The City of Xanthos

8/13/2019 The City of Xanthos

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Jacques des Courtils and Laurence Cavalier

The City of Xanthos from Archaic to Byzantine Times

Xanthos is located on the Lycian coast, but not along the sea. Today, the

coastline occurs about seven kilometers from the city, as the crow flies. The cityis built on rocky heights overlooking the Xanthe River. Because of the alluvium

carried by the river, the coastline gradually receded, and in Antiquity, the sea

probably was closer to the city, but separated from it by marshland. Although

Xanthos was near the sea, it was not a harbor. Located in the middle of the widest

part of the Xanthe valley, the city covers about 75 acres. It occupies the southern

flank of a large, rocky hill traditionally labeled the "Roman acropolis", which Iprefer to call the "upper hill" (435 feet above sea level) . On the southwest, a

lower hill (225 feet above sea level) can be seen. It is known today as the "Lycian

acropolis", and is the genuine acropolis of the city, in the true sense of that word

. Half of the city lies upon a gentle slope on the south and southeastern side of

this acropolis. The city, located on a steep cliff overlooking the Xanthe River, isbounded by the river bank on the west, by the north flank of the upper hill on

the north, by a small valley on the east, and by a steep slope on the south.

The end of the coastal plain, which lay submerged in Antiquity and is still

marshy today, reaches the southern foothill. Thus the city could only be

approached from the north or the east, where it was protected by the natural slope

of the land.According to Herodotus I, 176, the city was occupied by the Persian army

in the middle of the sixth century BC. At that time, it was the most important

town in Lycia. During the following two centuries of rivalry between the Persians

and the Greeks, Xanthos was ruled by a family of so-called "dynasts" until its

annexation by the Hecatomnids. In Hellenistic times, Xanthos was controlled

first by the Antigonids, and then by the Lagids during the whole of the third

century; it then passed to the Seleucids, and finally came under Rhodes's control

prior to the liberation of Lycia by the Romans. The Lycian League existed until

Roman times. At the dawn of Rome's power, Xanthos was no longer a leading

city, but nonetheless remained one of the six major Lyciantowns. The Sanctuary

of Leto, located three kilometers from Xanthos and administered by the city, still

remained the federal sanctuary of the Lycians. In Roman times, Xanthos was a

simple provincial city, and was still known as a bishopric at the beginning of the

Byzantine era.

Today it is hard to imagine what Xanthos looked like in Antiquity . Untilrecent times, excavation focused on the larger buildings. One can hardly imaginethe general layout of the city because of the thick Mediterranean undergrowth

which today conceals much of the site. The only visible remains are the city wall,

which dates back to several diffferent periods, the Lycian acropolis, clearly

isolated from the rest of the town, the Roman baths, theater, and agora, two large

Byzantine basilicas, several pillar-tombs which are the main features of the site,

and the foundations of the famous Nereid Monument, which also is a tomb,

today located in the British Museum.A closer inspection permits us to discern two large perpendicular axes and

two large public squares located in the very center of the site: these spaces

probably date to later Roman times.


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Xanthos 2

The study of Xanthos's town-planning is today still somewhat speculative.

In dealing with this topic, it behooves us to remain prudent and take into accountan important fact which is easily forgotten, namely, that Xanthos never was a

Greekpolis .During the Classical period, the town was an indigeneous dynastic

capital. Later, at the time of its integration into the Hellenistic world byAlexander, it was deeply hellenized, from a cultural point of view: the Greek

language had replaced Lycian in local inscriptions but the population was

probably still Lycian. The institutions of the city, as elsewhere in Lycia, were

given Greek names, but the political reality they represented was not necessarilythe same as one would have encountered in "true" Greek cities. It is nevertheless

undeniable that, during Hellenistic times, and above all from the Early Imperial

period onwards, Xanthos blended into the Eastern Roman world.

We propose to begin my study with an account of the successive historical

phases of town planning, as they appear from our excavations.

We shall then consider the main questions raised thereby.

1. The dynastic phase

In order to understand the development of the city in Greco-Roman times, it

is necessary to go back to the period when the city was in the making, under

dynastic rule.

Until recent times, it was generally believed that the town was restricted to

the Lycian acropolis: a rampart of polygonal masonry surrounded this area on

four sides. The excavations undertaken there in the 1950s enabled us to recognize

foundations of houses made of rubble and warehouses dating back to the fifth

century B.C. Several other meticulously constructed buidings also werediscovered and identified by H. Metzger

1as cult edifices. The first temple took

the form of a rectangular building, measuring 12 x 10,30m, and facing westward.

It showed finely laid orthostats, and was divided into three cellae. The middle

cella possessed a sort of crypt forming a favissa. This building was in use during

part of the sixth century BC, and the entire fifth century BC. The quality of its

masonry, as well as its three-partplan and the presence of numerous fine sherds,

suggest that this edifice was a temple of Oriental type. The second temple is

rectangular and measured 11,80 x 24,50m. It stood on the highest point of the

acropolis rock. A single row of three orthostats on the eastern wall, and a stretch

of wall made of coarse polygonal masonry on the western side are the only

elements which have survived from this monument. The quality of the orthostatsinduced H. Metzger to date this building to the fifth century B. C. He assumed it

was a temple and related it to a small Hellenistic altar bearing a dedication to

Artemis Ephesia, which was discovered nearby.

Generally speaking, the existence of cult edifices in Xanthos is poorly

attested. The inscriptions are scarce and include a few later dedications carved

on arulaeto Ares, Theoi Patroi, Asclepios, Aphrodite Epkoos2. A temple and

altar dedicated to Artemis, mentioned in an inscription of Ptolemy Epiphanes3,

have not yet been discovered. It therefore seems as if, from the end of the

Dynastic period onwards, major religious activities were concentrated in the

sanctuary of Leto, which had been considerably embellished and developed by

Arbinas around 400 B. C.


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Outside the Lycian acropolis, monumental tombs and sarcophagi have been

known for a long time, including the Harpy Pillar4, the Inscribed Pillar

5and the

Dancing Maidens Sarcophagus6. Recent excavations have proved that several

houses were built in this area, in Classical times and that it can no longer be

considered a necropolis. This is particularly true of the west flank of the city7.Our excavations also have brought to light a stretch of the city wall dating back

to the same period. This leads to the conclusion that the city was not restricted to

the Lycian acropolis in Classical times, and that the entire the rampart visible

today was built at this period, when the city of Xanthos reached its maximumextent

8. At present it is impossible to estimate the "housing density" within the

rampart. Let us emphasize the fact that the presence of tombs intra muros is a

typically Lycian feature, which can be paralleled in many other Lycian towns. In

a Greek context, tombs are normally located outside the town, but the Lycians

seem to have taken the opposite approach.

Finally, we would like to call attention to an important building,

unfortunately very damaged, which is situated in the center of the town. It was

built on a terrace, half-way up the hill, and opened to the south. In plan, this

building is square, and it was preceded by a dromos . It was constructed of

polygonal and trapezoidal masonry, which is characteristic of fourth-century

Lycia. This building, which we shall call "the dromos building"(Xanthos city

plan, Classical period, N5)has not been excavated so far. Its function therefore

is unknown, but it seems evident, owing to its location, that it was an edifice of

considerable importance.

Quite a sketchy picture of the form of the Classical town emerges from

these facts. The only visible structures are the acropolis, the rampart with itsgates, and the monumental tombs. Places of worship might have been erected

inside the Lycian acropolis, but their identification is not sure. Faint traces of

other buildings canbe observed.

The Greek text carved about 400 B.C. on the Inscribed Pillar relates the

erection of this pillar to the "katharo temenos tes agoras" (the pure temenos of an

agora), which is roughly at the place where a large Roman square (c. 50 X 55 m.)

can be seen today9. Our 1995 excavations reached the bedrock under the Roman

buildings10

. Even if our excavations did not provide the slightest evidence of an

agora, we can take for granted that it existed, and this fact proves that the

Xanthians were indeed somewhat hellenized. However, the size and aspect of the

agora will probably never be known. All we can say is that the agora was not aslarge as the Roman square which followed. This is confirmed by the discovery in

1997 of a Hellenistic tomb in the southwest corner of the Roman square11

. This

tomb probably would not have been set up in the temenos of the Classical agora.

Further to the east, a large basilica (Xanthos city plan, Byzantine period,

N2), dating to early Byzantine times, can be seen at the foot of the upper hill.

The initial results of a current inventory of the recycled blocks incorporated into

this building show that many of these blocks formerly belonged to one or two

Classical Lycian edifices12

. The exact location of these buldings is still unknown,

but we suspect that they were in this area.

Classical houses might also have spread along the south flank of the upper

hill, but we have no evidence of this. Finally, there have been no excavations inthe south to southeastern part of the city: the discovery of two Archaic bas-reliefs


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featuring lions, and the identification in 1998 of a building showing polygonal

masonry,13

suggest however that a carefully built edifice stood there. Furtherexcavations will probably help us to understand its function.

Classical Xanthos was thus a large town which showed, above all,

indigeneous Lycian features such as an imposing rampart, an isolated acropolis,and tombs which were erected in the very center of the city. The general layout of

the town showed only a few distinctively Greek features, such as the construction

of an agora, completely obliterated today, and the building of the Nereid

Monument in Greek fashion14

.

This monument, which has been called "the most Greek of Lycian tombs"

was built at the end of the fourth century AD. It takes the form of an Ionic marble

temple, standing on a high podium crowned by two friezes in bas-relief, and

exhibiting typical Greek architectural features such as T clamps. The building

itself has been heavily influenced by the Ionic architecture of fifth-century Attica

(similarities with the Erechtheion are particularly striking). On the other hand, it

shows architectural peculiarities such as an Ionic frieze carved on the architrave

and surmounted by dentils. The abundant decoration of this edifice, though

heavily pervaded with Attic influence, displays numerous iconographical details

of oriental Lycian origin, such as city siege scenes and court scenes. The

occupant of this tomb was probably Arbinas, who was the last representative of

the Harpagid dynasty which ruled over Xanthos from the end of the sixth century

or the beginning of the fifth century.

2. The Hellenistic period

The data available today concerning this period are very sparse.

Faint traces of a Hellenistic theater have been identified under the Roman theater,

to the South of the agora (Xanthos city plan, Hellenistic period, N1). The

excavations undertaken in the 1950s proved that a group of Hellenistic cist tombs

were dug around the Harpy Pillar15

. The structure of these tombs and the

associated finds have led Demargne to date them to the third century B. C. In

1997, another tomb of the same type, probably dating back to the same period,

was discovered 20 meters further north. The placement of the tomb proves that

the Hellenistic necropolis was spreading in this direction16

. A sole edifice which

belongs to this necropolis is problematical. The remains of the building consist of

a considerable square foundation (8.10 X 9. 70) containing a funerary chamber (3X 2.10), the upper part of which is missing. P. Demargne has tentatively dated

this edifice to Roman times, on the basis of architectural comparisons and of

glass vases fragments.

The defences of the northern gate were considerably reinforced, namely by

the addition of two towers17

. One of them, built to the southwest of the gate, was

semi-circular in plan, and overlay the remains of a substructure which might have

belonged to a square Classical tower. This building consisted of a base, filled

with rubble and surrounded by a wall made of large bossed polygonal blocks.

Above it, stood the tower, made of ashlar masonry. To the north of the gate,

another tower shaped as three quarters of a circle had been added to a corner of

the rampart in order to protect the gate. Its masonry is of exactly the same type asthat in the semi-circular tower mentioned above. These important defensive


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works are provisionally dated to the second century B. C. and might have

followed Xanthos's emancipation from Rhodos. But they might instead be relatedto the building of the stronghold of Pydna in the third century B. C.

Apart from these remains, Hellenistic Xanthos remains shrouded inmystery. Our excavations have not yet brought to light any evidence of a

transformation in the general aspect of the town. Nor is there any evidence of

destruction caused by war or earthquakes which would have required

reconstruction during the Hellenistic period. Further excavations will showwhether the residential districts became more densely populated or spread to

districts of the town that were unoccupied in Classical times. Nothing can be said

with certainty at this point.

We also know nothing about the overall urban design at this time. The walls

previously mentioned, which extended along the south flank of the upper hill,

suggest the existence of a residential quarter whose houses were constructed on

terraces. The walls of these houses have not yet been excavated ; thus, a precise

date is not yet possible. Judging by the type of masonry, we can suggest a

Classical or Hellenistic date with these houses most likely occupied during the

Hellenistic period. Although this area has not yet been excavated, we may infer,

from traces of Byzantine occupation (the type of tiles, cement) that these houses

were used throughout the whole of Antiquity.

Apart from this residential area, we know almost nothing about the

Hellenistic town, neither its agora, or its public or religious buildings. This

apparent lack of Hellenistic remains is perhaps due to later modifications. We

have already mentioned the case of the agora, but the same thing could be true for

other districts of the town. Subsequent Roman town planning could havedestroyed the Hellenistic foundations. It is surprising, however, that our

excavations have not brought to light any substructures or architectural

fragments, either broken, buried, or reused, of Hellenistic date. Nor have more

than a few fragments of Hellenistic pottery been collected so far. Thus, the

present state of research indicates that Xanthos might have declined in

importance during the Hellenistic period. This runs contrary to the apparent

prosperity of the sanctuary of Leto, which seems to have flourished in the middle

of the second century B. C., when the Lycian League became independent from

Rhodes. At that time, three temples intended to replace the old cult shrines, as

well as porticoes and a theater, were built in the Sanctuary of Leto. By

comparison with this considerable activity in the federal sanctuary of the Lycians,the city of Xanthos does not seem, as far as we know, to have enjoyed a similar

boom in public building.

3. The Early to High Empire

Valuable information about new building activity or destruction in the city

during the Roman era is provided by both epigraphic and historical sources. The

assassination of Julius Caesar had an enormously destabilizing effect on Asia

Minor. Xanthos seems to have been particularly affected, for we know with

certainty that the city was destroyed by Brutus's troops in 43 BC. In 41 BC, Marc

Antony persuaded the Xanthians to rebuild their town. So far, we have not foundany archaeological evidence of either the destruction or reconstruction. Similarly,


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we have no trace of the erection of a temple dedicated to Caesar, although such a

temple is attested by written sources. The cult of Caesar might have beencelebrated in the sanctuary of Leto, rather than in the city of Xanthos.

Thus, Early Imperial Xanthos is as obscure as the Hellenistic phase, except

for several buildings. In Vespasian's time, a triumphal arch was erected at theSouth gate by Sextus Marcus Priscus, who was governor of Lycia in 68-70

18AD

.This monument was built at the back of the Classical gate, to the south entrance

of the city. A road, which came from the south, and probably connected the town

to the Sanctuary of Leto, ran under the arch and climbed towards the agora andtheater. The Roman arch still stands erect. It consists of a simple arch, adorned by

a smooth moulding, and crowned by a Doric entablature. The central metops

were embellished with heads of divinities bearing crowns, namely Leto, Apollo,

and Artemis, the three major deities of Xanthos ( Leto's head is still in situ). The

architrave carries an inscription describing the erection of the arch by Sex. M.

Priscus, legate under Vespasian in 68-70. E. Kalinka reports the presence of full-

size statue feet which we did not find19.

So far, we have not discovered any identifiable remains of the bouleuterion,

which is attested by an inscription and was erected by a Xanthian in the first

century AD20

. In contrast to the Letoon, we have no substantial traces of

Hadrianic date at Xanthos. A mid-second- century inscription mentions several

buildings, as yet undiscovered21

: a gerousia, a balaneion ton gynaikon, a

gymnasium including a balaneion, and an agora. Moreover, the complete

reconstruction of the theater can be dated to the second century AD22.

The theater has been erected in a natural hollow which separates the Lycian

acropolis from the agora. It comprised two parodoi, only one of which constituted

an entrance to the theater, to the east (the other one abutted the rock). The exactnumber of seats is not known: all of the seats were removed-the lower seats in the

third century in order to protect the spectators from wild beasts and the higher

seats in the seventh century for re-use in Byzantine fortifications. The stage-

building, today completely ruined, displayed two stories of decorative

architecture. Its upper part rested against the south stoa of the agora.

The neighbouring baths to the east may date to the second or, more

probably, to the third century AD. Another Roman bath (N2 in the plan) stands

at the foot of the Lycian acropolis, outside the city wall. None of them has yet

been studied.

4. The Later Empire

During the Later Empire, Xanthos enjoyed a boom in the construction of

public buildings, which gave the town most of the features visible today. A

large-scale city plan of grid type was created and its main features include the

following :

a) To the west, a large square piazza (Xanthos city plan, Roman period,

N3) surrounded with porticoes was set up behind the theater stage-building, on

the suspected location of the Classical agora. This piazza is traditionnally called

"the Roman agora", but its precise function is unknown.

b) To the west, at a level below this piazza, our 1998 excavations brought

to light a very large building (Xanthos city plan, Roman period, N9), of east-west orientation, consisting of three naves and having an apse on the east end.


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This building might have been a pagan Roman basilica, later converted into a

church with the addition of the apse.c) To the east of the piazza, a triple-arched gateway (Xanthos city plan,

Roman period, N4) marked the termination of both a paved street ascending

from the south gate, and of a large street, the decumanus, which crossed the townfrom east to west (Xanthos city plan, Roman period, N5). This street was very

wide, but its sides today are hidden in the undergrowth. We may surmise from

the numerous column drums and capitals lying on the ground that it was probably

lined with porticoes, forming a colonnaded avenue. There was probably a row ofshops, at least on the north side. A monumental tripylon stood at the eastern

terminus of the street, and its remains were identified in 199823

(Xanthos city

plan, Roman period, N12 ; ).This monument is totally ruined, with the exception

of its largest blocks serving as orthostats at the bottom of the piers, which are still

in situ. The blocks of the upper part of the edifice have been recycled. Several of

them have probably been reused in the neighbouring walls. Only a few blocks

which lay on the ground close to the piers can be related with certainty to the

edifice. The voussoirs of the intrados show rectangular frames outlined with

fillets, which include floral ornaments. A Herakles knot appears once. A palm

and acanthus capital, and fragments of a monolithic column may be observed

close to the tripylon, and suggest the existence of a decorative order; a consol has

also been identified. The stylistic features suggest that this monument belonged

to the Later Imperial period.

An inscribed block, reused in the tripylon, originally was a base bearing

mouldings which were erased. The inscription is quite legible and will be

published. It refers to Tiberius Claudius Telemachos, who lived at the end of the

second century A. D., as we know thanks to inscriptions from Sidyma andXanthos. This fact confirms our suggested dating of the monument.

Beyond the tripylon, the east-west street (Xanthos city plan, Roman period,

N5) crossed another street which rose gently from the south (Xanthos city plan,

Roman period, N6). At the intersection of these two streets was a paved square

(Xanthos city plan, Roman period, N12). These two perpendicular streets, the

decumanus and cardo, may have been the major axes of the town. The

intersection where they met probably was a major element in the urban grid.

Several important buildings were erected on its north side, above which could be

seen the Classical "dromos-building" erected on a terrace and mentioned above

(Xanthos city plan, Classical period, N5).

d) The two axes already described enclosed two large, rectangularpiazzas, on their east and north sides. These piazzas, which we will call "the

upper square" (Xanthos city plan, Roman period, N7) and "the lower square"

(Xanthos city plan, Roman period, N8) were framed by Corinthian porticoes.

It is difficult to say why and when this ambitious building program started.

The architectural style suggests the third century A.D. All of this construction

overlies most of the earlier remains, with the result that we know almost nothing

about them.

In 1998, we launched a first trial excavation in the "upper square" (Xanthos

city plan, Roman period, N7). We did not have enough time to obtain a

complete stratigraphic record, but we could prove that certain structures precededthe Later Imperial porticoes. These structures appear to be private houses or


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shops and were carefully built with small stones, supporting a mud-brick

superstructure. The buildings may be late Hellenistic in date. We must await theresults of further excavation to confirm this chronology. A slight discrepancy

between the orientation of the Roman porticoes and that of the earlier buildings

further suggests that there were two successive building phases in this area.However, this interpretation will require closer study.

We can surmise, from the reuse of several blocks of the "upper square's"

porticoes in the large East basilica of fifth-century date, that the porticoes

probably were destroyed by the end of the fifth century AD. In 1998, we foundfragments of an entablature embedded in the pavement of the "upper square", at

the base of the krepis . This could be the result of an earthquake, which would

have destroyed all of these structures and permitted the reuse of their blocks in

the early Byzantine basilica.

5. The Early Byzantine town

As was true for the other cities of Lycia, Xanthos enjoyed great prosperity

during this later period. The general layout of the town was not modified. As

early as the end of the fifth century AD, two specific types of buildings

flourished, namely luxury houses and churches.

The houses were built on the old Lycian acropolis, where they overlaid the

constructions of Classical date, thus eliminating the possibility of any

intermediate phases. These two-storied peristyle houses, adorned with marble

cladding and floor mosaics, conform to the traditional type of the large

Hellenistic house.

Two of these houses have been quite thoroughly explored. The first one, labeledthe "House of Meleager and Atalante", is located at the junction of the

southeastern and southwestern parts of the Lycian acropolis, and is of special

interest because of its mosaic pavement. This house consists of a peristyle

courtyard bordered by rooms. The exact limits of the house are not known. The

50 m2mosaic of Room 5 S-O shows three figural panels: busts of allegories ofPeace and Dignity appear in the first one. The second panel shows the motif of

Thetis kneeling to submerge Achilles into the Styx's waters. The third panel

shows an episode of Meleager's life, namely the boar hunt, in which he is

accompanied by Atalante.

The second house (North-East House)is the best preserved edifice on the Lycian

acropolis. Its exploration, directed by Anne-Marie Manire-Lvque, is currently

in progress. It is alarge house measuring 1650 m2, with an upper story, at least

on its western end where you see the remains of a staircase. The floor of this

peristyle house, the earliest building phase of which dates to the fourth century

A.D, was embellished, at the end of the fifth century A.D. or beginning of the

sixth century A.D., with a mosaic showing geometric patterns which can be

compared to the eastern basilica pavement. Probably as a result of one of the

earthquakes which affected Xanthos at the end of the fifth century A.D., theperistyle was narrowed, and the house underwent considerable changes. Between

the sixth and the end of the seventh/eighth century A.D., an apse was added to

one of the rooms in the eastern wing, and the floor of the house was entirelypaved with white marble slabs which were laid out diagonally and separated by


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bands of schist slabs. The lowest parts of the walls were clad of marble, and their

highest parts were coated with painted plaster The same type of revetment wasused in the annexes Pools made of bluish marble and supplied by tanks were

constructed on both sides of Room 6 N-O stair. In Room 9 N-E, a pre-existing

nymphaeum was rebuilt and revetted with marble. In its latest phase, this houseappears to have been a large peristyle residence, comparable in size to the

Ephesian houses.

There were at least two other luxury houses on the acropolis, one to the

southwest, and one to the southeast. Other structures which also date to theProtobyzantine period were constructed beyond the rampart of the acropolis,

toward the east and toward the south. They have not yet been systematically

excavated .

Several churches also were built at this time: for example, a grand basilicawas

erected to the east of the major north-south street. This basilica is a large edifice

(74m x 29m). Located several meters below the level of the cardo, the atrium

appears as a quadriportico. Its floor was embellished with mosaic and the central

courtyard was paved with white limestone. The east portico of the atrium served

as a narthex, and opened into the basilica, two doors opened into the side aisles

and three doors opened into the nave. The central door was the most impressive.

The nave was separated from the aisles by stylobates made of large reused

blocks. The colonnades stood on pedestals. The column shafts, often made out of

white or colored marble, seem to have been recycled from earlier Roman

buildings. The column capitals are Corinthian. The existence of smaller columns

suggests that there was a gallery level above. An ambo, some fragments of which

have been discovered, stood in the nave. The sanctuary was closed by a chancel-

screen whose stylobate is still in situ. Around the altar, four terracotta pipes werebrought to light in 1998, and originally supplied water required for the cult . In

the back of the altar, the synthronon included a central platform which probably

was the bishop's seat. To the northeast of the basilica stood a baptistery in the

form of a tetraconch whose pool was revetted with marble and was divided in the

middle by a low east-west wall. The water supply was provided by terracotta

pipes. This room was luxuriously decorated with opus sectile, marble revetment

and vault mosaics. This entire church might well have been the bishop's seat24

.

At the time of the basilica's first decorative phase in the second half of the fifth

century A.D., the atrium courtyard, the center of the narthex, the central nave, the

sanctuary and the baptistery floor were adorned with opus sectile, and the

corridors were paved with mosaics. After an earthquake, which occurred soonafter the end of the church's construction, the opus sectile was replaced by

mosaics, the left aisle was rebuilt, and its mosaics were crushed into the ground

in order to provide a support for the new pavement. The decorative patterns are

geometric for their most part. A design of an"arcaded" cross formed by twisting

bands, which originated in Syria at the end of the fourth century AD, and of

which we know but a few examples, is repeated three times: at the center of the

nave, and in the northern and southern parts of the narthex25

. A single panel is

adorned with a floral motif representing a pomegranate tree.A small panel in the

northern aisle shows two deers drinking out the crater of life.

Two more Protobyzantine monuments can be found on Xanthos's upperacropolis; they include a small chapel, completely ruined, and a large basilica

26.


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From west to east, the latter building consisted of an atrium, the church and its

side porticoes, and of outbuildings located to the east. A narthex, which is clearlydistinct from the atrium, opened into the three aisles of the church. These aisles

were separated by stylobates supporting colonnades. Elements of these

colonnades are preserved, namely a few pedestals, two bases and two columncapitals which are not precisely dated. Unlike the grand eastern basilica, no

remains in this structure suggest the existence of a gallery. To the north and to the

south, the church is flanked by two porticoes and two cisterns, which probably

are of an earlier date than the church. The eastern annexes consisted of rooms forresidential use, and of a triconch. This edifice probably dates to the end of the

Protobyzantine period, before 550.A. D. The church's dimensions, and the

presence of porticoes and of a large atrium, indicate that this building was a

monument of great importance. Its remoteness with no residences nearby and its

location at the top of the rocky height, suggest that this edifice was a pilgrimage

church, possibly dedicated to a saint. The triconch might have been a funerary

chapel dedicated to the saint's cult. This basilica probably was deserted after the

Arab invasion in the seventh century.

Three more churches have been identified. One of them was recently

discovered to the west of the Roman agora; a second can be seen in the

southwest corner of the Roman agora, close to the Harpy Pillar and is currently

being excavated27

; and the third , which is relatively large, stands in the center of

the "lower square". Annexes and a cemetery are associated with the latter.

The large area which stretches along the southeastern edge of the town

appears to have been densely occupied at this time, as we can infer from the

numerous wall foundations of houses, visible amid the undergrowth. A regular

grid can be discerned. It may date back to an earlier period .As early as the sixth century A. D., earthquakes damaged the large

buildings which were subsequently repaired. Then the Arab threat necessitated

emergency repairs of the city wall, and also of the diateichismawhich isolated

the Lycian acropolis. This rebuilding of the rampart led to the destruction of

several Later Imperial buildings, since numerous blocks were required for

completion for the project. The study of these blocks has just begun, and it is still

too early to draw any firm conclusions. This reconstruction of the city rampart

was Xanthos's last important building program, and was soon followed by the

destruction and subsequent desertion of the town. We shall not deal here with

later reoccupations.

5. Main issues

The general picture which we have just drawn has been divided according

to traditional historical periods. However, in the evolution of the town-planning

of Xanthos, we can now determine three phases which do not correspond exactly

to these historical periods.

The first phase corresponds to the Dynastic period and the beginning of the

Hellenistic era. At this time, Xanthos was a town of the Lycian type, in which

none of the characteristically Greek buildings or spaces were to be found, except

for an agora, of which we know nothing. The rampart itself can be regarded as

an Oriental, and not a specifically Greek feature of Classical date. At the sametime, the location of tombs intra murosis typically Lycian: two sarcophagi and


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several rock-cut tombs were indeed located outside the city wall, but all of the

pillar tombs and several elaborate sarcophagi stood inside the rampart. Thepresence of some tombs around the Harpy Pillar proves that this practice

continued to the third century BC.

The second phase started at the end of the Hellenistic era and continued throughthe Early Imperial period. We know little about this phase, but for the moment,

we assume that theHellenization of the city only began during this phase. Thanks

to excavations or inscriptions, we have identified many edifices at Xanthos which

are characteristic of Greek civilization, including the theater, the agora, and thebouleuterion

28.Moreover, by this time, the dead were no longer buried inside the

city, but outside, as was the case in the rest of the Greek world. A necropolis

spreads out to the north-east of the town, where Roman sarcophagi are

noticeable. A few Roman tombs also can be seen on the opposite bank of the

Xanthe River. They were probably built close to a road which once connected

Xanthos to the Sanctuary of Leto.

During the third phase of Later Roman date (beginning in the third century

A. D.), the whole city underwent considerable changes, notably wholesale

Romanization through the adoption of a new city plan laid out with major axes,

large squares, and the systematic use of Corinthian colonnades. The subsequent

Christianization of the city does not seem to have substantially modified the

urban plan. The large fifth-century churches were in fact constructed with

materials recycled from the imposing third-century porticoes lining streets and

piazzas. These porticoes probably were destroyed by earthquakes. It seems that

the porticoes which framed the west piazza were the only ones to have been

repaired and re-employed, in contrast to the fate of the two large squares further

east where the porticoes simply disappeared.

In our opinion, there was no planned development of Xanthos during the

first phase of its growth. As we do not know much about the second phase, it is at

present impossible to tell if there was any systematic urban design, for example

during the reconstruction of the city after the siege of Brutus. However, the

center of Xanthos underwent considerable changes during the third century A.D.,

which destroyed any visible traces of the second phase. The preliminary results

of our very latest excavations suggest that a regular city plan already existed at

that time, for the house walls which we discovered seem to conform to a grid

system. This observation applies both to the houses located on the south flank of

the upper hill and to the Byzantine houses in the southeastern part of the town. Itis unfortunately impossible to say when this grid system was laid out and how far

it extended.

In the current state of our research, only the third phase, beginning in later

Imperial times, provides clear evidence of urban programming, marked by the

construction of a cardo and a decumanus, and of three great squares. The cardo

runs approximately along the axis of the still standing Classical "dromos

building", which probably had great symbolic importance. It is currently

impossible to say if this regular grid dates back to the reconstruction overseen by

Marc Antony in the first century B.C.

A striking feature of Xanthos is the location of its cult shrines. In Dynastic

times, there were some temples or cult edifices intra muros, but we have noevidence of their continued use after the Classical period. From the fourth


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Xanthos 12

century B.C. onward, the extra muros sanctuary of Letoon became increasingly

important under the impetus of the dynast Arbinas29

. The Letoon not only was ashrine for the city of Xanthos but also the federal sanctuary of the whole of

Lycia. The city cults were logically located there. This was the case for the three

major divinities, Leto, Apollo and Artemis, and the same was true for the Romanemperors. An inscription tells us that there was an ethnikon Kaisareion in the

Letoon30

. A room of the north portico, in front of which imperial statues bases

were found, has tentatively been identified as this ethnikon Kaisareion, but this

identification remains uncertain. Anyhowwe may infer that the sanctuary as awhole was both the imperial sanctuary of the Lycians, and the imperial sanctuary

of the city of Xanthos. Thus there were possibly no temples in the city.

A sole exception is known today: King Antiochos III, of the Seleucid

dynasty, built (the inscription says: hydrusato= "founded") a temple and an altar

dedicated to Artemis intra muros31

. This could be an indication of a revival of

Artemis's cult, which already existed on the Lycian acropolis in Classical times.

It is finally noted that the question of the water supply of the city of

Xanthos is far from settled. Houses probably had cisterns, and some of these can

be seen on the southern flank of Xanthos. However, we have no trace of any

large underground cistern, in contrast to the evidence from other towns of Lycia,

such as Cadyanda and Termessos.

An aqueduct was recently identified hors de la ville and studied, and dates

back to Roman times32

. It brought water to the city from a mountain spring

located about seven kilometers from the city. It passed near private baths located

near the north gate, and then conducted water to a fountain which we identified in

1998, close to the Roman agora. Finally, the aqueduct probably supplied the largebaths close to the theater. The quantity of water generated by this rather small

aqueduct hardly seems adequate for a city of Xanthos's size. Perhaps, in addition,

the water supply was assured by means of transport by animals along a very steep

path which followed the western edge of the city to the river bank.

Clearly, the current state of our knowledge is not yet sufficient to provide a

complete and detailed picture of town planning in the city of Xanthos. This is

precisely why we have launched a program of research into this area, for which

the colloquium in Washington gave me the opportunity to present our initial

results.

In closing, we would like to recall that, throughout the history of the city ofXanthos, the great Lycian pillar tombs have remained erect and visible,

reminding us that the evolution of Xanthos's urban plan has been profoundly

marked by its local origins. This fact lends originality and interest to its study.

Universit de Bordeaux III

Aknowledgments

This text is an amplified version of a paper delivered by Jacques des

Courtils at the Washington Conference. We would like to express our gratitude to: Prof. David Parrish, who organized this colloquium, to the members of


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Xanthos 13

Xanthos's archaeological team, and in particular to J.-P. Sodini, A.-M. Manire,

J.-C. Moretti and T. Marksteiner for valuable advice, to J.-F. Bernard for hisdrawings of the Xanthos's town-plans. Special thanks also go to Jeffrey Schultz

and John Gledstone who kindly accepted to help us in translating this paper into

english.

Bibliography

Balland, A. 1981 Fouilles de Xanthos, VII, Inscriptions d'poque impriale duLton (Paris).

Burdy, J.-Lebouteiller, P. 1998 "L'aqueduc romain de Xanthos", Anatolia

Antiqua-Eski AnadoluVI, 227-248.

Canbilen, H., Lebouteiller, P., Sodini, J.-P. 1996 "La basilique de l'acropole hautede Xanthos",Anatolia Antiqua-Eski AnadoluIV, 201-229.

Childs, W.A.P. - Demargne, P. 1992 Fouilles de Xanthos, VIII,Le Monument des

Nrides, le dcor sculpt (Paris)

Coupel, P., Demargne, P. 1969 Fouilles de Xanthos, III, Le monument des

Nrides, l'architecture(Paris)

Demargne, P. 1958 Fouilles de Xanthos, I,Les piliers funraires (Paris)

Demargne, P. 1974 Fouilles de Xanthos, V, Tombes-maisons, tombes rupestres etsarcophages (Paris)

des Courtils, J. 1994 "Nouvelles donnes sur le rempart de Xanthos", REA 96

(1994) 285-298.

des Courtils, J. 1995 "Un nouveau bas-relief archaque de Xanthos, RA(1995)

337-364

des Courtils, J. et alii, 1997 "Xanthos et le Lton. Rappport sur les campagnes

de 1995 et 1996"Anatolia Antiqua-Eski AnadoluV, 317-335.

des Courtils, J.-Laroche, D. 1998 "Xanthos et le Lton. Rappport sur lacampagne de 1997"Anatolia Antiqua-Eski AnadoluVI,457-477.

des Courtils, J.-Laroche, D. 1999 "Xanthos et le Lton. Rappport sur la

campagne de 1998"Anatolia Antiqua-Eski AnadoluVII (in print).

Le Roy, Chr. 1991 "Le dveloppement monumental du Lton de Xanthos",RA,

341-351.

Metzger, H. 1963 Fouilles de Xanthos, II,L'acropole lycienne(Paris)

Raynaud, M.P. 1996 "La composition en croix de U dans la mosaque depavement",RA, 69-102.


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Xanthos 14

Robert, L. 1951 "contribution la topographie des villes de l'Asie Mineure

mridionale",CRAI, 254-259.

TAMII, 1, E. Kalinka,Tituli Asiae Minoris(Wien 1920).


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Xanthos 15

Legends

Fig. 1 : Upper hill (from the south).

Fig. 2 : Lycian acropolis (from the north).

Fig. 3 : City plan, as currently excavated.

Fig. 4 : Xanthos city plan in Classical times.

Fig. 5 : North-east corner of the Roman agora and Inscribed Pillar.

Fig. 6 : Xanthos city plan in Hellenistic times.

Fig. 7 : South city gate and arch of Sex. M. Priscus.

Fig. 8 : Xanthos city plan in Roman times.

Fig. 9 : Xanthos city plan in Byzantine times.

1Metzger (1963) 29-75.

2TAM, II, 1, 264, 267, 268, 269)

3TAM, II, 1, 263.

4This funerary monument is composed of a monolithic pillar, surmounted by a funerary chamber.

The chamber walls were adorned with reliefs, which today are displayed in the British Museum,and which have been replaced by plaster casts at Xanthos. The monument reaches a total height of8,87m (pillar: 5,43m) and can be dated to ca. 480-470.

5This famous monument stands to the north-east of the Roman agora. The monolithic pillar lies

on top of a two-step krepis, and is surmounted by a funerary chamber, the walls of which showedreliefs, with a projecting roof. It once was crowned by a statue of a dynast. The total height

preserved reaches 9,71m (pillar: 4,04m). The pillar shows an inscription in the Lycian languageon its four faces, and an epigram in Greek on its north face. Possibly attribuable to the dynast

Kherei, this edifice can be dated to the very end of the Vth century B. C.

6This sarcophagus is located north-west of the bishopric basilica, in the eastern part of the town.

It is composed of a funerary chest and its lid, which lie on a two-step krepis. The lid is carvedwith reliefs on its four sides. This monument belongs to the middle or the second half of the IVth

century B. C.See Demargne (1958), Demargne (1974).7des Courtils et alii (1997) 320 ; des Courtils-Laroche (1998) 457-459.

8des Courtils (1994).

9TAMII, 1, 44, 3

10des Courtils et alii (1997) 317.

11des Courtils-Laroche (1998) 459.

12Most of them present typical Lycian features (e.g., stereotomy, T and Gamma clamps).

13des Courtils (1995), des Courtils-Laroche (1999) (in print).

14Coupel, Demargne (1969), Childs, Demargne (1992).

15Demargne (1974) 58-74.

16des Courtils, Laroche (1998) 465.

17des Courtils (1994) 290-294.

18

Balland (1981) 29-31, n 12.19TAM, II, 1, 270.

20Robert (1951), cf REG, Bull. n 196


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21Balland (1981), 185, n 67.

22Balland (1981), 190.

23des Courtils-Laroche (1999) (in print).

24J. Darrouzs, Notitiae episcopatuum Ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae, Paris 1981 (Gographie

ecclsiastique de l'Empire Byzantin, I), 1, 263.25

Raynaud (1996).26

Canbilen, Lebouteiller, Sodini, 1996.27

des Courtils-Laroche (1998) 463-465.28

A funerary tower (?) has tentatively been dated to theImperial period,on the basis oftypological comparisons (Demargne (1958) 70-73).29

Le Roy (1991).30

Balland (1981), 27-28, 185 sq.31

TAM, II, 1, 263.32

Burdy-Lebouteiller (1998).

The City of Xanthos

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