.Thetruerealityandone'srealdivineself-consciousnesslieswithin,awayfromthesensibleworld.InthisrespectPlotinusisaconceptualizeroftheancientanagogicandmeditativepractices,nowpartlydemythologizedandputintothetermsofHelleniclogicandscientifictheory:

FromtheirearliestdaysGreekphilosophyandsciencehaddrawnfreelyontheideasoftheNearEast,whichtheyhadhabituallygivennewmeaningbyorganizingtheminaconceptualsystemhithertolacking,anditisthereforetobeexpectedthattheNeoplatonistsshouldhavedonethesame.24

However,JohnDillonemphasizesthatPlotinus'philosophicalpositionaroselogicallyfromhisacutequestioningofthesecondcenturyA.D.Platonictradition.Thisassertionisdirectedagainstthe"comfortable"attitudethatPlotinus'postulationofthetranscendentfirstPrinciplebeyondBeingandIntellectissomesortofconcessionto"Orientalirrationalism"and"mysticism."25DillonrecognizesthatPlotinuswasamysticbutarguesthathearrivesathisdoctrinesbytryingtosolvecertainlong-standingproblemswithinPlatonism.Suchaone-sidedattitude(thoughperfectlyacceptableinitsownparticularcontext)likewise"comfortably"ignoresboththelargerhistoricalframeworkoftheancienttheologiesandtheuniversalcharacterofmetaphysics,

whichisneithersimplyaresultofPlato'sexegesis,noranemptysemioticconstructionbasedoncertainwishfultwistsofhumanimagination.

PlotinusprovidedanimportantrevisionoftraditionalHellenicmetaphysics,actuallyarrivingatapositionquitenewinrelationtoPlatoasheisusuallyunderstood.ButPlotinus'insightswereneverthelessbasedontheexperienceofnoeticandsupranoeticrealities(whicharenot"invented"atwillbyHellenic,Indian,orEgyptianmetaphysicians,inspiteoftheconcreteculturaldeterminationsofdiscourse).Inthissense,oneshouldspeakratherofperennialtruths,revelations,andimaginativeperspectives,thoughtheseareadaptedtotheparticularrecipients,historicalframeworks,andtheoreticaldevelopmentsofdiscursivethinking.

ThefamousPlotinianphrasephugemononprosmonon(Enn.VI.9.11),usuallyrenderedas"theflightofthealonetotheAlone,"farfrombeinghisownoriginal"invention,"isinheritedfromtheancientmysticaltradition.Theformulamonosprosmononisrelatedtotheolderformulamonosmonoas"private,""secret,"thuspresupposinganapproachtothedivinethroneinthetempleorintheheart.TheEgyptianinitiatehopestoseethedivinity"alone,face-to-face,"andthismysticalencounterissymbolicallyrepeated(ormodeledon)theencounterwiththeanimateddivinestatueinthetemple'sholyofholies.Theface-to-facerevelatorydiscourseusesanarchaictemplelanguageandistobeunderstoodwithinthetheurgiccontext,sincetheflight(orascent)tothedivineLightofLightsisanalogoustotheEgyptianritualforself-deificationbyunitingwiththeSun,Amun-Ra.

MariaLuisaGattiinsiststhatthemaindifferencesbetweenthethoughtofPlato,ancientPlatonism,andPlotinusareofatheoreticalnature.Theyconsist,firstly,inthedoctrineoftheprocessionofthehypostasesfromtheOne,whichisarrangedaccordingtoacirculartriad,andsecondly,in"creativecontemplation":"TheseconstitutethekeytothesystematicreadingoftheentirePlotinianphilosophy."26However,boththeprocessionofdifferentlevelsofbeing(withinthearticulateddivinerealm)andcreativecontemplationareattestedalreadyintheEgyptiansolartheologyofHeliopolis.TheEyeofAtum-RaisinvolvedincontemplativereturnthusformingthefirstintelligibletriadofAtum-Shu-Tefnut.

MetaphysicsofPlotinus

AlthoughitisusuallyheldthatPlotinusinheritedtwomajorproblemsfromhispredecessors,i.e.,acontradictionbetweenthePythagoreandoctrineofthefirstPrincipleasanultimateunity(theOne)andthePeripateticdoctrine(goingbacktoAnaxagoras)thatthefirstPrincipleisthedivineIntellectthinkingitself,thesetwoperspectivesareinfacteasilyreconcilable,asnumerousexamplesofdifferentancienttheologicalsystemsprove.Infact,onlythosewhoareboundtoformaldiscursivereasoningcanseeacontradictionbetweenBrahmanirgunaandBrahmasaguna,theineffablePrincipleandpersonalIshwara,ParamaShivaandAham,NunandAtum,orbetweenapophaticandkataphaticwaysofapproachingGod.

WithintheframeworkofHellenicphilosophy,therealizationthatIntellectcannotberegardedastheultimatePrinciplemaybetheoutcomeofexegesis(e.g.,metaphysicalinterpretationofPlato'sParmenides),orstemfromarigorousanalysisoftranscendentunityasthebasicreality.However,thedesignationofGodasepekeinatesousiasisnotsimplya"Platonic"butratherauniversal(thoughsometimesesoteric)truth.ForPlotinus,theOneisnota"negativity"intheprofanesense.AlthoughphilosophizingabouttheOnehastheconcreteresultofnullifyingitself,thisattitude,accordingtoJohnBussanich,is"neithernihilistnorantiphilosophical,but...pointstoasoteriontology."27TheOneisboilingwithactivity,thoughitisviewedassimpleandnon-composite,i.e.,withoutpartsandinternalorexternalrelations.Theterm"One"doesnotreallydescribethePrinciple,whichisbeyondform;itisthereforefalseeventosayofitthatitisone.

Beingformless(amorphon)andinfinite(apeiron),theOne,asaperfectactuality(energeia),containseverythingandlacksnothing,thushavingthesupremepower(dunamis)togeneratethenoeticworld.ThisdoesnotmeanthattheOneiscompelledtogeneratebeing,life,andintelligence:itsimplycausestheexistenceofallmanifestedrealitybytheprinciplethatitsinexhaustibleperfectionandfreedom(itselfbeyondnecessity)producesbysheerundiminishedgiving,likewaterflowingfromasourceorlightradiatingfromthesun.SincetheOneistheuniversalcauseofallthings,itisnotonlytranscendentbutalsoimmanent:itsomnipresencefillsallthings.ThefinalcausalityoftheOneisrelatedtotheactualizationofIntellectandthemysticalreturnofthesoultoitssource.

TheIntellectproceedsfromtheOneliketheEgyptianscarabKheperaemergesfromthe"waters"ofNun.ThefirststageofprocessionfromtheOneisasortof

indefiniteness,tantamountbothtotheIndefiniteDyadofthePythagoreans(alsoattestedwithinthePlatonicoraltradition)andto"noeticmatter."Thecontemplativereversionuponitssource,theOne,makesIntellectproperlyIntellect.LightplaysasignificantroleintheactualizationofIntellectthrougha"generativeradiance"oftheOne.However,sincetheOneisbeyondbeingandform,IntellectcannotgraspitbutonlyseesthesupremeimageoftheOne.FromthisfragmentalvisionarisesthemultiplicityofFormsorintelligiblebeings(noeticgods,spirituallights)andtheactualityofpurethoughtorintellection(noesis).

IntellectthusholdsOne'slightwithinitself.ItisfilledbytheOne'spowerandthispluralityoflights,orintellects,isanalogoustothespatialpluralityofthespherethatisilluminatedbytheomnipresentpoweroflight.TheOne'slightisbrokenintomultipleunitiesbyIntellectandtheseunitiesarealsoequatedtotheForms.SinceIntellectproceedsfromtheOne,thegeneratinglightoftheOneispresentinitssupreme"image,"Nous,whichmaybedescribedastheOneviewedthroughintelligibleMatter,thatis,aspluralizedintoForms.Accordingtotheconceptionofimaging,theimmanentpresenceofthehighergeneratingrealityisfoundinitslowermanifestations.ThusthesensibleworldisregardedasawayofviewingSoulthroughMatter,whichisaprincipleofplurality,sometimesequatedtoanon-being.

AlthoughIntellectistheimageoftheOne,Plotinusisverymuchconcernedtosafeguardtheunityandsupremacyofthenoeticcosmos.J.H.Fieldersaysthatunlikesensiblematter,intelligibleMatterbelongstoBeingandhasanoeticlife:"IntelligibleMatterdoesprovidepluralitybutthatpluralityisnotacknowledgedasthesourceofNous'beingadiminishedimageoftheOne."28ForPlotinus,everyFormmirrorsthewholeofIntellect,butfromitsownperspective.AccordingtoA.H.Armstrong,heunderstandstheworldofForms,orkosmosnoetos,intermsofdirectsense-awareness,notreducingitto"theconceptualskeletontowhicheventhebodilyworldofourimmediateexperienceherebelowhastobereducedtobemanageableinscientificdiscourses."29Initially(e.g.,inHomer)nousisassociatedwith"sensation"ratherthanwithintellectualthought,beingakindofinternalperceptionwhichpenetratesdeeperintothenatureofthings.Inthissense,intellection(noesis)isanalogoustotheSufidhawq,whichmeanstastedknowledge,mysticalintuition.

ThedivineIntellectcontainsthetotalityoftrueBeingandtranscendstime;thereforeonthelevelofNousthereisperfectidentitybetweensubjectand

objectaswellascompleteself-awareness.TheobjectsofIntellectarepureForms:eachmemberofthenoeticworldcontemplatesthewholeofthatworld,beingidenticalbothwiththeentireintelligiblerealmandwitheachindividualmember.Sincediscursivethoughtbelongstothelowerlevelofsoul,itcontemplatestheFormsonlyatadistanceandmustbecontentwithmentalimagesreflectedinamirrorofphantasia.

InthePlatonictradition,thestatusofimaginationisusuallylow,becauseitisregardedasafacultyofthelowersoul,whichdependsuponsenseperceptionandfromwhichtherationalsoulmustpurifyitselfinthecourseofascent(anagoge).However,Plotinusadmitsthatimaginationstandsontheborderline(methorion)betweentheintelligibleandthesensible,thusbelongingtotheSoul'slife:"ForthisreasonNaturedoesnotpossessevenimagination.Intellection(noesis)issuperiortoimagination.ImaginationisbetweenthelevelsofNatureandofIntellection"(Enn.IV.4.3).

Thusphantasia,beingsituatedbetweentwolevelsofsoul,isreceptiveofimagesbothfromthenoeticrealmandthesensibleworld.Accordingly,Plotinusspeaksoftwoimaginations,twoimagingfaculties.Thelowerimagination(whichoughttoberuledanddominatedbythesuperiorsoul)involvesnosynthesisorjudgment:itsimplytakesinthedataofsenseperceptionasdiscreteimages.Thehigherimagination(orimaginationintheprimarysense,protephantasia)isabletosynthesizethedataofsenseperceptionandiscalleddoxa,"opinion."However,asJohnDillonhaspointedout,besidessynthesizingthereportsofthesenses,italsomirrorstheactivitiesofthedivineIntellect:

Inthecourseofdiscussionastowhywearenotalwaysconsciousoftheactivityofnouswithinus,Plotinuspresentsphantasiaasamirrorforintellectualactivity,whichonlyperformsproperlywhenthe"surface"ofthesoul,sotospeak,isunruffledbypassion,andthus"smooth."Butwhenthisisbrokenbecausetheharmonyofthebodyisupset,thoughtandintellectoperatewithoutanimage,andthenintellectualactivitytakesplacewithoutphantasia.30

Plotinusisconcernedwithpreservingphantasiainthedisembodiedsoul,whileatthesametimebeingunabletorejectitstraditionalPlatonicdesignationastheslaveofsenseperception(aisthesis)andtheirrationalpassions.ContrarytoPlato'sanachronisticattitudes,herecognizestheactiveandcreativeuseofimaginationonthespiritualway.Amysticalvisionmaybeachievedthroughthe

correctperformanceofspiritualexerciseswhichinvolvephantasmata,likethosedescribedatEnn.V.8.9.JohnDillonsays:

ButinoneimportantrespectPlotinusgoesbeyond,andindeedagainst,Plato,andthatisinthevalueheplacesontheartisticimagination—oratleastintheimaginationofsomedivinely-inspiredartists,suchasPheidias.HisdoctrineherewasagreatconsolationlatertoPlatonically-mindedartistsoftheRenaissance,suchasMichelangelo,towhomPlatowouldhavegivenshortshrift.31

ForPlotinus,thethreedivinehypostasesarerepeatedwithineachindividualmicrocosm,thoughthehigherlevelsofconsciousnessarenotaccessibletoallhumanbeingsandareactualizedonlythroughspiritualandphilosophicalpractice.ThereforeNousisattainedbyturningwithinandleavingsense-perceptionbehind.TheworldofForms,orspirituallights,istheobjectofmysticalexperience,thoughthe"undifferentiatedunity"correspondstothefirsthypostasis,theOne.Nonetheless,R.T.WallisarguesthatthedistinctionbetweentheOneandIntellectcannotcorrespondinanyformtothedistinctionbetweenso-called"theistic"and"monistic"mysticism.WecannotidentifythemysticalexperienceofIntellectwiththevisionofaunityrunningthroughtheexternalworld,ifthisunityisopposedtothe"introvertive"unionwiththeOne.32Theindividualintellect(whichintherealmofearthlyexistencemaybeveiledordarkenedbythepassionsorignorance)isanimageofIntellect,justasSoulasawholeisanimageofIntellect.TheFormsofNousarenotsimplyself-subsistentuniversalsbutboththinkingbeings(analogoustotheangelsofthelaterIslamicphilosophies)andobjectsofintellection.

Allthingsproceedthroughproductivecontemplation(theoria)andareinthegreatcontemplativereturn,whichissimplytheothersideofthecreativeoutgoingfromtheOne.Thereforeateverystageofrealitytheontologicalhierarchyisconstitutedbytrueandlivingimages,orreflections.Themirrordoesnotjustpassivelyreceivethereflection,butisactiveincontemplating,andthemovementofcontemplationthroughallthemirroringlevelsoftheuniverse(topan)isateverylevelopentothepresenceof"thatwhichcannotbemirroredorimagined."33

BeingitselftheimageoftheOne,Intellectcontainsinarchetypeallkindsofthingsfoundatlowerlevelsofthehierarchy,whichconsistsinaseriesofprototypesandimages.Beinganimage(eikon)entailsbeingdifferentfromthat

whichisthearchetype;theimageisthusinsomewayinferiortothearchetype.However,theimagenecessarilydependsonitsarchetypeandissomewhatsimilartoit.Thisdependenceoperatesinonedirectiononly,thereforetheloweralwaysdependsonthehigherbutnotviceversa.TheOneprovidestheexistenceofthings,nottheirousia(essence,orsubstance),whichderivesfromthesecondprinciple,IntellectasthearcheofForms.TheFormsinIntellectarenotanimageofFormsintheOne,sinceotherwiseIntellectwouldnothaveknowledgeofForms,butonlyofimages.

TheOneisthesupremearcheofallandcannotbedeprivedofitsenergeiabecauseallmultiplicityflowsfromthesuperabundanceoftheOneandmustbereferredbacktotheOne.So,isthePlotinianmetaphysics"creationist"or"emanationist"?LloydGerson,whoraisesthisquestion,saysthattothinkofemanating,irradiating,orflowingincontrasttocreatingistomakeasortofcategorymistake:

Formetaphorsarenotproperlycontrastedwithtechnicalterminology.Ifonewantsconvincingonthispoint,weneedonlyrecallthatAquinassometimesusesthesamemetaphorinbehalfofanexplanationofcreation,notincontrasttoit....ButPlotinus,too,saysthattheOneisperfectandthatitactsaccordingtoitswill(boulesis).So,whereasAquinascontraststhealternativesofactingbynecessityandactingbywill(andintellect),Plotinuscontrastsactingbynecessityandactingonthebasisofdiscursivereasoning....SotosaythattheOneactsbynecessitycouldmeannothingelsebutthatitactsaccordingtoitswill.34

ForPlotinus,SoulistheimageofNous,althoughSoulisfrequentlyregardedasbelongingtotherealmofBeingandIntellect.Everyimage,inordertobedependentonitsarchetype,mustpreserveitsunity,structure,andvalue,whichremindusoftheexistenceofahigherrealitythatisimmanentlypresentthroughoutthepluralityoftheimage.Theverybeingofeikondependsupontheinnerpresenceofparadeigmathatmakesitwhatitis.ButSoul,thoughbeinganimageofNous,alsohasthecharacteristiclowerintellectualactivityofdiscursivethought,reasoning,reckoning,andplanning:sheisnot,likeIntellect,whollyabsorbedincontemplation,butisactiveinforming,animating,andrulingthesensibleworldasawholeandallofitsparts.SinceSoulturnstoIntellectinhercontemplativeepistrophe,sheisunitedwithIntellectandthuskeepstheiconic-contemplativerelationshipwhichholdstogetheralllevelsofthecosmos.

TimeappearsasthelifeofSoul,incontrasttotheEternity(aiori)ofIntellect.Analogously,dianoia,ordiscursivereasoning,iscontrastedtothenon-discursivenoesisofIntellect.Discursivereasoningandplanningare,however,onlycharacteristicofthelowerlevelsofSoul,especiallytheindividualhumanpsuchai,whichdescendfromSoulregardedasthethirddivinehypostasis.ThereforePlotinusdistinguishesbetween1)thehypostasisSoul,2)theWorld-Soul,and3)theindividualsoul.BoththeWorld-SoulandtheindividualsoulsproceedfromSoulthehypostasis.InthisdescenttheseparatesoulsdeclinefromtheiridentitywithIntellectthroughadesireforself-identity.

ButSoulcannotdescendintoMatterinsuchawayastobeaffectedbyit:themixingofSoulwithMatterissimilartotheimmanentpresenceofthelight-principleinthesphere.Hence,itcannotbeviewedmaterialistically.SoulisnotcombinedwithMatterbutisimmanentlypresentinit.ThusSoulpervadesallthings:theuniverseliesinSoul,whichbearsitup,andnothingiswithoutashareofSoul.Theworldislikeanetimmersedinthelivingpsychic"waters."PlotinusfollowsbothPlatoandAristotle:heacceptsAristotle'ssharpdistinctionofSoulandIntellect,maintainingthetranscendenceofNous,atthesametimepreservingtheircontinuity,sinceinPlatonousispsucheatitshighestlevelatwhichtheelevatedsoul(restoredtoitsprimevalnoeticnature)cancontemplatetheForms.Thus,A.H.Armstrongargues:

Allthelevelsofpsychicactivity,includingthenoeticorcontemplative,whichisnotclearlydistinguishedfromthedianoeticandreasoning,arecontinuous,andthereisnobreak,stilllessanysenseoftensionandopposition,betweencontemplative-rationalactivityandtheexternalactivitieswhichshouldbedirectedbyit.Thisappliesbothtodivineandhumanpsuche.35

Plotinusmaintainsthatsoulispresenttothebodyaslightistoair.Fortherationalsoul,theidealistolikenoneselftoGod,thusleavingtherealmofNatureandallsensiblephenomena.Nature,regardedasa"powerwhichmakes,"doesnotneedtoreasonorinquire:itmakesbycontemplatingSoulanditisinitscontemplationthattheworldisproduced.Ultimately,Nature's"wisdom"dependsonthatofthedivineIntellect.Ifmattercanberegardedas"evil"(innopositivesense),thisisbecauseitisabsolutelynonexistentandformless.Nevertheless,itisnecessaryforthecompletionoftheuniverse.TheexistenceofFormcompelstheexistenceofMatter,sinceeveryformrequiresasubstrateinwhichitislodged.Thereforejustassensiblematterisfilledbytheimmanent

presenceofSoul,sointelligibleMatterisilluminatedbytheOne,takinglightfromoutsideitself,andthusprovidingthematrixinwhichahigherlevelofrealitymaybeimmanentlypresent.Justaslightisweakenedthroughitsdispersionintheair,soisformweakenedwhendispersedintomatter.

MysticalExperience,Self-Knowledge,andUnionwiththeOne

Plotinusinvitesus,throughphilosophicalreflection,spiritualmeditation,andvirtuetoreachthedivineIntellectandcontemplatethebeautyofnoeticarchetypes,orForms.Thus,accordingtoJ.H.Fielder,"oneofthefunctionsoftheEnneadsistobeaspiritualguidetothistranscendence,"36asifpiercingthroughthefogofignoranceorascendingfromthedarkcaveofphenomenatotheimmortalrealmofNous,inordertoseethetruearchetypalRealityofwhichtheworldconstitutesapartialimage.AsH.J.Blumenthalsays:

Reunitingourselveswiththisintellectofours,andultimatelytranscendingit,byunion,orreunion,withwhateverlies"above,"beittheOneortheOneandIntellect,remainsafundamentalaspirationforNeoplatonists.Thisissowhetherthatreunionmeansturningourselvesawayfromotherpreoccupationstoourintellect'sperpetualactivity,asforPlotinushimself,orrisingtoitasforIamblichusandthosewhocameafterhim.37

FollowingPlato(Phaed.67c),Plotinusconceivedphilosophyasapreparationfordeath.HealsoacceptedAristotle'sstatementthatonlythelifeaccordingtointellect(bioskatanoun:Nicomach.Eth.118a6)ispropertoman.ForthisreasonPorphyrydescribedtheaim(telos)ofphilosophyasreturntoone'srealSelfwhichisNous.Hence,thegoaloflifeistoliveaccordingtothedivineIntellect(zenkatanoun:Deabst.1.29.4).IfthesoulwishestocontemplatetheineffableOne,theGood,itmustbe"intellectified"(nootheisa)andbereunitedwiththedivineNous,whichdoesnotbelongtoanyindividual,butisratheruniversal.AsPierreHadothaspointedout:

Thus,wecouldsaythatthemysticalexperienceofthesoulconsistsinlivingthelifeofthedivineIntellectandinassociatingitselfwiththeimmediateexperienceofthepresenceoftheGood,aslivedbytheIntellect.Inotherwords,thesummitofthemysticalexperienceofthe

soulisthemysticalexperienceoftheIntellectitselfwithwhichthesoulhassucceeded,foramoment,inidentifying.38

ThemysticalexperienceinPlatonismandNeoplatonismisimplicitlybasedontheEleusinianmodel,becauseboththeterm"mystical"itself(which,forPlotinus,designatessimplythe"hiddenmeaning")andthenotionoftheexperienceofGodasanepiphanyofLightandvision(epopteia),derivefromthephilosophicalinterpretationoftheEleusinianandRa-osirianmysteries.

AscensionthroughthedifferentlevelsofrealitybringsaboutaradicaltransformationofthebeingthroughtherealizationthatthephysicalbodyanditsconstituentsareapartofamuchgreaterwholeandthatthehumanminddependsuponasuperiordivineIntellect,whichilluminatesitandpermitsittothink.Thespiritualascentisnotatheoreticaljourneyundertakenbyreason,but(liketheSufimi'raj)itisamovementinconsciousness,activeimagination,andspirit,whichtransformsone'sbeingandbringsaninnerunificationandunion(henosis)withthedivine.ThesupremegoalofhumanlifeistobeunitedtotheGoodwhoisaboveallthings.AsStephenR.L.Clarkmaintains:

Really,thereisnothingthatistrulyoursthatwecanlose.Whateverseemstohavebeenlostanddividedfromus,inthischangingworld,isThere,where"allthingsarefilledfulloflife,and,wemaysay,boilingwithlife"(Enn.VI.7.12.23-24).39

AccordingtoPlotinus,"ourconcernisnottobefreeofsin,buttobegod"(allatheoneinai:Enn.I.2.6.2-3).Thesoulmustbecome"allthings."However,"soul"isnotafixedentity,butratheralabelforavarietyofpsychicandintellectualactivities.ItseemsthatPlotinusdistinguishedtheconceptofsoul(psuche)andtheegocentricconsciousness,orself("we,"hemeis),whichislowerthanthe"undescended"summitofthesoulandhigherthatthesubconsciousprocesses.Thismoving"centerofconsciousness"isthesubjectbothof"vulgar"ethicalbehaviorandthe"civic"virtues.40Soulisregardedasacontinuumextendingfromthesummitofthesoul,whichisconstantlyunitedtothedivineIntellect(since"evenoursouldoesnotaltogethercomedown,butthereisalwayssomethingofitintheintelligible":Enn.IV.8.8.1-3),throughtheempiricalself,rightdowntotheirrationalimage(eidolon)thatiscalledhemeis,afluctuatingspotlightofconsciousness.

Theaspirationforself-realization,orself-knowledge,istheaspirationforone's

trueidentitywiththearchetypalsummitthroughtheself'srevertinguponitself.Theincorporealselfcannotbeknowndiscursively.WhenconsciousnessreturnstothestageofpureintellectionandrealizesitseternalunitywithNous,itisnolongersoul:ithasbecomeIntellect.ItisnotclearwhetherPlotinuspositsFormsofindividualmen(which,likeallmembersofthenoeticcosmos,attheirhighestmustbeintellectsthemselves),sinceanindividualsoulappearsonlywhen"thefluctuatingfocusofself"sinksbelowthelevelofIntellectandissomewhat"separated,"thoughitseternalFormremainsintact.Inanycase,asPlatoMamohasobserved:"HavingbeenestablishedinthedivineNouswearenolongermen."41

Thejourneytothenoeticrealmconsistsbothinreflectingonthesensibleworld(viewedinitsrealsymbolicandtheophanicsense)andinturningwithin,towardtheinteriorofthesoul.ForPlotinus,theroleofbeautyistorecallustoaknowledgeofForms,thusascendingtothetrueBeautythroughthepracticeofvirtuesandpurifications(katharseis).InthisrespectPlotinusfollowsPlato(Symp.206d,Phaed.69bc).Allanagogicmethodsareemployedinordertoattainthespiritualseparationofthesoulandthebody(the"death"conductedbythe"initiationintothemysteries")andtoliveaccordingtoIntellect,thuscontemplatingboththebeautiesofthecosmosandthesplendorofthenoeticlightwhichshinesfromwithin.Eventually,thesoulattainstoidentificationwithNousthroughthepracticeofconcentration—notuponanythingexternal,butuponitsownimmaterialselfasthepuresubjectofawareness.Ifonewishestounderstandthistransformationinthetermsof"mysticalexperience,"itbeginswhenthesoulturnstoitsowninteriorandentersintodirecttouchwiththelightofthedivineIntellect.

Themodelofimitationforthetrue"loverofwisdom"istheSouloftheWorldwhichisnotdisturbedbythebodyofthesensiblecosmosthatitgoverns.Thereforethesage(sophos)mustactliketheimpassiveuniversalSoul(whicheternallycontemplatesthedivineNousandtheFormswithinNousasthearchetypesofthesensiblerealm)andunitethehumanintellecttothedivineIntellect.J.M.Ristsays:

Plotinusiscertainlyconfidentthatpurificationanddialecticwillleadtotheirgoalofunion,sincetheuniversehasbeenprovidentiallyarrangedtoallowforthispossibilityandsincemanpossessesafacultycapableofattainingthisgoal;butthereisanelementintheprocedurethatisoutsidethecontrolofeventhenoblestphilosopher.TheOneispresenttothose

wholook,butnomancanbethejudgeofhisownfitnesstoreceivethevision,andhence,evenwiththeaidofthehighestaspectofnous,nomancanattainunionwiththeOnebyaquasi-magicalorritualistfulfillmentofobligations.TheOneisineffableandunknowableintermsofintellect...,42

SincethereiswithinNousakindofunityderivedfromtheOne'spresence,theawareness(sunesis)oftheOnearisesnotbyintellection(noesis),asdoesawarenessoftheForms,butbythemysticalunion(henosis)achievedthroughthe"primepartofnous,"tantamounttothe"floweroftheintellect"(anthosnou)oftheChaldeanOracles.JustastheIntellectisreachedbybecomingnoeideis(nous-like),sotheOneisreachedbybecominghenoeideis(hen-like,i.e.,liketheOneitself).ThusthewaytotheGoodtakesonebeyondknowing.OnemustnotchaseaftertheGood,but"waitquietlytillitappears"(Enn.V.5.8).4-5),likethedescendinggrace,Shaktipata,intheTrikaShaivismofKashmir.Plotinussays:"Shutyoureyes,andchangetoandwakeanotherwayofseeing,whicheveryonehasbutfewuse"(Enn.I.6.8.24-27).ThecommentaryprovidedbyDeirdreCarabineisasfollows:

SincetheOnecannotknowhimself,itfollowsthatthewayofknowingisnotappropriateasameansofattainingunitywiththeOne....Plotinusalwaysspeaksoftheunityexperiencedatthislevelintermsoflightandvision,althoughheemphasizesthefactthatthis"seeing"mustbeunderstoodmetaphorically,notintermsofhavingarealobjectpresentbeforetheeyes.Thetrueendofthesoulisto"see"thatlightaloneinitself,notthroughthemediumofanyotherthing;thiskindofvisionexcludesthepossibilityofthesoulknowingthatitisunitedwiththeOne.Thesoulcannolongerdistinguishitselffromtheobjectofitsintuition.43

Theobjectandtheactofvisionhavebecomeidentical,since"seeingandtheseencoincide,andthesunisliketheseeingandtheseeingislikethesun"(Enn.V.3.8.16-17).TheawakeninginthepresenceoftheGoodistheresultoftheremovalofmultiplicitythroughnegation,ofputtingawayall"otherness"andreachingtheineffableunion,sinceitisonlybytheOnethatweseetheOne.Thus"thetwobecomeone"(taduohenginetai)through"simplification"(haplosis),contemplativevision(theoria),andunion(henosis).Thiskindof"ecstasy"(whentheegoisobliteratedandoneseestheformless),regardedasareturntothesupremeSource,isacosmicorratherdivineevent,"notatemporal

eventinthehistoryofthisperson."44Thisisbecauseitisnotthesoulortheempiricalegothat"survives."Notonlytheego,butthenoeticselfestablishedinthedivineIntellectisapparentlylostinthesuprememysticalunion.

TheeternalintelligiblestructureofNousremainsintact,thoughthenormalself-awarenessdisappearswhenIntellectisimmersedintotheOne'spresence,being"senselessandinlove"(aphronkaieron).Thereforethe"experience"oftheGood(althoughthesoulalreadyhasceasedtobeitselfandbecameonewithitstranscendentsource)ismodeledaslovingunion.Thisloveincitesthesoultoassimilateitselftothepureobjectitloves.AndsincetheOnetranscendsbothform(eidos,morphe)andintellection(noesis),whoeverlovesitmustdiscardallform,image,andthought.Onlybyfollowingthisway,thesoul(whichlostitsdistinctindividual"soulness")participatesintheinfinitedesireofNous,thedivineIntellect,strickenwithloveforitsultimateSource,theOne.ThereforetherelationtotheGood,asthetranscendentLightofLights,isestablishedthroughthemysticalloveinwhichculminatesthe"erotic",i.e.,philosophical,life.Strictlyspeaking,thedivineIntellectiseternallyunitedwiththeOneandthesoulsharesthisunionwhenitis"annihilated"andrealizesitsineffablerootsintheGood.

PlotinusbetweenEastandWest

Christianmysticismandnegativetheology,startingwiththefourthcenturyCappadocianFathers,cameunderstrongPlotinianinfluence.OwingtothetranslationofPlotinusintoLatinbyMariusVictorinus,Plotinus(thoughsometimesviewedthroughPorphyrianeyes)becamethemainsourceofphilosophicalinspirationtosuchauthorsasAugustine(354-430).Plotinianphilosophyprovedtobeextremelyattractive.ItmayberegardedasanintegralpartoftheHellenictraditionofpietyandreligiousreflectionwhich,accordingtoA.H.ArmstrongandJ.P.Kenney,issuedinitsownkindof"monotheism"—verydifferentfromthenowwidelyrecognized"classicalChristiantheism":

Plotinusmight,justconceivably,haveacceptedChristasatheophany,andagreatone,ifhehadbeenpreachedtohimdifferently.Buthecouldneverhaveacceptedhimastheoneandonlytheophany,excludinganddevaluingallothers.45

J.P.Kenneyarguesthatthe"mysticalmonotheism"ofPlotinusrepresentsthe

coalescenceofmanydisparate,theisticelementsinGraeco-Romanreligiousthought.TheOnemightthereforebesaidtohavebeen"theculminationofHellenictheism,thephilosophicalarticulationofanincreasinglysignificantstrandinancienttheology."46TheineffablefirstPrincipleofPlotinusremained,asKenneysays,theonlyrealdeitythroughoutNeoplatonictheology,despiteofany"polytheism"admittedatthelevelofreligiousobservance:

AndbecauseitremainedrootedinPlatonic,degree-of-realitytheology,themodalisticaspectsofPlotiniantheologycouldneverdevelopintomonism,whereonlytheOnewasrealandallotherbeingswerebutitsillusoryepiphenomena.ThetheologyofPlotinusshouldthusbeunderstoodnotasmonisticorpantheisticbutasaspecialanddistinctivesortofmonotheism;NeoplatonismisnotanadvaiticarchipelagointoWesternthought.47

OurtaskisnottocontesttermsanddebatewhetherthePlotinianphilosophyis"monotheistic,""monistic,"or"pantheistic,"becauseallofthesetermsareinventionsofmuchlateraggressiveideologicalquarrelsandservetoimposeadistinctivelyWestern,Christian,oreven"modern"perspective.

Fromthesixthuntilthefifteenthcentury(whenMarsilioFicinorenderedtheEnneadsintoLatinalongwithotherNeoplatonicwritingsbroughtfromByzantium)thetextofPlotinuswasunknowninWesternEurope,thoughstillavailableintheGreek-andArabic-speakingEast.FranzRosenthalarguesthatthoughPlotinusasadistinctpersonfadedentirelyamongMuslims,hisideasbecameallthemoreacceptableforIslamictheologyandmysticism:

IthassometimesbeenclaimedthatPlotinusexercisedthegreatestsingleinfluenceontheformationofMuslimcivilizationaswehavecometoknowit.Thiswouldseemtobeabitofanexaggeration,buttherecanbenodoubtthathisworkandthoughtmostprofoundlyaffectedMuslimintellectualandspirituallife....Asaresult,Muslimmedievalcivilizationbecameimbuedwithanextraordinarymeasureofcoherenceand,atthesametime,manifoldnesswhichgaveitstrengthandvitality.IftheworldofIslamwasabletodominateintellectuallifefromIndiatotheAtlanticoceanformanycenturies,thiscanjustlybeascribedtothefactthatithadfoundintheworkofPlotinusandhisspiritualdescendantsapowerhousewhichmadeitpossibleforitalwaystorestoreitscreativeimpulsesinawaywhichitspurelyreligiousfoundations,broadand

inspiringthoughtheywere,wouldhavebeenunabletoprovide.48

TheIslamicscholars(forexample,al-Qifti,whowroteinthefirsthalfofthethirteenthcentury)knewPlotinusas"aphilosopherresidentinthelandoftheGreeks"(biladYunan).Presumably,al-Shaykhal-Yunani,discussedbyal-Shahrastani,isPlotinus.However,PlotinusexercisedhisinfluenceontheIslamicworldunderthemaskofAristotle,andtheArabicversionoftheEnneadsparadoxicallybecameknownastheTheology(Uthulujiya)ofAristotle.SomemodernscholarsarguethathisTheologyisaportionofacompilationonphilosophicaltheologypreparedforal-Kindi(d.866)andhiscircle,alsoincludingselectionsfromProclusandAlexanderofAphrodisias.49TheTheologyofAristotleisactuallyacollectionofexcerptsfromEnneadsIV-VI,alongwithconnectingmaterial,unknowninGreek,andattributedtoPorphyry.Itstitlerunsasfollows:

ThebookofAristotlethePhilosopher,calledinGreekTheologia,beingthediscourseontheDivineSovereignty(rububiya);theinterpretation(tafsir)ofPorphyryofTyre,translatedintoArabicby'Abdal-MasihIbnNa'imaofEmessaandcorrectedforAhmadibnal-Mu'tasimbi'llahbyAbuYusufYa'qubibnIshaqal-Kindi.

Forthisreason,IslamicphilosophersandSufiswereconvincedthatAristotlewasalsoamystic,evenakindofdivinesage(hakimmuta'allih).Shihabal-Dinal-Suhrawardi,theShaykhal-Ishraq(1153-1191),towhomtheTheologyofAristotlewasthemostperfectexampleofthe"divinephilosophy"available,writeshowhesawAristotle,theauthoroftheUthulujiya,inadreamandaskediftheIslamicPeripateticsweretherealphilosophers.Aristotle(i.e.,Plotinus)answerednegatively,arguingratherthattheSufis,suchasAbuYazidal-BistamiandSahlal-Tustariweretherealphilosophers.50ThusPlotinusisindirectlyrecognizedasapredecessoroftheSufis,whopassbeyondtheoreticalknowledge(‘ilmsuri)totheknowledgeofpresence(‘ilmhuduri,Himshuhudi).

SomecontemporaryscholarsmaintainthatthephilosophyofPlotinusservesasavehiclewhichisabletobridgetheso-calledgapbetweenEastandWest,thoughthisartificialseparationofEastandWest,muchemphasizedbythenineteenthcenturyOrientalists,nowseemsratheranachronistic.L.J.HatabobservesthatthethoughtofPlotinuspresentsastrikingparalleltotheformsofthoughtfoundintheUpanishads.Forexample,thefour-foldstructureofrealityexposedintheMandukyaUpanishad(namely,themantricsyllableAUMwhichconstitutes1)

thewakingstateofviraj,2)thedreamstateofHiranyagarbha,theWorld-Soul,3)thedreamlessstateofIshwara,and4)thetranscendentpeaceofBrahman)isanalogoustothePlotinianNature,Soul,Intellect,andthetranscendentOne:

HerethesyllableAUMisseenasrepresentingBrahman.ThisUpanishadviewsthelevelsofrealityfromthestandpointofthestagesofconsciousnessleadingtoarealizationofBrahman,andcorrespondstoPlotinusviewingametaphysicalstructureintermsofspiritualattitudes,theinwardascensionofthesoultotheOne.51

TheEnneadsarecomparedtotheBhagavadgitaaswell,becausethepathbywhichPlotinusleadshisdisciplesandreadersfromego-centeredparticularitytospiritualuniversalityis"apathwhichleadsontosomethingverylikemoksha,thatunionwiththeOneorGoodwhichliesbeyondthetrueuniverseofNous.52

ForR.K.Tripathi,thecontemplativephilosophyofPlotinusseemstobeveryclosetothephilosophyofShankara(788-822).HecomparesthePlotinianecstasytowhatiscalledsamadhiinAdvaitaVedanta,arguingthatbothPlotinusandShankaraviewedphilosophyasawayoflife.53Incertainrespects,theNeoplatonicconceptofnouscorrespondstothatofatman-purusha-brahman.WhileobservingthatBrahmanappearsastheobjectofone'sknowledge(jnana)onlywhenoneisunitedwithBrahman,andNousappearsastheobjectofone'sgnosisonlywhentheknowerhimselfisunitedwithNous,A.H.ArmstrongandR.R.RavindraseektoshowthestrikingparallelsbetweenancientIndianthoughtandtheEnneadsofPlotinus:

WhatissaidofthemanwhohasbecomebrahmanagreesalmostexactlywithwhatPlotinussaysaboutthemanwhohasbecomenous.Andamanbecomesbrahmanornousbecausehealwayswasso.Itisonlythatnowherealizesit;thisseeingorrealizingisthesameasbecomingit.54

I.C.SharmaevenequatesthephilosophicalwaytotheOne,describedbyPlotinus,withBuddhi-Yoga,maintainingthatYoga(thewordderivesfromtherootwhichmeans"tounite"or"tojoin"),asthemeansoftheunionofthesoulwiththeOne,andthestateofthatunionitself,isanalogoustothemysticalpathofPlotinus.BothleadtotheSupremeSelf,Paramapurusha,theNeoplatonicOne.55

Owingtoallthesesimilarities(thoughmoredetailedcomparisonofNeoplatonic

andIndianphilosophiesisbesetwithconsiderabledifficulties),thedebateisheldforandagainstEasternsourcesofPlotinus'philosophy.AsA.M.Woltersaptlyremarked,thisisadebateforandagainstthe"purity"ofhisphilosophy,assuming(accordingtotheideologicalstandardsofthemodernWesternandso-calledEuropocentricmentality)thattheHellenictraditionstandsforrationalism,objectivity,respectability,andclarityofthought,incontrastto"Eastern"impurity,superstition,mysticism,andirrationalism.56Forthosewhoregardtheanti-traditionalWestastheapexofcivilization,toadmit"orientalinfluences"meansnotonlytocontaminateone'sgoodname,butalsotofalloutsidethelineof"progress."ThesecolonialattitudescontinuetounderlinethetheoriesofdevelopmentclaimingWesternsuperiorityeveninrespectof"mysticism"(whichmeanstomakePlotinusmoreprestigiousthroughthe"Westernization"ofhisphilosophy),though,infact,alltruemysticaltraditionsareneglected,derided,orcaricaturedbythemodernists.

Bethatasitmay,alldiscussionsof"influences"and"sources"dependonaparticularpositivistviewofhistoryandonone'snotionofhistoricalcausality.Certainly,thestructuralparallelsbetweenPlotinusandtheUpanishadscannotproveanydirectIndianinfluence,asE.Brehierandhisuncriticalfollowers(chieflyIndologists)maintain.H.R.Schwyzer,P.Henry,A.H.Armstrong,L.P.Gerson,J.Dillon,J.Trouillard,R.T.Wallis,andothereminentscholars(thusconstitutingtheoverwhelmingacademicconsensus)arguethatPlotinusmustbeunderstoodstrictlyintermsoftheHellenictradition,sincehisphilosophyisagenuineHellenicgrowthstemmingfromthecreativeinterpretationofPlato,Aristotle,theStoics,theMiddlePlatonists,andtheNeopythagoreans.Thispositioniswell-foundedandwouldseemtobetrue,especiallybearinginmindthatdifferenttraditionsofthephilosophiaperennisarenotnecessarilyaresultofcertainmechanical"influences"butratherdependoncommonarchetypes.FrithjofSchuonexpressesthisattitudeasfollows:

Thisquestionofknowingwhetherornotthereisahistoricalconnectionbetweenthe"EyeoftheHeart"ofPlotiniandoctrine,Augustiniandoctrine,andSufidoctrine('Aynal-Qalb)isdoubtlessinsolubleandinanycaseunimportantfromthestandpointatwhichweplaceourselves;itsufficestoknowthatthisideaisfundamentalandismetwithalmosteverywhere.57

However,ifitisclearthatNeoplatonism(orsimplyPlatonism)maybesafelyderivedanddeducedfromHellenicsources,weshouldnotforgetthatthe

Platonictraditionitselfisonlyapart(orthe"modernized"andphilosophicallyarticulatedversion)oftheancientreligiousandmysticaltraditionswhichflourishedasfarastheRamessideEgyptoftheNewKingdom,Assyria,andUpanishadicIndia.AsregardscertainAugustinianandSufidoctrines(mentionedbySchuon)wearealmostcertainthattheyaredirectlyinheritedfromPlotinusorotherHellenicsources,atleastinrespectoftheirtheoreticaldiscourse,terms,andimages.But,insteadofassertingthat"thereisnothingOrientalaboutNeoplatonism,"weoughttorememberthatso-calledpre-Socraticthoughtisalreadyamodifiedversionof"Oriental"beliefsspreadthroughouttheAchaemenidEmpire,whichextendedfromIoniatoBactriaandtheIndusvalley.

Nowthecrucialquestionmaybeasked:who,eventually,decidedthatancientGreecebelongstotheWest,especiallytotheChristianized,Protestant,orModernandPostmodern"West"?TheearlyGreekandUpanishadicteachingsstemfromcommonorverysimilarbackgrounds;thereforereciprocalinfluencesaretobeexcepted.ThomasMcEvilleydiscernstwomassivetransfersofideasandmethodsofthinking:firstfromIndiaintoGreeceinthepre-SocraticperiodandthenfromGreecebackintoIndiaintheHellenisticperiod,whenthetransmissionofHelleniclogicalanddialecticaltraditionsshapedtheformalstructureandscientificconceptsofIndianphilosophicalschoolswhichhadbeenprotodialecticalbeforethistransmission.Hesays:

Upanishadicinfluencesonthepre-SocraticsseemlikelytohaveincludedmonisticsolutionstotheproblemoftheOneandtheMany,thedoctrineofthetransformationoftheelementsintooneanother,atleasttheethicalaspectofthereincarnationdoctrineassociatedwithit,andelementsoraspectsofthedoctrineofthecosmiccycle;atthesametimeJaininfluenceswereenteringGreecethroughtheOrphiccommunity.58

However,theformationoftheUpanishadictraditionitselfisinseparablefromthemucholderMesopotamian(orSumero-Dravidian)andEgyptianinfluences—thatwidespreaddiffusionofNearEasternculturalmodelswhichbelongtotheso-calledBronzeAgesynthesis,itselfrootedintheNeolithic-ChalcolithicAge.Bethatasitmay,thosehistorical,esoteric,orsimplyimaginedroutesoftransmissionareutterlyirrelevanttothespiritualseekerwhoconcentrateshisspiritualeyeupon"theonlythingneedful."

RemarksonMacKenna'sTranslation

StephenMacKenna(1872-1935),therenownedtranslatorofPlotinusintoEnglish,wasnotaClassicalscholar,butajournalistwithoutevenauniversitydegree.HewasborninLiverpoolasasonofanimprovidentIrishofficerintheIndianArmy.HevisitedGreecetofighttheTurksandbecameEuropeancorrespondentoftheNewYorkWorld.WhilestayinginSt.Petersburg(Russia)hediscoveredtheEnneadsofPlotinusandlaterdevotedhimselftotheirtranslationfortwodecades.Onlyin1930wasMacKenna'slifeworkover.Thoughhebasedhistranslationonthe1883TeubnereditionofRichardVolkmannandthe1935OxfordeditionofFriedrichCreuzer(whichareveryimperfectifcomparedwiththemodernHenryandSchwyzeredition),MacKenna'stranslationistrulyinspiringandonlyonrareoccasionsincorrect.MacKennahadassertedthattotranslatePlotinuswas"worthalife."TherecenttranslationmadebyA.H.Armstrong59istruertotheoriginalontheliterallevel,butsometimeslacksthestylisticqualitiesandbeautycharacteristicoftheMacKenna'sversion.

IntheMacKennatranslationthefirsthypostasisofPlotinusisrenderedastheOne,orFirstExistent;thesecondhypostasis,Intellect,astheDivineMind;andthethirdhypostasis,Soul,astheAll-Soul.

ThepresentselectionfromtheEnneads,translatedbyStephenMacKenna,isaimednotsomuchatthemodernClassicalscholar,butratheratthosestudentsofPlotinuswhoarespiritualseekersandwhoacceptthemetaphysicalpremisesofsophiaperennis,theeternalwisdom,whichhassomanydifferent"archetypalfaces"andhistoricalmanifestations.

AlgisUždavinys

Footnotes1E.N.Tigerstedt,TheDeclineandFalloftheNeoplatonicInterpretationofPlato:AnOutlineandSomeObservations(Helsinki:SocietasScientiarumFennica,1974),p.49.

2J.N.Findlay,"TheNeoplatonismofPlato,"inTheSignificanceofNeoplatonism,ed.R.BaineHarris(Norfolk:ISNS,1976),p.25.

3MariaLuisaGatti,"Plotinus:ThePlatonicTraditionandtheFoundationofNeoplatonism,"inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPlotinus,ed.LloydP.Gerson(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996),p.10.

4JohnDillon,TheMiddlePlatonists:AStudyofPlatonism80B.C.toA.D.220,revisededitionwithnewafterword(London:Duckworth,1996),pp.383and381.

5Ibid,p.383.6A.H.Armstrong,TheArchitectureoftheIntelligibleUniverseinthePhilosophyofPlotinus(Amsterdam:AdolfM.Hakkert,1967),pp.7and57.

7JohnDillon,TheMiddlePlatonists,p.383.8DenisO'Brien,"PlotinusandtheSecretsofAmmonius,"Hermathena:ATrinityCollegeDublinReview,no.CLVII,winter1994,p.137.

9E.R.Dodds,"NumeniusandAmmonius,"LessourcesdePlotin:Entretienssurl'Antiquiteclassique,No.5(Vandroeuvres-Geneve,1960),pp.27-28.

10PeterKingsley,AncientPhilosophy,Mystery,andMagic:EmpedoclesandPythagoreanTradition(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1995),pp.369-370.

11DenisO'Brien,"PlotinusandtheSecretsofAmmonius,"p.119.12Ibid,p.118.13DominicJ.O'Meara,PythagorasRevived:MathematicsandPhilosophyinLateAntiquity(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1997),p.113.

14JohnGlucker,AntiochusandtheLateAcademy(Gottingen:VanderhoeckandRuprecht,1978),p.313.

15TheTheologyofArithmetic:OntheMystical,Mathematical,andCosmologicalSymbolismoftheFirstTenNumbers.AttributedtoIamblichus,trans.RobinWater-field(GrandRapids:PhanesPress,1988),p.105.

16PeterKingsley,IntheDarkPlacesofWisdom(Inverness:TheGoldenSufiCenter,1999),p.38.

17LloydP.Gerson,"Introduction,"inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPlotinus(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996),p.7.

18pierreHadot,"Ouranos,Kronos,andZeusinPlotinus'TreatiseAgainsttheGnostics,"inNeoplatonismandEarlyChristianThought:EssaysinHonourofA.H.Armstrong,eds.H.J.BlumenthalandR.A.Marcus(London:Variorum,1981),p.129.

19JohnM.Dillon,"GeneralIntroduction,"inProclus'CommentaryonPlato'sParmenides(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1987),p.xxvi.

20HaroldTarrant,ThrasyllanPlatonism(IthacaandLondon:CornellUniversityPress,1993),p.177.

21PierreHadot,"TheHarmonyofPlotinusandAristotleaccordingtoPorphyry,"inAristotleTransformed:TheAncientCommentatorsandtheir

Influence,ed.RichardSorabji(IthacaandNewYork:CornellUniversityPress,1990),p.131.

22FrithjofSchuon,TheTransfigurationofMan(Bloomington:WorldWisdomBooks,1995),p.4.

23R.T.Wallis,Neoplatonism(London:Duckworth,1995),p.524Ibid,p.14.25JohnM.Dillon,"PlotinusatWorkonPlatonism,"Greece&Rome,vol.XXXIX,no.2,October1992,p.194.

26MariaLuisaGatti,"Plotinus:ThePlatonicTraditionandtheFoundationofNeoplatonism,"p.28.

27JohnBussanich,"Plotinus'MetaphysicsoftheOne,"inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPlotinus(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996),p.24.

28JohnH.Fielder,"ChorismosandEmanationinthePhilosophyofPlotinus,"inTheSignificanceofNeoplatonism,ed.R.BaineHarris(Norfolk:ISNS,1976),p.117.

29A.H.Armstrong,"PlatonicMirrors,"Eranos1987,Jahrbuch,vol.56(InselVerlagFrankfurtamMain,1989).

30JohnDillon,"PlotinusandtheTranscendentImagination,"inReligiousImagination,ed.J.P.Mackey(Edinburgh:UniversityofEdinburghPress,1986),p.56.

31Ibid,p.61.32RichardT.Wallis,"NOYSasExperience,"inTheSignificanceofNeoplatonism,ed.R.BaineHarris(Norfolk:ISNS,1976),p.122.

33A.H.Armstrong,PlatonicMirrors,p.172.34LloydP.Gerson,"Plotinus'Metaphysics:EmanationorCreation?"TheReviewofMetaphysics,vol.XLVI,no.3,March1993,pp.559-561.

35A.H.Armstrong,"AristotleinPlotinus:TheContinuityandDiscontinuityofPsycheandNous,"inAristotleandtheLaterTradition,ed.HenryBlumenthalandHowardRobinson(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1991),p.117.

36JohnH.Fielder,"ChorismosandEmanationinthePhilosophyofPlotinus,"p.112.

37HenryJ.Blumenthal,"OnSoulandIntellect,"inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPlotinus,ed.LloydP.Gerson(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996),p.100.

38PierreHadot,"PlotinusandPorphyry,"inClassicalMediterraneanSpirituality:Egyptian,Greek,Roman,ed.A.H.Armstrong(London:

RoutledgeandKeganPaul,1986),p.244.39StephenR.L.Clark,"Plotinus:BodyandSoul,"inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPlotinus,ed.LloydP.Gerson(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996),p.291.

40JohnM.Dillon,"AnEthicfortheLateAntiqueSage,"inTheCambridgeCompaniontoPlotinus,ed.LloydP.Gerson(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1996),p.326.

41PlatoMamo,"IsPlotinianMysticismMonistic?"inTheSignificanceofNeoplatonism,ed.R.BaineHarris(Norfolk:ISNS,1976),p.205.

42JohnM.Rist,"MysticismandTranscendenceinLaterNeoplatonism,"inPlatonismanditsChristianHeritage(London:VariorumReprints,1985),p.215.

43DeirdreCarabine,"AThematicInvestigationoftheNeoplatonicConceptsofVisionandUnity,"Hermathena:ATrinityCollegeDublinReview,no.CLVII,Winter1994,p.46.

44PlatoMamo,"IsPlotinianMysticismMonistic?",p.206.45A.H.Armstrong,"PlotinusandChristianity,"inPlatonisminLateAntiquity,ed.StephenGershandCharlesKannengiesser(NotreDame:UniversityofNotreDamePress,1992),pp.127-128.

46JohnPeterKenney,MysticalMonotheism:AStudyinAncientPlatonicTheology(HanoverandLondon:BrownUniversityPress,1991),p.155.

47Ibid,p.156.48FranzRosenthal,"PlotinusinIslam:ThePowerofAnonymity,"Attidellonvegnointernazionalesultema:PlotinoeilNeoplatonismoinOrienteeinOccidente,AccademiaNazionaledeiLincei,anno371,Quadernono.198(Rome,1974),p.437.

49JohnWalbridge,TheLeavenoftheAncients:SuhrawardiandtheHeritageoftheGreeks(Albany:SUNYPress,2000),p.133.SeealsoF.W.Zimmermann,"TheOriginsoftheSo-CalledTheologyofAristotle"inPseudo-Aristotle,intheMiddleAges,ed.J.Krayeetal(London:TheWarburgInstitute,1986),pp.110-240.

50SeyyedHosseinNasr,TheIntellectualTraditioninPersia,ed.MehdiAminRazavi(Richmond:CurzonPress,1996),p.147.

51LawrenceJ.Hatab,"PlotinusandtheUpanishads,"inNeoplatonismandIndianThought,ed.R.BaineHarris(Norfolk:ISNS,1982),p.36.

52A.H.ArmstrongandR.R.Ravindra,"BuddhiintheBhagavadgitaandPsycheinPlotinus,"inNeoplatonismandIndianThought,ed.R.Baine

Harris(Norfolk:ISNS,1982),pp.64-65.53R.K.Tripathi,"AdvaitaVedantaandNeoplatonism,"inNeoplatonismandIndianThought,ed.R.BaineHarris(Norfolk:ISNS,1982),p.237.

54A.H.ArmstrongandR.R.Ravindra,"BuddhiintheBhagavadgitaandPsycheinPlotinus,"p.81.

55I.C.Sharma,"ThePlotinianOneandtheConceptofParamapurusaintheBhagavadgita,"inNeoplatonismandIndianThought,ed.R.BaineHarris(Norfolk:ISNS,1982),p.89.

56AlbertM.Wolters,"ASurveyofModernScholarlyOpiniononPlotinusandIndianThought,"inNeoplatonismandIndianThought,ed.R.BaineHarris(Norfolk:ISNS,1982),p.295.

57FrithjofSchuon,TheEyeoftheHeart(Bloomington:WorldWisdomBooks,1997),p.6.

58ThomasMcEvilley,TheShapeofAncientThought:ComparativeStudiesinGreekandIndianPhilosophies(NewYork:AlworthPress,2002),p.642.

59Plotinus,TheEnneads,trans.A.H.Armstrong,7volumes(Cambridge,Mass.:Heinemann,1966-1988).

PlotinusTHEENNEADS

EnneadISecondTractate

ONTHEVIRTUES

ThistreatisebelongstothegroupofworkswrittenbeforethearrivalofPorphyry.ItisacommentaryonPlato'sTheaetetus(176a)andexplainsinwhatsensethevirtuescanmakeusgodlike.PlotinususessomeideastakenfromAristotle'sNichomacheanEthics,wheretwokindsofvirtue,intellectualandmoral,arediscerned.Plotinusmakesadistinctionbetweenthecivicvirtues(politikaiaretai)andthepurificatoryvirtues(kathartika