The Great West and the Agricultural...

Chapter26TheGreatWestandtheAgriculturalRevolution,1865–1896

I.TheClashofCulturesonthePlains

• ClashbetweenIndiansandadvancingwhitepioneers:– Migrationandconflict:• ComanchesdroveApachesoffcentralplainsintoupperRioGrandevalleyin18thcentury• HarriedbyMandansandChippewas,theCheyennehadabandonedvillagesalongMississippiandMissouriRiversacenturybeforetheCivilWar• TheSioux,displacedfromGreatLakeswoodlandsinthe18thcenturyemergedontotheplainstopreyuponCrows,Kiowas,andPawnees

I.TheClashofCulturesonthePlains(cont.)

–Whitesoldiersandsettlersontheplains:• AcceleratedfatefulcycleoffierceenmitiesamongIndians• UltimatelyunderminedfoundationsofNativeAmericanculture• Spreadcholera,typhoid,andsmallpoxamongnativepeoplesoftheplains,withdevastatingresults• Putpressureonsteadilyshrinkingbisonpopulationbyhuntingandbygrazingtheirlivestockonprairiegrasses


– Federalgovernment:• TriedtopacifyPlainsIndiansbysigningtreatieswith“chiefs”ofvarious“tribes”atFortLaramie(1851)andatFortAtkinson(1853)• TreatiesmarkedbeginningsofreservationsystemintheWest:– Establishedboundariesforterritoryofeachtribe– AttemptedtoseparateIndiansintogreat“colonies”tonorthandsouthofacorridorofintendedwhitesettlement

– Whitetreatymakers:» MisunderstoodbothIndiangovernmentandIndiansociety


» “Tribes”and“chiefs”oftenfictionsofwhiteimagination» ManyNativeAmericansrecognizedonlyauthorityoftheirimmediatefamiliesorabandelder

» NomadiccultureofPlainsIndiansutterlyalientoconceptoflivingoutone'slifeinconfinementofadefinedterritory

• In1860sfederalgovernmentintensifiedpolicyandherdedIndiansintostill-smallerconfines:– Principally“GreatSiouxreservation”inDakotaTerritoryandIndianTerritory(present-dayOklahoma)


– Indianssurrenderedancestrallands:• WhentheyreceivedsolemnpromisesfromWashington:

– Theywouldbeleftalone– Theywouldbeprovidedfood,clothing,andothersupplies

• Regretfully,federalIndianagentsoftenverycorrupt• FormorethanadecadeaftertheCivilWar:

– FiercewarfarebetweenIndiansandU.S.ArmyragedinvariouspartofWest(seeMap26.1)

– ManyArmytroopswereimmigrants– Fully1/5ofallU.S.ArmypersonnelwereAfricanAmerican—dubbed“BuffaloSoldiers”byIndians

II.RecedingNativePopulation

– IndianwarsinWestoftensavageclashes:• AtSandCreek,Colorado(1864),ColonelJ.M.Chivington'smilitiamassacred400Indians• Womenshotprayingformercy• Childrenhadbrainsdashedout• Bravestortured,scalped,andmutilated

– Crueltybegotcruelty• “Fetterman'sannihilation”in1866wasviolentslaughterof81whitesbySioux

Map 26-1 p577

II.RecedingNativePopulation(cont.)

• Fettermanmassacreledtooneofthefew(thoughshort-lived)Indiantriumphsinplainswars:– BattleoftheLittleBighorn

• TreatyofFortLaramie(1868):– GovernmentabandonedBozemanTrail– “GreatSiouxreservation”guaranteedtoSiouxTribes

• 1874anotherroundofwarfarewithPlainsIndians:– Custerled“scientific”expeditionintoBlackHills,SouthDakotaandannouncedhefoundgold

– Hordesofgreedygold-seekersswarmedintoSiouxlands– Sioux,Cheyenne,andArapahoIndianstooktowarpath,inspiredbySittingBull

II.RecedingNativePopulation (cont.)

– GeneralCuster'sseventhCavalry• SetouttosuppressIndiansandreturnthemtoreservation• Attacked2,500well-armedwarriorsalongLittleBighornRiverinpresent-dayMontana• “WhiteChiefwithYellowHair”andhis250officersandmencompletelywipedoutin1876• Indians'victoryshort-lived• ArmyhunteddownIndianswhohadhumiliatedCuster

II.RecedingNativePopulation(cont.)

• In1877abandofNezPerceIndiansinnortheasternOregongoadedintoflight– WhenU.S.authoritiestriedtoherdthemontoareservation– ChiefJosephsurrenderedwithhis700Indiansafteratortuous,1,700milethreemonthtrekacrossContinentalDividetowardCanada

– NezsenttodustyreservationinKansas,where40%diedfromdisease

– SurvivorseventuallyallowedtoreturntoIdaho• FierceApachetribesofArizonaandNewMexicoledbyGeronimomostdifficulttosubdue:– PursuedintoMexicobyU.S.troops


– Federaltroopsusedsunflashingheliography,acommunicationdevicethatimpressedIndiansas“bigmedicine”

– ScatteredremnantsofwarriorsfinallypersuadedtosurrenderafterApachewomenexiledtoFlorida

– ApachesultimatelybecamesuccessfulfarmersinOklahoma• Relentlessfire-and-swordpolicyofwhitesatlastshatteredspiritofIndians:

» VanquishedIndiansghettoizedonreservations» Compelledtosullenexistenceaswardsofgovernment


• “Taming”ofIndiansengineeredby:– Federalgovernment'swillingnesstobackitslandclamswithmilitaryforce

– Railroad,whichshotanironarrowthroughheartofWest» Locomotivescouldtransportunlimitednumbersoftroops,farmers,cattlemen,sheepherders,andsettlers

– Indiansravagedbywhitepeople'sdisease,towhichtheyhadlittleresistance,andbyfirewater,whichtheycouldresistevenless

– VirtualexterminationofbuffalodoomedPlainsIndians'nomadicwayoflife

III.BellowingHerdsofBison

• Buffalo—– Tensofmillions—describedas“hunchbackcows”—blackenedwesternprairies,whenwhiteAmericansfirstarrived:• ShaggyanimalsstaffoflifeforNativeAmericans:

– Theirfleshprovidedfood– Theirhidesprovidedclothes,lariats,andharnesses– Theirdrieddungprovided“buffalochips”

• WhenCivilWarended,15millionofthesemeatybeastsstillgrazedonwesternplains

III.BellowingHerdsofBison (cont.)

• Effectofrailroads:– Hadsometimestowaituptoeighthoursforherdofbuffalotocrosstracks

– Muchoffoodsupplyforrailroadconstructiongangscamefrombuffalosteaks

– William“BuffaloBill”Codykilledover4,000animalsin18monthswhileemployedbyKansasPacific

• Withthebuildingoftherailroad:– Themassacreofherdsbeganinearnest– Creaturesslainforhides,tongues,oramusement– “Sportsmen”ontrainsleanedoutwindowsandblazedawayatanimals

II.BellowingHerdsofBison (cont.)

– Wholesalebutcheryleftfewerthanathousandbuffaloaliveby1885

– Once-numerousbeastsindangerofcompleteextinction– Shockingexampleofgreedandwastethataccompaniedconquestofcontinent

IV.TheEndoftheTrail

• By1880s,nationalconsciencebegantostiruneasilyoverplightofIndians:– HelenHuntJackson:• PrickedmoralsenseofAmericansin1881withACenturyofDishonor:– ChronicledsorryrecordofgovernmentruthlessnessandchicaneryindealingwithIndians

• Ramona(1884):– LovestoryaboutdiscriminationagainstCaliforniaIndians– InspiredsympathyforIndians

IV.TheEndoftheTrail (cont.)

• Debateseesawed:– HumanitarianswantedtotreatIndianskindlyandpersuadethemto“walkthewhiteman'sroad”

– Hard-linersinsistedoncurrentpolicyofforcedcontainmentandbrutalpunishment

– NeithersiderespectedNativeAmericanculture– Christianreformers:• Oftenadministerededucationalfacilitiesonreservations


• SometimeswithheldfoodtoforceIndianstogiveuptribalreligionsandassimilatetowhitesociety• In1884zealouswhitesoulsjoinedwithmilitarytopersuadeU.S.governmenttooutlawsacredSunDance

– BattleofWoundedKnee:• In1880when“GhostDance”cultspreadtoDakotaSioux,armybloodilystampeditout• Inthefighting,anestimated200men,women,andchildrenkilled• Aswellas29invadingsoldiers


• DawesSeveraltyAct(1887):– MisbegottenoffspringofmovementtoreformIndianpolicy

– Reflectingforced-civilizationviewofreformers:• Actdissolvedmanytribesaslegalentities• Wipedouttribalownershipofland• SetupindividualIndianfamilyheadswith160freeacres• IfIndiansbehavedlike“goodwhitesettlers,”theywouldgetfulltitletoholdingsaswellascitizenshipin25years


– FormerreservationlandnotallottedtoIndiansunderDawesAct:• Soldtorailroadsandwhitesettlers• Withproceedsusedbyfederalgovernmenttoeducateand“civilize”nativepeoples:– Government-fundedCarlisleIndianSchoolinPennsylvaniawhereNativeAmericanchildrenwere:» Separatedfromtheirtribes» TaughtEnglish» Inculcatedwithwhitevaluesandcustoms

– In1890sgovernmentexpandeditsnetworkofIndianboardingschools:


– Sent“fieldmatrons”toreservations:» ToteachNativeAmericanwomenartofsewing» Topreachvirtuesofchastityandhygiene

– DawesAct:• Struckdirectlyattribalorganization:

– TriedtomakeruggedindividualistsoutofIndians– IgnoredtraditionalrelianceofIndiancultureontriballyheldland

– By1900Indianshadlost50%ofthe156millionacrestheyheld(seeMap26.2)

• Forced-assimilationdoctrineofDawesActremainedcornerstoneofgovernmentpolicyfordecades


• IndianReorganizationAct(“IndianNewDeal”)of1934:– Partiallyreversedindividualisticapproach– TriedtorestoretribalbasisofIndianlife(seeChap.32)

– Indianpopulationstartedtorecoverslowly:• Totalnumberreducedby1887toabout243,000—theresultsofbullets,bottles,bacteria• Censusof2000countedmorethan1.5millionNativeAmericans,urbanandrural

V.Mining:FromDishpantoOreBreaker

• ConquestofIndiansandtherailroadswerelife-givingboonstominingfrontier:

• GoldengravelofCaliforniacontinuedtoyield“paydirt”• In1858anelectrifyingdiscoveryconvulsedonColorado

– Avid“fifty-niners”or“PikesPeakers”rushedtoRockies,butthereweremoreminersthanminerals

– Manygold-grubberswith“PikesPeakorBust”inscribedoncoveredwagonsgoing,creakedbackwith“Busted,byGosh”

– Somestayedtostripawaysilverdeposits– Otherstofarmgrain

Map 26-2 p581

V.Mining:FromDishpantoOreBreaker(cont.)

• “Fifty-niners”alsopouredintoNevadain1859:– AfterfabulousComstockLodediscovered– Goldandsilverworthabout$340millionminedby“KingsoftheComstock,”1860-1890

– ScantilypopulatedstateofNevada,“childofComstockLode”:» PrematurelyrailroadedintoUnionin1864» Partlytoprovide3electoralvotesforPresidentLincoln

• Montana,Idaho,andotherwesternstates:– “Luckystrikes”drewfranticgoldandsilverseekers– Boomtownsor“Helldoradoes”sproutedupondesertsands– Everythirdcabinasaloon


– Lynchlawandvigilantejusticetriedtopreservecrudesemblanceoforder

– When“diggings”peteredout,gold-seekersdecamped,leaving“ghosttowns”—VirginiaCity,Nevada

– Begunwithaboom,thesetownsendedwithawhimper• Ageofbusinesscametominingindustry:

– Impersonalcorporationswithcostlymachineryandtrainedengineersreplacedformerminersandmining

– Once-independentgold-washerbecamejustanotherdaylaborer


• Miningfrontierplayedvitalroleinconqueringcontinent:–Magnet-like,itattackedpopulationandwealth• WhileadvertisingwondersofWildWest

–Womenandmenfoundopportunities• Runningboardinghousesorworkingasprostitutes• Withfrontierequality,womenwonrighttovote:

– Wyoming(1869),Utah(1870),Colorado(1893),Idaho(1896)—longbeforewomeninEastcouldvote


– Amassingpreciousmetals:• HelpedfinanceCivilWar• Facilitatedbuildingrailroads• IntensifiedbitterconflictbetweenwhitesandIndians• EnabledTreasurytoresumespeciepayments(1879)• InjectedsilverissueintoAmericanpolitics

– MiningfrontieraddedtoAmericanfolkloreandliterature:BretHarteandMarkTwain

VI.BeefBonanzasandtheLongDrive

• ProblemofcattlemarketingonPlains:– Howtogetcattletomarket:• Solvedbytranscontinentalrailroads• Cattlecouldnowbeshippedlivetostockyards• Under“beefbarons”likeSwiftsandArmours:

– Highlyindustrializedmeatpackingbusinesssprangintoexistenceasamainpillarofeconomy

– IngiganticstockyardsatKansasCityandChicago,meatpackersshippedfreshproductstoEastCoastinnewlyperfectedrefrigeratorcars

VI.BeefBonanzasandtheLongDrive(cont.)

– Spectacularfeederofnewslaughterhouseswas“LongDrive”(seeMap26.3)• Texascowboys(black,white,andMexican)droveherdsof1,000to10,000cattleoverunfencedandunpeopledplainstoarailroadterminal• Beastsgrazedenrouteonfreegovernmentgrass• Favoriteterminalpointswereflyspecked“cowtown”• SteerwaskinginCattleKingdomrichlycarpetedwithgrass.LushgrassmadeLongDriveprofitable• 1866-1888,morethanfourmillioncattlemovedbyLongDrive


• RailroadsmadeLongDrive,andrailroadsunmadeLongDrive• Samerailsthatborecattlefromopenrangebroughtouthomesteadersandsheepherders:– Intruderstoonumeroustobecutdownbycowboys– Terriblewinterof1886-1887leftthousandsofcattlestarvingandfreezing

• Overexpansionandovergrazingtooktoll,ascowboysslowlygavewaytoplowboysOnlyescapeforstockmenwastomakecattle-raisingabigbusinessandavoidperilsofoverproduction


– Breederslearned:» Tofencetheirranchesandlayinwinterfeed» Importprizebulls;producefewerandmeatieranimals» Toorganize:WyomingStock-Growers'Association(1880s)virtuallycontrolledstateanditslegislature

• Heydayofcowboys:– Equipmentofcowhandservedusefulpurpose– Couldjustifiablyboastofhistoughness– BowleggedKnightsofSaddlebecamepartofAmericanfolklore– Manycowboyswereblacks,whoenjoyedfreedomofopenrange

Map 26-3 p585

VII.TheFarmers'Frontier

• Sobersodbusterwrotefinalchapteroffrontierhistory:

• HomesteadAct(1862):– Allowedasettlertoacquireasmuchas160acresofland(aquarter-section)bylivingonitforfiveyears,improvingit,andpayingnominalfeeofabout$30

• Markeddrasticdeparturefrompreviouspolicy:– Beforeact,publiclandhadbeensoldforrevenue– Nowgivenawaytoencouragerapidfillingofemptyspace– Providestimulustofamilyfarm—“backboneofdemocracy”

VII.TheFarmers'Frontier(cont.)

– Agodsendtofarmerswhocouldnotaffordtobuylargeholdings

– About500,000familiestookadvantageofHomesteadActtocarveoutnewhomes

– Yetfivetimesthatmanyfamiliespurchasedlandfromrailroads,landcompanies,orstates(seeFigure26.1)

• HomesteadActoftenturnedouttobeacruelhoax– Standard160acresfrequentlyprovedinadequateonrain-scarceGreatPlains

– Thousandsofhomesteadersforcedtogiveupstruggleagainstdrought

Figure 26-1 p586


– FraudspawnedbyHomesteadActandsimilarlaws:» Morelandgainedbyspeculators,thanactualfarmers» Corporationsused“dummy”homesteaderstograbbestproperties

» Settlerswouldsweartheyhad“improved”propertybyerectinga“twelvebyfourteen”dwelling,whichturnedouttomeasuretwelvebyfourteenthinches

• RailroadsplayedmajorroleindevelopingagriculturalWest:– Largelythroughprofitablemarketingofcrops– RailroadcompaniesinducedAmericansandEuropeanimmigrantstobuycheapland


– “Sodbusters”builthomesfromverysodtheydugfromground– Somepushedfartherontomarginallandsbeyond100thmeridian– Areaseparatedtwoclimatologicalregions:

» Awell-wateredareatoeast» Asemiaridareatowest(seeMap26.4)

– Manywentbrokewestof100thmeridian• “Dryfarming”eventuallytookrootonplains:

– ShallowcultivationsupposedlyadaptedtoaridWest– Overtime,“dryfarming”createdfinelypulverizedsurfacesoil– Contributedtonotorious“DustBowl”later(seeChap.32)

Map 26-4 p587

VII.TheFarmer'sFrontier(cont.)

– Otheradaptationstowesternenvironmentsmoresuccessful:• ToughstrainsofwheatimportedfromRussia• Wisefarmersabandonedcornforsorghumandgrains• Barbedwire,perfectedbyJosephF.Glidden(1874),solvedproblemofbuildingfencesontreelessplains• FederallyfinancedirrigationprojectscausedGreatAmericanDeserttobloom:– ArchingdamstamedMissouriandColumbiaRivers– 45millionacresirrigatedin17westernstates

VII.TheFarmer'sFrontier(cont.)

• HydraulicengineershadmoretodowithshapingmodernWestthanalltrappers,miners,cavalrymen,andcowboys(seeMap26.5)

Map 26-5 p588

VIII.TheFarWestComesofAge• GreatWestexperiencedfantasticsurgeinmigrationfrom1870sto1890s:– ParadeofnewwesternstatesjoinedUnion:• Colorado,1876—“theCentennialState”• 1889-1890—sixnewstates:NorthDakota,SouthDakota,Montana,Washington,Idaho,Wyoming• AfterMormonChurchbannedpolygamyin1890,Utahadmittedin1896

VIII.TheFarWestComesofAge(cont.)

• Oklahoma,“theBeautifulLand:”– Scoresofovereagerandwell-armed“sooners”illegallyenteredOklahomaTerritory

– Hadtobeevictedrepeatedlybyfederaltroops– AllwasreadylegallyonApril22,1889andsome50,000“boomers”poisedexpectantlyonboundaryline

– Atnoon,ahordeof“eighty-niners”pouredin– Thatnight,cityofGuthrie,withmorethan10,000people,born

– Endof1889,Oklahomaboasted60,000inhabitants,andCongressmadeitaterritory

– In1907itbecame“SoonerState”

IX.TheFadingFrontier

• In1890—awatersheddate– Superintendentofcensusannounced:• ForfirsttimeinAmerica'sexperience,afrontierlinenolongerdiscernible• “Closing”offrontierinspiredoneofmostinfluentialessayseverwrittenaboutAmericanhistory– FrederickJacksonTurner's“TheSignificanceoftheFrontierinAmericanHistory”in1893

– Secretaryofwarprophesiedin1827thatfivehundredyearswouldbeneededtofillWest

IX.TheFadingFrontier(cont.)

• Nationsoonrecognizedthatlandnotinexhaustible:– Actionstakentopreservevanishingresources– Governmentsetasidelandfornationalparks—firstYellow-stonein1872,followedbyYosemiteandSequoiain1890

• Frontiermorethanaplace:– Alsoastateofmind;asymbolofopportunity– Itspassingendedromanticphaseofnation'sinternaldevelopment

– Createdneweconomicandpsychologicalproblems• Frontieras“safetyvalve:”

– Theorythatwhenhardtimescame,unemployedwhoclutteredcitymovedwest,tookupfarming,andprospered


• Truthabout“safetyvalve”:– Fewcitydwellersmigratedtofrontierduringdepressions– Mostdidn'tknowhowtofarm– Fewcouldraiseenoughmoneytotransportthemselveswestandthenpayforlivestockandexpensivemachinery

• Doeshavesomevalidity:– FreeacreagedidluretoWestahostofimmigrantsfarmers– Verypossibilityofwesternmigrationmayhaveinducedurbanemployerstomaintainwagerateshighenoughtodiscourageworkersfromleaving

• RealsafetyvalvebylatenineteenthcenturyincitieslikeChicago,Denver,andSanFrancisco:


– Wherefailedfarmers,bustedminers,anddisplacedeasternersfoundwaystoseektheirfortunes

– After1880,areafromRockyMountainstoPacificCoastmosturbanizedregioninAmerica

– Trans-MississippiWestformedadistinctchapter:• NativeAmericanswagedtheirlastandmostdesperatestruggleagainstcolonization– WheremostNativeAmericanslivetoday

• There“Anglo”culturecollidedmostdirectlywithHispanicculturefordominanceinNewWorld– SouthwestremainsmostHispanicizedregioninAmerica


– ThereAmericansfacedacrossPacifictoAsia,andtheremostAsiansAmericandwelltoday

– Severityofenvironmentthere:» Posedlargestchallengestohumanabilities» Itsaridityandstill-magicalemptiness,continuestomoldsocialandpoliticallife

– Innootherregionhasfederalgovernment:» Withitsvastlandholdings,itssubsidiestorailroads,itsmassiveirrigationprojectsplayedsoconspicuousaroleineconomicandsocialdevelopment


• MysticalproportionsinAmericanmind:– Immortalizedby:

» WriterssuchasBretHare,MarkTwain,HelenHuntJackson,FrancisParkman

» PainterssuchasGeorgeCatlin,FredericRemington,AlbertBierstadt

– Forbetterorworse,pioneersplantedseedsofAmericancivilizationinimmensewesternwilderness

– Thelifewelive,theydreamedof;thelifetheylived,wecanonlydream

X.TheFarmBecomesaFactory

– Farmingchangedwithgrowingsingle“cash”crops,suchaswheatorcorn:

– Usedprofitstobuyfoodstuffsatgeneralstore– Andmanufacturedgoodsintownorbymailorder– ChicagofirmofAaronMontgomeryWardsentoutitsfirstcatalogue—asingesheet—in1872

• Farmersbecomingconsumersandproducers• Large-scalefarmersnowspecialistsandbusinesspeople– Intimatelytiedtobanking,railroading,andmanufacturing– Hadtobuyexpensivemachinerytoplantandharvestcrops– Apowerfulsteamenginecoulddragbehinditsimultaneouslytheplow,seeder,andharrow

X.TheFarmBecomesaFactory(cont.)

– Speedofharvestingdramaticallyincreasedin1880sby“combine”—combinedreaper-thresher

– Widespreaduseofsuchequipmentrequiredfirst-classmanagement

• Mechanizationofagriculture:– Drovemanyfarmersoffland– Miraclesofproduction,madeAmericaworld'sbreadbasketandbutchershop

– Farmattainedstatusoffactory—anoutdoorgrainfactory– BonanzawheatfarmsofMinnesota-NorthDakotaenormous

» Foreshadowedgiganticagribusinessesof1900s

X.TheFarmBecomesaFactory(cont.)

• AgriculturebigbusinessinCalifornia:– PhenomenallyproductiveCentralValley– California'sfarmsthreetimeslargerthannationalaverage– Withadventofrailroadrefrigeratorcarin1880s,Californiafruitsandvegetable,raisedonsprawlingtractsbyill-paidmigrantMexicanandChinesefarmhands,soldathandsomeprofitinurbanmarketsofEast

XI.DeflationDoomstheDebtor

• Farmers'financialsituations:– Aslongaspricesstayedhighallwentwell• Grainframersnolongermastersoftheirdestinies:

– Priceofproductdeterminedinworldmarketbyworldoutput• Lowpricesandadeflatedcurrencywerechiefworriesoffrustratedfarmers• Deflationarypinchondebtorflowedpartlyfromstaticmoneysupply:– Simplynotenoughdollarstogoaround,andasaresult,pricesforceddown

XI.DeflationDoomstheDebtor(cont.)

– Farmerscaughtonatreadmill:• Operatedyearafteryearatalossandlivedofftheirfatasbesttheycould• Farmmachineryincreasedoutputofgrain,loweredtheprice,anddrovethemdeeperintodebt• Mortgagesengulfedhomesteadsatanalarmingrate• Ruinousratesofinterest,runningfrom8to40%,chargedonmortgages• SonsanddaughterscriedoutindespairagainstloansharksandWallStreetoctopus• Farmtenancy,ratherthanfarmownership,spread

XII.UnhappyFarmers

– EvenMothernatureconspiredagainstfarmers:• Mile-widecloudsofgrasshoppersleft“nothingbutthemortgage”• Cotton-bollweevilwreakedhavocinSouthby1890s• Goodearthgoingsour:

– Floodsaddedtoerosion– Expensivefertilizersurgentlyneeded– Longsuccessionsofdroughtsearedland

• Farmersgougedbygovernments:– Local,stateandnationalover-assessedtheirland,causingthemtopaypainfullocaltaxes,highprotectivetariffs

XII.UnhappyFarmers (cont.)

– Farmers“farmed”bycorporationsandprocessors– Atmercyofharvestertrust,barbed-wiretrustandfertilizertrust—allwhocontrolledoutputandraisedpricestoextortionatelevels

– Middlementookjuicy“cut”– Railroadoctopushadgraingrowersintheirgrip

• Farmersstillmadeup½ofpopulationin1890:– Hopelesslydisorganized– Farmersbynatureindependentandindividualistic– NeverorganizedsuccessfullytorestrictproductionuntilforcedtodosobyRoosevelt'sNewDeal

– Whattheydidmanagetoorganizewasamonumentalpoliticaluprising

XIII.TheFarmersTakeTheirStand– Agrarianunrest:• FirstflaredwithGreenbackmovement:

– Farmersunsuccessfullydemandedin1868relieffromhighpricesandhighindebtednessbycallingforinflationofcurrencywithpaper

• NationalGrangeofthePatronsofHusbandry—betterknownastheGrange– Organizedin1876,withhelpofOliver.H.Kelley– Firstobjectivewastoenhancelivesofisolatedfarmersthroughsocial,educational,andfraternalactivities

– Grange'spicnics,concerts,andlecturesagod-sendtoisolatedfarmers

– Claimed800,000members,chieflyinMidwestandSouth

XIII.TheFarmersTakeTheirStand (cont.)

• Grangersraisedtheirgoals:– Fromindividualself-improvementtoimprovementoffarmers'collectiveplight

– Establishedcooperativelyownedstoresforconsumers– Cooperativelyownedgrainelevatorsandwarehousesforproducers

– Attemptedtomanufactureharvestingmachinery• EmbitteredGrangerswentintopolitics:

– ChieflyinIllinois,Wisconsin,Iowa,andMinnesota– Throughlegislationtheystroveto:

» Regulaterailwayratesandstoragefees» SomeGrangerLawsbadlywritten

XIII.TheFarmersTakeTheirStand (cont.)

– Followingjudicialreverses,chieflybySupremeCourtinWabashcaseof1886(seeChap24),Grangerinfluencefaded

– Organizationlivedonasvocalchampionoffarminterests,whilebrighteningrurallifewithsocialactivities

• Farmers'grievancesfoundventinGreenbackLaborparty:– Combinedinflationaryappealwithprogramforimprovinglotoflabor

– High-watermarkofmovementin1878:» PolledoveramillionvotesandelectedfourteenmembersofCongress» Presidentialelectionof1880,GreenbackersranJamesWeaver,butonlypolled3%oftotalpopularvote

XIV.PreludetoPopulism– Farmer'sAlliance:• FoundedinTexasinlate1870s(seeChap.23)• Astrikingmanifestationofruraldiscontent• Farmerscametogethertobreakgripofrailroadsandmanufacturersthroughcooperativebuyingandselling• By1890membersnumberedmorethanamillion• Movementweakeneditselfbyignoringplightoflandlesstenantfarmers,sharecroppersandfarmworkers• Evenmoredebilitatingwasexclusionofblacks,whowerenearlyhalftheagriculturalpopulationofSouth

XIV.PreludetoPopulism(cont.)

• In1880sseparateColoredFarmers'NationalAlliance:– Emergedtoattractblackfarmers– By1890hadmembershipof250,000– LonghistoryofracialdivisioninSouthmadeitdifficultforwhiteandblackfarmerstoworktogether

– Populists:thePeople'sparty• Frustratedfarmersattacked“moneytrust;”calledfor:

– Nationalizingrailroads,telephone,andtelegraph– Agraduatedincometax– Anewfederal“subtreasury”toprovideloanstofarmers– Wantedfreeandunlimitedcoinageofsilver

XIV.PreludetoPopulism(cont.)

• ManyfieryprophetsforPopulistcause:– FreecoinageofsilverstruckmanyPopulistsascure-all– Coin'sFinancialSchool(1894)byWilliamHopeHarvey:

» Enormouslypopularpamphletforfreesilver– IgnatiusDonnellyofMinnesota,electedthreetimestoCongress

– MaryElizabethLease—queenofPopulist“calamityhowlers”• Populistsleadingdeadlyearnestandimpassionedcampaigntorelievefarmers'manymiseries• Earnedmorethanamillionvotesin1892presidentialelectionfortheircandidate,JamesWeaver

XV.Coxey'sArmyandthePullmanStrike

• Populistssawpotentialpoliticalallies:– Coxey'sArmy:• Mostfamousmarcherwas“General”JacobS.Coxey:

– SetoutforWashington,D.C.in1894– Platformdemandedgovernmentrelieveunemploymentbyaninflationarypublicworksprogram» Supportedby$500millioninlegaltendernotestobeissuedbyTreasury

– CoxeyandhismarchesarrestedastheyenteredWashington

XV.Coxey'sArmyandthePullmanStrike(cont.)

– Violentflare-upsaccompaniedlaborprotests,notablyinChicago—Pullmanstrikeof1894:• EugeneV.DebsorganizedAmericanRailwayUnionof150,000members:• PullmanPalaceCarCompany,hithardbydepression,cutwagesbyabout1/3,butkeptrentssame:– Workersfinallystruck– AmericanFederationofLabordeclinedtosupportstrike– GovernorJohnPeterAltgeldofIllinois:

» Afriendofthedowntrodden(hadpardonedHaymarketSquareanarchiststheyearbefore)didn'tseestrikeasoutofhand

XV.Coxey'sArmyandthePullmanStrike(cont.)

– AttorneyGeneralRichardOlney:» Archconservativeandanex-railroadattorneyurgeddispatchoffederaltroops

» HislegalgroundswerestrikeinterferedwithU.S.mail» PresidentClevelandsupportedOlney» Todelightofconservatives,federaltroops,bayonetsfixed,crushedPullmanstrike

» Debssentencedtosixmonths'imprisonmentforcontemptofcourtbecausehedefiedafederalinjunctiontoceasestriking

– Embitteredcriesof“governmentbyinjunction”burstfromorganizedlabor» Firsttimethislegalweaponusedtobreakastrike

XVI.GoldenMcKinleyandSilverBryan• Electionof1896:

– LeadingRepublicancandidateWilliamMcKinley:» Sponsoredtariffbillof1890» CreditableCivilWarrecord» HailedfrompotentstateofOhio» LongyearsofhonorableserviceinCongress

– Asapresidentialcandidate,McKinleythecreatureoffellowOhioan,businessmanMarcusAlonzoHanna:» Covetedroleofpresidentmaker» WholeheartedHamiltonian,Hannabelievedprimefunctionofgovernmentwastoaidbusiness

» Becamepersonificationofbigindustryinpolitics» Believedprosperity“trickleddown”tolaborer

XVI.GoldenMcKinleyandSilverBryan(cont.)

• Republicanconvention:– HannaorganizedpreconventioncampaignforMcKinleywithconsummateskillandliberaloutpouringofhisownmoney

– McKinleynominatedonfirstballotinSt.Louis– Convention:

» Declaredforgoldstandard» CondemnedhardtimesandDemocraticincapacity» Praisedprotectivetariff

• Democraticcampindissension:– Clevelandnolongerledhisparty:

» Depressiondrovelastnailintohispoliticalcoffin» “TheStuffedProphet”mostunpopularmanincountry


• Clevelandrememberedbylabor-debtorgroupsfor:– HisinterventioninPullmanstrike– HisinterventioninbackstairsMorganbonddeal– Hisstubbornhard-moneypolicies

• Ultraconservativeinfinance,ClevelandlookedmoreRepublicanthanDemocratonmoneyissue• DemocraticconventionmetinChicago,July1896:

– Delegatesbyvoteof564to357refusedtoendorsetheirownadministration

– Hadenthusiasmandnumbers;alltheylackedwasaleader– NewMosesappearedinpersonofWilliamJenningsBryanofNebraska,knownas“BoyOratorofthePlatte”


– Radiatedhonesty,sincerity,andenergy– Deliveredferventpleaforsilver

» CrossofGoldspeechasensation– Nominatednextdayonfifthballot– Platformdemandedinflationthroughunlimitedcoinageofsilveratratioof16ouncesofsilverto1ofgold» Marketratioabout32to1» Meantsilverinadollarwouldbeworthfiftycents

• Democraticpartymembers:– Someboltedpartyoversilverissue– ChargedthePopulist-silveriteshadstolenbothnameandclothesoftheparty


– Populistsnowfaceddilemma:• Democratshadappropriatedtheirmainplank—“16to1”that“heaven-bornratio”• BulkofPopulists,fearinghard-moneyMcKinleyendorsed“fusion”withDemocratsandBryanforpresident– Sacrificedtheiridentityinmix– HandfuloforiginalPopulistsrefusedtosupportBryan

XVII.ClassConflict:PlowholdersVersusBondholders

– Campaignissues:• Hannaassumeditwouldbetariff• Bryancampaignedwidelyonbehalfoffreesilver:

– Createdpanicamongeasternconservatives– “GoldBugs”respondedwithunlimitedcoinageofverbalattacksonBryanas“madman,”etc.

• Republicans:– McKinleyitesamassedmostformidablecampaignchestthusfarinU.S.historybyfundraisingfromtrustsandplutocrats:» Atalllevels—national,state,local—amountedtoabout$16million

» Incontrastto$1millionDemocratsraised

Map 26-6 p602

XVII.ClassConflict:PlowholdersVersusBondholers(cont.)

» BryanitesaccusedHannaofbuyingelectionandoffloatingMcKinleytoWhiteHouseontidalwaveofmud,money,and“dirtytricks”(useofstrong-armfeartacticsbyemployers)

• Electionreturns--McKinleytriumpheddecisively:– 271to176inElectoralCollege– 7,102,246to6,492,559inpopularvote– Drivenbyfearandexcitement,anunprecedentedoutpouringofvotersflockedtopolls

– McKinleyranstronginpopulousEast,carryingeverycountyofNewEnglandandinupperMississippiValley

– Bryan'sstatesconcentratedindebt-burdenedSouthandtrans-MississippiWest(seeMap26.6)

XVII.ClassConflict:PlowholdersVersusBondholders(cont.)

– Free-silverelectionof1896perhapsmostsignificantpoliticalturningpointsinceLincoln'svictoriesin1860and1864:• DespiteBryan'sstrengthinSouthandWest:

– Resultsvividlydemonstratedhislackofappealtotheunmortgagedfarmerandtheeasternurbanlaborer

– ManywageearnersinEastvotedfortheirjobsandfulldinnerpails—» threatenedbyfreesilver,freetrade,firelessfactories» Livingonafixedwage,factoryworkershadnoreasontofavorinflation,whichwasheartofBryanites'sprogram


– Bryan-McKinleybattleheraldedadventofnewerainAmericanpolitics:• Underprivilegedmanyagainstprivilegedfew,• Ofindebtedbackcountryagainstcity,• Ofagrariansagainstindustrialists,• OfMainStreetagainstWallStreet,• Ofthenobodiesagainstthesomebodies

– Outcomearesoundingwinforbigbusiness,bigcities,middle-classvalues,andfinancialconservatism

– 1896=lastefforttowinentirelybyfarmingvote


– GrandOldParty'ssmashingvictoryof1896:• HeraldedaRepublicangriponWhiteHousefornext16years• McKinley'selectionimpartednewcharactertopoliticalsystemwithfourthpartysystem:– Diminishingvoterparticipationinelections– Weakeningofpartyorganizations– Moneyquestionandcivil-servicereformfadedasissues– Replacedbyconcernforindustrialregulationandwelfareoflabor– Contrastwith“thirdpartysystem”(1860-1896)ofhighvoterturnoutsandclosecontestsbetweenDemocratsandRepublicans

XVIII.RepublicanStand-pattismEnthroned

– McKinleytookinauguraloathin1897:• Cautious,conservativenaturecausedhimtoshyawayfromreform– Businessgivenafreerein– Trustsallowedtodevelopwithoutseriousrestraints

• Tariffissueforceditselftoforefront:– Wilson-GormanlawnotraisingenoughrevenuetocoverannualTreasurydeficits

– TruststhoughttheyhadrighttoadditionaltariffprotectionbecauseoftheircontributionstoHanna'swarchest

XVIII.RepublicanStand-pattismEnthroned(cont.)

• DingleyTariffBilljammedthroughHousein1897under“Czar”Reed– Proposedrateshigh,butnotenoughtosatisfylobbyistswhodescendeduponSenate

– Over850amendmentstackedontooverburdenedbill– Resultingpatchworkestablishedaverageratesat46.5%:

» SubstantiallyhigherthanDemocraticWilson-GormanActof1894

» InsomecategoriesevenhigherthanMcKinleyActof1890(SeechartinAppendix)


– Prosperitybegantoreturnin1897,firstyearofMcKinley'sterm:• Depression(1893)hadrunitscourse• Farmpricesrose;wheelsofindustryresumed• Republicansclaimedcreditforprosperity• GoldStandardAct1900,passedoverlast-ditchsilveriteopposition:– Providedpapercurrencyberedeemedfreelyingold– Discoveriesbroughthugequantitiesofgoldontoworldmarkets– Asdidperfectedcheapcyanideprocessforextractinggoldfromlow-gradeore


• Moderateinflationtookcareofcurrencyneedsofexpandingnationasitscirculatorysystemgreatlyimproved• Tideof“silverheresy”rapidlyreceded• “Popocratic”fishleftgaspinghigh&dryongolden-sandedbeach

The Great West and the Agricultural...

Documents

Transcript of The Great West and the Agricultural...