WHY DID

THE UNITED STATES DECLARE WAR?

Wars are destructive and tragic. They are also messy and complicated, as are the reasons causing them. The War of 1812 is no exception. A number of factors caused the United States to declare war, once again, on Britain. Despite gaining their independence from Britain in 1783, many Americans felt that the British did not respect this independence. They believed that the British were still trying to interfere in American politics and government decision making.

THE NAPOLEONIC WARSBy 1812, Britain was already heavily engaged in a war with France. Napoleon Bonaparte, an ambitious military leader, had become the ruler of France. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) pitted the French Empire against other European powers, including Britain and Spain. Napoleon was in a position to overtake Britain.

With Britain focused on fighting France in Europe, the Americans saw an opportunity to gain control of North America. Neither the Americans nor the British thought that Upper and Lower Canada would be significant in this conflict. However, both powers soon discovered the importance of these colonies in determining the outcome of the war.

Examine the painting in Figure 6.1. What does the painting reveal about how Americans viewed their relationship with Britain?

ENFORCED MILITARY SERVICEThe British navy ruled the high seas. In times of war, however, sailors were often in short supply. During the French Revolution (1789–1799) and the Napoleonic Wars, the British Royal Navy authorized the search of port cities in Europe and in the colonies to round up men to serve in the navy. The men would have no choice but to join the navy. This practice was called impressment. The units that enforced this military service were called press gangs.

As well, British navy captains chased down American merchant vessels in search of British citizens who were trying to escape impressment by working for the United States. Since citizenship was often difficult to prove, American citizens were sometimes forced into service in the British navy. Estimates suggest that 10 000 American sailors were forced to serve on British ships between 1793 and 1812.

The United States viewed impressment as an offence to national pride and the personal freedom of Americans. This was apparent in an 1807 incident that occurred off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia. In June 1807, HMS Leopard, a British warship, fired on USS Chesapeake, an American ship, for failing to stop so that the British could search for deserters. Deserters are soldiers who leave military service without permission. Although the numbers vary, some sources indicate three men on the Chesapeake were killed and another 18 were wounded. Others were taken prisoner by the British and put on trial, including three Americans. The Americans were enraged. Examine an illustration of the incident, shown in Figure 6.2. Why was impressment a source of tension between the United States and Britain?

FIGURE 6.1 American artist John Archibald Woodside created this painting, entitled We Owe Allegiance to No Crown, in 1814. “Crown” is a reference to the British monarchy. Analyze: How does the artist indicate that the United States is independent from Britain?

FIGURE 6.2 This 1884 engraving by American illustrator Howard Pyle shows a British press gang from HMS Leopard investigating USS Chesapeake on June 22, 1807. Analyze: What does the body language of the inspectors and of the man being inspected tell you about the practice of impressment?

impressment the act of forcing individuals to serve in the military with or without notice

deserter a soldier who abandons military service without permission

166 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 167NEL

TECUMSEH AND TENSKWATAWATecumseh was a Shawnee chief and military leader. He opposed the expansion of American territories into the Ohio River Valley. His brother, Tenskwatawa, was a spiritual leader of the Shawnee. The brothers had similar goals for First Nations in America. Tenskwatawa wanted to unify First Nations peoples as one community. Tecumseh proposed an Indian Confederacy in which all First Nations would unite and live on protected lands. His goal was to reclaim territory for the confederacy that had been lost to American settlers. Look at Figure 6.4, which shows a confrontation in 1810 between Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory. Tecumseh was protesting Harrison’s role in acquiring First Nations lands, which paved the way for expanding American settlements. What details has the artist used to suggest a peaceful resolution to the issue was not possible?

Tecumseh’s confederacy was dealt a significant blow on November 7, 1811. Tenskwatawa and his warriors launched an attack against Harrison’s forces, despite warnings from Tecumseh to wait until the confederacy was united and strong. The Americans defeated Tenskwatawa at the Battle of Tippecanoe. Tecumseh went on to lead First Nations warriors against the Americans during the War of 1812. Tecumseh’s confederacy allied with the British in part to defend the First Nations way of life and lands from the ongoing expansion of the United States.

FIGURE 6.4 This undated engraving, called Genl. Harrison & Tecumseh, was created by American illustrator John Reuben Chapin. The colour was added at a later date. It depicts a clash between Shawnee Chief Tecumseh and Governor Harrison at Harrison’s Indiana home in 1810. Analyze: With whose perspective—Tecumseh’s or Harrison’s—do you think the artist is more sympathetic? Why?

RESTRICTIONS ON TRADEBritain’s conflict with France also affected the ability of the United States to trade with other countries. As Britain gained the upper hand on the seas, Napoleon tried to destroy his enemy economically. In 1806, Napoleon ordered European nations under French control to stop trading with Britain. Britain responded by using its naval power to block cargo ships that were entering or leaving those European ports. In 1807, Britain issued laws, called Orders in Council, that called for neutral nations (those not taking sides in the war, such as the United States) to stop trading with France and its allies. Read the excerpt in Figure 6.3 by Thomas Jefferson, the American president from 1801 to 1809. How do you think the United States reacted to the restrictions?

Britain did not consider taking American ships that challenged its Orders in Council to be an act of aggression. The United States held a different view. In response, the United States passed its own laws to restrict trade involving Britain and France. The Embargo Act, 1807 was intended to slow or stop the movement of American goods that supplied the British and French war efforts. The Embargo Act, 1807 backfired, however. Rather than achieving its goal of getting Britain to back off, the legislation further harmed the American economy and its citizens. American farmers and merchants were not able to sell or trade their goods abroad.

CHALLENGE TO EXPANSIONAnother source of tension was the British support for the creation of neutral First Nations territories. The Americans believed that they needed to protect American settlements on the southern and western frontiers, in places such as Ohio and Kentucky, from the Shawnee and other First Nations. The Shawnee and their allies were equally determined to stop the American expansion and drive out the settlers from First Nations lands. Some Americans believed that the British in Upper and Lower Canada were providing weapons to First Nations resisting American settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains.

FIGURE 6.3 This excerpt is from a letter written by former American president Jefferson to Consul James Maury on June 16, 1815. As an American consul in Great Britain, Maury represented the interests of the United States in England. Analyze: What British practices described in this excerpt do you think the Americans would view as grounds for war?

“[Britain] forbade us to trade with any nation without entering

and paying duties in their ports on both the outward and inward cargo.

Thus, to carry a cargo of cotton from Savannah to St. Mary’s, and take

returns in fruits, for example, our vessel was to go to England, enter and

pay a duty on her cottons there, return to St. Mary’s, then go back to

England to enter and pay a duty on her fruits, and then return to Savannah,

after crossing the Atlantic four times, and paying tributes [payments] on

both cargoes to England, instead of the direct passage of a few hours. And

taking ships not doing this, the [British say], is no aggression.”

— Thomas Jefferson, former American president

What long-term impact do you think Britain’s conflicts with France

and the United States had on Canada?

168 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 NEL CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 169NEL

AMERICAN EXPECTATIONSSouth Carolina congressman John C. Calhoun was another well-known War Hawk, like Clay. Based on his statement in Figure 6.7, what challenges does he anticipate from an invasion of Upper and Lower Canada?

During his presidency, Jefferson had tried to avoid another war with Britain. On August 4, 1812, however, Jefferson wrote a letter to journalist and military officer Colonel William Duane. Figure 6.9 is an excerpt from Jefferson’s letter. How does he suggest that America could, once and for all, secure its independence?

On June 18, 1812, the United States officially declared war on Britain. In his proclamation released the next day, shown in Figure 6.8, President Madison mentions love of country as a motivating force.

THE CALL FOR WARExpanding American settlement farther and farther west was a priority for many American politicians throughout the 1800s. Many Americans viewed the takeover of North America as not only their duty, but also their right. They believed it was their mission to spread American culture and “civilization” throughout as much of the continent as possible. For some, this mission had a religious connection. Examine Figure 6.5. The angelic figure represents the spirit of America, leading settlers westward and driving First Nations peoples off their land.

WAR HAWKSSeveral American politicians under President James Madison, Thomas Jefferson’s successor, supported a war with Britain. They were concerned about Britain’s interference in American shipping and exports. They were also concerned about Britain’s challenge to westward expansion.

Nicknamed War Hawks because of their demand for armed conflict, these politicians pressured President Madison to take action. One particularly vocal War Hawk was Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky. Read the excerpt from one of his speeches in Figure 6.6. What reasons does Clay give for supporting a war with Britain?

FIGURE 6.6 This excerpt is from a speech delivered to Congress by Clay on February 22, 1810. Analyze: What does Clay mean by “extinguish the torch that lights up savage warfare”?

FIGURE 6.9 This excerpt is from a letter written by Jefferson to Duane on August 4, 1812. Analyze: What threat did Jefferson think Upper and Lower Canada would pose to the United States?

FIGURE 6.7 Calhoun delivered this statement in March 1812, three months before the United States declared war. Analyze: How are the statements in Figures 6.6 and 6.7 similar?

FIGURE 6.8 President Madison issued this proclamation of war against Britain on June 19, 1812. Analyze: What do you think the terms of a “just, and an honourable peace” would be for the American people?

“The conquest of Canada is in

your power.… Is it nothing to the British

nation—is it nothing to the pride of her

monarch to have the last of the immense

North American possessions wrested

[taken] from his dominion [control]? Is it

nothing to us to extinguish the torch that

lights up savage warfare? Is it nothing to

acquire the entire fur trade connected

with that country?”

— Senator Henry Clay

“I see, as you do, the difficulties & defects we have to

encounter in war, and should expect disasters … but the weakness of

our enemy there will make our first errors innocent.… The acquisition

[capture] of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Québec, will

be a mere matter of marching, and will give us experience for the attack

of Halifax the next, and the final expulsion of England from the

American continent.”

— Thomas Jefferson, former American president

“I believe that in four weeks from the time a declaration of

war is heard on our frontier, the whole of Upper Canada and a part of

Lower Canada will be in our power.”

— Congressman John C. Calhoun

And I do moreover exhort [urge] all the good people

of the United States, as they love their country … that

they exert themselves in preserving order, in promoting

concord [harmony], in maintaining the authority and the

efficacy of the laws, and in supporting and invigorating all

the measures which may be adopted by the Constituted

Authorities, for obtaining a speedy, just, and an

honourable peace.

FIGURE 6.5 This 1872 painting by John Gast is entitled American Progress and represents American ideas of expansion into the West. Analyze: What symbols in this painting represent American ways of life?

How might America’s idea of

westward expansion affect future relations

with Canada?

170 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 171NEL NEL

MAKING CONNECTIONS 1. How does archaeological evidence provide a more

complete understanding of the past than just

written or oral evidence alone?

2. What fields of study would help prepare someone

for a career in underwater archaeology?

We can learn a lot about past events by examining

primary sources, such as the diary entry by

Anne Prevost and the quote from Jacob Cline.

We can also learn about past events by studying

historical sites. Archaeology is the study of history

through the excavation of sites and the analysis of

artifacts and other physical remains.

Jonathan Moore, shown in Figure 6.13, is an

underwater archaeologist with Parks Canada. He

has a particular interest in the War of 1812. He and

his team aim to protect “those parts of Canada’s

history found underwater.” Many of the battles in

the War of 1812 were fought on the water. Sunken

ships still remain at the battle sites.

Moore has been interested in archaeology since

he was very young. At 14, he began archaeological

work through school programs. He participated in

excavations throughout high school and learned

how to scuba dive in university. He now spends half

of the year conducting “diving fieldwork” all around

Canada. He spends the other half of the year in his

Ottawa office, researching sites and writing reports,

to prepare for the next fieldwork season.

Recently, Moore led an underwater survey of

two American warships, USS Hamilton and USS

Scourge, both of which sank in Lake Ontario on

August 8, 1813. These wrecks are well preserved

at the bottom of the lake and were accessed by

remotely operated vehicles. According to Moore,

the survey was “like stepping back in time.” The

intact hulls of the ships contain a treasure trove of

artifacts, such as cannons, that provide historians

with evidence to help them understand the past.

HISTORY AT WORK UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGIST

1. CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCE What reasons did the

United States have for declaring war on Britain

in 1812?

2. COMMUNICATE Identify what you think was the

primary cause of the War of 1812. Debate your

choice in a small group to reach an agreement.

3. INTERPRET AND ANALYZE How do you think the

War of 1812 could have been avoided?

4. HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE For whom do you

think the outbreak of the War of 1812 was most

relevant: the Americans, the British, First Nations,

or Canadians? Why?

CHECK-IN

CANADIAN EXPECTATIONSThe Americans were very confident that they would easily win the war. They did not consider that people in Upper and Lower Canada would stand up to them. Examine the words of the young British colonists in Figures 6.11 and 6.12. How do their perspectives compare with those of the American politicians in Figures 6.6, 6.7, and 6.9?

REACTIONS IN UPPER AND LOWER CANADAPeople in Upper and Lower Canada could sense that dangerous times were ahead. The Americans had fought for their independence from Britain in the American Revolution, but the American settlers in Upper and Lower Canada were mostly content to remain loyal to the British Crown.

However, within days of President Madison’s declaration of war with Britain, the police in Québec City issued the notice shown in Figure 6.10, advising all American citizens to leave or face arrest. Under what circumstances do you think a notice like this could be issued in Canada today?

FIGURE 6.10 This notice, issued on June 29, 1812, indicates that American citizens are no longer welcome in Québec City. Analyze: What impact do you think this notice had on families and communities?

Notice is hereby given, that all Subjects or Citizens of the

said United States, and all persons claiming American

Citizenship, are ordered to quit the City of Québec … on

pain of arrest.

FIGURE 6.11 Prevost was 17 years old when she wrote this entry in her diary on June 25, 1812. Analyze: What are Prevost’s feelings toward the United States?

FIGURE 6.12 Cline was only 13 years old when he stood up to the invading American soldiers in 1813. Analyze: Why might a young colonist stand up to the American soldiers?

“On this day I saw nothing before me but my

Father’s honour and glory. Although I knew how small

a force we had to defend the Canadas, such was my

confidence in his talents and fortune, that I did not feel

the slightest apprehension [uneasiness] of any reverse. I

thought those abominable [morally disgusting] Yankees

deserved a good drubbing [beating] for having dared to

think of going to War with England.”

— Anne Prevost, daughter of Sir George Prevost,

commander-in-chief of Canada and commander of the

British forces in North America

“The Americans were in high

spirits, and when I said I was Canadian,

one of the officers laughed and said,

‘You’ll soon be under the Yankey

government, my boy.’ I was sassy, like

most boys of my age, and I said, ‘I’m not

so sure about that.’”

— Jacob Cline, British colonist

FIGURE 6.13 Jonathan Moore, taking part in diving fieldwork.

172 UNIT 2: Conflicts and Challenges in Canada: 1800–1850 CHAPTER 6: The War of 1812 173NEL NEL