The Development of an Indonesian National Cuisine: A Study of New

AbstractConsisting of 17,000 islands Indonesia has more than 400 ethnic groups. The image of “Indonesian cuisine” is diverse, depending on where it is discussed or on what kind of food. The term “Indonesian cuisine” is not familiar to the Indonesian people and is rarely used among them. But what we call “Indonesian cuisine” does exist. What then is meant by “Indonesian cuisine,” in what situations is it discussed or where and how do people eat “Indonesian cuisine”?

This research focuses on two trends in Indonesian cuisine development: (1) the emergence and diffusion of Indonesian cuisine as an instant food, and (2) new trends in the development of Indonesian cuisine at the local level. Indonesia’s economic growth and urbanization have affected women’s awareness and values, bringing significant changes in their life styles. Accordingly, women are starting to look for ways to save household labor, and the demand for easy-to-prepare instant foods is on the increase. In urban areas, new trends are emerging with café-style restaurants that are now replacing “food stands,” which used to serve local dishes solely for migrant workers.

Kubo, Michiko. 2010. The Development of an Indonesian National Cuisine: A Study of New Movement of Instant Foods and Local Cuisine. In Globalization, Food and Social Identities in the Asia Pacific Region, ed. James Farrer. Tokyo: Sophia University Institute of Comparative Culture.URL: http://icc.fla.sophia.ac.jp/global%20food%20papers/html/kubo.html

Copyright © 2010 by Michiko KuboAll rights reserved

The Development of an Indonesian National Cuisine:A Study of New Movement of Instant Foods and Local Cuisine

Michiko Kubo

i

Globalization, Food and Social Identities in the Asia Pacific Region

1. Purpose and background of the research

Every country has its own national cuisine: Japan with its Japanese cuisine,

Thailand with its Thai cuisine, and France with its French cuisine. If you ask people

to name a few Japanese cuisines, Japanese and non-Japanese alike will come up

instantly with such representative foods as sashimi, tempura, sushi, shabu shabu,

and sukiyaki.

However, the case is different

with “Indonesian cuisine” (masakan

Indonesia). If you ask any Indonesian

to name an “Indonesian cuisine,” they

will be somewhat embarrassed and hard

pressed to name a single dish. If you ask

whether karedok (boiled string beans,

cabbage leaves, eggplants and bean

sprouts with dressing made of kencur,

terasi, palm sugar and tamarind) is an

Indonesian, the likely answer would be,

“You could call it a cuisine, but actually it

is Sundanese dish.” Or if you ask, if ikan

rica-rica (grilled fish with rica-rica sauce,

a typical North Sulawesi dish, which is

made of chilli, garlic, ginger, tomato

and lemongrass) is an Indonesian cuisine,

the answer might be, “Well maybe, but

actually it is Manado dish.” In short, the

replies you hear will almost always refer

to the ethnic group or the region from

which the food originated.

Consisting of about 17,000 islands,

Indonesia has about 490 ethnic groups.

Hence the image of “Indonesian cuisine”

is amazingly diverse, depending on what

kind of foods became the subject of

discussion. In short, the term “Indonesian cuisine” is not familiar to the Indonesian

people and is rarely used among them. But what non-Indonesians call “Indonesian

cuisine” does in fact exist.

Karedok: Sunda (west Java) dish

Ikan rica-rica: Manado (northern Sulawesi) dishAll photographs by Michiko Kubo

Kubo - 1

The Development of an Indonesian National Cuisine: A Study of New Movement of Instant Foods and Local Cuisine

My master’s degree thesis focused on the foods of Indonesia, a multi-ethnic

country that gained its independence some 60 years ago and is still considered to

be a nation undergoing a formation process. The thesis attempted to clarify what

is actually meant by Indonesian cuisine, in what situations it is discussed both in

and outside Indonesia, and where and how people actually ate Indonesian cuisine. I

analyzed this theme from several perspectives: books on Indonesian cooking written

in Indonesian, English and Japanese, as well as fieldwork conducted in Jakarta (in

the form of questionnaires targeting the general Indonesian public), and through

interviews with writers and chefs specializing in Indonesian cookery. My research

also included Indonesian embassy chef in Japan, people working in Indonesian

restaurants in Japan, and surveys on the menus. In the following are the findings of

my analyses.

The Indonesian cuisine that foreign

tourists and businessmen encounter in

Jakarta and Bali is actually prepared

in a manner to suit these kinds of

customers, and it is no coincidence that

the food coordinators of most hotels in

Bali are usually foreigners, and that the

restaurant menu in Jakarta, for instance,

happens to be conceived by a writer in

Indonesian cookery with a cosmopolitan

outlook. Thus the Indonesian cuisine that foreign visitors consume is almost always

served by persons with an awareness of the world outside.

“Traditional Indonesian Cuisine” for tourists in Jakarta and Bali

Kubo - 2


The menus at Indonesian embassies in any given country are intended to represent

the national cuisine, but may sometimes be prepared using whatever ingredients are

available in that country, or may even be changed to adjust to local culinary tastes of

the country from which the guests come. Indonesian restaurants in Japan also have

a variety of menus that may be attuned to the culinary preferences of both cooks

and the customers.

Such variations are common, but this does not mean the cuisine has lost its

identity. Observations show that there are fundamental styles that are not at all

affected by the changes, which would generally be a combination of rice as the

staple food and other dishes consisting of meat, fish, and vegetable proteins. Sambal

is the basic seasoning, and the millstone, the tool needed to prepare it, remains

unchanged.

In addition to the above, Indonesia’s economic growth and urbanization have

affected women’s awareness and values, bringing significant changes in their life

styles. Accordingly, women are starting to look for ways to save household labor,

and the demand for easy-to-prepare instant foods is on the increase. In urban areas,

new trends are emerging with café-style restaurants that are now replacing “food

stands,” which used to serve local dishes solely for migrant workers.

In this paper, I will focus on two trends in Indonesian cuisine development: (1)

the emergence and diffusion of Indonesian cuisine as an instant food, and (2) new

trends in the development of Indonesian cuisine at the local level.

2. The emergence of “Indonesian cuisine” as instant food

From the end of the 1990’s to the 2000’s, Asian countries were

recovering from an economic crisis. This recovery, which included the

Indonesian economy, led to greater employment opportunities that

affected the social status of women. Formerly in the outer regions,

young women seeking employment had no choice but to move to cities

and be employed as domestic servants. But now they have numerous

opportunities to work at local factories or business enterprises at higher

levels of pay and it has recently become difficult in the urban areas to

find servants for household cooking and cleaning. At the same time,

the demand for servants is gradually decreasing within the middle and

higher classes because they prefer to live in condominiums rather than

conventional detached houses for safety precautions. This means that

more housewives have to cook on their own. The trend, along with the

increasing number of women working in society who consequently have

Servants for household cooking and cleaning: She makes the paste everyday

Kubo - 3


less time for conventional housework, is leading to a growing demand for instant

foods.

Instant foods can be defined as

instant seasoning mix (bumbu instan).

According to Fujiki (Fujiki 1997, 99),

instant seasoning mix is defined as

“seasonings for specific menus,” which is

similar in concept to “Cook Do” seasonings

released in Japan in 1981 by Ajinomoto

Co. Ltd. The instant seasonings are

pre-blended and can be heated with

other ingredients to make a full dish.

Ajinomoto Co. Ltd. of Japan established

PT Ajinomoto Indonesia in 1969 and

started production in the following year

(Ajinomoto Indonesia). Prior to this, Union Chemicals, Inc.

(currently Ajinomoto Philippines Corporation) was established

in 1958, followed in 1960 by Ajinomoto Co. Thailand and in

1961 Ajinomoto Malaysia. Ajinomoto products have become

well established in Southeast Asia and throughout Indonesia.

One of the most basic instant products is Masako. This powdered relish seasoning

is the leading product of PT Ajinomoto Indonesia, and is also marketed under

different product names in other Southeast Asian countries. However, it comes in

various flavors, and the amount of spice is adjusted to suit the taste of a particular

country. The sales share of instant seasoning in Indonesia occupies over 90% of

the conventional food market. The hot-selling products are sold at 1,000 rupiah

(approximately 9 yen as of November 2008) for one pack, which consists of three

small packages (NNA Asia). Especially in regional areas, Masako is popular among

the common people, and most customers buy only a small amount in one round of

shopping.

The company also releases other branded products such as Sajiku or Saori.

Sajiku is an instant seasoning that comes in sachets. Other products include nasi

goreng seasoning mix (chicken, prawn, sea food, spicy flavors), ayam goreng, soto

ayam, opor, rendang, gulai, and fried chicken seasoning mix. Saori is a brand for

Instant seasoning mix“pre-blended seasonings for specific menu”

Kubo - 4


teri-yaki and oyster sauces that used in

Chinese, Japanese and other Asian foods

and is sold in packages with recipes on

them.

Kokita, a company established by

Mr. and Mrs. Winata in 1987 in the city

of Bandung, is a producer of instant

seasonings and foods. The company

also produces its own seasonings and

basic sauces with proportionately mixed

ingredients that follow traditional

recipes. According to Kokita’s website:

In today’s fast moving world, few cooks are able to devote the time and effort required to select and prepare traditional Indonesian recipes. This is why Kokita was established. By using our cook in their kitchens, modern day cooks can enjoy conveniently packaged sauces and essential ingredients offering the same rich and varied flavors of traditionally made sauces.

The products of this company are distributed not only in Indonesia but also in

the USA, Europe, Middle East, Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Brunei, Australia,

and New Zealand. As the company’s website commented, “Kokita provides career

women and busy housewives with a practical and simple way to capture the unique

flavor of traditional recipes.” The company distributes a wide variety of instant

seasonings:

• “Essential seasoning for chili dishes” consists of red chilies, tomatoes: best for

Balinese spicy egg, ayam panggang, fried potatoes, fried noodles, etc.

• “Essential seasoning for turmeric dishes” consists of turmeric, candlenut: best

for spicy shrimp and bamboo shoot with coconut, sambal goreng telur, fish curry.

Sajiku and other Instant seasoning mix in super-market

Products of Kokita

Kubo - 5


• “Essential seasoning for candlenut dishes” consists of candlenut, shallots: best

for young jackfruit casserole, opor ayam.

• “Essential seasoning with garlic and white pepper”: best for stir-fried dishes,

soups.

The company also distributes other seasoning mixes in jars and sachets for soto

ayam, nasi kuning, dry curry, sambal balado, ayam goreng, mie goreng, sambal

badjak, and sambal terasi.

Indofood is another leading food company with an extensive distribution network

in Indonesia; its business includes the manufacture and distribution of noodles,

food seasonings, snack foods, nutrition and special foods, and packaging. In 1994

the Indofood company groups were integrated and listed on the Indonesian Stock

Exchange, and today it is a major brand company claiming strong value as well as

a large market share. Its flagship products include instant noodles, wheat flour,

cooking oil, margarine, and shortening. The company has 15 thousand retailers

throughout Indonesia, which is an amazing power base considering the country’s

geographical segmentation into many islands. The sales and stock data of each

region are managed by IT technologies so as to maximize effective sales, a constant

supply of products, and rapid delivery to supermarkets and food shops. The system

operates through the company’s 60 supply points, 49 stock points, and 22 branches.

Indofood’s corporate policy is stated in its website as follows:

Indonesia, an island of spices, has a variety of herbs and spices growing near the Equator. The country’s multi-ethnic culture offers several thousand different dishes using spices to add exotic flavor and aroma. Indonesian herbs and spices are already well known among the world’s culinary and cuisine. We are committed to continue and expand our investigations and research on Indonesian spices and herbs and to introduce them to the global food service industry. Through our long experiences we have acquired the skills to preserve the aroma and flavor of freshly ground spices and succeeded to produce freeze-dried and air-dried products from the ground spices.

While Indofood continues to develop new products, technologies and network

systems to meet consumer needs, it has in addition recently introduced a variety

of products for the health conscious consumers at all age levels, from infants to

adults. With the objectives of “from spices to high quality foods, from Indonesia to

the world,” the company is expanding its distribution channels through five overseas

bases to Asia, Europe, Middle East, United States, Australia, and Africa.

Kubo - 6


Indofood’s 2007 annual report (Indofood) shows an increase in the shipment of

instant noodles (mie instan) amounting to 12 billion packages compared to 11 billion

the preceding year, thus accounting for 85% of total shipment of instant noodles

in Indonesia. The company has three major brands of instant noodles, namely,

Indomie, Sarimie and Supermie. Instant noodles, air-dried noodles, mini-cup noodles

are increasing in sales and the company’s instant noodles are exported to about 30

countries (including Saudi Arabia, Brunei, Australia, Hong Kong, United States and

Europe).

The company sells sauces (soya, chili, tomato), instant seasonings, powdered

spices, supplementary foods, and syrups to hotels and food service companies

throughout Indonesia. There are three types of food seasonings: sauces, instant

seasoning mixes, and recipe mixes. The 2007 total sale of instant seasoning mixes

was 46.3 billion rupiah, showing a year-by-year increase of 28%. This increase is also

reflected in the amount of exports to Asia and the Middle East, including Japan and

African countries.

I also analyzed a number of books on Indonesian cooking published both in and

outside Indonesia and prepared a survey targeting the general Indonesian public

in terms of their instant food preferences. The study also included interviews of

people in Japan working in Indonesian restaurants.

The Emergence of “Indonesian Cusine” as Instant Food

*They are the answers to the question, “What kind of menu do you recommend to foreigners as typical Indonesian cuisine?”

Kubo - 7


Comparison of the data in all four categories reveals certain menus in common

namely, gado-gado, soto, rendang, and gulai. The menus of instant seasonings

commercially available (such as gado-gado, soto, rendang, and gulai) are derived

from the local dishes that had spread across the country via the movement of migrant

workers, especially during the Suharto period and the introduction of transmigration

policy. As the popularity of these dishes grew throughout the country, people

became less aware of the local features, and the public questionnaire shows that

these dishes are generally regarded by many as “Indonesian cuisine,” not necessarily

reflecting any particular ethnic groups (suku). This emerging concept of Indonesian

cuisine, which goes beyond the framework of ethnic groups or local dishes, applies

to masakan daerah (regional cuisine) as well.

These dishes are served in the

restaurants throughout Indonesia,

especially in the cities. Nasi goreng

and sate are also widely served dishes,

yet few people can remember what the

original local names were. These dishes,

moreover, correspond to the “Indonesian

dishes” served in Indonesian restaurants in Japan, appearing as well in Indonesian

cuisine cookbooks published inside and outside Indonesia.

On the other hand, the market is not yet so large for frozen foods and foods sold

in retort pouches, as the variations are still limited. My investigations in several

supermarkets in downtown Jakarta show that frozen foods only have a few variations

of chicken cuts and fried potatoes. The reasons vary from the low popularity of

freezers and microwave ovens to electrical shortages and power failures due to

floods.

In Europe and the United States in the 1970’s, companies tried to commercialize

foods in retort pouches for household use but failed because large-size refrigerator-

freezers were already widely used, making storage at room temperatures unnecessary

and also because cooking basically involved roasting and heating in ovens. Even now

foods in retort pouches are not so popular, while the demand for frozen, canned,

bottled, and dried foods is overwhelming. In Japan, however, foods in retort

pouches are more popular, because the use of hot water for cooking (such as boiling,

steaming) is common in Japan.

These observations suggest an extremely high potential for wider use of foods in

retort pouches, given as well, the sufficiently low price of such foods in Indonesia.

Also, it is probable that many Indonesian people working abroad would use them.

Nasi goreng

Sate

Kubo - 8


Measuring spoons and cups, more than intuition and experience, underscore the

role that cookbooks play in providing standardized cooking information across the

nation. Similarly, instant seasonings allow people to reproduce the same flavor of

dishes every time by simply opening the package and mixing in the ingredients. This

could mean a homogenized cuisine that may eventually dominate Indonesia’s food

taste. Homogenization is not a natural but a human-induced phenomenon brought

about by the food and food-service industries. These instant foods allow people

to cook simply and enjoy the same flavor of dishes whenever and wherever they

want. As instant foods become ever more popular and the flavor of foods becomes

homogenized, the dishes selected for instant foods may give the Indonesian people

the common concept of a national, rather than local, dish.

3. New trends in the local cuisine

Local cuisines are not disappearing. Rather, they are adjusting to taste changes

in urban areas. Hence a variety of dishes will remain to be enjoyed as authentic local

cuisines, while others will take the form of instant seasoning mixes, which in turn will

define (conceptually speaking) the nation-wide taste. The new local cuisine is a completely

different movement in which even differing local dishes will be featured to become a totally

new brand of service to its customers. This is a unique and very encouraging phenomenon.

Local cuisines have become ever

more popular with the implementation

of transmigration policy and the human

movements of migrant workers to large

cities. Prior to this migration policy,

local dishes were widely served at food

stalls and food courts. But in Jakarta

and other urban areas local cuisine is, as

mentioned, being served in new cafe-style

restaurants with strong local features.

For example, local dishes normally served

by restaurants in Manado and Sunda are

now finding their way into shopping

malls, and these branch restaurants are

crowded with office workers, both men

and women, during lunch breaks. What

used to be eating-places for migrant

workers have been converted into the

most fashionable cafes.The new trend in local cusine, food court in shopping mall

Kubo - 9


Let’s have a look at some examples.

The menu at Celebes: Rasa Manado (taste

of Manado) offers such typical local

dishes as bubur Manado, ikan asin, ikan

rica-rica, cumi wok, ayam bakar, ayam

rica-rica, ayam wok, sayur wok, and sop

ikan kuah asam. Yet the menu image is

no longer one of local dishes “served for

migrant workers” but of brand products

served in stylish cafes. For instance, one

cafe called Warung Daun (Restaurant of Leaves) has two shops in downtown Jakarta

and serves Sundanese dishes, which are known for their variety of raw vegetables.

Dishes with raw vegetables comprise the Indonesian cuisine, which consists mostly

of stewed or fried foods. Additionally, Warung Daun serves organic vegetables and

organic rice grown in Middle Java, thus accentuating its image of healthy Sundanese

cooking, and the restaurant emphasizes “food safety and security,” a recent topic of

intense public interest. The restaurant even has a corner section where organic rice

is sold as well as high-priced organic ingredients imported from overseas countries,

such as Japan. At present, the organic food ingredients are purchased only by the

urban wealthy, but there is a growing interest not only in the finished food product but

even in the food materials, stimulated by the abundance of food related information

coming in from overseas.

Restaurants with local cuisine origins are emerging as avant-garde Indonesian

cuisines. The new trend is accompanied by fast food shops that also serve foods

based on local dishes and restaurants, suggesting a colonial atmosphere of “tempo

dulu” (the good old days). Java cuisine, as well, is becoming part of this traditional

mix, and overall there seems to be no limit to the ongoing trend, not to mention

great expectations for the future.

Celebes: Rasa Manado (taste of Manado)

Chicken satay Chili paste with mango

Kubo - 10


Organic vegetable and grain “No artificial flavor”

Organic rice used to be imported, now it is do-mestically produced

“Warung Daun” organic restaurant

Kubo - 11


4. Conclusion

After discussing the two paths of development in present-

day “Indonesian cuisine,” the emergence and spreading

popularity of instant foods, and new trends in the local cuisine,

there are three factors that seem to define the concept of an

Indonesian national cuisine. First is a homogenized Indonesian

cuisine resulting from the recent popularity of instant

seasonings, second, the continued existence of local cuisine,

and third, the appearance of new brands of local cuisines.

The analytical results indicate that a common concept of

“Indonesian cuisine” beyond the framework of ethnic groups

or local dishes (masakan daerah) has been gradually emerging,

and evolving into a Indonesian national cuisine.

By simply opening the package and mixing the ingredients,

instant seasonings allow people to reproduce the same flavor of dishes whenever and

wherever they want, suggesting that a homogenized cuisine is spreading throughout

Indonesia. As instant foods become ever more popular, the homogenized selections

are giving the Indonesian people a common concept that extends beyond the idea of

a local dish.

Local cuisine has not disappeared. Instead it is changing and showing new

elements of taste based on urban taste expectations. Some of the local dishes

“tempo dulu” (the good old days) style restaurant

Javanese fastfood restaurant

Kubo - 12


will remain to be enjoyed as “Indonesian cuisine,” and others will take the form of

instant seasoning mix becoming widely known, conceptually speaking, as a common

fare (masakan daerah). There is yet another completely different movement in

which the local cuisine features even stronger local dishes. Further studies will be

required to observe what these new phenomena will lead to, and whether or not the

homogenized flavor of “Indonesian cuisine” (masakan Indonesia) may be a factor to

bring about “national standardization.”

Kubo - 13

Glossary:ayam bakar: grilled chicken

ayam goreng: fried chicken

ayam panggang: charcoal-grilled chicken

bubur Manado: porridge Manado-style

gado-gado: boiled vegetable salad with peanut sauce

gulai: stew with turmeric and coconut milk

ikan asin: salted fish

ikan rica-rica: fried fish with chili-pepper sauce

kuah asam: sour soup with fish

mie goreng: fried noodle

nasi goreng: fried rice

nasi kuning: yellow rice with turmeric

opor: chicken simmered in mild coconut curry Jawa style

rending: beef stew Padan style

sambal bajak: fried chili-pepper sambal relish

sambal balado: red pepper sauce Sumatra style

sambal goreng telur: boiled egg with spicy sauce

sambal terasi: chili-pepper sauce with garlic, shrimp paste and palm sugar

sop ikan: soup with fish

soto ayam: turmeric flavored chicken soup with vermicelli


ReferencesFujiki, Shouichi. 2007. Kakoushokuhinsangyo no hattatsu to chouri eno eikyou (The developing of

food industry and its influence on cooking). In Nihon no shoku/100 nen “Tsukuru”(Japanese food/100 years “Making”), eds. Koichi Sugita and Naomichi Ishige, 94-106. Tokyo: Domesu Shuppan.

Honda (Kubo), Michiko. 2008. “Masakan Indonesia” as a National Cuisine. Master’s thesis. Sophia University.

Website References:Ajinomoto Indonesia. http://www.ajinomoto.co.id/produk_masakanasp (accessed November 20, 2008)

Indofood. http://www.indofood.co.id (accessed November 20, 2008)

Kokita. http://www.ikafood.com (accessed November 22, 2008)

NNA ASIA. “Interview article of the President of Ajinomoto Indonesia, Mr. Shunichi Komatsu, May 1, 2008.” http://news.nna.jp/free/interview/kono/kono256.html (accessed November 22, 2008)

Kubo - 14

The Development of an Indonesian National Cuisine: A Study of New

Documents

Transcript of The Development of an Indonesian National Cuisine: A Study of New