The Borgias and Their Enemies -...
Transcript of The Borgias and Their Enemies -...
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TheBorgiasandTheirEnemies
ChristopherHibbert
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TableofContents
FrontCover
TitlePage
TableofContents
...
Copyright
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Contents
Chapter1
Chapter2
Chapter3
Chapter4
Chapter5
Chapter6
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Chapter7
Chapter8
Chapter9
Chapter10
Chapter11
Chapter12
Chapter13
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Chapter14
Chapter15
Chapter16
Chapter17
Chapter18
Chapter19
Chapter20
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Chapter21
Chapter22
Chapter23
Chapter24
Chapter25
Chapter26
Chapter27
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Chapter28
Chapter29
Bibliography
Index
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Harcourt,Inc.OrlandoAustinNewYork
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Copyright©2008byChristopherHibbertandMaryHollingsworth
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybe
reproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor
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www.HarcourtBooks.com
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-Publication
DataHibbert,Christopher,1924–
TheBorgiasandtheirenemies:1431–
1519/ChristopherHibbert.—1sted.p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
1.Borgiafamily.2.Italy—
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History—15thcentury.3.Italy—History—
1492–1559.4.Nobility—Italy—Biography.I.Title.DG463.8.B7H532008945'.050922—dc22
2008003076ISBN978-0-15-101033-2
TextsetinRequiemTextDesignedbyLydiaD'moch
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
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FirsteditionACEGIKJHFDB
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ContentsCHAPTER1TheCrumblingCity[>]
CHAPTER2ElectionsandCelebrations[>]
CHAPTER3AManofEndlessVirility[>]
CHAPTER4ServantoftheServantofGod[>]
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CHAPTER5MarriagesandAlliances[>]
CHAPTER6TheFrenchinRome[>]
CHAPTER7TheConquestofNaples[>]
CHAPTER8TheBorgiaBull[>]
CHAPTER9FatherandChildren[>]
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CHAPTER10TheDominicanFriar[>]
CHAPTER11Murder[>]
CHAPTER12AnotherHusbandforLucrezia[>]
CHAPTER13TheUnwantedCardinal'sHat[>]
CHAPTER14Cesare'sFrenchBride[>]
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CHAPTER15Conquests[>]
CHAPTER16Jubilee[>]
CHAPTER17DukeoftheRomagna[>]
CHAPTER18TheNaplesCampaign[>]
CHAPTER19TheDukeandtheBorgiaGirl[>]
CHAPTER20Frolicsand
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Festivities[>]
CHAPTER21TheNewBride[>]
CHAPTER22CastlesandCondottieri[>]
CHAPTER23TheDeathofthePope[>]
CHAPTER24Conclaves[>]
CHAPTER25CesareatBay[>]
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CHAPTER26DuchessofFerrara[>]
CHAPTER27TheEndoftheAffair[>]
CHAPTER28TheDeathoftheDuchess[>]
CHAPTER29SaintsandSinners[>]
Bibliography[>]
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Index[>]
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Chapter1TheCrumblingCity
"OHGOD,HOWPITIABLEISROME"
"YOUMUSTHAVEheardofthiscityfromothers,"wroteavisitortoRomeinthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury.
Therearemany
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splendidpalaces,houses,tombsandtempleshere,andinfinitenumbersofotheredifices,buttheyareallinruins.Thereismuchporphyryandmarblefromancientbuildingsbuteverydaythesemarblesaredestroyedinascandalousfashionbybeingburnedtomakelime.
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Andwhatismodernispoorstuff....Themenoftoday,whocallthemselvesRomans,areverydifferentinbearingandconductfromtheancientinhabitants....Theyalllooklikecowherds.
Othervisitorswroteofmoss-coveredstatues,ofdefacedandindecipherableinscriptions,of"partswithin
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thewallsthatlooklikethickwoodsorcaveswhereforestanimalswerewonttobreed,ofdeerandharesbeingcaughtinthestreets...ofthedailysightofheadsandlimbsofmenwhohadbeenexecutedandquarteredbeingnailedtodoors,placedincagesorimpaledonspears."
Thiswasthestateofthecitythathadoncebeenthecapitalofamightyempire;nowtwo-
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thirdsoftheareainsidethewalls,whichhadbeenbuilttoprotectapopulationof800,000,wasuninhabited,acresofopencountrysideusedfororchards,pasture,andvineyards,anddottedwithancientruins,whichprovidedsafehidingplacesforthievesandbandits.Andthiswasthestateofthetruehomeofthepope,theleaderofthechurchwhocouldtracehispredecessorsbackinan
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unbrokenlinetoSt.Peter,theapostleentrustedbyChristhimselfwiththecareofhisflock.
Formostofthefourteenthcentury,eventhepapacyhadabandonedRome.In1305,distressedbytheunrestandbloodydisturbancesinthecity,theFrenchPopeClementV(1305–14)hadsetuphiscourtinAvignon,intheramblingpalaceonthe
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eastbankoftheRhône,whichisknownasthePalaisdesPapes.InRometherehadbeenconstantcallsforthepapacytoreturnfromitsFrenchexile.Mostrecentlythesecallshadcomefromanelderlywoman,whocouldbeseenalmosteverydayinthecrumblingcity,sittingbythedooroftheconventofSanLorenzo,beggingforalmsforthepoor.
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ShewasBirgittaGudmarsson,thedaughterofarichSwedishjudgeandwidowofaSwedishnobleman,towhomshehadbeenmarriedattheageofthirteenandforwhomshehadborneeightchildren.FounderoftheBrigittines,shehadleftSwedenafterexperiencingavisioninwhichChristhadappearedbeforeher,commandinghertoleaveimmediatelyfor
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Romeandtoremainthereuntilshehadwitnessedthepope'sreturn.AsshewentaboutRome,fromchurchtocrumblingchurch,housetoruinoushouse,sheclaimedtohavehadfurthervisions;bothJesusandhismotherMary,shesaid,hadspokentoher,andtheyhadstrengthenedherfaithintherestorationofthepopeandintheeventualsalvationofthecity.
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Aroundthehousewhereshelivedstretchedthecharredshellsofburned-outbuildings,pilesofrottingrefuse,desertedpalaces,derelictchurches,stagnantswamps,fortressesabandonedbytheirrichowners,whohadgonetoliveontheirestatesintheCampagna,hovelsoccupiedbyfamiliesonthevergeofstarvation.Pilgrimstookhomewiththemstoriesofa
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gloomycity,whosesilencewasbrokenonlybythehowlingofdogsandwolves,andtheshoutsoframpagingmobs.
InAvignonthepopesremaineddeaftothecallsfortheirreturn,heedlessoftheprayersthatthesaintlyBirgittaGudmarssonutteredsoferventlyandofthelettersthatthepoetFrancescoPetrarchwrote,describingthe
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"rubbishheapofhistory"thatRomehadbecome.Thisonce-superbimperialcapitalwasnowalawlessruin,acitytornbyviolenceinwhichbelligerentfactionsparadedthroughthestreetswithdaggersandswords,wherehouseswereinvadedandlootedbyarmedbands,pilgrimsandtravellerswererobbed,nunsviolatedintheirconvents,andlonglinesofflagellantsfiledthroughthe
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gates,barefoot,theirheadscoveredincowls,claimingboardandlodgingbutofferingnomoney,scourgingtheirnakedbloodybacks,chantingfrighteninghymnsoutsidechurches,throwingthemselvesweeping,moaning,bleedingbeforethealtars.
Goatsnibbledattheweedsgrowingupbetweenthestoneslitteringthepiazzas
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andflourishingintheovergrown,rat-infestedruinsoftheCampoMarzio;cattlegrazedbythealtarsofrooflesschurches;robberslurkedinthenarrowalleys;atnightwolvesfoughtwithdogsbeneaththewallsofSt.Peter'sanddugupcorpsesinthenearbyCampoSanto."OhGod,howpitiableisRome,"anEnglishvisitorlamented,"onceshewasfilledwithgreatnoblesandpalaces,now
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withhuts,wolvesandvermin;andtheRomansthemselvesteareachothertopieces."
In1362,whilePetrarchwasurgingthepapacytoreturntoRome,asixthFrenchmanwaselectedtothelineofAvignonpopes:theaustereandunworldlyUrbanV.EncouragedbyEmperorCharlesIV,whoofferedtoaccompanyhim,herecognizedthenecessityof
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return,notonlyforthesakeoftheneglectedanddecayingcitybutalsoforthepapacyitself,nowindangeratAvignon,bothfromthemercenarybandsroamingthroughoutwesternEuropeaswellasfromtheEnglish,whowerefightingtheFrenchinwarsthatweretolastintermittentlyforahundredyears.
Fiveyearsafterhiselection,
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UrbanVtravelledacrosstheAlps,kneltinprayerbeforethegraveofSt.Peter,andtookupresidenceinthestuffy,dismalroomsthathadbeenpreparedforhimintheVaticanPalace.HisvisittoRome,however,wasbrief.Hefoundthecityevenmoredilapidatedanddepressingthanhehadfeared;and,feelingthathecouldundertaketheroleofmediatorbetweenEngland
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andFrancemoreeffectivelyfromAvignonthanfromRome,hewentbacktoFrancein1370.HavingignoredBirgittaGudmarsson'swarningthathewoulddieifheabandonedthecity,hethenfulfilledherprophecybyexpiringwithinjustafewmonthsofhisreturntothePalaisdesPapes.
Itwashissuccessor,GregoryXI,another
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FrenchmanandthelastoftheAvignonpopes,whofinallymovedtheCuriabacktoRome,fearfulthattheChurchandherestatesinItalywouldbelosttothepapacyforever.Hediedthere,however,inMarch1378,littlemorethanayearafterhisreturn,andhisdeathprovokedapapalelectionofextraordinaryanimosity.TerrifiedbytheRomanmob,whichhadinvadedtheVaticanduring
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thecourseoftheconclave,thecardinalschosetheNeapolitanBartolomeoPrignano,whotookthetitleofUrbanVI.TheFrenchcardinals,however,refusedtoaccepthim,declaringtheelectioninvalidandelectingtheirowncandidate,aFrenchman,naturally,ClementVII.TheGreatSchismhadbegun;thelameandwall-eyedClementVIIreturnedtoAvignon,while
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theroughandenergeticUrbanVIremainedinRome.
Bynowitwasnotjustthesightofthecity,littlemorethanadecayedprovincialtown,thatdistressedvisitors.CorruptionwasrifeintheChurchandshockedthepilgrimswhocametoRometoreceiveindulgences,whichwerenowbeingdispensedonanunprecedentedscale.Abandoningindespairtheir
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attemptstoformastrongandstablepoliticalstate,theRomansallowedUrbanVI'ssuccessor,thecleverandavariciousBonifaceIX,anotherNeapolitan,toassumefullcontroloftheircity,toturntheVaticanaswellastheenlargedCastelSant'Angelointofortifiedstrongholds,andtoappointhisrelationsandfriendstopositionsofpowerandprofit.Onhisdeathin1404,fearof
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thepowerfulKingdomofNaplesledtotheelectionofanotherpontiffknowntobeongoodtermswiththeking:theineffectiveInnocentVIIfromtheAbruzzi,againstwhomtheRomansrousedthemselvestorevoltinatragicuprisingthatwastoendinhumiliatingretreat;andafterthedeathofInnocentVIIin1406,theelectionofGregoryXII,aVenetianwhoseemeddisposedtocometo
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termswiththeanti-popeinAvignon,ledtotheinvasionofRomein1413bythekingofNaples,whowasdeterminednottolosehisinfluencebyendingtheGreatSchism.
Meanwhile,afreshattempthadbeenstartedtoendtheschism,whichhaddividedEurope,bysummoningacounciloftheChurchatPisa.Thecouncil'ssolutionwasto
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chargeboththeAvignonandRomanpopeswithheresyandtodeposethem.IntheirplacethecouncilelectedacardinalfromtheislandofCrete,PetrosPhilargos,whotookthetitleofAlexanderVandwhopromptlyadjournedthecouncil,whosedecisionwas,inanycase,notrecognizedbyeitherofhisrivals.Therewerenowthreepopesinsteadoftwo,eachclaiminglegitimatedescentfromSt.
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Peterandeachofwhomexcommunicatedtheothers.
AsecondattempttodisentangletheimbrogliowasnowmadebyEmperorSigismund,whosummonedanotherChurchcouncilatConstance.BythistimeanewpopehadappearedonthesceneintheunlikelypersonofBaldassareCossa,successorofAlexanderV,thepopechosenatPisa,whomhe
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waswidelysupposedtohavemurdered.Onceapirateandthenadissolutesoldier,JohnXXIIIwassensual,unscrupulous,andextremelysuperstitious.HecamefromanoldNeapolitanfamilyandestablishedhimselfinRomewiththehelpofamutuallysuspiciousalliancewiththekingofNaples.OnJune8,1413,inbreachoftheirunderstanding,thekingattackedRome,drivingthe
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popeoutofthecity.JohnXXIIIfledwithhiscourtalongtheViaCassia,besidewhichseveralprelatesdiedofexhaustionandtherestwererobbedbytheirownmercenaries.Yetagain,thecitybehindthemwasplundered.TheNeapolitansoldiers,uncheckedbytheircommander,setfiretohouses,lootedthesacristyofSt.Peter's,stabledtheirhorsesinthisancientbasilica,
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ransackedsanctuariesandchurches,andsatdownamidtheirlootwithprostitutes,drinkingwinefromconsecratedchalices.
JohnXXIIItravelledtothecouncilatConstance,wherehefoundhimselfaccusedofallmannerofcrimes,includingheresy,simony,tyranny,murder,andtheseductionofsometwohundredladiesofBologna.
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AfterescapingfromConstanceintheguiseofasoldieroffortune,hewasrecognized,betrayed,andbroughtbacktofacethecouncil,whichdeposedbothhimandtheAvignonpopeandwhich,oncetheGermansandtheEnglishhadunitedwiththeItalianstokeepouttheFrench,managedtoelectanewpope,theRomanMartinV.
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MartinVwasamemberoftheColonnafamily,oneoftheoldbaronialdynastiesofRome.Whenhereturnedtothecityin1420underapurplebaldachin,jestersdancedbeforehimandthepeopleranthroughthestreetswithflamingtorches,shoutingtheirwelcomelongintothenight.HewastoreigninRomeforovertenyears,followedbytwomoreItalians,EugeniusIVand
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NicholasV.Therewashopeatlastthatanewagewasdawningforthecity.
NicholasV,whohadbeenelectedin1447,inappearanceatleastlookedpeculiarlyunsuitedforhisroleasthechampionofthisnewage.Small,pale,andwithered,hewalkedwithstoopedshoulders,hisbrightblackeyesdartingnervousglancesaroundhim.Butno
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onedoubtedeitherhisgenerosityorhiskindliness,justasallthosewhoknewhimpraisedhispietyandhislearning:"Heowedhisdistinctionnottohisbirth,"wroteonecontemporary,"buttohiseruditionandintellectualqualities."TheyalsopraisedhisdeterminationtoreconciletheChurchwiththesecularcultureoftheburgeoningRenaissance,sendinghisagentsallover
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Europeandbeyondinhissearchformanuscriptsoftheliteraryandtheoreticalworksofantiquity,manyofwhichwerepreservedinmonasticlibraries,andthengenerouslyrewardingthehumanistscholarswhotranslatedandcopiedtheseancienttexts.
TheRomeofNicholasV,however,wasstillacrumbling,dirtymedievalcity,bitterlycoldinwinter,
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whenthetramontanablewacrossthefrozenmarshes,unhealthyinsummerwhenmalariawasrife.Theinhabitants,alargeproportionofthemforeignersandmanyoftherestbornoutsidethecity,numberednomorethan40,000,lessthanatwentiethofthepopulationthathadlivedinRomeinthedaysofEmperorNero.Thecitywassmallalsobythestandardsofthetime—Florencehada
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populationof50,000,whereasVenice,oneofthelargestcitiesinEurope,couldboastover100,000inhabitants.Rome,however,wasthetrueheartoftheChristianworld,andthosewhomadethelongpilgrimagethereeachyearprovidedthecitywithitsonehighlyprofitabletrade.
Atthebeginningof1449,NicholasVproclaimeda
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HolyYearfor1450,andthesurgeofpilgrimswhocametoRometocelebratetheJubileebroughtimmenseprofitstotheChurch—notleastfromthesaleofindulgences.Somuchmoney,infact,thatNicholasVwasabletodeposit100,000goldensovereignsintheMedicibankandtocontinueconfidentlywithhisplanstorestorethecity.InthejudgementofEneaSilvio
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Piccolomini,thecardinalofSiena,"hebuiltmagnificentedificesinhiscity,thoughhestartedmorethanhefinished."
ThefocusofNicholasV'snewChristiancapitalwasSt.Peter's,thechurchbuiltbyEmperorConstantineoverthetombofthefirstpopeandrestoredbyNicholas.HealsomovedhisofficialresidencefromtheLaterantothe
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VaticanPalace,andtheinfluxofartistswhocametoRometoworkonhisprojectswassoontomakethecityaleadingcentreforgoldsmithsandsilversmiths,aswellaspaintersandsculptors.ItalsobecamehomeforatimetoFraAngelico,whodecoratedNicholasV'slovelyprivatechapelintheVaticanwithscenesfromthelivesoftwoearlyChristianmartyrs,St.StephenandSt.Laurence.
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ThissmallandsaintlyDominicanfriarknelttopraybeforestartingtopainteachmorningandwassoovercomewithemotionwhenpaintingChristupontheCrossthattearspoureddownhischeeks.
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Chapter2ElectionsandCelebrations
"THEREWASNOTAPLACEWHEREHORNS
ANDTRUMPETSDIDNOTSOUND"
SHORTLYAFTERTHEDEATHofNicholasV,onMarch24,1455,therewasheldinRome
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theannualceremonyoftheExpositionoftheVernicle,thehandkerchiefthatwasallegedtohavebelongedtoSt.Veronica.TraditionhaditthatwhenshewipedthesweatfromChrist'sfaceonhiswaytoCalvary,hisfeaturesweremiraculouslyimpresseduponherhandkerchief.AfewdayslaterthosecardinalsresidentinRome,andsuchothersashadbeenabletoreachthe
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cityintime,tookpartinthemagnificentprocession,accompaniedbythepapalchoirintoningthehymn"VeniCreatorSpiritus,"fromSt.Peter'stotheVatican,wheretheywouldchooseNicholasV'ssuccessor.Trumpetssounded;drumswerebeaten;thecardinalsenteredtheapartmentswheretheconclavewastotakeplace;thedoorswerelocked;theentrancesbrickedup;and
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thediscussionsandargumentsbegan.
Hourafterhourthetalkswenton.Promisesweremade,veiledthreatsissued,bribesoffered.Nightfellandnodecisionwasreached.NoagreementwaspossiblebetweenthemutuallyantagonisticcandidatessupportedbytherivalRomanbarons,theColonnaandOrsinifamilies.Manyhoped
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fortheelectionoftheelderly,frailJohnBessarion,whosufferedexcruciatinglyfromkidneystones,acommoncomplaintofthetime.HewasadistinguishedtheologianandhumanistwhohadbeenbroughtupasamemberoftheOrthodoxChurchbuthadrecentlyconvertedtoRome."ShallwegivetheLatinChurchtoaGreekPope?"askedoneoftheFrenchcardinalsintheconclave.
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"Howcanwebesurethathisconversionissincere?"headded."ShallhebetheleaderoftheChristianarmy?"
Atlengthacompromisewasproposed:itwasdecidedtosupportthecandidatureofamanwhowouldprobablynotlivelong.Thenamesoftwoelderlycandidatesemergedinthediscussions;bothwereconsideredunobjectionable,althoughbothwere
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unfortunatelySpaniardsand,therefore,notlikelytoproveapopularchoicewiththeRomanpeople,notoriouslyhostiletotheCatalans,asSpaniardsweregenerallyknown.Ofthesetwo,thelessobjectionablewasthemodestandscholarlybishopofValencia,anditwashewhowaseventuallychosentosucceedNicholasV.
Againthetrumpetsinthe
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piazzaofSt.Peter'ssounded;acloudofsmokeroseintotheskyasasignalthattheconclavehadcometoaconclusion,anditwasgreetedwithshoutsbythelargecrowdgatheredthere;therecentlyerectedbrickworkwasknockeddown.Thedoorsopenedandthedeanofthecollegeofcardinalsappearedtoannouncetheconclave'sdecision:"Iproclaimtoyougreatjoy,"he
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said,"wehaveanewpope,LordAlfonsodeBorja,BishopofValencia;hedesirestobeknownasCalixtustheThird."
TheBorjas,orBorgiasastheywereknowninItaly,wereafamilyofsomeconsequenceinSpain,descended,astheyclaimed,fromtheancientroyalHouseofAragon.Alfonso,bornin1378,wasthesonofthe
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ownerofanestateatJátivanearValencia;hehadstudiedandthentaughtlawatLéridaand,attheageofthirty-eight,hadbeenappointedtotheprestigiouspostofprivatesecretarytoKingAlfonsoVofAragon,inwhoseservicehewastoremainforforty-twoyears.Hehelpedtoarrangetheabdicationoftheanti-popeClementVIII,thuspavingthewayfortheendingoftheGreatSchism,andwas
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giventhebishopricofValenciaasarewardforhisservices.In1442hemovedtoNaples,stillintheserviceofhisking,whohadconqueredthecitytobecomeAlfonsoIofNaples.
Astheking'sprivatesecretary,hewascloselyinvolvedinthenegotiationstoreconcilehismasterwithPopeEugeniusIV,whorewardedAlfonsoBorgia
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withacardinal'shatandthesplendidtitularChurchofSantiQuattroCoronati.BythetimeoftheconclaveofApril1455,hewaslivinginRome,anaustere,modest,andincreasinglygoutyoldmaninhislateseventies,insuchpoorhealththatitwasdoubtedthathewouldsurvivethearduousceremoniesofhiscoronation.TheseinvolvedalongserviceinSt.Peter'sduringwhichhe
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wouldreceivefromthecardinalarchdeacontheTripleCrownandCross,theKeys,andtheMantleofJurisdiction.ThiscoronationwouldbefollowedbyalongprocessiontotheChurchofSanGiovanniinLaterano,where,inanotherlengthyceremony,thenewpopewouldbeenthronedasbishopofRome.
TheprocessionfromSt.
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Peter'stotheLateran,knownasthepossesso,wasoneofthemostcolourfuland,totheRomanpopulace,excitingsightsthatthecityhadtooffer.Vaticanguardsandchoristers,precededbyfalconerswiththeirhawksandratcatcherswithdogstocleartheverminfromthelow-lyinglandbytheTiber,marchedalongthestreets,followedbythebearersofsweet-smellingherbs.Then
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cametheofficialsofthegovernmentofRome,thebishopsandcardinals,and,finally,PopeCalixtusIIIhimself,ridingasaddlehorsebeneathacanopyofgoldsupportedbydignitariesandescortedbylancersandfootsoldiers,tokeepatadistancetheimportunatecrowdsofsightseers.
WaitingastheprocessionapproachedMonteGiordano
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stoodarabbitogetherwithacrowdofhisfellowJews,who,ascustomdictated,offeredthepopeabejewelledcopyoftheTorah,thebookoftheJewishlaws.CalixtusIIIacceptedit,thenthrewittothegroundwiththetraditionalwords,"Thisisthelawweknow;butwedonotacceptyourinterpretationofit."Ashespoke,anumberofonlookersscrambledtotakepossessionofthebook
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beneaththepalfreyandthehorsesoftheguards.
BythestepsoftheChurchofSanGiovanniinLaterano,CalixtusIIIkneltdownsubmissively,ashiswhite-and-goldvestmentswereremovedtobereplacedbyablacksoutane.Heraisedhishandsinagestureofbenedictionasafightbrokeout,asitsooftendid,betweentherivalsupporters
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oftheconstantlyfeudingOrsiniandColonnafamilies.
Nosoonerhadhebeenelected,thenewpopenowsethisheartupontheorganizationofacrusadethatwouldfreeConstantinoplefromthegripoftheTurks,whohadcapturedthecityinMay1453."HevowedtofocusallhiseffortsagainstthehereticTurks,"wroteEneaSilvioPiccolomini,
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whomCalixtusIIIcreatedthecardinalofSiena,"givingabsolutionforthesinsofallwhoenlisted."Thepope'sdeterminationsurprisedmany;itwaswellknownthathewassufferingincreasinglyfrompainfulattacksofgout,andithadbeenexpectedthathewouldcontinuetoliveaquietandpiouslifeintheVatican,ratherthanembarkonsuchanambitiousventure.
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Moneywasraisedbytheimpositionoftaxesandbythesellingofworksofart,includingthepreciousbookbindingsthathadbeenboughtatsuchexpensebyNicholasV;CalixtusIIIwentsofarastopawnhisownmitreandsentnumerouspreachersarmedwithindulgencesalloverEurope;healsoputastoptovariousworksofrestorationandrebuildinginRome,whichhadbeen
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initiatedbyhispredecessor.
Self-willed,parsimonious,andobstinate,CalixtusIIIwouldtoleratenooppositionfromthosecardinalswhowereopposedtohisbellicoseambitions,andintheendheraisedenoughfundstofinancethebuildingofgalleysandtomustertroopsfortheconductofaholywar.Yetwhilehissoldiersandsailorsenjoyedsomeminor
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successes,includingthedefeatofaTurkisharmyoutsideBelgradeinJuly1456andthepartialdestructionofaTurkishfleetoffLesbosinAugustthefollowingyear,hisambitionswerenotsharedbyalltheEuropeanpowers,manyofwhomfailedtocontributeeithermoneyormentothescheme.Moreover,thefavourshebestoweduponhisrelationsandhisfellowSpaniards,the
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hatedCatalans,hadbeguntocausewidespreadresentmentinRome.
Threeofhisnephewsreceivedspecialfavour.Twowerecreatedcardinalsbeforetheywerethirtyyearsold,andCalixtusIIIappointedoneofthem,RodrigoBorgia,tothepostofvice-chancelloroftheHolySee,themostinfluentialofficeinthepapalgovernment.Thethird,Pedro
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LuisBorgia,elderbrotherofRodrigo,wasgiventhetitleDukeofSpoletoandappointedcaptaingeneralofthechurch,prefectofRome,andgovernorofRome'sgreatfortress,CastelSant'Angelo.
CalixtusIII'sdeathonAugust6,1458—justthreeyearsafterhiselevation,inthesmall,darkbedchamberwhereillhealthhadobligedhimtospendsomuchofhis
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time—wasgreetedbyriotsinRome,inprotestagainstthedetestedCatalanswhomhehadsoprovocativelyindulged.OnceagainthecardinalsconvergedonRometoplaytheirpartinaconclaveatwhich,soitwashoped,apopewouldbeelectedinwhomthepapacyandRome,bynowindissolublyinterwoven,couldtakepride.
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Atthisconclavethedivisionswithinthecollegeweregreaterthantheyhadbeenthreeyearsearlier:"Thericherandmoreimportantcardinals,"asEneaSilvioPiccolomini,thecardinalofSiena,recalled,"madepromisesandthreats,andsome,shamelesslyabandoningallvestigesofdecency,pleadedtheirowncasesforelection."Guillaumed'Estouteville,thewealthy
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cardinalofRouen,offeredtemptingprizes:"NotafewwerewonoverbyRouen'sgrandiosepromises,caughtlikefliesbytheirgreed,"andtheyschemedallnightinthecommunallavatories,"beingasecludedandprivateplace."
Earlythenextmorning,thecardinalofSienawenttovisittheyoungSpaniardRodrigoBorgia,thevice-chancellor,toaskhimifhe,too,was
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promisedtoRouen."Whatwouldyouhavemedo?"respondedBorgia,whohadbeenassuredbyd'Estoutevillethathewouldkeepthelucrativepostofvice-chancellorinreturnforhisvote:"Theelectioniscertain."Piccolominicautionedthetwenty-seven-year-oldRodrigo:"Youyoungfool,willyouputfaithinamanwhoisnottobetrusted?Youmayhavethe
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promisebutitistheCardinalofAvignonwhowillhavethepost,forwhathasbeenpromisedtoyouhasalsobeenpromisedtohim,"hesaid,addingwisely,"WillaFrenchmanbemorefriendlytoaFrenchmanortoaCatalan?"
ThenextdayafterMass,thecardinalsassembledinthepapalchapeltocasttheirvotes,andwhentheyhad
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writtentheirchoicesonslipsofpaper,theyrose,onebyone,inorderofrank,andwalkedacrosstothealtar,wheretheyplacedtheirvotesinthegildedceremonialchalice.Thevotingover,thecardinalsresumedtheirseatsandthenamesoneachballotpaperweresolemnlyreadout."Therewasnotacardinalintheroomwhodidnottakenoteofthosenamed,toensurethattherewasno
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chancefortrickery."Muchtoeveryone'ssurprise,itwasfoundthatPiccolominihadamassedninevotes,d'Estoutevillehadjustsix,andseveralothershadoneortwo.Asneitherofthefront-runnershadachievedthenecessarytwo-thirdsmajority,thecardinalsdecidedtoseeifitwouldbepossibletoelectthenewpopethatmorningbythemethodknownas"accession."
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"Allsatintheirplaces,silentandpale,asthoughtheyhadbeenstrucksenseless.Noonespokeforsometime,noonesomuchasmovedamuscleapartfromhiseyeswhichglancedfirsttooneside,thentotheother.Thesilencewasastonishing.SuddenlytheyoungRodrigoBorgiastoodup:'IaccedetotheCardinalofSiena,'heannounced."Butafterthisdeclaration,allfellinto
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silenceoncemore,untiltwocardinals,reluctanttocommitthemselves,hurriedlylefttheothers,"pleadingthecallsofnature."
ThenanothercardinalrosetoannouncehissupportforPiccolomini.Yeteventhisdidnotsecurethenecessarytwo-thirdsmajority.Onemorevotewasstillrequired.Noonespoke;noonemoved.AtlengththeagedProspero
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Colonnaroseunsteadilytohisfeetand"wasabouttopronouncehisvote"forthecardinalofSienawhen"hewasseizedaboutthewaist"bythewily,ambitiousFrenchmanGuillaumed'Estouteville,archbishopofRouen,andbyCardinalBessarion,whostillentertainedhopesofbeingelectedhimself.TheyrebukedCardinalColonnaharshly;andwhenhe
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persistedinhisintentiontovoteforPiccolomini,theytriedtoremovehimfromtheroombyforce.Provokedbythisindignity,Colonna,whohadvotedford'Estoutevilleinthescrutiny,nowcalledoutinloudprotest,"IalsoaccedetoSienaandImakehimPope."
"YourHoliness,wearethankfulforyourelectionandwehavenodoubtsthatitisof
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God,"CardinalBessarionequivocated,aftertheelectionhadbeenratifiedaccordingtocustom."Thereasonwedidnotvoteforyouwasyourillness;wethoughtthatyourgoutwouldbeahandicapfortheChurchwhichstandsinmuchneedofanactivemanwithphysicalstrength,"heexplained."You,ontheotherhand,needrest."Piccolominirespondedwithdignity:"Whatisdonebytwo-thirds
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oftheSacredCollegeissurelytheworkoftheHolySpirit,"hesaid,beforeremovinghiscardinal'sredrobesanddonningthe"whitetunicofChrist."Whenhewasaskedbywhatnamehewishedtobeknown,heannounced"Pius,"andhiselectionwasproclaimedtothecrowdsgatheredinthepiazzainfrontofSt.Peter's.
ThatnightofAugust19,
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1458,therewasgreatrejoicinginthestreetsandpiazzasofRome,asmenandwomencelebratedthenewsthatanItalianhadbeenchosenratherthanaFrenchmanoranotherSpaniard:
Therewaslaughterandjoyeverywhereandvoicescrying"Siena!Siena!Oh,fortunateSiena!Viva
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Siena!"...Asnightfell,bonfiresblazedateverycrossroads...mensanginthestreets;neighbourfeastedneighbour;therewasnotaplacewherehornsandtrumpetsdidnotsound,noraquarterofthecitythatwasnotalivewithpublicjoy.Theoldermensaidtheyhadnever
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seensuchpopularrejoicingsinRomebefore.
Piccolomini,prematurelyoldatfifty-three,hadupuntilnowledamoreorlessdissolutelife.Hewasthefatherofseveralbastardsandhaddistinguishedhimselfasadiplomat,orator,andwriterratherthanasachurchman;hewastheauthorof,amongotherworks,awidelyread
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novel,EuryalusandLucretia;adistinguishedseriesofbiographies,OnFamousMen;hisownmemoirs;abookonthecorrectwaytoeducateyoungboys;andahistoryofBohemia—thislastworkhewrotewhilerestingatthefamousbathsatViterbo,wherehehopedtoeasehisgout"butnotexpectingacure,becausethisillness,onceithasbecomechronicandfirmlyrooted,is
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onlyendedbydeath."
Hehadreceivedhiscardinal'shatatChristmas1456andjustovereighteenmonthslaterhadenteredtheconclavewithquietconfidencethathewouldbeelected;andwhilepreparedtopromotetheinterestsoffriendsandfamily,andtoindulgetheirwhims,inthemannerofsomanyofhispredecessors,hewasalso
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determinedtobecomeaworthyoccupantofhisholyoffice.Heundertooktobearalwaysinmindthewordshehadspokentoafriendwhenhewasordaineddeaconandhadacceptedthatthechastityheconfessedtodreadmustnowreplacehisformerlicentiousness."Idonotdenymypast.Ihavebeenagreatwandererfromwhatisright,butatleastIknowitandhopethattheknowledgehasnot
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cometoolate."
Likehispredecessor,hehadthesameoverridingambition:"Ofalltheintentionshehadatheart,therewasnonesodearasthatofincitingChristiansagainsttheTurksanddeclaringwaronthem."HediscussedatlengththemeansofachievingtheorganizationofacrusadethatcouldresisttheadvanceoftheTurksintoEuropewith
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RodrigoBorgia,whosepositionasvice-chancelloroftheChurchPiusIIhadconfirmedwithinhoursofhiselection,ingratefulthanksforRodrigo'ssupportintheconclave.
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Chapter3AManofEndless
Virility
"THEDANCESWEREIMMODEST
ANDTHESEDUCTIONOFLOVEBEYONDBOUNDS"
THEMOSTTALENTEDofCalixtusIII'snephews,RodrigoBorgiahadbeencreatedacardinalat
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theageoftwenty-five.HehadmadeabriefstudyofcanonlawatBolognaUniversity,wherehetookhisdegreeafterlessthanayear'sresidence,which,sincethenormalcourseofstudywasfiveyears,ledtoawidespreadsuppositionthatmoneyhadexchangedhands,anotunusualoccurrence.
NordidRodrigoBorgia'sappointmenttotheinfluential
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andlucrativepositionofvice-chancellorattheageoftwenty-seven,afteranequallybriefmilitarycareer,passwithoutangrycomplaint;norhadhisappointmenttohisuncle'svaluableseeofValencia.Yetithadtobeconcededthatwhilenepotismhadbeenlargelyresponsiblefortheseappointments,Rodrigowasahighlycompetentadministrator,"anextraordinarilyableman,"as
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PiusIIcommented,andthatifindeedhedidtakeimmoderatecaretoensurethathistenureintheofficeofvice-chancellorwasanextremelyprofitableone—thankstothebribeshereadilyacceptedforallmanneroffavours,fromthearrangingofdivorcestothelicensingofincestuousmarriagesbymeansofforgeddocuments—itcouldnotbedeniedthatheperformedthedutiesofthe
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postconscientiously.Hewasenormouslyrich,withatasteforextravagance;asJacopoGherardidaVolterracommented:
Borgia'svariousoffices,hisnumerousabbeysinItalyandSpain,andhisthreebishopricsofValencia,PortoandCartagenayieldhimavastfortune;anditis
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saidthatthattheofficeofVice-Chancelloralonebringshimin8,000goldflorins.Hisplate,hispearls,hisclothesembroideredwithsilkandgold,andhisbooksineverydepartmentoflearningareverynumerous,andallaremagnificent.Ineednotmentionthe
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innumerablebed-hangings,thetrappingsofhishorses...thegoldembroideries,therichnessofhisbeds,histapestriesinsilverandsilk,norhismagnificentclothes,northeimmenseamountofgoldhepossesses.
"Beautifulwomenare
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attractedtohiminamostremarkableway,morepowerfullythanironisdrawntothemagnet,"wroteoneobserver.Hewasalso,intheguardedwordsofJohannesBurchard,wholaterbecamehismasterofceremonies,amanof"endlessvirility."Itwaswellknownthathissexualappetitewasconsumingandthatattractivewomenwhocametohimforadviceorfavoursweremore
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thanlikelytotakepartinsuchorgiesasthosethatwerebroughttothenoticeofPiusII,whothusadmonishedhisvice-chancellorintheseterms:
WehavelearnedthatthreedaysagoalargenumberofwomenofSiena,adornedwithallworldlyvanity,assembledinthegardensof...
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GiovannidiBichio,andthatyourEminence,incontemptofthedignityofyourposition,remainedwiththemfromoneo'clockuntilsixandthatyouwereaccompaniedbyanothercardinal....Wearetoldthatthedanceswereimmodestandthe
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seductionoflovebeyondboundsandthatyouyourselfbehavedasthoughyouwereoneofthemostvulgaryoungmenoftheage....IshouldblushtorecordallthatIhavebeentold.Themerementionofsuchthingsisadishonourtotheofficeyouhold.Inordertohavemore
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freedomforyouramusementsyouforbadeentrytothehusbands,fathers,brothersandothermalerelationswhocamewiththeseyoungwomen....ItseemsatpresentnothingelseisspokenofinSiena....Wearemoreangrythanwecansay....Yourbehaviourgivesa
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pretexttothosewhoaccuseusofusingourwealthandourhighofficefororgies....TheVicarofChristhimselfisanobjectofscornbecauseitisbelievedhecloseshiseyestotheseexcesses....Yourulethepontificalchancellery;andwhatrendersyourbehaviourmore
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reprehensibleisthatyouareclosetous,theSovereignPontiff,asVice-ChancelloroftheHolySee.Weleaveittoyourownjudgementtosayifitbefitsyourhighofficetoflauntwithwomen,todrinkamouthfulofwineandthenhavetheglasscarriedtothewomanwhopleasesyoumost,tospenda
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wholedayasadelightedspectatorofallkindsoflewdgames....Yourfaultsreflectuponus,anduponCalixtus,youruncleofhappymemory,whoisaccusedofagravefaultofjudgementforhavingladenyouwithundeservedhonours.LetyourEminencethendecidetoputan
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endtothesefrivolities.
Rodrigohadnointentionofputtinganendtosuch"frivolities";buthedidtakeconsiderablymorecareinthefuturenottotakepartintheminplacesorincompanyfromwhichreportswerelikelytoreachtheearsofthesternPiusII.SuchentertainmentsasthoseenjoyedinthegardenatSienawerenowtobeheld
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withinthewallsofhisluxuriouspalace,whichthevice-chancellor'snewwealth,bothlegitimatelyandfraudulentlyacquired,enabledhimtobuildinRome.
DuringEasterweekin1462,agrandprocessionwasheldinRometoescorttheskullofSt.Andrew,brotherofSt.Peter,whichPiusIIhadacquiredaftertherelichad
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beensavedfromtheTurksinvadingGreece."SuchcrowdshadblockedthestreetsthatthesoldiersguardingthePope,whowerearmedwithtruncheons,werehardlyabletoopenapathforhim."Thewholecitywasadorned.Narrowstreetswere"coveredwithcanopiesandbranchesofgreenerytoshadethemfromthesunandallthehousesweredeckedwithhangingsandtapestriesin
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canopies,"wrotePiusII."EveryoneviedwitheachotherindoinghonourtotheApostle."Ofallthemagnificentlyornamentedpalacesalongtheroute,nonewasmorelavishlydecoratedthanthatofCardinalRodrigoBorgia.Asthepopewroteinhismemoirs:
Allthecardinalswholivedalongtherouteoftheprocessionhad
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decoratedtheirhousessplendidly....ButallwereeclipsedincostandingenuitybythatofRodrigo,theVice-Chancellor.Hishugetoweringhouse,builtonthesiteoftheancientmint,wasbedeckedwithmarvellousandcostlytapestries....Hehaddecoratedhisneighbours'housesas
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wellashisown,sothatthesurroundingsquarewastransformedintoasortofpark,filledwithmusicandsongandhisownpalaceseemedtobegleamingwithgold,suchastheysaytheEmperorNero'spalaceoncedid.
TheinterioroftheBorgia
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palacewasequallysplendid.Onevisitordescribedtheever-increasingmagnificence:
Thewallsoftheentrancehallarehungwithtapestriesdepictingvarioushistoricalscenes.Asmalldrawing-room,alsodecoratedwithfinetapestries,leadsoffit.Thecarpetsonthefloorharmonize
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withthefurniture,whichincludesasumptuousday-bedupholsteredinredsatinwithacanopyoverit,andachestonwhichisdisplayedalargeandbeautifulcollectionofgoldandsilverplate.Beyondthisdrawing-roomtherearetwomorereceptionrooms,oneofthemwithanother
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canopiedday-bedcoveredwithvelvet,theotherwithasofacoveredwithcloth-of-gold.Inthislatterroomisalargetableonwhichisspreadafinevelvetclothandaroundwhichisasetoffinelycarvedchairs.
Inthispalaceanditsoutbuildingsandstables,as
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manyastwohundredservants,severalofthemslaves,livedandworked,wearingthedarkmulberryredandyellowoftheBorgialivery.Inadditiontothegroomsandguardsanddomesticservants,therewerenumerouscourtiers,secretaries,andclerksinstalledintheroomsabove,aswellasthecardinal'slawyer,CamilloBeneimbene,discreetandreliable,the
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repositoryofmanysecrets.
Inthesquareoutsidethepalaceonfestiveoccasions,thepopulacewasregaledwithallegoriesandpantomimes,fireworks,theroarofcannons,andthesavageryofbullfights,whilecupsofwinewereofferedtothecrowdsofspectatorsbyRodrigo'snumerousservants.
Despitethehugesums
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expendeduponhispalaceanditsfurnishings,RodrigohadenoughmoneytospareforsuchgesturesasthesupplyandequipmentofagalleyfortheVenetianfleetinChristendom'swaragainsttheTurkishinfidels,andforgenerouscontributionstothecrusade,whichPiusIIwasplanningwithmissionaryzealandwhichheintendedtoleadinperson.AccompaniedbyRodrigo,heleftRomefor
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Ancona,where,alreadyagravelyillman,hediedintheepiscopalpalaceonAugust15,1464.
Rodrigo,too,fellillatAncona,anotoriouslyunhealthycity,possiblywiththeplagueorwithsomesexuallytransmitteddisease."TheVice-Chancellorisstrickenwithillness,"thegovernorofAnconawasinformed,"andthisisits
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symptom:hehaspaininhisearsandaswellingunderhisarm.Thedoctorwhohasseenhimsaysthathehaslittlehopeofcuringhim,especiallyconsideringthatashortwhileagohedidnotsleepaloneinhisbed."CertainlyonhiswaytoAncona,Rodrigohadnotstintedhimselfinenjoyingthemaskedballsandnocturnalpartiesthatweregivenathisrequestsothat
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the"passageofthedignitariesoftheHolyChurch,"northeastacrosstheApenninestotheAdriaticcoast,wouldnot"depressthesociallife"ofthetownsthroughwhichhepassed.
Rodrigo,however,turnedoutnottobeasseriouslyillashisdoctorsfirstthought,andhewasbackinRomeintimetoattendtheconclavetochoosethenewpope.The
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cardinals'choicethistimewasaVenetian,PietroBarbo,ahandsome,self-regarding,andpleasure-lovingmanwhohadoriginallyintendedbecomingamerchantlikehisrichfather;butwhenhisunclehadbeenelectedtosucceedMartinVasPopeEugeniusIV,hedecidedthattheChurchmightwellofferalifemoresuitedtohischaracter.Hisloveofdisplay,indeed,wassoonindulgedby
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buildingafinepalaceincentralRome,thePalazzoSanMarco,nowthePalazzodiVenezia;hemovedthepapalcourttherein1466andlivedinthepalace,inostentatioussplendour,surroundedbyhissuperbcollectionofantiquecameos,bronzes,marblebusts,andpreciousgemsuntilhisdeathin1471.
Attheconclavefollowing
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PaulII'sdeath,RodrigoplayedakeyroleinmanoeuvringtheelectionofFrancescodellaRovere,whotookthenameSixtusIV.Alarge,ambitious,gruff,andtoothlessmanwithahugehead,aflattenednose,andanintimidatingpresence,SixtusIVhadbeenbornintoanimpoverishedfishingcommunityinLiguriaandbecameaFranciscan,risingthoughtheranksoftheorder
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tobecomeitsministergeneral."Thispopewasthefirst,"claimedNiccolòMachiavelli,"toshowjusthowmuchapontiffcoulddoandhowmanyactionswhichwouldhavebeencallederrorsinearliertimeswerenowhiddenunderthecloakofpapalauthority."Otherspraisedhisnobility,"notofbirthbutofcharacteranderudition,"andmanycommentedonhisfervent
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devotiontotheVirgin.
Fromthemomentofhiselection,thisapparentlyausterefriarwasunremittingingrantingtohisrelationsoffices,money,andprofitablelordshipsinthePapalStates—thoselandsincentralItalythatbelongedtothepope,thePatrimonyofSt.Peter.Hesoonbecamenotoriousfortheparticularlylucrativeprefermentshelavishedupon
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twoyoungnephews,PietroRiarioandGiulianodellaRovere,bothofwhomhemadecardinalswithinmonthsofhiselectionandappointedtonumerousabbacies,benefices,andbishoprics.Healsogaveredhatstoanotherfourofhisrelations,atotalofsixofthethirty-fourcardinalshecreatedduringhislongpontificate,notallofwhomwereasunworthyashisfamily.
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ThetwonephewsplayedaprominentpartinthereceptionoftheyoungNeapolitanprincessEleonoraofAragonasshepassedthroughRomeinJune1473onherwaynorthtomarryErcoled'Este,theDukeofFerrara.SuchwasthegrandeuroftheapartmentsfurnishedforheratPietroRiario'spalaceatSantiApostolithat,assherecountedinalettertoher
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father,thekingofNaples,evenherchamberpotwasavesselofgildedsilver."ThetreasureoftheChurch,"shewrote,inastonishment,"isbeingputtosuchuses."ThesumptuousbanquetPietrohostedforherlastedsixhours,arelentlesssuccessionofopulentdishes,eatentotheaccompanimentofmusic,poetry,anddancing:gildedandsilveredbreads,peacocks,piesfilledwithlive
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quailthatranaboutthetablewhenthecrustwasremoved,awholebear,platesofsilveredeelsandsturgeon,andshipsmadeofsugarfilledwithsilveracorns,thedellaRovereemblem.
PietroRiarioandGiulianodellaRovere,whohadbothfollowedtheiruncleintotheFranciscanorder,rapidlyabandonedtheirvowstopovertyandchastityonce
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theywerecardinals.Pietro,describedbyonecontemporaryasanotherCaligula,wasthepope'sfavourite;indeed,itwaswidelyrumouredthathewasinfactSixtusIV'sson.Withanincomeofover50,000ducatsayearfromhisbenefices,hecouldindulgefreelyintheluxuriesoflifeandflaunthismistress,whomheinstalledinhispalaceatSantiApostoli,whereher
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shoes,reputedly,weresewnwithpearls.HediedsuddenlyinJanuary1474,leavingdebtsofover60,000ducats,aftersufferingseverestomachpainsthatmanythoughtweretheresultofpoisonbutweremoreprobablyduetoappendicitis.GiulianonowbecameSixtusIV'sright-handmaninthecollegeandstartedtobuilduphispositionatthepapalcourt,wherehewouldsoonbegintorivalRodrigo.
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Yetforallhispersistentnepotism,SixtusIVwasagreatbenefactortoRomeandtotheRomanpeople;and,largelybymeansoftheheavytaxationofforeignchurchesandthesaleofecclesiasticaloffices,hewasabletocarryoutnumerouspublicworks.Streetswerepavedandwidened;atthesametimethenumerousconduitsofancientRome,whichhadoncebroughtfreshwaterto
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hundredsofthecity'sfountains,wereclearedandonceagaingavetheRomanpeopleacleansupply.
Hundredsofchurcheswererepairedandrebuilt,somanyindeedthatSixtusIVwashailedbyhishumanistsasasecondAugustus,followinginthefootstepsoftheemperorwhohadfoundRomebuiltinbrickandleftitinmarble.HesoldoffPaul
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II'smagnificentcollectionofvaluableantiquities,formoneyorforpoliticalfavour,andspenttheproceedsonimprovingthecityofRome.Afoundlinghospitalwasestablished;newpalacesappearedwheredesolateruinshadoncestood;thecity'smainmarketwasmovedtothePiazzaNavona,thesiteofancientRome'simperialcircus,theinfamousStadiumofDomitian.
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TheUniversityofRome,theSapienza,wasre-formed;inpreparationfortheHolyYearof1475,thepopelaidthefoundationstoneofthePonteSisto,standingupinaboatashedroppedseveralgoldcoinsintothemurkywatersoftheTiber.Mostmemorablyofall,itwasSixtusIVwhowasresponsiblefortheSistineChapel,whichwasbuiltforhimbyGiovanninode'Dolciwithitswallsdecoratedwith
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scenesofthelivesofMosesandChristbysomeofthemostgiftedartistsofhistime,includingBotticelli,Ghirlandaio,Perugino,andPinturicchio.
SixtusIVhadbeenquicktorewardRodrigoforhissupportintheconclave,promotinghimtothecardinal-bishopricofAlbanoandgivinghimthelucrativeabbeyofSubiaco,which
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includedthelordshipofthesurroundingareaandacastlethatwouldprovidethecardinalandhisfamilywithapleasingsummerretreat.ThepopealsoappointedhimaspapallegatetoSpain,tosortoutthetrickysituationthathaddevelopedthereregardingtheconsanguineousmarriageofFerdinandofAragonandIsabellaofCastile,whichhadalreadytakenplaceusingaforged
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papaldispensation,muchtothefuryofthearchbishopofSeville,whoopposedtheunionofthetwoSpanishkingdoms.
RodrigoleftRomeinMay1472andreceivedarapturousreceptioninValencia,hisepiscopalseat.InSpainhedisplayedhisintelligence,tact,discretion,goodhumour,andconfidencetodowhatwasnecessarytoregularize
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themarriageandtonegotiatepeacewiththearchbishop,whowasplacatedwithacardinal'shat;healsogainedSpanishsupportforanothercrusadeagainsttheTurks.HeleftSpainfourteenmonthslater,butonhisjourneyhomehisgalleyranintoaviolentstormandwaswreckedoffthecoastofTuscany.HewastakentoPisatorecoverfromhisordeal,andwhiletherehewasinvitedasguestof
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honourtoabanquet,wherehemetanattractiveandintelligentwomansometenyearsyoungerthanhimself,namedVannozzade'Catanei.
Acourtesanofcharmanddiscretionfromafamilyofthelessernobility,Vannozzade'Cataneiseemstohaveintriguedthecardinalfromtheverybeginningoftheiracquaintance.Soastofacilitatewhatwastobecome
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alovingandlastingrelationship,Rodrigo'sconfidentiallegaladviserandnotary,CamilloBeneimbene,arrangedforhermarriagetoacomplaisanthusband,anelderlylawyercalledDomenicodaRignano,whocouldberelieduponnottomakeanyunwanteddemandsuponhiswife.
In1475,ayearafterRodrigohadmadehis
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appearance,dressedintheredrobesbefittingacardinal,atthemarriageofhismistress,shegavebirthtoason,whowasnamedCesare—SixtusIVshowedhisapprovalofhisvice-chancellorbylegitimizingtheboy.SoonafterthisVannozza'swell-rewardedhusbanddied,andthewidowgavebirthtotwomoreofRodrigo'schildren—anotherboy,Juan,ayearyoungerthanCesare,andfour
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yearsafterthatagirl,Lucrezia.Vannozzadidnotremainawidowlong;shewasmarriedtwiceagaintomenselectedbythecardinalandgavebirthtoJofrè,yetanothersonforRodrigo,andOttaviano,whomayormaynothavebeenhisprogeny.
Certainlytheirgood-naturedmotherprofitedfromthearrangement,beingabletoestablishherselfina
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comfortablehouseinRomeandtobuyaplotoflandneartheBathsofDiocletianonwhichshehadanotherhousebuilt.ShealsoacquiredalucrativeinterestinthreeofRome'sbestinns,whileherthirdhusband,CarloCanale,madeahandsomeprofitfromhisappointmentasgovernorofRome'sprison,theTorreNuova,wheretheincarceratedmenwerechargedforsuchprivilegesas
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theycouldafford.
Vannozza'swerebynomeanstheonlychildrenwhoweregenerallybelievedtohavebeenfatheredbyCardinalRodrigo.Therewereatleastthreeothers,allolderthanVannozza'soffspring,whowerewidelyassumedtobehis,althoughveryfewpeopleinRomeknewwhotheirmotherwas.Twoofthesechildrenweregirls—
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oneofthem,Gerolama,havingbeenquietlymarriedintoanunassumingthoughnoblefamily,diedyoung;theother,Isabella,livedintooldage,dyinginthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,anobjectofmuchcuriositythatshehaughtilyignored.Thethirdwasason,namedPedroLuisafterRodrigo'sbrother,andhewascreatedDukeofGandíabut,likeGerolama,diedyoung,havingspent
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muchofhisshortlifeasanapparentlyworthyofficerinthearmyinSpain.
Around1483,whenCesarewaseightyearsoldandhisbrotherJofrèstillababy,RodrigohadtakenhischildrenawayfromtheirmotherandplacedtheminthecareofhiscousinAdrianadaMila.Despiteherevidentcharmsandhisaffectionforher,Vannozza'sbackground
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madeherunsuitablefortheupbringingoftheirfamily;Adriana,ontheotherhand,wasaSpanishnoblewomanandhadmarriedintooneofthemostpowerfulclansinRome,theOrsini.In1489herson,OrsinoOrsini,wasmarriedinRodrigo'spalaceinRometoGiuliaFarnese,abeautifulnineteen-year-oldgirlofverymodestfortune.Giulia—"laBella"asshewasknownthroughoutRome—
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nowbecameRodrigo'snewmistress,whileherhusbandwithdrewtohisfamily'scountryestateatBassanello.
RodrigoseemedtobeobsessedbytheFarnesegirl,hislovelycarefreeyoungmistresswhonowlivedinahousesharedwithAdrianadaMilaandthechildrenofthepliable,good-naturedVannozza.Indeed,heappeared,forthefirsttimein
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hislife,tobecapableofanintensejealousy,evenofGiulia'stiresomehusband,whomsheinsistedongoingtoseeinthecountryfromtimetotime,provokingRodrigotowritesuchlettersasthis:
Wehaveheardthatyouhaveagainrefusedtoreturntous[fromBassanello]withoutOrsini's
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consent.WeknowtheevilofyoursoulandofthemanwhoguidesyoubutwewouldneverhavethoughtitpossibleforyoutobreakyoursolemnoathnottogonearOrsino.Butyouhavedoneso...togiveyourselfoncemoretothatstallion.Weorderyou,underpainofeternal
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damnation,neveragaintogotoBassanello.
Evidentlyalarmedbythisletter,Orsinisenthiswifebacktothecardinal.AlthoughalmostfortyyearsolderthanGiuliaFarnese,Rodrigowasquiteasvirileashehadeverbeen;hissexualappetitewasstillsaidtobevoracious.Sumptuousaswerethemealsservedinhis
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palace,heatesparinglyhimself,oftencontentinghimselfwithasinglecourse.AndwhileothercardinalswerecarriedaboutRomeonlittersorincarriages,hepreferredtowalk.Hehunted;hewrestled;heenjoyedfalconry;hetookprideinhaving"theslenderwaistofagirl."
SixtusIVhaddiedinAugust1484,andhis
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successorwastheaffableandineffectiveGiovanniBattistaCibò,InnocentVIII,notamanofmuchdistinction.Havingobtainedthepapaltiarabyundertakingtograntfavourstovariouscardinalsthenightbeforehiselection,hewassoonreducedtocreatingvarioussupererogatoryofficesandsellingthemtothehighestbidder,tomeetthevastdebtsincurredbyhispredecessor.
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HisfinanceswerefurtherstrainedbytheimportunitiesofseveralillegitimatechildrenandbyhisquarrelwithKingFerranteIofNaples,whorefusedtopayhispapaldues.
MeanwhileCardinalRodrigo'scareerprospered.Jovialandcarefreebynature,hewasneverthelessmostconscientiousinhisattendancetothebusinessof
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hisofficeasvice-chancellor,anofficethathewastoholdinfivepontificates.
"Itisnowthirty-sevenyearssincehisuncleCalixtusIIIappointedhimacardinalandinthattimehenevermissedaConsistoryexceptwhenpreventedbyillness,andthatwasrareindeed,"hissecretarywastowritein1492."[Foralmostfortyyears]hewasatthecentreof
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affairs....Hewellknewhowtodominate,howtoshineinconversationandhowtoimposehiswillonothermen.Also,majesticinstature,hehadtheadvantageoverothermen."
Healsobecamesteadilyricherandmoreinfluential,wellabletoaffordthebribesthathewouldneedtoofferdiscreetlyatthenextconclave."Altogetheritis
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thought,"wroteJacopoGherardidaVolterra,"thathepossessesmoregoldandrichesofeverykindthanalltheothercardinalscombined,exceptingonlyd'Estouteville,"thewealthycardinalofRouen.
Rome,however,undertheeasygoingandunassertiveleadershipofInnocentVIII,knownas"theRabbit,"hadrelapsedintothekindof
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anarchythathadbeenalltoofamiliaracenturybefore.Armedmenagainroamedthroughthecityatnight,andinthemorningsthebodiesofmenwhohadbeenstabbedlaydeadanddyinginthestreets;pilgrimsandevenescortedambassadorswereregularlyrobbedoutsidethecitygates;cardinals'palacesbecamefortifiedstrongholdswithcrossbowmenandartilleryatthewindowsand
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onthecastellatedroofs.
Justicehadbecomeacommoditytosell,likeeveryotherfavourinthiscorruptcity.Amanwhohadmurderedhistwodaughterswaspermittedtobuyhislibertyfor800ducats.OthermurdererspurchasedtheirpardonsfromtheCuria,thepapaladministration,aswellassafe-conductpassesthatallowedthemtowalkthe
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streetswitharmedguardstoprotectthemfromavengers.Whenanimportantofficialwasaskedwhymalefactorswerenotpunished,heansweredwithasmileinthehearingofthehistorianStefanoInfessura,"Ratherthanthedeathofasinner,Godwillsthatheshouldlive—andpay."
Duringtheunpleasantlyhotsummerof1492,Innocent
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VIIIfellseriouslyill,unabletokeepdownanynourishmentotherthanmother'smilk.Amongthecardinalswhohadgathered,aswasthecustom,athisbedsidewereRodrigoBorgiaandGiulianodellaRovere,whoweresooninvolvedinaheatedargument.Rodrigovoicedhisdisapprovalofthepope'sdecisiontodistributethereservesofcashinthepapalcoffers—some47,000
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ducats—tohisrelatives,andGiulianodefendedtheaction,which,afterall,hadbeenagreedbythecollege,andmadeaninsultingremarkaboutRodrigo'sSpanishheritage.Thevice-chancellorretortedthat,weretheynotinthepresenceofthepope,hewouldshowGiulianowhohewas,andtheunseemlyquarrelwouldhavequicklydeterioratedintoafighthadthetwonotbeenrestrainedby
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someoftheircolleagues.
ItwassoonclearthatInnocentVIIIwasdying,andthesacredcollegewasmuchpreoccupiedwiththechoiceofasuitablesuccessor.Noscholarwasneedednow,stilllessasaint.Thenextpope,theyagreed,mustbeoneofstrongpersonalityratherthanmoralworth,amanwhocouldprotectthePatrimonyofSt.Peterfromitsrivalsand
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enemies,andonewhocouldrestoreordertoRomeandinjectsomevigourintoitsartisticandscholarlylife.InnocentVIIIdiedonJuly25,1492,anditwaswiththesethoughtsinmindthatthecardinalsenteredtheVaticanonAugust6inordertoelecthissuccessor.
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Chapter4ServantoftheServant
ofGod
"IAMPOPE!IAMPOPE!"
FORFOURGRUELLINGDAYS,thecardinalsplottedandnegotiatedandplacedtheirvotingslipsinthegildedchalice,locked,inthe
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intolerablesummerheat,insidetheVaticanandliving,inconsiderablediscomfort,inthetinycubiclesthathadbeenerectedforeachcardinalintheSistineChapel.Intheeveningofthefourthday,rumoursbegantoseepoutoftheVaticanandintothestreetsandtavernsofRomethattheconclavewasindeadlock.ThecrowdsthathadgatheredsoexpectantlyonthepiazzainfrontofSt.
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Peter'sbeneaththefirst-floorwindowsofthepalace,waitingfortheresultoftheelection,begantodisperseasnightfell.Thefewwhoremainedthereovernightwereastonishedwhen,shortlyafterdaybreakonthemorningofAugust11,1492,thelong-awaitedannouncementwasmade:"HabemusPapam!"
"DeoGratias!"camethe
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responseandthen,fromthewindowabove,fluttereddownseveralpiecesofpaperonwhichwerewrittenthewords"WehaveforPope,AlexanderVI,RodrigoBorgiaofValencia."Thenewpopehimselfthenappearedatthewindow,wearingthelargestofthethreesizesofpapalrobesthathadbeenmadeinadvanceandlaidoutforthesuccessfulcandidate.Hewasclearlymuchexcited
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byhisvictory;insteadofmodestlydeclaring"volo,"ascustomrequired,herepeatedlyshouted,"IamPope!IamPope!"
Hehad,itwassaid,spentlargesumsofmoneyinbecomingso.Asthesixteenth-centuryFlorentineauthorofTheHistoryofItaly,FrancescoGuicciardini,explained:
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[Rodrigo]hadbeenacardinalformanyyearsandhadbecomeoneofthemostinfluentialmenatthepapalcourt;hissuccessiontothepapacywasduetotheconflictbetweenCardinalAscanioSforzaandCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,butprincipallyhis
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electionwasduetothefactthathehadunashamedlyboughtthevotesofmanycardinalsinamannerthatwasunprecedentedinthosetimes,usingnotonlymoneybutalsothepromiseofhisofficesandbenefices,whichwereplentiful.
Therewere,indeed,
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widespreadrumoursthathehadpaidbribestonofewerthanthirteencardinals,includinghismainally,CardinalAscanioSforza,brotheroftheDukeofMilanandperhapsthemostpapabileofallthecardinals.InreturnforrelinquishinghisownambitionstofurtherthoseofRodrigo,Ascaniowaspromisednotonlygold,whichwasreportedtohavebeensentundercoverof
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darknesstoAscanio'spalaceonfourheavilyladenmules,butalsotheinfluentialandlucrativeofficeofvice-chancellor,whichRodrigowouldhavetosurrenderifhebecamepope.Andalongwiththejobwouldcometheofficialresidence,Rodrigo'smagnificentpalace,knownastheCancelleriaVecchia.(ItisnowthePalazzoSforza-Cesariniandwascompletelyrebuiltin1888tothedesigns
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ofPioPiacentini,whoretainedjustonesideoftheelegantfifteenth-centurycourtyard.)
AccordingtoBurchard'saccount,"Onlyfivecardinalswishedtoreceivenothing,namelythecardinalsofNaples,Siena,Lisbon,SanPietroinVincoliandSantaMariainPorticu;theyalonerefusedthegratuities,sayingthatthevotestoelectapope
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shouldbegivenfreelyandshouldnotbepurchasedwithpresents."Intheend,however,accordingtotheFlorentineambassador'sreportoftheelection,therewasonlyonedissentingvoiceintheconclaveandthatwasSixtusIV'snephewGiulianodellaRovere,thecardinalofSanPietroinVincoli.
Yeteventhosewhohadbeenmostreadytocondemn
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themethodsbywhichthenewpopehadsecuredhiselectionwerenowforcedtoconcedethat,guiltyashemaywellhavebeenofsimony,bribery,andsexualincontinence,AlexanderVIwasbothconscientiousandcompetentinthedischargeofhisduties.Approachable,affable,andgood-natured,hewasalsodeterminedtoputastoptotheriotouslawlessnessintowhichRome
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hadfallenduringthepontificateofhispredecessor,InnocentVIII.
Accordingly,duringSeptember1492,asBurchardoutlined,"heestablishedabodyofprisoninspectors;healsoappointedfourcommissionerswhomhechargedwithlisteningtoallthosewhohadcomplaintstomakeinRome;similarlyhereorganizedthefunctionsof
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thegovernorofthecityandhisofficers."Thepope"alsodecidedthathewouldholdanaudienceeveryTuesdaywhichwouldbeopentoallcitizens,menandwomen;hehimselflistenedtotheircomplaintsandrenderedjusticeinanadmirablemanner."Itwasnotlong,therefore,beforeorderwasrestored;andtheRomanscouldlookforwardtothepontificateofamanwitha
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highlydevelopedtasteforceremonyandpageantry.
"Therewasanincrediblecrowdofprelates,"wroteBernardinoCorio,theMilanesechronicler,describingthesceneoutsideSt.Peter'sonAugust27,1492,thedayofAlexanderVI'scoronation."Itwasamostwonderfulthingtoseeforeachprelatewaswearinghismitreandeachwas
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clothedaccordingtohisparticularoffice;oneafteranotherthecardinalsapproachedthePopetokisshisfeet,hishandandhismouth."
Ledbythepapalcavalry,theprelates,cardinals,andforeignambassadorsthentookpartinthepossesso,theceremonialprocessionthroughthestreetsofRomeoutintotheuninhabitedarea
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andonthroughfieldsandorchardstotheChurchofSanGiovanniinLaterano.AscanioSforza,thenewvice-chancellor,wasattendedbytwelvepages,"eachdressedindoubletsofcrimsonsatinandpurplecapes,carryingbatonsandbearingthearmsofhisfamily."Altogethertherewere"sevenhundredpriestsandcardinalswiththeirretinuesinsplendidcavalcadewithlonglances
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andglitteringshields."
Ridingasnow-whitehorsesatAlexanderVI,"sereneofcountenanceandsupremelydignified,"wroteanotherwitnessoftheparadewithfulsomehyperbole."Howwonderfulishistranquilbearing,hownoblehisface,howopen,howfrank.Howgreatlydoesthehonourwefeelhimincreasewhenwebeholdthedignityofhis
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bearing....Heshowedhimselftothepeopleandblessedthem....Hisglancefelluponthemandfilledeveryheartwithjoy."
Itwasastiflinglyhotday;thecrowdsliningtherouteweredescribedasimmense;theairwasthickwithdustthatthestreetsweepershadvainlytriedtoallaywithbucketfulsofwater;itwas"almostimpossibletoseethe
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sky."TheroutefromtheCastelSant'AngelototheLaterantooktheprocessionpasttheruinsoftheColosseum,thegreatamphitheatrebuiltbyEmperorVespasian,whereonceaudiencesoffifty-fivethousandhadthrilledtogladiatorialgamesandotherspectacles;itscavernousvaultsnowconvertedintoworkshopsandstorerooms.Theypassedthrough
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enormoustriumphalarchesspeciallyerectedfortheoccasionanddecoratedwithrepresentationsofahugeblackbullgrazingonagoldenfield,thestrikingemblemoftheBorgiafamily,whichcouldalsobeseenontheflags,pennants,andgonfalonswavinginthehandsofthecheeringcrowds.
Thefestivitiesover,AlexanderVIsurveyedhis
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achievements.Hewasnow"SovereignPontiff,servantoftheservantsofGod,supremeLordofRomeandofthePapalStates."AspopeandVicarofChrist,hewasalsopresidentoftheRomanRota,thecourtofappealfortheecclesiasticalaffairsofChristendom,andoneofthemostpowerfulrulersinEurope.HisownrealmstretchednorthofRomeasfarasBolognaandRavenna,
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fromCivitavecchia,ontheshoresoftheMediterranean,toAnconaandRiminiontheAdriaticcoast.ThePatrimonyofSt.Peterwouldyieldhimanannualincomeofsome100,000florinsayear,asumthathadrecentlybeenmuchincreasedbythediscoveryofrichdepositsofalum(asulphateofaluminiumandpotassiumessentialtothetanningandclothingindustries)inthehillsnorth
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ofRomeatTolfanearCivitavecchia.
TheseTolfadepositshadbeendiscoveredbyaFlorentine,GiovannidiCastro,whohadwrittentoPiusIIofhisbeliefthatthisdiscoverywouldsaveenormoussumsinthewayoftollsthatItalianmerchantshadhithertobeenobligedtopaytotheauthoritiesinAsiaMinoreversincethe
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Europeanalummineshadbeenexhausted.
HolyFather[GiovannidiCastrohadwritten],todayIbringyouvictoryovertheTurks.Everyyeartheyextortmorethan300,000ducatsfromtheChristians...becausethealumminesofLiparihavebeenworkedout.
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TodayIhavefoundsevenmountainssorichinalumthattheycouldfurnishsevenworlds.YouwillbeabletosupplyenoughalumtodyetheclothofthewholeofEuropeandthussnatchawaytheprofitsoftheinfidel.
Sincethisletterwaswritten,thealumminesnorthof
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Romehadcontributedhandsomelytotheincomeenjoyedbythepapacy.WhilenotaslargeasthatofseveralotherEuropeanstates,itwasnowsufficientforthebalancingofthepapalbudget,whichhadbeenmuchindebtinthetimeofAlexanderVI'spredecessors.TheminesalsohelpedtomaintainasmallarmyfortheprotectionofthePapalStatesandcontributedtothegiftsthatthetreasurer
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oftheApostolicChamber,thepope'scousinFranciscoBorgia,wasauthorizedtopassontoHisHoliness'sindulgedchildren,aswellastotheexpensesoftheelaborateentertainmentsprovidedatthepapalcourt.
Powerfulandpossessedofthesumsneededtoexercisehisauthority,AlexanderVIwasafortunateman,indeed.Hewasnowsixty-oneyears
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old;hehadgrownratherfatinrecentyears,andhislargeandfleshynoseseemedmorepronouncedthanever.Yetheremainedanattractivemancapableofexercisinggreatcharm,livelyinconversation,attentive,andresponsive,withaningratiatingmannerandreadysmile,asensualnature,acommandingpresence,andasonorousvoice."Heishandsome,ofamostgladcountenance,"his
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tutorhadwrittenofhim,and"heisalsogiftedwithhoneyedeloquence."JacopoGherardidaVolterraobservedofhimthathewasblessedwitha"powerfulintellectandgreatimagination,"adding,"Heisbrilliantlyskilledintheconductofaffairsofstate."
ThehistorianFrancescoGuicciardinijudgedhimtobeamanwho
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possessedsingularcunningandshrewdness,excellentperspicacity,amazingpowersofpersuasion,andanincredibleagilityandconcentrationwhendealingwithaffairsofstate;butthesequalitieswerefaroutweighedbyhisvices:themostobscenemanners,
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hypocrisy,immodesty,mendacity,infidelity,profanity,insatiablegreed,unrestrainedambition,apredilectionforviciousnessthatwasworsethanbarbaric,andaferventhungertoexalthismanychildren,amongwhomtherewereseveralnoless
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repellentthanthefather.
MensoonlearnedthatitwasdangeroustocrossAlexanderVIandnevertobelessthanwaryinhispresence.Thiswasanambitiouspope,powerful,rich,politicallyastute,anddeterminedtoestablishhisownfamilyintheranksofEurope'srulingelite.
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Chapter5MarriagesandAlliances
HEWOULD"SHOWTHEMWHOWASPOPE
AND...WOULDMAKEMORECARDINALS,
WHETHERTHEYLIKEDITORNOT"
LIVINGINTHELUXURIOUS
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surroundingsofPalazzoMontegiordano,theOrsiniresidenceinRome,underthecareofAdrianadaMila,Rodrigo'schildrenhadgrownupprotectedfromtheviolenceandsqualorofthecitybeyonditswalls.ItseemsthatLucreziareceivedherearlyeducationfromtheladiesofthehousehold,fromSpanishtutors,fromapriestwhopresidedoverthechildren'sschoolroom,and
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fromthenunsofanearbyconventtowhichshewasregularlyconducted.WhileshespokeSpanishwithherbrothersandherfather,shewasalsofluentinItalianandFrench,aswellasLatin,andknewsomeGreek;hersyllabushadincludedrhetoricandhumanistliterature;sheenjoyedreadingpoetryandwroteherownverses.Shewasalsoanaccomplisheddancerand,indeed,regularly
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tookpartintheexhibitionsofValenciandancingarrangedbyRodrigofortheentertainmentofhimselfandhisguests.Shewasahappy,cheerful,andprettychild,adoredbyallherfamily.
Likeothergirlsofnoblebirth,Lucreziawasexpectedtomarryyoung,toamanofherfather'schoicewhoseconnectionswouldbebeneficialtothefamily.In
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1490,whenshewasjusttenyearsold,shewasbetrothedtoayoungSpanishnobleman,somefifteenyearsolderthanherself,DonJuandeCentelles.Theproposedmarriagewas,however,abandonedayearlaterwhenanothermoredesirablesuitorappearedintheformofaSpanishgrandee,DonGasparodiProcida,theCountofAversa,whoselawyersenteredintonegotiationswith
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thoseofthecardinal.TheselawyerswerestillnegotiatingthedetailsofthemarriagecontractwhenRodrigowaselectedpope.Nowhecouldsethissightsmuchhigherand,accordingtoBurchard,gavetheyoungman"3,000ducatstobuyhissilenceandbreakthecontract";thepope,hecontinued,"intendedthustoraisethestatusofhisdaughter."AlexanderVI'schoiceofbridegroom,
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however,wouldbeonewhoalsobroughtsignificantpoliticaladvantagesforhimself.
OnFebruary12,1493,inaceremonyattheVatican,Lucreziawasformallybetrothed,byproxy,toGiovanniSforza,LordofPesaro,awidowertwiceheragebutcousintoLudovicoSforza,rulerofMilan,andtohisbrotherCardinalAscanio,
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thevice-chancellor.
Fourmonthslater,onJune9,GiovanniSforzaarrivedinRomeforthemarriage,accompaniedbyfortypackanimalsandsome280horsemen,allrichlydressed.HemadehisofficialentranceintothecitythroughthegateofSantaMariadelPopolo,welcomedbyalargecrowdandescortedtotheVatican,whereheceremoniallykissed
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thepope'sfoot.
Themarriagetookplacethreedayslater,onJune12,when,accordingtoBurchard,"theillustriousGiovanniSforza,CountofCotignolaandLordofPesaro,tookashislegitimatewife,LucreziaBorgia,virgin,inhertenthyear,orthereabouts"—Burchardwas,unusuallyforhim,misinformedaboutherage;shehadinfactcelebrated
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herthirteenthbirthdayafewweeksearlier.Onthemorningofherwedding,inobediencetotheinstructionsoftheirfather,Lucrezia'sbrotherJuanescortedtheyoungbridefromtheresidenceofGianbattistaZen,cardinalofSantaMariainPorticu,whereshewasthenliving,totheVaticanPalace.Hertrainwascarriedbyoneblackgirl,whileanothercarriedthatofherprincipal
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attendant,agranddaughterofInnocentVIII.Theywerefollowedbywellover150Romanladies,ledbyGiuliaFarnese,aptlydescribedbyAlexanderVI'smasterofceremonies,JohannesBurchard,inhisaccountoftheevent,as"theconcubineofthePope."
Theprocessionofladiesenteredtheroomwherethepopesatonhisthrone,
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accompaniedbytencardinals,fiveseatedoneachsideofhim,aswellasseveralpriestsanddeacons.Astheladiesfiledpastthepapalthrone,muchtotheannoyanceofthemasterofceremoniesmostofthemfailedtogenuflect,despitehisscolding,thoughhewaspleasedtoseethatLucreziadidobservethiscustom.ThenJuanandLucreziaapproachedtokissthepope's
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foot,followedthistimebyalltheladies.Brotherandsisterremainedontheirknees,whiletherestoftheladiesmovedbacktowardthewall.HerealsostoodCesare,seeminglyannoyedbytheprominentrolethathisyoungerbrotherhadbeenaccordedintheceremony.
AlexanderVI'strustedlawyer,CamilloBeneimbene,nowsteppedforwardto
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addressthetwenty-four-year-oldbridegroom,GiovanniSforza,whokneltonacushionnexttohisbride."MostworthyLord,"beganthenotary,"IbelievethatYourLordshiphasrecentlyundertakentomarrytheillustriousDonnaLucreziaBorgia,whoisherepresent,andthatyourproctorhassubmittedthematrimonialcontractinyourname....Areyoureadytoaccept,anddo
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youpromisetoobservewhathasbeencontracted?"
"Iperfectlyunderstandthetermsofthecontractandacceptthem,"thebridegroomresponded,"andherebypromisetoobserveandundertakeallitsobligations."ThenCamilloasked,"MostworthyLord,doyouagreetotaketheillustriousLucreziaBorgiaherepresenttobeyourlawfulspouse?""Iwill,"
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hereplied,"mostwillingly."
ThecardinalsandtheotherspresentwereenjoinedtobewitnessestoSforza'soath,andthebridewasthenaskedifshewaspreparedtobecomehis"lawfulspouse."Shealsoreplied,"Iwill."ThebishopofConcordiathensteppedforwardandplacedaringontheringfingerofthebride'slefthandandanotheronthesecondfingerwhile
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NiccolòOrsini,CountofPitiglianoandcaptaingeneralofthepapalarmies,heldadrawnswordovertheheadsofthecouple.Therefollowedasermonbythebishopaboutthesacramentofmarriage.
ThebridewasthenescortedbyJuanBorgiaintotheSalaReale,speciallyhungfortheoccasionwithlavishsilks,velvets,andtapestries,whereAlexanderVIandhis
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mistress,GiuliaFarnese,playedhosttothebridegroomandthebride'sladies."Anassortmentofallkindsofsweets,marzipans,crystallizedfruitsandwineswereserved,"notedBurchard,and"over200disheswerecarriedinbythestewardsandsquires,eachwithanapkinoverhisshoulder,offeringthemfirsttothePopeandhiscardinals,thentothebridalcoupleand
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lastlytheguests.FinallytheyflungwhatwasleftoutofthewindowtothecrowdsofpeoplebelowinsuchabundancethatIbelievemorethan100poundsofsweetmeatswerecrushedandtrampledunderfoot."
Thepartywasalivelyandlecherousaffair.ThediaristStefanoInfessuranotedthatintheirexcitement,someofthemaleguests"threwthe
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sweetmeatsintothecleavagesofmanyladies,especiallythegood-lookingones,"andthosecardinalswhoremainedbehindtodinewiththepopeandhismistresswereeachseatedbetweentwoprettygirls.TheguestswereregaledwithwhatBurcharddescribedas"aseriesofentertainments,"includingacomedyperformedwith"suchelegancethateveryoneloudlyapplauded"theactors;
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Infessurareportedthat"lasciviouscomediesandtragedieswereperformedwhichprovokedmuchlaughterintheaudience."
Oncedinnerwasover,AlexanderVIhimselfaccompaniedhisdaughterandherhusbandtothepalaceofSantaMariainPorticubythegrandstepsleadinguptotheBasilicaofSt.Peter's."Therethegroomtook
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maritalpossessionofhisbride,"reportedInfessura,adding,ratherenigmatically,that"IcouldtellyoumanyotherthingsbutIwillnotrecountthembecausesomearenottrueandthosethatare,areanywayunbelievable."
ThismarriagehadbeenarrangedintheshadowofabitterquarrelbetweenKingFerranteofNaplesandLudovicoSforza,rulerof
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Milan.Ludovicowasa"wiseman,"intheopinionoftheFrenchchroniclerPhilippedeCommynes,"butverytimorousandhumblewhenhewasinawe,andfalsewhenitwastohisadvantagetobeso;andthisopinionIdonotholdbyhearsaybutasonethatknewhimwell,havinghadmuchbusinesstodowithhim."Handsomeinhisway,despitetheugly,massivenosetobeseeninthe
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portraitattributedtoLeonardodaVinci,hewasknownasIlMoroonaccountofhiscunningandhisresourcefulnature,whichweregenerallysupposedtobecharacteristicsoftheMoorsofNorthAfrica.Hewasalsogreedyforpower.WhenhisbrotherDukeGaleazzoMariawasassassinatedin1476,leavinghisseven-year-oldnephew,GianGaleazzo,asheir,
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LudovicohadseizedcontrolofMilantoruleintheyoungduke'sname.Togetherwithhisbeautifulandcleverwife,Beatriced'Este,LudovicopresidedoveranimpressivelysplendidcourttowhichLeonardowaswelcomedaspainterandmusician,aswellasmilitaryengineer.
ThesicklyandinsipidGianGaleazzowasnottootroubledbythisdeprivation,
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whichallowedhimthetimeandopportunitytohuntinthepleasantcountrysidearoundthecastleofPavia,wherehewasconfined.Hisambitiouswife,IsabellaofAragon,granddaughterofKingFerrante,however,wasfarfromsatisfiedwiththisarrangementandjealouslyresentedthepositionthatBeatriceoccupiedaswifeof"theMoor,"apositiontowhichsheherselffeltentitled
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asthewifeoftherightfulduke.In1493shewrotealetterofbittercomplainttoherfatherinNaples:
Everythingisinhis[GianGaleazzo's]power,whileweareobligedtoliveasthoughwewereprivatepeople.YetLudovico,notGiangaleazzoisDuke.Hiswifehaslately
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givenbirthtoasonwho,everyonethinks,willsucceedtothedukedom.Royalhonourswerepaidtohimatbirthwhileweandourchildrenaretreatedwithcontempt.WelivehereinMilanatrisktoourverylives....Ifyouhavefatherlycompassion...Iimploreyoutocometoourhelpand
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deliveryourdaughterandson-in-lawfromthefearofslavery,restoringthemtotheirrightfulplaceintheworld.
Isabella'sfatherwouldwillinglyhaverespondedtothiscall,buthergrandfather,KingFerrante,advisedcaution.BothsidesappealedtoAlexanderVIforpapalsupportintheirquarrel.At
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firstthepopewasinclinedtosupporttheSforzasintheirendeavour;afterall,theirswasafamilyintowhichhisdaughterwastobemarriedand,indeed,wasmarriedonJune12,1493.
SoonafterLucrezia'swedding,however,anenvoyoftheSpanishsovereigns,FerdinandofAragonandIsabellaofCastile,arrivedinRomeandtoldthepopethat
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hismasterandmistresssupportedtheSpanishclaimtoNaples.Theyproposedadoublealliance:AlexanderVI'ssonJofrèshouldbecomePrinceofSquillace,aNeapolitangrandee,andbemarriedtoSancia,theillegitimatedaughterofKingFerrante'sson,whileJuanBorgia,thepope'ssecondandfavouriteson,whohadinheritedtheSpanishtitleDukeofGandíaafterthe
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deathofhishalf-brother,shouldnowmarryMariaEnriquez,acousinofKingFerdinand.
InAugustJuanleftforSpain,accompaniedbyfourgalleysladenwithjewelsandluxuriousfurnishingsforhisnewpalace.ByNovemberreportswerereachingRomeofhismisbehaviour,hismistreatmentofhisnewwife,hisreluctancetoconsummate
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themarriage,hisextravagance,andhisgambling."TrytofulfilthehopewhichHisHolinesshasalwaysfoundeduponyou,"Cesarewrotetohisbrother,adding,"Ifyouhavemyownfeelingsatheart,doseethatthesereports,whichgiveHisHolinesssomuchpain,shouldcease."
Inasubsequentletter,Cesarewroteoftheirfather's
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decisionthattheirbrotherJofrèwastobegrantedthetitleofPrinceofSquillaceandanincomeof40,000ducatsayear,andthatJuanshouldaddtheNeapolitantitleofPrinceofTricaricotohisSpanishdukedom.
Thisagreementwasreachedtenortwelvedaysago[CesaretoldJuan]andyourGracewillbeamazedthatI
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shouldnothaveinformedyouofitearlierbut,findingmyselfsomewhatindisposedwhentheaforesaidagreementswerereached,IleftforthebathsatStigliano,whereIhavebeenuntilyesterday,returninginhealthbyGod'sgoodgrace....Wehavereason,myLord
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brother,tokissthegroundonwhichHisHolinesswalksandtoprayalwaysforthelifeofhimwhohasmadeussogreat;andthereforeIprayyoutoseekcontinuallytoserveandpleaseHisHoliness,inamannerthatyoumayshowhimonourbehalfourgratitudeineverywaythatwecan.
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WhilethearrangementsforJofrè'smarriagetoSanciawerebeingmade,negotiationswerealsoinprogresstoarrangeacardinal'shatforCesare,tojoinhiscousinJuanBorgia-Lanzol,whohadbeencreatedcardinalofMonrealeafortnightafterAlexanderVI'selection.AsCesarehadbeendeclaredlegitimatebySixtusIV,thetwocardinalsentrustedwithestablishing
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hisstatuswereabletodeclarethathewaseligibleforadmissiontothesacredcollege;andsohewasadmittedattheageofeighteen,thoughhewasnotyeteveninholyorders,whichhewouldtakethefollowingyearinHolyWeek,andwasadmittedly"veryyounginallhisactions."
"Suchdiscordhasneverbeenseen,"wrotethe
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MantuanambassadorwhenthelistofproposednewcardinalswasplacedbeforethecollegeonSeptember18,1493.Inanattempttogaincontrolofthecollege,AlexanderVIwantedtoflooditwithhisowncandidatesbycreatinganunprecedentedthirteennewredhats.ThreeoftheproposedcandidateswereAlexanderVI'ssecretaries;anotherwasAlessandroFarnese,"brother
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ofGiulia,thePope'sconcubine,"asBurchardrecorded;andanotherwasCesare,"thePope'sson."Thecollegeobjectedinthestrongestterms;uponbeingtoldthatseveralcardinalsstronglyobjectedtoacertainnameonthelist,AlexanderVIangrilydeclaredthathewould"showthemwhowasPope,andthatatChristmashewouldmakemorecardinals,whethertheyliked
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itornot."Amajorityofthecardinalsdidnotlikethiselevationofamereboytothecollege.
Twodayslater,onSeptember20,elevencardinalsarrivedfortheconsistorymeeting,andsevenofthosepresentagreedtovotetheissuethrough;theotherfour,reluctanttobepartytothisunprecedentedact,allabstained.Tenmore
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cardinals,ledbyGiulianodellaRovere,showedtheiroutrightoppositiontotheschemebyrefusingtoattendtheconsistory.ThedecisiontogiveCesareacardinal'shatwasgreetedwithcriesofoutrage.TheviolentGiulianodellaRovere,alongtimeenemyofAlexanderVI(andwholaterwastobecomepopehimselfasJuliusII),wassaid"tohowlwithrage,"sofurious,indeed,thathehad
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totaketohisbedwithahighfever.AndwhenAlexanderVIinvestedCesarewithhisredhatinagrandceremonyinSt.Peter'sandassignedhimhistitularchurchonSeptember23,Giulianoandhissupportersrefusedtoplaytheircustomarypartintheproceedings.
AlexanderVI'snarrowvictoryreflectedjusthowinsecurehispositionwas
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duringthoseearlydaysofhispontificate.Herealizedthathewouldhavetotreadcarefullyifheweretobenefitfromhisposition.TherewasalsothefearthathisenemyCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,aformidableopponent,mightwellcallforacouncilthatwouldhavethepowertodeposehim.AlreadydellaRoverewasaccusinghimoftryingtogaincontrolofthecollegeofcardinalsby
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fillingitwithSpaniardsandotherforeigners.AlexanderVIalsoneededtoproceedcautiouslyinhisrelationswithFrance,wheretheSpanishmarriagealliancesoftwoofhischildrenwerecausingdueunease.
Asiftoechotheprecariousnessofhisposition,thestormsthatautumnweremoreviolentanddramaticthanusual.
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TorrentialraincausedhugedamageinthefieldsandvineyardsaroundRome,andtheTiberburstitsbanks,floodingthecitystreets."Boltsoflightningstruckinmanyplaces,"Burchardrecorded,"andonehittheVaticanpalaceintheveryroominwhichthePopewasinatthatprecisemoment;hewassoshockedandterrifiedthathelostthepowerofspeech;twoofhisservants
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lostconsciousness";luckilytheyallrecovered.
ThatautumnplaguealsobrokeoutinRome,brought,itwaswidelybelieved,bytheJewswhohadbeenexpelledfromSpainbyFerdinandandIsabellaandwhohadtakenrefugeinRome,settinguptheirtentsinacampoutsidethecitywallsbythegateleadingoutontotheViaAppia.Asthedeathtoll
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climbedintothehundredsandclaimedonecardinalasavictim,AlexanderVIdecidedtomovethepapalcourttoViterbo.AppointinghisnephewthecardinalofMonrealetotakechargeofRomeinhisabsence,thepopeandhishugeentourage,whichincludedahorsecarryingtheTabernacleoftheEucharist,leftthecity;theystayedafewdaysatAlexanderVI'scastleatNepi
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andattheBellInnatRonciglionebeforearrivingattheirdestination.ThepopeandhiscourtstayedatViterbo,whereAlexanderVIcouldindulgehispassionforhuntinginthewoodedhillsaroundthecity,forsixweeks,accompaniedbyeighteencardinals,oneofwhomwasCesare.GiulianodellaRoverewasconspicuousbyhisabsence.
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OnDecember18,thedaybeforehisreturn,aproclamationwasreadoutinRome"totellalltheinhabitantstobepresenttomorrowonthereturnofHisHoliness,"reportedBurchard."Eachmustcleantheareaofstreetinfrontofhishouse,hangoutalltheirtapestriesandotheritems,anddoallnecessarytohonourthePope,asishisdue."
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Chapter6TheFrenchinRome
"TWICEOURGREATGUNSWEREREADY
TOFIREONCASTELSANT'ANGELO"
FRANCESCOGUICCIARDINI
describedItalyas"neverhavingenjoyedsuchprosperityorknownso
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favourableasituationasthatinwhichitfounditselfintheyearsimmediatelybeforeandafter1490."Hecontinued:
Thegreatestpeaceandtranquillityreignedeverywhere....NotonlydidItalyaboundininhabitants,merchandiseandriches,butshewasalsohighlyrenownedforthemagnificence
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ofmanyprinces,forthesplendourofsomanymostnobleandbeautifulcities,astheseatandmajestyofreligion,andflourishingwithmenmostskilfulintheadministrationofpublicaffairsandmostnoblytalentedinalldisciplinesanddistinguishedandindustriousinallthe
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arts.NorwasItalylackinginmilitarygloryaccordingtothestandardsofthetime,andadornedwithsomanygiftsthatshedeservedlyheldacelebratednameandareputationamongallthenations.
HadGuicciardinidescribedItalyasitwastobecomeafewyearslater,duringthe
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pontificateofAlexanderVI,hewouldhavepaintedalesscomfortingpicture.ThequarrelbetweenKingFerranteIofNaplesandLudovicoSforzaofMilanwastohavefarwiderpoliticalimplications,involvingFranceandSpain,eachofwhichlaidclaimtoNaples,anditnowbroughtthethreatofimminentwar.For,inordertodisposeofhisenemy,LudovicoSforza
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decidedtosuggesttoKingCharlesVIIIofFrancethatheshouldinvadeItalytoasserthisclaimtoNaples,asheirtotherightsoftheHouseofAnjou,whichhadbeenoustedfromNaplesbyFerranteI'sfather,AlfonsoofAragon,somefiftyyearsearlier.
CharlesVIII'sbeliefthathewastherightfulkingofNapleshadbeen"instilledin
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himfromanearlyage,sothatitwasalmostaninnateinstinct,andithadbeennourishedundertheguidanceofseveralcloseadvisers,"soGuicciardinisaid,andthesemenplayedonhisvanityandhisyouthfulinexperience,suggestingthat,byenforcinghisclaimtothekingdom,hewould"surpassthegloryofhisancestors,"andthat,havingtakenNaples,itwouldbejustasimplesteptoseize
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theHolyLandfromtheTurks.
OnJanuary25,1494,FerranteIdied,"withoutthelightofgrace,withoutthecrossandwithoutGod,"asBurchardstated."On21JanuaryhevisitedthebathsatTripergolebecausehedidnotfeelwell"—Tripergole,oncefamousforitssulphurbaths,wasburiedafteravolcaniceruptioncovereditwithlava
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in1538.OnthefollowingdayFerrante"returnedtoNaplesand,ondismountingfromhishorseinthecourtyardofCastelNuovo,sufferedafaintingfit;threedayslaterhedied,withoutconfessionandwithoutreceivingthesacraments."This,soitseemed,washisownchoice:"Althoughhisconfessor,aFranciscanfriar,cameintothebedroomand,standingbeforehim,urgedhimto
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repentofhissins,"FerranteIrefusedtodoso."Thefriar,itwassaid,didnotseeasinglesignofrepentancefromtheKing."
FerranteIdiedattheageofseventy,loathedbyhissubjectsforthecruelwayhehadexercisedhisauthority.Therewas,however,littletalkofpoison;manyinItalythoughtitlikelyhehaddiedofmiseryattheprospectof
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seeinghiskingdomseizedbythepowerfularmiesofCharlesVIII,whichwerepoisedtoleaveFranceontheirlongmarchtoconquerNaples.
CharlesVIIIwasjusttwenty-fouryearsold,andhewasthe"ugliestman"thatoneobserverhadeverseen,"inall[his]days—tiny,deformedwiththemostappallingfacethateverman
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had."ThechroniclerPhilippedeCommynesaddedthat"neitherhistreasury,norhisunderstanding,norhispreparationsweresufficientforsuchanimportantenterpriseastheconquestofNaples."Commynesbelievedheneversaidawordtoanyonethatcould"inreason,causedispleasure."Thisunprepossessingbutadventurousyoungmonarchalsohadthemostgrandiose
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ideas;hewascontemplatingamarchuponNaplesnotonlytotakepossessionofhisancestor'sthronebutalsotogoonfromtheretoconquerJerusalemand,ontheway,toreformthecorruptpapacyofAlexanderVI.
InItaly,wheretheforthcomingconflictnowseemedinevitable,reactionsvaried.LudovicoSforzapromisedhissupport,asdid
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hisfather-in-law,theDukeofFerrara,andhiscousinGiovanniSforza,husbandofLucreziaandLordofPesaro,whosentdetailsofpapaltroopdeploymentstoMilanwiththewarningthat"ifanywordofwhatIamdoingisknown,Iwillbeinthegreatestdanger."TheRepublicofVeniceremainedneutral;FlorenceandthePapalStateswerebothill-equippedtofightawar;the
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NeapolitanarmywasamoreformidableforcethananyotherinItaly,butithadnohopeofhaltingtheFrenchadvanceonitsown.
TheissuehadbecomeevenmorecomplicatedforAlexanderVIsinceFerranteI'sdeathinJanuaryandthesuccessionofAlfonsoIIasthenewking.Thepopenowfacedastarkchoice—Napleswasapapalfiefandhehad
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eithertocrownAlfonsoIIortoagreetothedemandsofCharlesVIIItoinvesthimastherightfulruler.
ThroughoutMarchAlexanderVIsoughttoplacatebothsides;hesentCharlesVIIIthepapalrose,amarkofhisfavour,butwhentheambassadorsofAlfonsoIIarrivedinRome,theirFrenchcounterpartsmadeapoint,astheyhadbeenorderedtodo,
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ofpointedlyrefusingtomeetthem.ByEaster,whichfellonMarch30thatyear,itwasclearthatAlexanderVIhaddecidedinfavourofhisalliancewithNaples.AttheGreatMassinSt.Peter'sonEasterSunday,ledbythepopeinperson,itwasthecardinalofNapleswhoactedashisassistant."ThePopegavecommuniontoallthecardinal-deacons,exceptfortheCardinalofValencia,who
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wasabsent,"notedJohannesBurchard,usingthetitlebywhichCesarehadchosentobeknowninthecollege,and"afterwardstheLanceofChristwasshowntwicetothepeopleandtheVerniclethreetimes."
OntheTuesdayafterEaster,AlexanderVIwenttotheChurchofSantaMariasopraMinervatohearMass,whichwascelebratedbythebishop
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ofConcordia.CardinalAscanioSforzamadeawittyaside,recordedbyBurchard,totheeffectthat"whenthePopeisinconcordwiththeKingofNaples,heaskstheBishopofConcordiatocelebratethemass;thePope,whooverheardthisremark,askedmetotellAscaniothathischoicehadnotbeenpremeditatedbutthatithadbeencoincidence."AlexanderVIthenquipped,muchtothe
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discomfitureofhisvice-chancellor,that"whenthereispeacebetweenHisHolinessandLudovicoSforza,"thepopewould"havemasscelebratedbytheBishopofPace"—paceistheItalianforpeaceandalsotheLatinnamefortheSpanishcityofBadajoz.
Thecollegeofcardinalswasdeeplydividedbythequarrel,AlexanderVI'sSpanish
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cardinalsfirmlyopposingtheFrenchparty,ledbyCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,thepope'sinveterateenemy,andthoseloyaltoMilan,notablyAscanioSforza.AlexanderVIwasevenapproachedbyoneofdellaRovere'ssupporters,whothreatenedhimbluntlythatifhedidnotagreetothecrowningofCharlesVIIIaskingofNaples,itwouldnodoubtbecomenecessarytosummon
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acounciltoinvestigatethechargethatthepopehadbeenguiltyofsimonyinsecuringhiselectiontohighoffice.Whetherornotpersuadedbythisthreat,AlexanderVIwasinducedtoagreethatCharlesVIIIshouldbecrownedinNapleswhentheFrencharmyenteredthecity.
TheissueofcrowningAlfonsoIIaskingofNapleswasdiscussedatlengthina
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secretconsistorythatlastedeighthours;itwasfinallyagreedthatthepope'snephew,thecardinalofMonreale,wouldbeappointedlegatetoNaplesandwouldgothereto"anointandcrown"Alfonsoasking.TwodayslaterBurchardhimselfleftforNaplestomakethenecessarypreparations;ordersforthereceptionofthelegate,forthecarryingofthebaldachin,the
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itinerarytobefollowedforthecardinalofMonreale'sentryintoNaples,andhisprocessiontothecathedralwerealllistedbythemethodicalmasterofceremonies,togetherwith"therolesofthelegateandtheKingonthedayofthecoronation."
OnApril30BurchardhadanaudiencewithAlfonsoIIinordertoexplaintohimthe
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detailsoftheceremonyandtofixthedate,whichwastobeMay8,chosenbythekingbecauseitwastheFeastoftheAscension.
Thedaybeforethecoronation,ingratefulthankstoAlexanderVIforhissupport,AlfonsoIIannouncedhisgiftstothepope'schildren.CesarewasgivenlucrativeNeapolitanbenefices;Juanwastoget
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fiefsandtheofferof33,000ducatsayeartoserveasacondottiereforNaples;JofrèwasgivensixNeapolitanfiefs,worth4,000ducatsayear,includingtheprestigioustitleofPrinceofSquillace,andthekinginvestedhimasaknightoftheroyalchivalricOrderoftheErmine.Healsoratifiedthemarriagecontractbetweenhisillegitimatedaughter,SanciaofAragon,andthe
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twelve-year-oldJofrè,who,asPrinceofSquillace,carriedthecrownduringthecoronationceremony.
Threedayslater,asraincascadeddownintorrentsoutside,JofrèandSanciaweremarriedinthechapelofCastelNuovo.Aftertheweddingbanquet,thecouplewereaccompaniedtotheirbedchamber,"wheretheirbedhadbeenprepared,"reported
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Burchard.
ThelegateandtheKingremainedwaitingoutside;thenewly-wedswerenowundressedbymaids-of-honourandplacedtogetherinthebed,thegroomontherightofthebride.Whenthetwo,nownaked,hadbeencoveredwiththesheetsandblanket,the
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legateandtheKingentered.Intheirpresence,thenewly-wedswereuncoveredbythemaids-of-honourasfarasthenavel,orthereabouts,andthegroomembracedhisbridewithoutshame.ThelegateandtheKingremainedthere,talkingbetweenthemselves,forabout
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halfanhourbeforeleavingthecouple.
Burchard,meanwhile,hadtakentheopportunitytodosomesightseeingaroundtheBayofNaples,visitingvarioussitesofinterest,includingthehotspringsatPozzuoliandthesulphurandsaltbathsatBagnoli,beforeleavingNapleswithafour-year-oldmule,namedIdrontina,whichhewasgiven
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asapresentbytheking,togetherwith100goldducatsingratitudeforservicesrendered.
OnJuly12AlexanderVI,accompaniedbyseveralcardinals,includingthenineteen-year-oldCesare,leftRomeforTivoli,whereheintendedtostayafewdaysinordertoescapethestiflingsummerheatandtoattendameetingwithAlfonsoIIatthe
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nearbyfortressofVicovaro,acastlebelongingtoVirginioOrsini,oneofthecondottiericaptainsfightingwiththeNeapolitanarmy.TheydiscussedatlengththemeasuresthatwouldbeneededforthedefenceofNaplesagainsttheFrench.Aplanofactionwasagreedupon;but,beforeitcouldbeputintooperation,animmenseFrencharmy,thirtythousandstrongwithforty
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powerfulcannons,underthepersonalcommandofCharlesVIII,crossedtheAlpsinearlySeptemberandstarteditslongmarchsouth.
InRomeAlexanderVI'sopenalliancewithNaplesandSpainmadelifeveryuncomfortableforthesupportersofMilanandFrance,notleastinthecollege.CardinalGiulianodellaRoverehadfledto
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FranceinApril;CardinalAscanioSforzaleftattheendofJune.Withtheplagueraging,thecelebrationsfortheanniversariesofInnocentVIII'sdeathandofAlexanderVI'saccessionwerebothcancelled,addingtothepallofdreadthathungoverthecity,andwhichgrewdailyasnewsbulletinsofCharlesVIII'sslowbutrelentlessapproachweredelivered.Therehadbeenamomentof
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hopesoonaftertheFrenchcrossedtheAlpswhenitwaslearnedthatCharlesVIIIhadtakentohisbedinAsti,sufferingfromsmallpox;butthemomentwasbrief,andthekingsoonrecoveredenoughtocontinueonhisway.
Guicciardinirecordedmanysignsandportentsofimpendingdoomthatwereseenataboutthistime:
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InPugliaonenightthreesunswereseeninthesky,surroundedbycloudsandaccompaniedbyterrifyingthunderandlightning.IntheterritoryofArezzohugenumbersofarmedsoldiersridingenormoussteedswereseenformanydayspassingacrosstheskywithaterribleclashof
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trumpetsanddrums.AlloverItalyholyimagesandstatueswereseentosweatandeverywheremonstrousbabiesandanimalswereborn...whencethepeoplewerefilledwithunbelievabledread,frightenedastheyalreadywerebythereputationofFrenchpower.
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TheFrenchtroopsmetwithlittleopposition;itwassaidthattheyconqueredItalywiththebitsofchalkthatthequartermastersusedinordertomarkthedoorsofthehousestheyoccupiedontheirmarchsouth.Certainlythearmywasoneofthemostpowerfuleverassembled,anditwas"provisionedbyalargequantityofartillery,"wroteGuicciardini,"ofatypeneverbeforeseeninItaly."The
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Frenchhaddevelopednewweapons:"Thesewerecalledcannonandtheyusedironcannonballsinsteadofstone,asbefore,andthisnewshotwasconsiderablylargerandheavierthanthatpreviouslydeployed."Notonlyweretheymorepowerfulthananythingseenbefore;theywerealsomoremanoeuvrable;themassivecannonsweretransportedtoItalybyshipandunloadedin
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theharbouratGenoa,wheretheywereloadedontospeciallymadeguncarriages."Thisartillery,"concludedGuicciardini,"madeCharlesVIII'sarmyformidable."
AfteroutflankingtheweakresistanceoftheNeapolitanforcesintheRomagnaandroutingtheNeapolitanfleetatRapallo,theycrossedtheApenninesinOctoberandseizedthefortressofSarzana,
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oneofFlorence'skeyborderdefences.AlexanderVIappointedthecardinalofSiena,FrancescoTodeschiniPiccolomini,aslegatetoCharlesVIIItonegotiate,butCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,whohadjoinedtheFrenchcamp,persuadedthekingnottomeethim.
OnNovember17CharlesVIIIenteredFlorenceintriumph,tothewildcheersof
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theficklepopulace,forwhomthearrivaloftheFrencharmyhadbeenthecatalystthathadenabledtheexpulsionofthedetestedPierode'Medici,whohadarrogantlyexercisedhisauthorityinthecitysincethedeathofhisfather,LorenzoilMagnifico,twoyearsearlier.AftersigninganalliancewithFlorence'snewrepublicangovernmentonNovember26,CharlesVIIIandhistroopscontinuedtheir
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marchsouth,sackingandpillagingtheTuscancountrysideastheywent.
AfewdayslaterinRome,AlexanderVIarrestedthoseprominentsupportersoftheFrenchwhoremainedinthecity,includingCardinalAscanioSforzaandtheillegitimatesonofthegreatCardinald'Estouteville,imprisoningtheminapartmentsontheupperfloor
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oftheVaticanPalace.ThoughtheroomswerecomfortableandtheprisonerswereallowedtoattendMassintheSistineChapel,theywereheavilyguarded.ThatsamedayAlexanderVIinformedtheambassadorsofFrance,whohadcometoRometoseekfreepassagefortheFrencharmythroughthePapalStates,thattheirrequestwasrefused.CharlesVIIIignoredthepopeand
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continuedtomarchsouth;amonthafterarrivinginFlorence,theinvadingarmycapturedCivitavecchia,animportantportinsidepapalterritory,whiletheOrsinisurrenderedtheirfortressatnearbyBracciano.
NearViterbothevanguardoftheFrencharmy,underthecommandofYvesd'Alègre,cameacrosstwoobviouslywell-to-dowomen.Oneof
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theseturnedouttobeGiuliaFarnese,AlexanderVI'sbeautifulmistress,whowasreturningtoRomefromavisittoherhusbandonhiscountryestate.TheotherwasAdrianadaMila,herfriendandthepope'scousin,whohadbeenentrustedbyhimwiththecareofhischildren.Amessengerwassenttothekinginforminghimofthisunexpectedencounter,andCharlesVIIIdeclaredthatthe
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Frenchdidnotfightagainstwomen;butYvesd'Alègresawnoreasonwhymoneyshouldnotbemadeoutofthecaptiveswhohadsounexpectedlyfallenintohishands,andheaccordinglydemanded3,000ducatsfortheirrelease.
AlexanderVIastutelyagreedimmediatelytopaythisransom,andthetwowomenweresentontoRome
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underanescortoffourhundredsoldiers.LudovicoSforzawasnotpleased:"Theseladies,"hedeclared,"couldhavebeenusedasafinewhipforcompellingthePopetodoallthatwasrequiredofhim,forhecannotlivewithoutthem.TheFrenchreceivedamere3,000ducatsforthemwhenhemightwellhavepaid50,000orevenmoretohavethemback."
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WiththemainbodyoftheFrenchdrawingeverclosertoRome,thecitygrewincreasinglyfearful;housesandpalacesofknownsupportersofFrancewereransacked.AlexanderVIhadbeenadvisedtoescapefromRomewhilehecouldstilldoso;but,forthefirsttimeinhislife,heseemedutterlyirresolute.HehadcalledinNeapolitantroopsonlytodismissthem;hehadrepeated
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hisrefusaltoallowtheFrenchfreepassagethroughthePapalStatesonlytorescindtheorder;ononeoccasionhefainted.
FinallythepopedecidedtostayinRomeandbegantoconsiderthewaysinwhichhemightsecureanagreementwithCharlesVIII.FirsthesetaboutorderingthedefenceofthecityandsummonedBurchardtogetherwitha
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numberofothermembersoftheGermancolonylivinginRometoanaudience,toaskfortheirhelp.Heoutlinedthe"insolentbehaviour"oftheFrenchkingandhisinvasionofthePapalStates;"hedidnotanticipateasiegebytheFrench,"hesaid,butwouldwelcomeanyhelpthattheGermannation,"inwhomhehadgreatconfidence,"mightbeabletocontributetothedefenceofRome.Burchard
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continuedhisaccount:
HisHolinesssuggestedthatweshouldappointconstablesandofficers...andarmthemwithweaponsandissuealltherequisiteorderssothat,whenthetimecame,theywouldbeabletodefendthemselvesandthe
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Popewouldbeabletousethismilitiawithinthecity,althoughnotoutsidethewalls.
Intheend,Burchardfailedtopersuadehiscompatriotstoagreetotheformationofthishighlyirregularmilitia;theyfeltbound,theysaid,totheirpromisetoobeythecaptainsoftheirneighbourhoodwatches,whichwaswhatusuallyhappenedinan
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emergencysuchasthis.Norwasthecommanderofthepapaltroops,VirginioOrsini,cousinofthelovelyGiulia'shusband,anymoreencouraging;hechosetooffernoresistancetotheFrench,whowere,heconsidered,irresistible.
Withcharacteristicstyle,AlexanderVIannouncedthathewoulddefendCastelSant'Angelowiththetroops
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athisdisposaland,ifattacked,wouldstandonitswallsinfullcanonicals,carryingtheBlessedSacrament.HewouldnotleaveRome,hesaid,tobecomeaprisonerinNaples;hewasdeterminedtoremainandattempttocometotermswiththeFrenchking.WorknowstartedonadeepditchtosurroundCastelSant'Angelo,whichinvolvedthedemolitionofseveralhouses.
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"OnThursday18December,"wroteBurchard,"allthePope'spossessions,includingevenhisbedanddailycredence-table,wereassembledforremovalfromtheVaticanPalacetoCastelSant'Angelo,thevestmentsfromSt.Peter's,allthemoneychestsfromthesacristy,thepalaceweaponsandstoresoffood,andallthepapalbelongingsweresenttothecastle,whilstthecardinals
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alsopreparedtomove."
BelowthewallsofCastelSant'Angelo,thecitywasnowinanuproaraspeoplefledintothecountry,havingburiedorotherwisehiddentheirvaluablestosavethemfromlootersandpillagingsoldiers."Thediscontentofthepeopleisatitsheight,"wrotetheMantuanenvoyFioramonteBagolo."Thelootingisfearful,themurders
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innumerable;onehearsmoaningandweepingoneverysideandnever,inthememoryofman,hastheChurchbeeninsuchanevilplight."Allthosewhocouldaffordtodosowerepackingtheirvaluablesintocarriagesandleavingthecity.LookingoutthroughthewindowsoftheVatican,AlexanderVIandhissonCesarewatchedtheenemytroopsmassingonMonteMario,justnorthof
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thepalace,thankfulthatthey,too,hadtakentheprecautionoflockingtheirtreasuresawayinCastelSant'Angeloandwerereadyforflight.
Meanwhile,asrumoursspreadoftheatrocitiesthattheFrenchwouldinflict,CharlesVIIIattemptedtoappeasethefearsoftheRomans.TheFrenchCardinalBertrandPerauld,whohadbeenrefusedentryintothe
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cityonDecember22,washeardtosaythatthetroops"wouldnottakeahenoraneggorthesmallestitemwithoutpayingforitinfull."ThenextdayhewrotetotheGermancolonysayingthattheinvasionwouldonlyhappeniftheking's"enemies,"bywhichhemeantAlexanderVIhimself,"continuetoremaininRomeandpreventanagreement."Moreover,heinsisted,"His
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Majestypromisesthathistroopswilldonoharmtoanyprostituteinthecity,nortoanyotherperson,wherevertheyarefrom,unlesstheyfightagainsttheKingandhisfollowers."
WiththecityalmostsurroundedbyFrenchtroops,thecelebrationsfortheFeastoftheNativitycontinuedwithsurprisingnormality:Burchardrecordedthatthe
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popehimselfwaspresentintheSistineChapelforVespersonChristmasEve.IthadbeenexpectedthatthecardinalofMonrealewouldcelebrateHighMassintheSistineChapelonChristmasDay,butbeforedawnbrokethatmorning,acourierhadarrivedwithanurgentmessageforAlexanderVItosaythatCharlesVIIIdesiredapeacefulagreementwiththepopepriortotheking'sentry
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intothecity.HavinginformedthecardinalsassembledintheSaladelPappagallothatheintendedtoallowCharlesVIIItoenterRome,thepopedispatchedthecardinalofMonrealetoagreetotermswiththeking,wholikewisesenthisenvoystotheVaticanforthesamepurpose.AtMassintheSistineChapelthenextday,theFeastofSt.Stephen,Burchardfacedanawkward
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situation,beingobligedtoorganizeseatingnotonlyfortheseFrenchenvoysbutalsofortwoambassadorsofthekingofNapleswhowereinRome:
Thelatterdidnotwishtodisputetheirseatswiththenewarrivals,andwithdrew,claimingnottoknowwhotheywere,butwhenonthePope's
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orders,IhadexplainedtothemthattheywereambassadorsfromtheKingofFrance,theNeapolitansresumedtheirseatsandgavetheothersprecedenceinposition.AgreatmanyotherFrenchmancameinaswell,andsatdownquiteindiscriminatelynexttotheclericson
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theirbenches.Imovedthemawayandgavethemmoresuitableplaces,butthePopedislikedwhatIwasdoingandsummonedmeangrilytosaythatIwasdestroyingallhiseffortsandthatIwastopermittheFrenchtostandwherevertheywanted.Irespondedina
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soothingmanner,sayingthatGodknew,hewasnottobecomeupsetovertheissuebecauseIunderstoodwhathewantedandwouldspeaknotanotherwordtotheFrenchmen,wherevertheysatinthechapel.
OnDecember31AlexanderVIsenthismasterofceremoniestoCharlesVIII:
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"OntheordersofHisHoliness,"Burchardwrote,"IrodeouttofindtheKingofFranceinordertoacquainthimwiththeceremonialthatwouldaccompanyhisreceptioninthecityandtohearhisownwishesandtodoallHisMajestyorderedmetodo."Becauseofthepouringrain,theroadscloggedwithmud,"andthespeedatwhichHisMajestywasriding,"Burchardwasunabletogreet
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thekingasformallyashewouldhavewished.InanswertoBurchard'squestions,CharlesVIIIreplied"thathewantedhisentryintothecitytobeconductedwithoutanypomp."Hedid,however,invitethemasterofceremonies"tocontinueridingwithhim,andforaboutfourmilesorsohetalkedwithmecontinually,askingmequestionsaboutthehealth
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ofthePopeandthecardinals."Burchardnotedtheking'sparticularinterestinAlexanderVI'ssonCesare,askingmanyquestionsabouthissituationandhisstatus"andmanyotherthings,toallofwhichIwasscarcelyabletogiveappropriateanswers."
Meanwhile,themainbodyofKingCharles'sarmyenteredRomeataboutthreeo'clockintheafternoonofthe
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lastdayofDecember.AlexanderVIandhisfamilytookshelterinCastelSant'Angelo,whileGiuliaFarnesewasspiritedoutofthecitybyherbrother,CardinalAlessandroFarnese.Theseprecautionsprovedunnecessary."TwiceourgreatgunswerereadytofireonCastelSant'Angelo,"wrotePhilippedeCommynes,"butonbothoccasionstheKingopposedit."
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IttooksixhoursfortheFrencharmytofilethroughthegateatSantaMariadelPopolo,anditwaslongafterdarknesshadfallenthatthelaststragglersenteredthecity.Byflickeringtorchlightandthegleamoflanterns,themenandhorsesmarchedthoughthenarrowstreets,muddyandwetinthepouringrain:SwissandGermaninfantrycarryingbroadswordsandlonglances,
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Gasconarchers,Frenchknights,Scotsarchers,artillerymenwithbronzecannonsandculverins.EscortedbycardinalsAscanioSforzaandGiulianodellaRovere,andsurroundedbyhisbodyguardandhismagnificentlydressedcourtiers,rodeCharlesVIIIhimself,ashort,uglyyoungmanwithahugehookednoseandthickfleshylips,constantlyopen.
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"Therewerefires,torchesandlightsineveryhouse,"Burchardrecorded,"andpeoplewereheardshouting'France!France!'and'Vincoli!Vincoli!'"continually(SanPietroinVincoliwasthetitleofCardinalGiulianodellaRovere).AtthePalazzoVenezia,thegreatpalacebuiltbyPaulIIatthefootoftheCapitolHillandnowtheresidenceofCardinal
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LorenzoCibò,thekingdismountedandwasusheredinsidebyhishost.Helimpedintothediningroomandsatbythefireinhisslippers,whileaservantcombedhishairandthewispyscatteredstrandsofhisreddishbeard.Foodwasplaceduponatable;achamberlaintastedeverydishbeforethekingate,andtheremainswerethrownintoasilverewer.Fourphysicianslikewise
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testedthewineintowhichthechamberlaindangledaunicorn'shornonagoldenchainbeforeHisMajestyraisedthecuptohislips.
CardinalCibòhadpreparedhisbestapartments"forhousingtheambassadorsandotherFrenchmen,"commentedBurchard,addingthatthedignitaries"wereprovidedwithplentyofstrawbeds,butInoticedthatthese
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sacksofstrawwerenevercleaned;tallowcandleshungfromthedoorsandfireplaces,and,eventhoughthewallsweredecoratedwithbeautifultapestries,theplaceresembledapigsty."
DespiteCharlesVIII'SprotestationsthathistroopswouldrespecttheRomansandtheirproperty,theydidcausealotoftrouble.Burchardreportedthat"on
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theirwayintothecitytheFrenchtroopsforcedanentranceintohousesoneithersideoftheroad,throwingouttheirowners,horsesandothergoods,settingfiretowoodenarticlesandeatinganddrinkingwhatevertheyfoundwithoutpayinganything."OnThursday,January8,herecorded,"thehouseofPaoloBranco,aRomancitizen,wasplunderedandransackedbytheFrenchwhokilledhistwo
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sons,whilstothers,includingJews,weremurderedandtheirhousespillaged;eventhehouseofDonnaVannozzaCatanei,themotherofCardinalCesareBorgia,didnotescape."
EvenpooroldBurchardhimselfwastosufferatthehandsoftheunrulysoldiers:"WhenIreturnedtomyhouseaftermass,IfoundthattheFrenchhadentereditagainst
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mywill,"hewailed."Theyhadtakenoutsevenoftheeighthorses,mulesandassesthatIhadinmystableandhadbilletedintheirplacesevenoftheirownmountswhichwerebusilyeatingmyhay."Hisrooms,aswellasthoseofhisservants,hadallbeenrequisitionedbyFrenchnoblesandtheirretinues.EventuallyCharlesVIIIwasforcedtoissueanorderforbiddinghistroopsfrom
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forciblyenteringhousesonpainofdeath.
WhileAlexanderVIplayedawaitinggamefromthecomfortandsecurityofhisapartmentsinCastelSant'Angelo,wherehewasensconcedwithCesareandseveraloftheNeapolitancardinals,CharlesVIIIspenthistimereceivingvisitsfromvariouscardinalsanddealingwiththedelugeofcomplaints
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abouthistroops.Oneday,escortedbyacompanyofsoldiers,hewasconductedonatourofRometoviewthesightsofthecity:onanotherherodeouttotheBasilicaofSanSebastianowithhishousehold.
ItwasnotuntilJanuary16thatthetworulersfinallycameface-to-face.ThatdayCharlesVIIIrodeacrossRometoSt.Peter's,wherehe
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heardMassintheFrenchroyalchapel,whichhadbeenrestoredbyhisfather,LouisXI,andwasdedicatedtoSt.Petronilla,thedaughterofthefirstpope."Ifmymemoryiscorrect,"recordedBurchard,"themasswasnotsung."Thekingwasthenescortedtothepapalpalace,wherethelavishroomsofAlexanderVI'sapartmentshadbeenpreparedforhimandhissuitetodine.Thepope,meanwhile,wason
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hiswayfromCastelSant'AngelototheVaticaninhisceremoniallitter.Theambitioustwenty-four-year-oldmonarch,describedbyGuicciardinias"notparticularlyintelligentwithregardtopoliticalaffairsandcarriedawaybyhisferventwishtoruleandhisthirstforglory,"wasabouttobeoutwittedbythewilypope.
"OnbeingtoldofHis
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Holiness'sapproach,"wroteBurchard,theeageryoungking,notwellversedinthesubtletiesofachievingdiplomaticadvantage,"hurriedtotheendofthesecondprivategardentogreethim."Catchingsightofthepope,heapproachedhimandtwicegenuflectedbeforehim:"AtfirstHisHolinesspretendednottoseethisgesturebutwhenHisMajestycamecloserandwasaboutto
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genuflectforathirdtime,thePoperemovedhiscapand,holdingouthishandtorestraintheKingfromkneeling,kissedhim."
AlexanderVI'sinformalitywascalculated,aswashisapparentinsistenceontheequalitythatwasseentoexistbetweenthetworulers."Atthistheirfirstmeeting,"Burchardcontinued,"bothmenwerebareheadedandthe
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KingkissedneitherthePope'sfootnorhishand.HisHolinessrefusedtoplacehiscapbackonhisheaduntiltheKinghadreplacedhisownhat,buteventuallytheybothcoveredtheirheadssimultaneously."LaterthatdayAlexanderVIdisplayedasimilardeferencewhen,havingaccompaniedCharlesVIIItotheSaladelPappagallo,hedeclinedtositdownuntilhisguesthaddone
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so.
AlexanderVIalsoaccededtoCharlesVIII'srequesttogiveacardinal'shattoGuillaumeBriçonnet,thebishopofSt.-Maloandatrustedmemberoftheking'sPrivyCouncil,andtoinvesthimimmediately.Burchardwassentoffforthwithtofindacardinal'shatandrobe."ThehatwassuppliedbyCardinalCesareBorgia,"he
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remarked,"andthecloakwasborrowedfromtheroomsofCardinalPallavicini."Allthecardinalspresentwerenowseatedasifforaconsistory,andAlexanderVI,accordingtoBurchard,"saidhewashappytoagreetotheKing'srequestprovidingthecardinalsalsoconsideredtheoccasionsuitable."
Onebyonethecardinalsgavetheirconsent,andthe
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popedulyinvestedBriçonnetwiththeinsigniaofhisnewrank."WhenthishadbeendonetheCardinalofSt.-MalokissedthePope'sfootandhand,andthen,raisedupbythePope,hereceivedthekissonthemouth,"notjustfromAlexanderVIbutalsofromalltheothercardinalspresent.
AlexanderVIhimselfnowrosefromhisseatandsaidthathewishedtoescortthe
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kingbacktotheroyalapartments,butthisCharlesVIII"categoricallyrefusedtoallow."Hewasthereforeaccompaniedbythecardinalsasfarastheentrance,wheretheylefthim.ThedoorswereguardedbyScottishmercenaries,whohadthespecialdutyofguardingtheFrenchkingandallowednonetoenterexceptformembersoftheroyalhousehold.
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Twodayslater,onJanuary18,havingmanagedneatlytosidesteptwoofCharlesVIII'sdemands—thecallingofacounciltoaddresstheissueofthereformofthechurchandpapalrecognitionofhisclaimtoNaples—AlexanderVIdidgivehimformalpermissiontopassfreelythroughthePapalStates,asomewhatPyrrhicvictoryfortheyoungking,whoalreadyheldmostoftheterritorynorthofRome
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andknewthatthepopedidnothavetheforcesnecessarytopreventhimfromtakingtherest,ifhewantedit.Inreturn,thepopehadextractedapromisefromCharlesVIIIthathewouldprofesshisobediencetothepopeinpublic.
ThiswasadiplomatictriumphforAlexanderVI.Amonthearlierhehadbeenundersiege,hiscityinan
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uproar,hisholdonpowertenuousatbest;nowhehadfullyreestablishedhisauthority.Thetermsoftheagreementwereformallyreadoutandwrittenup,"inFrenchforHisMajestyandinLatinforthePope."
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Chapter7TheConquestof
Naples
"THEYRAPEDTHEWOMEN,THENROBBEDTHEM"
OVERTHENEXTFEWDAYS,CharlesVIIIwasseentoadheretohissideofthebargain.OnJanuary19,1495,Burchard
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noted,"theSalaRegiaintheVaticanwaspreparedinthetraditionalwayforthepublicconsistoryinwhichtheKingofFrancewouldtakehissolemnoathofobedience."Wheneverythingwasready,thepopeaskedBurchardtoinformtheking,"whomwefoundbesidethefireinhisroom,wearinghisdoubletandhisbootsstillnotlaced."Onbeingtoldthathispresencewasrequested,the
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king,wiserthanbefore,repliedthathestill"hadtodress,andwhenhehaddoneso,heintendedtohearmassinSt.Peter's,andthentodineandthatafterthishewouldcometoHisHoliness."Whenthecardinals,whoweretoescortCharlesVIIItotheSalaRegia,arrivedathisrooms,theyfoundhimstillattableandwereforcedtowait,seatedonthewindowseats.Hefurtherdelayedby
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insistingthatBurchardrepeatagainandagaintheorderoftheceremony,anditwassometwohoursbeforetheroyalpartyfinallyarrived.
InthemagnificentsettingoftheSalaRegia,designedspecificallyforthereceptionofkingsandemperors,ortheirambassadors,CharlesVIIIaddressedthepope:"MostHolyFather,"heintoned,"Ihavecometo
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renderhomageandreverencetoYourHolinessinthesamewayasmypredecessorstheKingsofFrancehavedone."OnJanuary28,whenCharlesVIIItookleaveofAlexanderVI,theypartedinsincereamityor,asCardinalGiulianodellaRoverethought,inabjectsurrenderonthepartoftheking.Themasterofceremoniesdescribedtheirparting:
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KingandPoperemainedclosetedtogetherforashorttime,andwerethenjoinedbyCesareBorgiaforafurtherquarterofanhourafterwhichHisMajestywasescortedbythePopeandhiscardinalsasfarasthepassageleadingtotheupperapartmentsofthepalace.Therethe
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Kingkneltdown,bareheaded,andthePope,removinghisowncap,kissedhim,butrefusedquitefirmlytoallowtheKingtosmotherhisfeetwithkisses,whichHisMajestyseemedtowanttodo.TheKingthendeparted.
LeavingwithCharlesVIII,
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toaccompanythekingtoNaplesintheguiseofapapallegate,thoughinrealityahostageforAlexanderVI'sgoodbehaviour,wasCesare.Hekeptthekingwaitingwhilehereturnedbrieflytohisapartments:"AtlastCesareappeared,wearinghiscardinal'shat,and,withHisHoliness'spermission,mountedhishorsebesidetheKing.ToHisMajestyhepresentedsixexceedingly
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beautifulhorses,whichstoodreadyathandwithbridlesbutnosaddles,andthenboththeKingandCesaredeparted."
ThateveningacourierarrivedwithnewsforAlexanderVIthatKingAlfonsoIIhadfledfromNaples—"outofsheercowardice,"commentedthecontemporaryFrenchchroniclerPhilippedeCommynes—loadingfour
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galleyswithtreasureinorder,sotheletterreported,tosailtoSicilyandthentoSpain,torecruitforcesagainsttheFrench.
Thefollowingevening,January29,camethenewsthat,infact,AlfonsoII,whohadonlybeencrownedbythepope'snephewthecardinalofMonrealejustninemonthsbefore,hadnowabdicatedinfavourofhisson,FerranteII,
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whohad,onhisfather'sorders,contractedmarriagetoIsabellaofAragon,hisfather'ssister,"thathehadriddenthroughNapleswherehehadreceivedoathsofhomagefromall,"andthathehadsetfreeallthosenoblesimprisonedbyFerranteIandAlfonsoII,exceptforthoseknowntobeassociatedwiththeFrench,andthesehehadexecuted.
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OnJanuary30couriersarrivedwithevenmoredramaticnewsfromNaples,thistimeconcerningCesare.AsBurchardrecorded:
OnFriday30JanuarythePopewasinformedthattheCardinalofValence,disguisedasaroyalfootman,hadescapedfromtheFrenchKing'scourtat
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Velletri.Itwasindeedtrue.TheCardinalhadspentthenightinthehouseofAntonioFlorès,auditoroftheRota,wherehehadgoneimmediatelyonhisarrivalinRome.WhenhehadleftthecityinthecompanyoftheKinghehadtakennineteenpackanimalswithhim,allrichlycaparisonedandsoit
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seemed,ladenwithobjectsofvalue,butonlytwoofthesehorses,infact,carriedplateandothercostlyitems.Onthefirstdayoftheirjourney,whiletheKingandtheCardinalwereridingtowardsMarino,thesetwohorseslaggedbehindtherestandthateveningreturnedtoRome.The
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Cardinal'sservantshaddeclaredtotheFrenchcourtofficialsthattheanimalshadbeencapturedandstrippedoftheirloads.TheotherseventeenarrivedatthecourtandaftertheCardinal'sflight,thechestshadbeenopenedandwerefoundtobeempty.Well,atleastthatis
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whatIwastold,butIthinkitwasnottrue.
WhenhelearnedofCesare'sdisappearance,CharlesVIIIwasfurious."AllItaliansarefilthydogs,"hewasquotedashavingsaid,"andtheHolyFatherisasbadastheworstofthem."ThekingsuspectedthatAlexanderVIknewverywellwherehissonwasandthathehadbeentoldbeforehandofCesare's
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attempttoescapeassoonasopportunityoffered.Thepopedid,however,sendhissecretarytoCharlesVIIIwithhissincereapologiesforhisson'sbehaviour.
BythemiddleofFebruary,CharlesVIIIhadenteredCapua,where,soitwassaid,strangeportentshadappeared."Onenightashesleptinhischamber,"reportedBurchard,"hewas
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wokentwicebyadreadfulvoice;heopenedachestwhichwasinhisroomtofindabannerstandingerectand,inhisterror,madeavowthathewouldnotreturntoFrancewithouthavingtakentheHolyLandandreconqueredthetombofChristinJerusalem;healsopromisedtobuildandendowachapelinNaplesinhonouroftheHolyGhost."
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CharlesVIIIenteredNaplesonFebruary22,slippingquietlyintothecitytolodgeintheCastelCapuano,becausethethreeotherroyalcastles,includingCastelNuovo,remainedinthehandsoftroopsloyaltoFerranteII.AsaFrenchchroniclerobserved:"OnSunday,afterhehadenjoyedanexcellentdinner,[theking]putonhisrobesofstateand,withjoynotrancourenteredthecityin
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pomp,thusdisplayinghispowerthere,althoughhedidnothaveaproperentryonthatday."Guicciardinireportedtheviewofthepopulace:"Thereputationofthelasttwokingswassoodiousamongallthepeopleandalmostallthenobles,andtherewasmucheagernessfortheFrenchregime."
CharlesVIIIwasintentuponenjoyinghimselfin
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Naples.Thecitywas,hedeclared,"anearthlyparadise."Hewascertainly,"asoneofthemostlasciviousmeninFrance,"findingplentyofopportunitytoindulgehis"fondnessforcopulation"andof"changinghisdishes"sothat"oncehehadhadawoman,hecarednomoreabouther,takinghispleasurewithfreshones."Hissoldierswereequallylascivious,andhavingmade
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themselveshatedinRome,theynowbecamedetestedinNaples,despitethewelcometheyhadfirstreceived.AsGuicciardinicommented:
ThenaturalarroganceoftheFrench,exacerbatedbytheeaseoftheirvictory,asaresultofwhichtheyhadahighlyesteemedopinionofthemselvesandno
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respectwhateverforanyItalian.TheyseizedlodgingsinNaplesandinotherpartsofthekingdomwithinsolenceandviolenceandwherevertheirtroopswerequarteredtheywerehated;everywheretheytreatedtheirhostssobadlythatthefriendlywelcomewithwhichtheyhadbeen
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receivedwasnowchangedintoburninghatred.
TheFrenchwere"stupid,dirtyanddissolutepeople,"anotherItalianobserverdecided,andheadded:
Theywereconstantlyafterwomen....Theirtablemannersweredisgusting....Wheneveroneof
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thementeredthehouseofaNeapolitan,theyalwaystookthebestroomsandsentthemasterofthehousetosleepintheworst.Theystolewineandgrainandsoldthematthemarket.Theyrapedthewomen,thenrobbedthem,pullingtheringsfromtheirfingers,and,ifany
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womanresisted,theywouldcutoffherfingerstogetattherings....Evenso,theyspendmuchtimeinchurchpraying.
ThearrivaloftheFrench,moreover,coincidedwiththefirstdramaticepidemicofsyphilis,whichwasknownasthe"morbogallico"or"malfrancese"bytheItalians,andas"lemaldeNapoli"bythe
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French.Thisfoulvenerealdisease—"sohorriblethatitoughttobementionedasoneofthegravestcalamities,"wroteGuicciardini—arrivedinEuropein1494,probablybroughttoEuropefromtheWestIndiesorAmericabyChristopherColumbus'ssailors.Itsoonspread,andthedoctors,confrontingthediseaseforthefirsttime,wereperplexed;indeed,asGuicciardininoted,"they
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oftenappliedinappropriateremedies,manyofwhichwereharmfulandfrequentlyinflamedtheinfection."InRomeitwassovirulentthatseventeenmembersofAlexanderVI'sfamilyandcourt,includingCesare,hadtobetreatedforitwithinaperiodoftwomonths.
ForalmosttwomonthsafterheescapedfromtheFrenchcourtatVelletri,nothing
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reliablewasheardaboutCesare;andthenhereappearedoncemore,asadeusexmachina,inRome,where,withhiscustomaryskillinsuchmatters,hesetaboutorganizinganattackupontheSwisstroopswhohadbeenleftbehindinthecitywhentheFrencharmymarchedsouthforNaples.ThetroopswereattackedinthepiazzainfrontofSt.Peter'sbyalargebodyof
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Spaniardswhokilledovertwentyofthemandwoundedseveralmore.
SomesaidafterwardsthatalltheseviolentactswereorderedbyCesareBorgia[commentedBurchard]becausetheseSwisssoldierswereintheserviceoftheFrenchand,withviolenceandwithout
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cause,hadsackedandplunderedthehomeofhismother,robbingherof800ducatsandothervaluablepossessions.
Certainly,Cesarehadalreadyacquiredareputationforneverforgivingwhathetooktobeawrongandforsavagelypunishinganyonewhocrossedhiminanyway;andhavingescapedfrom
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CharlesVIII'scustody,hewasnowconsideringwaysinwhichhemightharmtheFrenchking.
Despitethespreadofsyphilis,theilldisciplineofhistroops,andtheneedtogetbacktoFrancebeforeanemergingallianceofItalianstates,headedbyAlexanderVI,couldmarchagainsthim,CharlesVIIIwasreluctantlyobligedtoturnhisbackon
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thepleasuresofNaples.Itwasnot,however,untiltheendofthethirdweekinMay1495thathebeganthelongmarchnorth.HearrivedinRomefourdayslater,expectingtobeabletohaveanaudiencewithAlexanderVI,whohehopedwouldgiveformalrecognitionofhisconquestofNaplesandinvesthimasking,buthefoundonlyCardinalAntoniottoPallavicini,whohadbeenleft
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inchargeofthecity.Thewilypopehadremovedhimself,togetherwithnineteencardinals,overfourthousandtroops,andtheentirepapalcourt,firsttoOrvietoandthen,whentheFrenchkingthreatenedtofindhimthere,ontoPerugiaandoutofharm'sway.
Meanwhile,theforcesoftheHolyLeagueweremassinginLombardytoattackthe
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FrenchastheymadefortheAlpinepasses.BytheendofJune,thereturningarmyhadcrossedtheApennines,butonJuly6theirmarchwasbroughttoasuddenhaltatFornovo,bythebanksoftheriverTaro,wheretheyencounteredthemercenarytroopsoftheHolyLeagueunderthecommandofFrancescoGonzaga,theMarquisofMantua.Thebattlewasfiercebutbrief,
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lastinglessthanonehour,withlittlechancefortheFrenchtousetheirinvincibleartillery;theFrenchlostjusttwohundredmen;theHolyLeaguecountedoverthreethousanddead."ThepalmofvictorywasgenerallyawardedtotheFrench,"wroteGuicciardini,"becauseofthegreatdifferenceinthenumberofcasualties"and"becausetheyhadwonfreepassagetoadvance,which
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wasthereasonthatthebattlehadbeenfought."
However,sincehewasleftinpossessionofthefieldandhadcapturedpartoftheFrenchbaggagetrain—whichincludedapieceoftheHolyCross,asacredthorn,alimbofSt.Denis,theblessedVirgin'svest,andabookdepictingnakedwomen"paintedatvarioustimesandplaces...withsketchesof
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intercourseandlasciviousnessineachcity"—theMarquisofMantuaclaimedthevictory.ThepoetsathiscourtinMantuacelebratedthesuccessofhisventureinepicverseandprose,andthemarquis,forhispart,beganbuildingavotivechapelinthecity,commissioninghiscourtpainter,AndreaMantegna,topainthisMadonnadellaVittoria(nowintheLouvre),
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withhimselfinarmourkneelingatthefeetoftheVirgin,flankedoneithersidebythewarriorsaintsSt.MichaeltheArchangelandSt.George.
ButtheFrencharmy,thoughbattered,weary,andill,wasstillapowerfulforceandhadnotbeenbeaten.Accompaniedbymules,onetoeverytwomen,loadedwithtreasure,itmoved
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unimpededtowardtheAlpsandreachedFranceinsafety.TheItalianswereshockedbytherealizationthat,foralltheirvirtues,talents,wealth,pastglory,andexperience,theyhadbeenunabletowithstandtheruthlessmenfromthenorth,andAlexanderVI,soproudofhisstaminaandpronetocomparinghisstrengthtothatofthebullontheBorgiacoat-of-arms,hadbeenunableto
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withstandthemightofaforeignking.
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Chapter8TheBorgiaBull
"MANYAREASSISTEDBYFORTUNEWITHOUT
BEINGENDOWEDWITHTHENECESSARYTALENT"
SOONAFTERHISELECTION,AlexanderVIbeganplanninganewsetofrooms,seveninall,forhispersonaluseinthe
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Vatican,andtodecoratetheminamannerthatwouldsuithisostentatiousandluxurioustastes.Theresultingsetofapartments,knownastheAppartamentoBorgia,hassurvived,withtheexceptionofoneroomthatwasdestroyed,anditisstilloneofthehighlightsofthetourofthepapalpalace.
Withtheirornateceramic-tiledfloors,theroomshavea
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boldlySpanishappearance—indeed,thetileswereorderedbythepopespeciallyfromSpain—andtheirlavishlygildedstuccodecorationmadeamarkedcontrasttothemodestlyausterechapelpaintedforNicholasVbytheFlorentineFraAngelico.
Despitehistasteforlavishsurroundings,AlexanderVIwasnotoriouslyfrugalatmealtimes,rarelyhaving
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morethanonecourse,accordingtotheFerrareseambassadorGiovanniBoccaccio,whosaidthatcardinalsavoideddiningwiththepopeiftheypossiblycouldbecausehistablewassoparsimoniouscomparedwiththeirown,particularlyduringLentandonFridays,whensardineswerecommonlyservedathistableinsteadofthemeatdishesotherwiseprovidedbythe
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papalhousehold'ssixcooks.
Thefashionforgildedstuccowasanewone,andithadbeeninspiredbythediscovery,neartheColosseum,oftheremainsoftheGoldenHouseofNero,thepalaceoflegendaryopulencebuiltbytheemperor,whoseCircushadonceresoundedtotheroarsoftheRomanpopulaceintheplacewheretheVaticannow
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stood.
Visitingtheruinswasnoeasymatter;armedwithtallowcandlesandlunchboxespackedwithham,bread,apples,andwine,artistsandothersinterestedintheremainsofantiquitycrawledintoanarrowopeninginthesideoftheEsquilineHillandintoevensmallerpassages,filthyandpitch-black,thathadbeen
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excavatedbelowthevaultsofthepalace,wheretheylittheirtorchestocatchaglimpseoftheglitteringstuccoesandfrescoesthatdatedbacktoimperialRome;and,intheirexcitement,manylefttheirownsignaturesonthewalls.
ThepainterchosenbyAlexanderVItodecoratehisapartmentswasoneBernardinodiBettodiBiagio,betterknownas
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Pinturicchio,thegiftedpainterfromPerugiawhohadestablishedareputationinRomeastheleadingpainterofworksinthenew"imperialstyle."He,too,musthavecrawledthroughthefilthydarkpassagewaysintoNero'spalace,althoughhedidnotleavehissignatureamongthegildedstuccowork.
GiorgioVasariwaslessimpressedwithhistalents:
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Evenasmanyareassistedbyfortunewithoutbeingendowedwiththenecessarytalent,so,onthecontrary,thereareinfinitenumbersofmenofabilitywhosufferfromanadverseandhostileFortune...itpleaseshertouseherfavourtoraisecertainmenwhowouldneverbe
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knownbytheirownmerit,asisthecasewithPinturicchioofPerugia.
Pinturicchio'sworkforthepope,however,muchpleasedhispatron,whorewardedtheartistwithgrantsoflandinthePapalStates.AlexanderVI'sapartmentsareaforcefulmonumenttotheBorgiafamily.Borgiasymbols,mostemphaticallytheBorgiabulls
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—inonedepictionmountedbyacupid—striketheeye,asdothesymbolsoftheHouseofAragonfromwhichthepopechosetotracehisancestry.Morebizarrely,ontheceilingoftheso-calledSaladeiSantiwereimagesoftheancientEgyptiandeitiesIsisandOsiris,fromwhom,accordingtooneofthepope'ssecretaries,AlexanderVIcouldalsotracehisdescent.
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Theroomshadotherfamilyconnections.LucreziawasportrayedasSt.CatherineofAlexandria,defeatingthepaganemperorbytheforceofherargument;JofrèandSanciaappearasayoungcoupleinthecrowdbehindher,whileJuan,DukeofGandía,canbeseen,superblydressedashealwayswasinlife,astrideawhitecharger,andCesareglaresoutofthepicturefrombehindthe
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throneofthedisputingemperor.
AlexanderVIhimselfappearsinthefrescooftheResurrection,witnessingthisdramaticmomentinanattitudeofprayer,gorgeouslyattiredinanembroideredandbejewelledchasuble,withaskullcapoverhisbaldinghead,hishandsclaspedinprayer,histiaraonthegroundbeforehim.Overthedoorof
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oneroom,PinturicchiopaintedanotherportraitofAlexanderVI,thistimeadoringabeautifulVirgin,towhom,accordingtoVasari,hegavethefaceofGiuliaFarnese.
WhilePinturicchioandhisassistantswereatworkintheVaticanPalace,painters,sculptors,andbuilderswerealsobusyelsewhereinRomeatAlexanderVI'sbehest.At
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St.Peter'stheyfinishedthegrandfountaininthepiazza,whichhadbeenstartedbyInnocentVIII,andadorneditliberallywiththeBorgiabulls.TheyalsoaddedasecondstoreytotheBenedictionloggiaattheendofthepiazza,where,afewyearslater,thepopewouldnarrowlyavoidbeinghitbyanirontorch-holderthatfelldownwhilehewaswatchingabullfight;andtheybuilta
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newroadfromCastelSant'AngelototheVatican,whichthepopenamedViaAlessandrina(nowBorgoNuovo).
AlexanderVIalsocommissionedrepairstoseveralchurchesinRome,includingSanGiacomodegliSpagnuoli,thechurchfavouredbytheSpanishcolonyinthecity;asacardinalhehadspenta
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considerablesumonanelaboratemarblereliefoftheVirginandchildforthehighaltarinSantaMariadelPopolo,withtheBorgiabullsprominentlyondisplayonshieldsheldbyputti(nowinthesacristyofthechurch).Mostmemorably,healsopaidforamagnificentgildedceilingfortheBasilicaofSantaMariaMaggiore,hisfinancialcontributionmarked,onceagain,by
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liberalquantitiesofBorgiabulls;thegold,itwassaid,wasthefirsttohavecomefromtheminesofPeruandhadbeenpresentedtothepopebyFerdinandandIsabellaofSpain.
ThemostfamousworkofartfromAlexanderVI'spontificate,however,wasthePietàbyMichelangeloBuonarotti,commissionednotbyhimbutbytheambassador
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ofthekingofFrance.MichelangelohadarrivedinRomefromFlorenceonJune25,1496,toworkunderthepatronageofCardinalRaffaelloRiario,whohadspent200ducatsonalife-sizesleepingcupidbythesculptorundertheimpressionthatitwasaworkbyoneofthefamoussculptorsofantiquity.
Soonafterhisarrivalinthecity,"abroadfieldinwhicha
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manmaydemonstratehisworth,"ashedescribedit,MichelangelocalleduponCardinalRiarioinhisgrandpalace,built,itwasrumoured,withthemoneyhehadmadegamblingwithFranceschettoCibò,thesonofInnocentVIII.Thecardinalaskedthesculptorifhecouldproducesome"beautifulwork"forhiscollection:"IrepliedthatImightbeabletomakesuchsplendidworksas
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hepossessedinhispalace,"Michelangelorecorded,"butwewouldseewhatIcoulddo;sowehaveboughtapieceofmarbleforalife-sizefigure,andIshallstartworkonitnextMonday."
TheresultofthiscommissionwastheplumpanddrunkenBacchusthatcannowbeseenintheBargelloinFlorence.Thesubjectandthetreatmentevidentlydid
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notpleasethecardinal,who,itseems,rejectedit,anditwaslatertobeseenamongtheantiquepiecesinthegardenofJacopoGalli,Michelangelo'sbanker.
Michelangelo,however,soonfoundanotherpatronintheFrenchCardinalJeanBilhèresdeLagraulas,whocommissionedthePietàforhistombintheFrenchroyalchapelinSt.Peter's,
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dedicatedtoSt.Petronilla,andprovidedhimwithaletterofrecommendationtotheofficialsofthesmallrepublicancity-stateofLucca,throughwhichthesculptorwouldhavetopassonhiswaytothewhitemarblequarriesofCarrara:"WehaverecentlyagreedwithmasterMichelangelodiLudovico,Florentinesculptorandbearerofthisletter,thathemakeforusamarble
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tombstone,namelyaclothedVirginMarywiththedeadChristnakedinherarms,toplaceinacertainaltarwhichweintendtofoundinSt.Peter'sinRome,"rantheletter,explainingthatMichelangelo"waspresentlyrepairingtothosepartstoexcavateandtransportherethemarblesnecessaryforsuchaworkandwebegyourlordships...toextendtohimeveryhelpandfavourinthis
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matter."
ThefinishedPietà,describedas"themostimportantartisticcommissionoftheage,"andnowtobeseeninSt.Peter's,wasbeingadmiredbyagroupofvisitorsfromLombardy,sothestorygoes,whenMichelangelohappenedtobepassingby.Heheardoneofthegroupexplaintotheothersproudlythatthefineworkwasby
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"ourGobboofMilan."Michelangelosaidnothing,butlaterhereturnedtoSt.Peter'sinthemiddleofthenightand,bythelightofalamp,carvedhisnameonthebandthatrunsdiagonallybetweentheVirgin'sbreasts.
Proudashewasofthiswork,Michelangelo,the"statuariofiorentino,"wasnothappyintheRomeofPopeAlexanderVI,whichhe
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describedasviolentandmaterialistic,andwasrelievedwhenthetimecameforhimtoreturntoFlorence."Heretheymadehelmetsandswordsoutofchalices,"hewroteofRomeatthistime.
TheysellthebloodofChristbybucketfuls
Andcrossandthornsarelancesandshields
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AndevenChristallpatienceloses
Butlethimcomenomoretothesecitystreets
Forherehisbloodwouldflowuptotheverystars
NowthatinRometheysellhisskin
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Andtheyhaveclosedtheroadstoallgoodness.
AlexanderVI'smostexpensiveprojects,onwhichheexpendedhugesums,werethefortificationsthathecommissionedindefenceofthepapalterritories.InthePapalStateshebuiltandmaintainednumerouscastlesandotherdefences,aswellasfinancingasmallfleetof
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galleys,whichwereneededtoprotectthecoastsfrompirates,andtakingthenecessarymeasurestoensurethattheroadsthroughouthisterritorieswerekeptasclearaspossiblefrombrigands.Largesumswerealsospentonmilitaryequipment,particularlyonartillery,whilemanythousandsofducatswereexpendedoncrusadingfundsandsubsidiestoVeniceforfleetsdeployedagainstthe
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Turks.
HealsospenthugesumsofmoneyinthereconstructionofthepapalfortressinRome,CastelSant'Angelo,givingitafarmoreimposingexternalappearance.OriginallyconstructedasamausoleumfortheEmperorHadrian,ithadfallenintodisrepairandeventualruinafterthecollapseoftheRomanEmpire,andinthetwelfth
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century,itbecameafortressoftheColonnafamily.LaterintheMiddleAges,ithadprovidedbuilderswithaquarryofvaluabletravertinestone.
ThestorywentthatsometimeinitshistorythearchangelMichaelhadappearedontopofthisvastedificeandwasseentoreturnhisswordtoitssheathasasignthatanoutbreakofthe
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plagueinRomewasnowover.AstatueofthearchangelwasaccordinglyerectedonthesummitofthebuildingwhereonceanimmensestatueofHadrianhadstood.Andwhenthebuilderswerediggingthefoundationsforthenewworks,theyfoundacolossalbustoftheemperor,whichAlexanderVIremovedtohiscollection.
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Thishugecastle,theprincipaldefenceoftheVaticanandSt.Peter's,wasconsideredtobeimpregnable;andsoonafterhebecamepope,AlexanderVIapproachedAntoniodaSangallo,theFlorentinearchitect,withacommissiontotransformtheinteriorofthebuildingintoaluxuriousresidence,towhichhemightretreatintimesoftrouble.Itwasonlyaquarterofamile
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orsofromtheVatican,anditcouldbeapproachedinsafetyfromtherebyawalkwayraisedabovetheroofsoftheinterveninghouses.
PinturicchiodecoratedtheinterioraslavishlyashehadtheBorgiaapartmentsintheVatican,andthistimetheBorgiabullswereaccompaniedbyscenesfromthelifeofthepopehimself,hisachievements,and,of
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course,hisfamily.OneroomcontainedscenesofAlexanderVI'sdiplomatictriumphoverthenaiveCharlesVIII,mostofwhichshowedthekingsubmittinginsubservientfashiontopapalauthority,notablyhisoathofobedienceswornsopubliclyintheSalaRegia.
Sothatthepopecouldholdoutinthecastleifnecessary,Sangallowasinstructedto
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provideitwithlargestorehousesforgrainandoilaswellaswithdungeonsfortheincarcerationofenemiesandprisoners.ItwasinoneofthesethatthesculptorBenvenutoCelliniwastobeimprisoned,alongwith,soheclaimed,"spidersandmanyvenomousworms."
Theyflungmeawretchedmattressofcoarsehemp[Cellini
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laterwrote],gavemenosupperandlockedfourdoorsuponme.Inthreedaysthatrottenmattresssoakedupwaterlikeasponge....ForonehourandahalfeachdayIgotalittleglimmeringoflightwhichpenetratedthatmiserablecavernthroughaverynarrowaperture.Onlyforso
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shortaspaceoftimecouldIread;fortherestofthedayandnightIlivedindarkness.
Farabovethesemiserablecells,SangalloandPinturicchiocreatedapartmentsinwhichAlexanderVIcouldlivecomfortablyandworkundisturbed;andabovethese,ontheroofofthecastle
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overlookingtheTiber,therewas,foratime,agarden;andherethepopecouldoccasionallybeseentakingtheair,walkingwithhissecretaries,orplayingwithhischildren.
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Chapter9FatherandChildren
"MOTIVATEDBYHISUNBOUNDEDGREED
TOEXALTHISCHILDREN"
"EVENMORETHANBYangerorbyanyotheremotion,thePopewasmotivatedbyhisunboundedgreedtoexalthischildren,whomheloved
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passionately,"wroteGuicciardini;unlikehispredecessorsonthethroneofSt.Peter's"whooftenconcealedtheirinfamousbehaviourbydeclaringtheirchildrentobenephews,hewasthefirstpopetoannounceanddisplaythemtothewholeworldashisownoffspring."
AtthetimeoftheFrenchinvasion,Cesarewastheonly
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oneofAlexanderVI'schildrenwithhiminRome.HisbrotherJuanhadsailedforSpaininAugust1493,tomarryMariaEnriquez,cousinoftheSpanishking,whileLucreziahadleftforPesaroninemonthslatertojoinherhusband,GiovanniSforza,LordofPesaro.Jofrèandhiswife,Sancia,hadbeeninNapleswhenCharlesVIIIinvadedandtheyescapedtotheislandofIschia.Withthe
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threatofwaroverforthepresent,theyallcamebackhomeandbytheautumnof1496AlexanderVIwasonceagainsurroundedbyhisfamily.
Cesare,bynowtwenty-oneyearsold,waswidelyrecognizedasthemostpowerfulcardinalinthecollegeandasthemostunscrupulous.Hisinterestsandambitions,however,were
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farfrompriestly,andhisclotheswerethedoubletsandhoseofasecularprince,notamaninholyorders.HelivedinsplendourinanapartmentonthesecondflooroftheVaticanPalace,laterthesiteoftheRaphaelStanze,inroomsthatwereimmediatelyabovethoseofhisfather,thetwosuitesconnectedbyaprivatewindingstaircase.Hewasfrequentlyseeninthecompanyofthepope,who
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camemoreandmoretorelyuponhim,andhisinfluenceinRomegrewdaily,especiallyamongthosewhoconsideredtheirinterestswouldbebestservedforthemomentbybeingongoodtermswiththeBorgias.
LucreziawasdeeplyattachedtoherbrotherCesare,wholovedherperhapsmoredevotedlythanhecouldbringhimselftolove
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anyoneelse.Shewas,however,likealmosteveryoneelse,waryofherbrotherandhissadisticstreak;once,itwassaid,heinvitedhertostandbesidehimonabalconyattheVaticanwhileheshotatagroupofcriminalsdrawnupastargetpracticeinthecourtyardbelow.
LucreziahadbeeninPesarowhentheFrenchinvadedbut
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hadreturnedtoRomeattheendofJunethepreviousyear,daysbeforetheBattleofFornovo.Bynowahappy,lively,attractiveyoungwomanagedsixteen,shewasthankfultobebackatherfather'slivelycourtaftertheprovincialdullnessofPesaro.ShewassoonjoinedbyherhusbandandthecoupletookupresidenceatthepalaceatSantaMariainPortico,closebytheentrancetothe
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Vatican.
InMay1496JofrèalsoreturnedtoRome,bringingwithhimhiswife,Sancia.Thearrivalofhissonanddaughter-in-1awgaveAlexanderVIanopportunitytoindulgeinoneofthosepageantshesomuchenjoyed.ThecoupleenteredthecitythroughthegateofSanGiovanniinLaterano,whichthemasterofceremonies
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described:
Thecaptainofthemilitiawenttomeetthemwithsome200ofhismen-at-armsandthehouseholdsandservantsofallthecardinals,exceptforthoseoftheprelatesofthePope,werealsotheretoreceivethem.Allthecardinalshadbeeninvitedthat
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morning,bythecouriersofthePopeactinginthenameoftheCardinalofValence,tosendtheirchaplainsandsquires,butnottheirprelates,toreceivehisbrotherJofrèonhisentryintothecity.Allaccededtothisrequest.LucreziaSforza,daughterofHisHolinessandwifeof
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theillustriousGiovanniSforza,LordofPesaro,alsowenttothesaidgatetomeetDonJofrè,herbrother.Shewasaccompaniedbysometwentyladiesandprecededbytwopagesonhorsebackwearingcapes.Oneofthehorseswascoveredinamagnificentcloth-of-
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goldcaparison;theotherinacaparisonofredvelvet.LucreziareceivedDonJofrèandhiswifewithaffection.
Almostthirtymulestrailedbehindthem,loadedwiththeirluggage,conspicuouslydisplayingJofrè'scoat-of-arms.ThehugeprocessionwounditswaypasttheColosseum,throughthe
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CampodeiFiori,acrossthebridgeatCastelSant'Angelo,andupAlexanderVI'snewroad,theViaAlessandrina,totheVatican,wherethepopereceivedthemformallybutnodoubtwithwarmthfromhisthroneintheSaladeiPontefici.
GianCarloScalona,theMantuanambassador,wasnotsoimpressedwithSancia,afterallthereportsfrom
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Naplesextollinghercharmsandherbeauty."Indeed,theLadyofPesaro,"asLucreziawasknown,"surpassedherbyfar."Hecommented,however,thatthetwenty-two-year-oldbridehad"glancingeyes,anaquilinenoseandisverywellmadeup."HedidnotmakedirectmentionofSancia'sreputationforextremelylouchebehaviour,thoughhedidreporttohismasterthattheRomanshad
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judgedherladies-in-waitingtobe"afinecrop."InNaplesreportsofasuccessionofyoungmenwhohadbeenseenenteringherbedchamberhadreachedthestagewhereherstaffhadbeenobligedtoinsistthatonlyonemaleservant,"areliableandelderlyman,over60yearsold,"hadaccesstotheroom.
Scalona'sopinionofthemuch-youngerJofrèwasfar
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frombeingfavourable;hewas"lascivious-looking,"butsmall,"anddark-skinned,14or15yearsoldwithlongreddishhair."Hisimmaturitymaywellexplainwhy,astheVenetiandiaristMarinSanudoreported,Jofrèhadstillnotconsummatedhismarriage.ItwasnotlongafterthecouplearrivedinRomethatrumoursbegantocirculatetotheeffectthatSancia,frustratedbyJofrè's
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impotence,hadsuccumbedtoCesare'scharmsandhadbecomehismistress.
WhetherLucreziaknewaboutSancia'srelationshipwithCesareornot,thetwogirlssoondevelopedaclosefriendship.Indeed,theygotontogetherextremelywellandwereoftentobeseenrompingaboutjustlikehigh-spiritedschoolgirls.TwodaysafterSancia'sarrival,they
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attendedMassinSt.Peter'stocelebratetheFeastofPentecost,withasermongivenbyaSpanishchaplainthateventhedutifulBurcharddescribedas"toolongandboring,whichdispleasedthePope."Thegirlswereseen,muchtoBurchard'sdisapproval,toleavetheirseatsduringthetediousservicetogouptogethertothechoirreservedfortheirladies,andtochatterand
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laughtogether,oblivioustotheboringsermon.
InAugust1496Juan,DukeofGandía,returnedtoRome,onthesummonsofhisfather,leavinghissonandhispregnantwifeinSpain,tobewelcomedtothecitybyaneven-largergaggleofcardinals,ambassadors,soldiers,andofficialsthanhadgreetedJofrèandSancia.Thetwenty-year-oldJuancut
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afarfinerfigurethanJofrè.Magnificentlyclothedinalongmantleofgoldbrocadeandajewel-encrusteddoubletofbrownvelvet,heworeascarlethathungwithpearlsandrodeabayhorseadornedwithtinklingsilverbells.Hewasaccompaniednotonlybyhissquiresbutalsobyanunrulycrowdofdwarfsandbuffoons.
Itwassoonapparenttothe
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RomansthatCesareandJuandetestedeachother.JuanwasjealousofCesare,whoseemednowtobewidelyrecognizedastheirfather'sright-handman,whileCesare,theelderofthetwo,burnedwithresentmentattheindulgenceshowntohisself-regardingandfarlesstalentedbrother,whowasclearlytheirfather'sfavourite.OtherthanAlexanderVI,veryfewcaredforJuan,whowasdescribed
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bytheAragonesechroniclerGeronimoZuritaashavingbeena"spoiltboy"andasbeingnow"averymeanyoungman,fullofideasofgrandeur...haughty,cruelandunreasonable."HecouldbeseenswaggeringaboutRomeinhisgorgeousattire,excessivelyproudofhisfigure.Likehisfather,hehadconsiderablesexappeal—itwaswidelyrumouredthatSanciagaveherfavoursto
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bothherhusband'sbrothers,furtheraggravatingCesare'sanimosity.
Cesare'sdislikeofhisbrotherwasincreasedwhenJuan,althoughquiteunsuitedtosuchaposition,waschosenbyAlexanderVItobesecond-in-commandtoGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,DukeofUrbinoandcaptaingeneralofthepapalarmies,whichthepopeintendedto
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throwagainsttheOrsini,atroublesomefamilywhohadsidedwiththeFrenchintheirrecentcampaigninItalyandnowcontrolledmuchoftheRomanCampagnanorthandsouthofthecity.
OnOctober26,1496,thetwodukes,dressedinfullarmour,receivedtheirbannersofofficefromthepopeinSt.Peter's,andthefollowingdaytheymarched
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northagainsttheOrsinicastles.Nofewerthantenofthesewerecapturedwithinamatterofweeks.ButatBracciano,wheretheformidableBartolomeod'Alvianowasincommand,thecampaignfaltered.GuidobaldodaMontefeltrowaswounded,notseriouslybutbadlyenoughfortheincompetentJuantobeobligedtotakeovercommand.TheOrsini
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ridiculedhimbysendingadonkeyintohiscampwithaplacardtiedarounditsneckdeclaring:"IamtheambassadoroftheDukeofGandía,"andanotherinsultingmessagescrewedupandinsertedintotheanimal'sanus.
TwoassaultsonthecastlehadfailedwhenareportreachedJuanthatarelievingforcecommandedbyCarlo
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OrsiniwasmarchingonBracciano,andheunwiselydecidedtoraisethesiegeandgoouttoconfrontOrsiniintheopenfield.OnJanuary24,1497,thepapalforceswereroutedatSoriano.Thearmywas,inthewordsofBurchard,"heavilydefeatedingreatdishonour."Moreover,"theDukeofUrbinowascaptured,"hecontinued,and"somefivehundredofoursoldierswere
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killedandmanymorewounded,whiletheOrsinicapturedallourcannonandutterlyscatteredourforces."
Juan,whowasslightlywoundedintheface,rodebacktoRome.Aweekorsolater,AlexanderVI,whohadbeensoillwithworrythathehadnotbeentoMassonChristmasDay,wasforcedtomakepeacewiththeOrsiniontheirterms.Hehadtogive
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upallthecapturedcastlesonpaymentofanindemnityof50,000ducats,whichtheOrsinihopedtoraisebydemandingaransomofthatamountforthereleaseofGuidobaldodaMontefeltro.
DespitehisfailureatSoriano,Juanwassoonafterwardsentincommandofanotherpapalarmy,thistimetobesiegethefortressofOstia,southeastofRome,
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whereaFrenchgarrisonstillremainedincontrol.ThistimeAlexanderVIturnedforhelptotheSpanishmonarchs,FerdinandandIsabella,whosenttheirhighlyexperiencedandsuccessfulcommanderGonsalvodiCórdobatohisaid,aswellasacorpsoftrustworthySpanishtroopsfromNaples.OstiasurrenderedonMarch9,andthepapaltroopsmarchedintriumphbacktoRome,where
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JuanenragedGonsalvodiCórdobabyclaimingequalcreditforthesuccessatOstia.Gonsalvowasrewardedwithapapalorderofchivalrywhile,muchtotheSpaniard'sannoyance,JuanwasgiventheduchyofBeneventotoaddtohislistoftitles.Cesarewasalsoangeredbythefavouritismbeingshowntohisbrother,buthewascarefulnottoshowhisfuriousjealousy.
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Chapter10TheDominicanFriar
"YOURHOLINESSISWELLADVISED
TOMAKEIMMEDIATEPROVISIONS
FORYOUROWNSALVATION"
IN1481GIROLAMOSAVONAROLA—asmall,spare,uglymanagedtwenty-nine,withthickredlipsandanimmense
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hookednose—hadarrivedinFlorencetobecomepreacheratthechurchandprioryofSanMarco.Hegraduallyacquiredsoterribleapoweroforatorythatcongregationssathorrifiedandspellboundbyhisvividimages,hiswarningsofthehorrorstobefacedbythoseinhisaudiencewhodidnotrepentoftheirsins.
"Beholdtheswordhas
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descended,"hehaddeclaimedwhenKingCharlesVIII'sarmieshadmarchedonNaples."Thescourgehasfallen.Thepropheciesarebeingfulfilled.BeholditistheLordGodwhoisleadingonthesearmies....Hewillunleashagreatfloodovertheearth....ItisGodwhoforetoldit.Nowitiscoming!"
Thepeoplehadlistenedtohiswordsinsilentfear,
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waitingforthefalloftheswordoftheLordthathungsothreateninglyoverthem."ADominicanfriarhassoterrifiedalltheFlorentinesthattheyarewhollygivenuptopiety,"theMantuanenvoyhadreportedsardonically."Threedaysaweektheyfastonbreadandwater,andtwomoreonwineandbread.Allthegirlsandmanyofthewiveshavetakenrefugeinconvents,sothatonlyold
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womenarenowtobeseenonthestreets."
HisclaimthatFlorencehad"nootherKingbutChrist"appealedinparticulartothosecitizensdisgustedbythecorruptMediciregimeandwhoyearnedforareturntothecity'searlierrepublicanvalues.WhenCharlesVIIIinvadedItaly,itwasnotjustNaplesthatsuffered.WhenPierode'Medicisurrendered
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theFlorentinefortressestothekingwithoutpermissionfromthegovernment,theSignoria,FlorencerevoltedandexpelledtheMedici,settingupanewgovernmentwithanewChristianconstitution.
GodhadcalleduponSavonarolatoreformtheChurch,andhe,withcrucifixinhand,calledupontheSignoriatosupporthiminhis
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mission.Hecommandedthecitizenstofast,tocastasidetheirshowyclothesandornaments,toselltheirjewelsandgivethemoneytothepoor,toremovesilvercandlesticksandlavishilluminatedbooksfrommonasteriesandchurches.Hecalledupon"blessedbands"ofchildrentomarchthroughthestreets,theirhaircutshort,bearingcrossesandolivebranches,singing
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hymnsandcollectingalmsforthepoor,toenterhousesandsearchoutobjectsofvanityandluxury,tourgetheirparentstoabandontheirevilwaysandfollowthepathsofvirtue,toreporttotheauthoritiesallinstancesofscandalousvice.
TheFlorentineslistenedandmanyobeyed.Courtesansstayedindoors;gamblersconcealedtheircardsand
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theirdiceboxes;fashionableladieswalkedthestreetsdressedinquietsobercolours;balladeersclosedtheirbooksofribaldsongs.
InRomeAlexanderVIwasgrowingincreasinglyconcernedabouttheactivitiesandinfluenceofSavonarola;andoncetheFrenchhadwithdrawnfromItalyaftertheBattleofFornovo,hesummonedthetroublesome
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priest,nowpriorofSanMarco,toRome.SavonarolarepliedthatitwasnotGod'swillthatheshouldgo.Thepope,slowlyabandoninghopethattheprior'swildenthusiasmwouldsoonerorlaterwearitselfout,forbadehimtopreachanymore.ButSavonarola,afterinstructingoneofhisdisciplestopreachinhisstead,soonresumedhissermonsinthecathedralinFlorence.
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AlexanderVIwaspatient."WeareworriedaboutthedisturbedstateofaffairsinFlorence,themoresointhatitowesitsoriginstoyourpreaching,"hewrotetothefieryDominican.
ForyoupredictthefutureandpubliclydeclarethatyoudosobytheinspirationoftheHolySpiritwhenyoushouldbe
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reprehendingviceandpraisingvirtue.Suchpropheciesmayeasilylurethesimple-mindedawayfromthepathofsalvationandtheobedienceduetotheHolyRomanChurch.Propheciesliketheseshouldnotbemadewhenyourchargeistoforwardpeaceandconcord.Moreover,theseare
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notthetimesforsuchteachings,whicharecalculatedtoproducediscordevenintimesofpeace,letaloneintimesoftrouble.
ThepopewentontosaythathehadresolvedtocallthefriartoRomeagain,eithertopurgehimselfofthechargesorsufferpunishmentforhisbehaviour.
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Since,however,wehavebeenmosthappytolearnfromcertaincardinalsandfromyourletterthatyouarereadytosubmityourselftothereproofsoftheChurch,asbecomesaChristianandareligious,wearebeginningtothinkthatwhatyouhavedonehasnotbeen
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donewithanevilmotive,butfromacertainsimple-mindednessandazeal,howevermisguided,fortheLord'svineyard.Ourduty,however,prescribesthatweorderyou,underholyobedience,toceasefrompublicandprivatepreachinguntilyouareabletocome
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toourpresence,notunderarmedescortasisyourpresenthabit,butsafely,quietlyandmodestly,asbecomesareligious,oruntilwemakedifferentarrangements.
AlexanderVIthendecreedthattheTuscanDominicans,whohadbeengrantedtheirindependence,shouldnowreverttopapalcontrolasa
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preliminarysteptowardsendingthe"pestilentialheretic"toanothermonasteryfarawayfromFlorence.ThepriorofSanMarcodeclaredthatthepopehadnoauthorityinthematter.AlexanderVIhadnoalternativebuttoexcommunicateSavonarolaforthisattackonhissupremeauthorityaspope.
Whennewsoftheexcommunicationarrivedin
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FlorenceinJune1497,Savonarolaremainedsilentforseveralmonths,prayingforguidance.ThenheannouncedthatGod'swordhadbeenvouchsafedtohim,andonChristmasDayhecelebratedHighMassinthecathedral.
"IcannolongerplaceanyfaithinYourHoliness,"Savonarolarepliedtoathreattoplacethewholecityunder
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aninterdict,unlesstheSignoriaeithersentthepriortoRomeorhadhimthrownintoprisoninFlorence."Youhavenotlistenedtome,"hecontinued."ImusttrustmyselfwhollytoHimwhochoosestheweakthingsofthisworldtoconfoundthestrong.YourHolinessiswelladvisedtomakeimmediateprovisionsforyourownsalvation."
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TheSignoria,treatedwithequalhigh-handedness,hadbynowcometobelievethatthequarrelwasgettingoutofhand.Savonarola'sopponentswerebecomingmoreoutspokeneverymonth;andtheclergywerebecomingconcernedabouthisconstantinsistencethathiswasthevoiceofGod.TheFranciscans,inparticular,longantagonizedbytheDominicans'claimtoa
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specialrelationshipwiththeAlmighty,weredemandingthatthepriorofSanMarcoshouldoffersomeproofofGod'sexceptionalfavour.
Savonarolacontinuedtopreach.SoonafterdeliveringseveraldramaticsermonsduringLentin1498,hewasarrestedbyaguardandtakentoacrampedcellinthePalazzodellaSignoria,knownwithgrimhumouras
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theAlberghettino,"thelittleinn."Fromtherehewastakentobetorturedbythecity'srack-master.
Ambiguouslyheconfessedallthatwasrequiredofhimwhilesufferingthedreadfulagoniesofthestrappado,butassoonasthestrapshadbeenreleased,heretractedhisconfession.Hewastorturedagainandrecantedagain.Intheendhewasfoundguilty
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ofheresyandcondemnedtodeath,togetherwithtwoofhismostdevoteddisciples.MessengersweresenttoRomeforpermissiontocarryoutthesentence.AlexanderVIinreturnsentcommissionerstoFlorencetoreviewthecase.Thecommissioners,intheirturn,orderedthattheaccusedshouldbetorturedoncemoretoextractfurtheradmissions.Thesentencewasthen
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confirmedandordersweregivenforSavonarolaandhistwofellowfriarstobehangedinchainsandburned.
Animmensepileofbrushwoodwasprepared;agallowswaserectedinitscentre;andahighplatformwasbuiltfromthedoorofthePalazzodellaSignoriatothegallows'ladder,sothatallwhohadbeendisappointedbythecancellationofthe
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ordealmightbecompensatedbyaviewofthethreeDominicansbeingconductedtotheirdeaths."Theywererobedinalltheirvestments,"LucaLanduccienteredinhisdiaryundertheheadingofMay22,1498:
Theseweretakenoffonebyonewiththeappropriatewordsforthedegradation....Thentheirfacesand
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handswereshavedasiscustomaryinthisceremony....Whenallthreehadbeenhangedafirewasmadeontheplatformuponwhichgunpowderwasputandsetalight,sothatthesaidfireburstoutwithanoiseofrocketsandcracking.Inafewhourstheywereburnt,theirlegsandarmsgraduallydropping
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off.Partoftheirbodiesremaininghangingtothechains,aquantityofstoneswerethrowntomakethemfall,astherewasafearofthepeoplegettingholdofthem.
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Chapter11Murder
"HISHOLINESS...THINKSOFNOTHINGBUT
THEWAYINWHICHHEMAYSAFELY
LAYHANDSONTHEGUILTYMEN"
"ONWEDNESDAY14JUNE1497,"soJohannesBurchardcarefullyrecorded,
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CardinalCesareBorgiaandDonJuanBorgia,DukeofGandía,bothdearsonsofHisHoliness,hadsupperwithDonnaVannozza,theirmother,andsomeotherguests,inhervillanearthechurchofSanPietroinVincoli.Afterthemeal,andsincenightwascomingon,the
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CardinalsuggestedtohisbrothertheDukethattheyshouldreturntotheVatican;andsotheymountedtheirhorsesandleftwithonlyoneortwoservantstoaccompanythem.TheyrodetogetheralmosttoCardinalAscanioSforza'spalace,whichhadbeenbuiltbyHis
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Holinesswhenhewasvice-chancellor.AtthispointtheDuketoldhisbrotherthathewantedtogooutinpursuitoffurtherpleasurebeforegoingbacktothepalace.
Juan,therefore,lefthisbrother,dismissedthefewservantshehadwithhim,exceptforafootmanandamysteriousmaninamask
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whohadjoinedJuanduringthesupperpartyathismother'sandwho,moreover,hadbeentoseeJuanattheVaticanalmosteverydayforthepastmonth.
Juanmaderoomforthismaskedmantoridebehindhimonhismule,andtheyrodeofftogethertothePiazzadegliEbrei,whereJuantoldthefootmantowaitthereanhourandthen,ifhehadnot
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returned,togobacktotheVatican.Soonafterwardthefootmanwasattackedandbadlywounded.Discoveredinapoolofblood,hewasdraggedintoanearbyhouse,whoseownerwassofrightenedthatherefusedtoreportwhathadhappeneduntilthenextmorning,bywhichtimethemanwasdead.
BynowJuan's
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disappearancewascausingconsternationattheVaticanPalace.AlexanderVIhopedthatperhapshehadspentthenightwithawomanandhadnotwantedtobeseenleavingherhouseindaylight.ButthelongerAlexanderVIwaitedforhisson'sreturn,themoreanxioushebecame.
HemadeurgentenquiriesintheareawhereJuanwasknowntohavebeenthenight
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before.OneofthosequestionedwasatimbermerchantwhosepracticeitwastohavehiswoodunloadedfromboatsintheTibernotfarfromthehospitalofSanGirolamodegliSchiavoni.Thismansaidthathehadbeenkeepingawatchonadeliveryoftimberwhen,closetomidnight,hesawtwomenwalkdowntotheriverbank,wheretheylookedabout
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them,presumablytoseeifthecoastwasclear.Shortlyafterwardtwoothermenstealthilyapproachedthewater,wheretheywerejoinedbyamanonawhitehorse,whichappearedtohaveacorpseslungacrossitsback.Heandthefourothermenthenmovedsilentlyalongtheriverbank,haltingjustpastaplacewheresewageandrubbishwerecustomarilythrownintothewater.
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HerethedeadbodywaspulledfromthehorseandhurledintotheTiber.Theriderwhohadbroughtitthenaskedtheothersifithadsunk.Hewasassuredthatithad;but,noticingthecorpse'scloakstillfloatingonthesurface,hethrewstonesatituntilithaddisappearedfromview.Thefivementhenlefttherivertogetherandweresoonlosttosight.
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Allthisthetimbermerchantrelatedwhenquestioned.Askedwhyhehadnotreportedtheseeventsearlier,herepliedthathemusthaveseenatleastahundredbodiesthrownintotheriveratthatpointandhadneverthoughtmuchaboutit.
Fishermenandboatmenwerenowcalledupandorderedtodragtheriverbed.TheysoonfoundJuan'sbody.
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Itwasfullydressed,withapursetuckedintoabelt,whichstillcontained30ducats.Hehadbeenstabbedrepeatedlyinhisbody,legs,andhead.
ThecorpsewasthentakentoCastelSant'Angelo,whereitwasstripped,washed,anddressedinmilitaryuniformbeforebeingtakentotheChurchofSantaMariadelPopoloinaprocessionledby
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overonehundredtorchbearers,ecclesiastics,andmembersofthedeadman'shousehold,all,soBurchardrelated,"marchingalong,weepingandwailingandinconsiderabledisorder."
AlexanderVIwasdistraught,"shuttinghimselfawayinaroomingriefandanguishofheart,weepingmostbitterly....FromtheWednesdayeveninguntilthe
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followingSaturdaymorning,heateanddranknothing,whilstfromThursdaymorningtoSunday,hewasquietfornominuteofanyhour."
OntheMonday,June19,thepopemadeasolemnannouncementataspecialconsistorycalledforthatmorning:
TheDukeofGandía
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isdead.Agreatercalamitycouldnothavebefallenusforweborehimunboundedaffection.Lifehaslostallinterestforus.ItmustbethatGodpunishesusforoursins,fortheDukehasdonenothingtodeservesoterribleafate.
WHENHEHADRECOVEREDfromthe
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firstpangsofgrief,thepopedeterminedtoreformtheCuria,thepapalgovernment."WeareresolvedwithoutdelaytothinkoftheChurchfirstandforemost,andnotofourselvesnorofourprivileges,"heannounced,addingthat"wemustbeginbyreformingourselves."ForyearstheCuriahadbeenallowedtobecomelaxandcorrupt,mannedbyofficialswhoweresteadilyenriching
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themselvesattheChurch'sexpense.Heestablishedareformcommissionthatproducedahighlycriticalreport.Hisenthusiasmsoonevaporated,however;andhavingorderedthearrestofoneofhismoreself-servingofficials,BartolomeoFlores,thearchbishopofCosenza,AlexanderVIquicklyabandonedhisproposedprogrammeofreformandhelpedhimselftomuchofthe
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fortunethatthearchbishophadmanagedtoaccumulate.
Flores,deprivedofhissee,wastakenfromhisdungeontoacellinCastelSant'Angelo,wherehewasrequired"towearagownofcoarsewhiteclothandaheavywhitecap,tosleeponastrawmattress,tobecontentwithonecaskofwaterandthreeloavesofbreadaday,onejugofoilandalamp,a
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breviary,aBibleandacopyoftheEpistleofSt.Peter."Hediedinhisdampcellsoonafterhisincarcerationthere,andhisbodywastakentotheChurchofSantaMariainTranspontina,andthereburied"withoutanytorches,mourners,churchceremonyorservice."
Meanwhile,severalmenhadbeenquestionedaboutJuan'smurder.AlexanderVIhad
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sorelymissedhisfavouritesonwhileJuanhadbeeninSpainandhadcalledhimbacktoRome,appointedhimtocommandthepapalarmies,unsuitedthoughhewastosuchachallenge,andhadgivenhimwhatwasconsideredtheundemandingtaskofturningthetroublesomeOrsinifamilyoutofthecastleatBracciano.
Juan'sfailureatBracciano
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andhisseductionofSancia,Cesare'smistress,hadinfuriatedCesare,fuellinghisjealousdislikeofJuanastheobviousfavourite,thoughunworthyandconceitedsecondson.JofrèalsohadcausetofeelaffrontedatJuan'sbehaviour.NorwerethetwobrotherstheonlymensuspectedofJuan'smurder,forthiswasamanwithmanyenemies,particularlyamongtheOrsiniandtheirallies.
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Afewweeksafterthemurder,onJuly1,theFlorentineenvoyinRomereportedthatsinceAlexanderVInolongershowedmuchinterest"astothemanguiltyofthemurder,"itwas"heldtobecertainbeyondanydoubtthatHisHolinesshasnowdiscoveredthetruth,andthathethinksofnothingbutthewayinwhichhemaysafelylayhandsontheguiltymen."Andlaterthatyear,
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ManfredoManfredi,theMantuanambassador,toldtheDukeofFerrara:"Itseemsthat,morethanever,thePopegivessignsofblamingtheOrsiniforthemurderofhisson;anditisbelievedthatheisdisposedtoavengeit."Atthesametime,itwasreportedfromVenice:"HisHolinessintendstoruintheOrsinibecausetheycertainlycausedthedeathofhisson,theDukeofGandía."
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Soonafterthesesuspicionswerevoiced,itbecamegenerallyacceptedinVenicethatCesare,ratherthantheOrsini,wasresponsibleforthemurder.SanciaofAragonseemstohavesuspectedCesare,andthiswasalsocommongossipinSpain,wherebothQueenIsabellaandMariaEnriquez,Juan'swidow,wereinclinedtobelievethatthecirculatingstoriesofCesare'sguiltwere
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probablytrue.
AsforAlexanderVI'sopinionoftheidentityofthemurdererofhisson,thepopedidnotcommithimself,buthedidexculpate,foronereasonoranother,mostofthoseuponwhomsuspicionhadfallen.AmongthesewereGiovanniSforzaandhisuncleAscanioSforza,whowasknowntohavequarrelledrecentlywiththeDukeof
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Gandía,andGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,theDukeofUrbino,whohadfoughtwithJuanagainsttheOrsinibut,afterbeingtakenprisoner,hadbeenlefttolanguishinprisonuntilransomwaspaidbyhisloyalsubjects.
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Chapter12AnotherHusbandfor
Lucrezia
"SHEWASPREPAREDTO...SUBMITHERSELF
TOTHEEXAMINATIONOFMIDWIVES"
LUCREZIARECEIVEDTHENEWSofherbrother'shorrificmurderinherroomsinthe
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DominicanconventofSanSisto,atranquilplacesituatedontheViaAppia,oppositetheBathsofCaracalla,surroundedbyorchardsandvineyards,andsomedistancefromthecentreofRome.ShehadtakenrefugehereonJune4,tendaysearlier;when,shortlyaftershearrived,papalguardscametoconducthertotheVatican,theabbessassuredthemthatLucreziawasstayingintheconventat
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herownrequestandpersuadedthemtoleaveherinpeace.
Herdesirehadbeentoescapethestoriesthatwerespreadinglikewildfirethroughthecitytoexplainwhyshehadbeenabandonedbyherhusband,GiovanniSforza.Onereportmentionedthatshehad"leftthepalaceandgonetoaconvent,"addingominously,"Somesay
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shewillturnnun,whileotherssaymanyotherthingswhichonecannotentrusttoaletter."Rumoursofherincestuousrelationshipswithherbrothersandevenherfather,thepope,abounded;withindaysofthemurder,Giovanniwassuspectedofcommittingthecrime"becausetheDukeofGandíahadhadcommercewithhiswife."
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AtthetimeofJuan'smurder,however,GiovanniwasnotinRome.ThealliancebetweentheBorgiasandMilan,whichhadseemedsuchanexcellentideathreeyearsbefore,hadnowlostitsappeal,andthepopewasdeterminedtoendit.ThreatenedandtauntedbytheBorgiabrothers,fearfulforhisverylife,andworriedthathemightbeobligedtorepaythe31,000ducatshe
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hadreceivedasLucrezia'sdowry,thelacklustreGiovannihadfledRomeonGoodFriday,March24,forPesaro.Hisfearshadgrownwhen,afterbeggingLucreziatojoinhim,she—encouragedbybothCesareandthepope—hadrefusedtodoso.ThesefearshadbeenrealizedattheendofMay,afortnightbeforeJuan'sbrutalmurder,whenAlexanderVI'slawyerhadarrivedinPesarotoserve
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himwithawritfordivorce.
AtfirstithadbeenthoughtthatsinceLucrezia'sfirstbetrothaltoGasparodiProcida,theCountofAversa,hadnotbeenformallydissolvedatthetimeofhermarriagetoSforza,itwouldbepossibletousethesegroundstoclaimthatthemarriagewasinvalid.Butthisweakexcuseprovedunacceptabletothewily
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lawyersinvolvedinthecase.Soitwasdecidedinsteadtoarguethatthemarriage,whichhadtakenplacein1493whenLucreziawasjustthirteenyearsold,hadneverbeenconsummated,thusleavingheravirginandfreetotakeanotherhusbandmoretoherfather'spoliticaltaste.
Lucreziadulysignedadeclarationtotheeffectthat"afterthreeyearsofmarriage
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...withoutsexualrelationsorcarnalknowledge,shewaspreparedtoswearonoathtothisandtosubmitherselftotheexaminationofmidwives."AlexanderVInowinsistedthatGiovannimakeapublicdeclarationthathewasimpotent,ahumiliatingprospectandacruelone.
TheunfortunateGiovanniwasunderstandablyfurious,
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dismissingtheallegationasabsurd.Hewasfarfromimpotent,heprotested;hehad,heinsisted,madelovetohiswifeoncountlessoccasions.Moreover,hepointedoutthathisfirstwifehaddiedinthecourseofgivingbirthtotheirchild.FinallyheapproachedhisuncleLudovicoSforzaforhelp,butthedukedidnottakehimseriously.HesuggestedGiovannishould
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provehisvirilitywithLucrezia,somewhereoutsideRome,withwitnesseswhocouldobservetheevent;orapublicdemonstrationcouldbearrangedwithsomecomplaisantladyinMilan,withthepapallegate,thecardinalofMonreale,whowasoneofAlexanderVI'snephews,asawitness.
Giovanninowdeclaredthatthepopewantedtogethim
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outofthewaysothathecouldenjoyhisdaughter'sbodymoreconvenientlyhimself.Moreover,hehintedthatwhilehehadnotbeenallowedtoshareabedwithLucrezia,nowagedseventeen,bothherfatherandherbrotherCesarehaddoneso.Therumoursofincest,asinasoffensivethenasitisnow,spreadlikewildfirethroughRomeandallofItaly.BornoutofGiovanni's
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desireforrevengeonthefamilywhoweretauntinghimsounfairly,thestorystuck.
ManywhosawLucreziainpublic,smilinginthecompanyofheradoredandadoringfamily,foundthesensationalrumourseasytobelieve,astheydidwhenthepopeleftherinchargeofpapalaffairswhilehewasabsentfromRome.Yetitwas
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unusualforadaughtertobegiventhisresponsibility,thoughnotbecauseshewasalady—therulersofItaly'scourtsregularlylefttheirwivesinchargeoftheiraffairswhiletheywerefighting,earningtheirlivingsasmercenarysoldiers,andthepopewasdoingnomorethanleavingthereinsofpowerinthehandsofthepersonuponwhoseloyaltyhecouldrelyutterly.Andthosewhosaw
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herinthecircleofherhouseholdfoundthepersistenttalkofincestdifficulttocredit.Sheseemedtoodemure,tooinnocent.
Cesare,meanwhile,hadofficialdutiestoperform.AweekbeforeJuan'sassassination,thepopehadnominatedhisson,stillafewmonthsshortofhistwenty-secondbirthday,totheprestigiouspositionofpapal
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legate"toanointandcrownthemostsereneFederigoofAragon"askingofNaples.HearrivedinCapua,wherethecoronationwastotakeplace,ingoodtimefortheevent,whichwasplannedforAugust6,1497,enteringthecitywithanimposingcavalcadethatincludedsevenhundredhorsesaswellasnumerousservants,guards,prelates,andastragglingcrowdofcampfollowers.
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Unfortunatelyhewassuddenlytakenillsoonafterhisarrival,andthecoronationhadtobepostponed.Herecoveredquickly,however,fromthisillness,whichwasrumouredtobesomesortofvenerealcomplaint,andonAugust11,gorgeouslyattiredinredvelvetandcloth-of-gold,hewascarriedinoneofhisfather'spapalchairstothecathedral,whereheplayedhispartinthedelayed
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ceremonywithdignifiedcomposure.
CesareobviouslyenjoyedhisstayinCapuaandNaples,wherehewalkedaboutthecityinhissplendidclothes,clearlyrelishingtheattentionsofanadmiringandenviouspopulace;and,soitwassaid,castinglasciviouseyesonthedaughteroftheConted'Aliffe,onwhomhespenttheenormoussumof200,000
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ducatswithacarelessextravagancethathadbynowbecomecustomary.Hefellillagain,soonafterhisreturntoRome,andthistimethegossipswerequicktoidentifyhiscomplaintassyphilis,theFrenchdisease,soIsabellad'Estewasinformedbyheragent,Donatode'Preti,whowrotetoherfromRometosaythat"MonsignorofValenciahasreturnedfromNaplesaftercrowningKing
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Federigoandheisnowsickwiththemorbogallico."Cesare'spersonalphysician,GasparTorella,wouldgainenoughexperienceofthediseasetowriteatreatiseonit,whichhededicatedtohispatient.
CesarehadreturnedtoRomeonSeptember5andhadriddendirectlytotheVatican,whereheandhisfatherspentseveralhours
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closetedinprivatediscussion.WhileinNaples,CesarehadpersuadedKingFederigotomakeanofferofanewbridegroomforLucrezia,intheshapeofAlfonsoofAragon,theDukeofBisceglie.Thisamiableandhandsomeeighteen-year-oldyouthwasSancia'sbrother,andthoughhewas,likeher,illegitimate,thisoffertoreinforcethelinksbetweenRomeandtheroyalhouseof
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Naples,nottomentionSpain,wasgreetedbythepopewithenthusiasm.
Morecomplicated,however,wastheissueofCesare'sownfuture.WithJuandeadandthefifteen-year-oldJofrèshowingnosignsoffatheringanheir,itwasuptohimtosecurethefutureoftheBorgiadynasty,somethinghecouldnotdowhilestillacardinal.Moreover,although
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hisfatherwashaleandhearty,hewasnowapproachinghissixty-seventhbirthday,andtimewasnotontheirside.Cesarehimselfwaseagertoconcentrateupon"warlikeundertakings"andtotakeoverJuan'spositionascommanderofthepapalarmies,butthepopeadvisedcautionandtheneedtofindhimanappropriatewifebeforemakinganyrashdecisions.
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ThechoiceofawifeforCesare,indeed,hadquicklybecomethetalkofRome.OnerumourhaditthatSanciawaspreparedtooverlookhersuspicionsofCesare'sinvolvementinhisbrother'smurderandmarryhim,whileheryounghusband,Jofrè,wouldbeappointedacardinalinhisplace.Itwassoonclear,however,thatboththepopeandCesarehadmoreambitiousplans,andthat
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whilehewasinNaples,CesarehadapproachedKingFederigoaboutthepossibilityofarrangingamarriagebetweenhimselfandtheking'sdaughter,CarlottaofAragon,whowascurrentlylivinginFranceatthecourtoftheFrenchqueenAnneofBrittany.
KingFederigomighthavebeenpreparedtooffertheillegitimateAlfonsoas
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bridegroomforLucrezia,buthefoughtshyofagreeingtoamarriagebetweenhisownlegitimatedaughterandthelicentious,power-hungryCesare,whoclearlyhadaneyeontheNeapolitanthrone.Anxiousnottooffendthepope,Federigotemporized:"Itseemstome,"hewasreportedbytheVenetianambassadortohavesaid,"thatthesonofapope,whoisalsoacardinal,isnotthe
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idealpersontomarrymydaughter.IfthePopecanmakeitpossibleforacardinaltomarryandkeephishat,I'llthinkaboutgivinghimmydaughter."Norwashisdaughterhappywiththeproposedmatch;notonlywasCarlottainlovewithaBretonnobleman,butshewasalsodeterminednottomarry"apriestwhowasthesonofapriest."
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WiththeissueofawifeforCesaretemporarilyinabeyance,thepopenowconcentratedhiseffortsonfinalizingtheannulmentofhisdaughter'smarriage.UnderpressurefromhisunclesDukeLudovicoandCardinalAscanio,GiovanniSforzafinallygaveway."IfHisHolinesswantstocreatehisownkindofjustice,"hedeclared,"thereisnothingIcandoaboutit;letthePope
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dowhathelikes,butGodwatchesoverallthings."OnNovember18hereluctantlyputhissignaturetothehumiliatingdeclaration:"Ineverknewher."
Amonthlaterthemarriagewasdissolved.ThedemureLucreziawaspresentattheceremonyintheVaticanonDecember22thatformallydeclaredhertobevirgointactaand,assuch,legally
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abletocontractanothermarriage.ShegaveashortspeechofthanksinLatin,whichtheMilaneseambassadorpraisedforitselegance:"IfshehadbeenCicerohimself,"hemused,"shecouldnothavespokenwithmoregrace."ButmostofRome,stillbuzzingwiththerumoursofherincestuousrelationshipswithherfatherandbrother,agreedwiththePerugianchronicler
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FrancescoMatarazzo,whothoughtthedeclarationthatLucreziawasavirgintobeapropositionsooutlandishthatit"setallItalylaughing,"sinceitwas,heexplainedwithcharacteristichyperbole,"commonknowledgethatshehadbeenandstillwasthegreatestwhoretherehadeverbeeninRome."Shewas,infact,bythistime,sixmonthspregnant,thoughherladies-in-waitinghaddressedher
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carefully,toensurethattherewerenovisiblesignsofhercondition.
IntheconventofSanSisto,whileherhusbandwasbeingpressedtosigntherequiredadmissionofhisimpotence,Lucreziahadreceivedregularvisitsfromagood-lookingyoungSpaniard,avaletinherfather'sservice,onePedroCalderon,towhomsheseemstohavebecomepassionately
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attached;andonMarch15,1498,accordingtothereportsoftheFerrareseambassadorinVenice,shegavebirthtoaboy.
WhenCesareheardofCalderon'sguilt,soitwasrumoured,hewasdeterminedtopunishthevaletforwhathetooktobehisintolerablepresumption.FindinghimonedaynearLucrezia'sroomintheVatican,afterherreturn
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fromtheconvent,herushedattheman,brandishinghissword.Calderonranaway,seekingtoescapetheviolentCesarebythrowinghimselfintothearmsofAlexanderVI,whothrewhispapalrobeabouttheyoungman.ButCesareslashedathimwithhissword,splashinghisfather'srobeswithblood.Amonthbeforetheboywasborn,thebodyofCalderonwasfishedoutoftheTiber,
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togetherwiththatofLucrezia'smaid,Pantiselia.AsthepapalmasterofceremoniesJohannesBurchardrecorded,he"fell,notofhisownfreewill,intotheTiberandwasfisheduptodayinthatriver."
Lucrezia'sbabyseemstohavebeenstillbornortohavediedsoonafterbirth,inwhatwouldbecomeasadandfamiliarendtoher
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pregnancies.Ataboutthistime,confusingly,anotherBorgiachildappearedintheVaticanandwaschristenedJuan,inmemoryofthemurderedDukeofGandía.EndeavouringtoexplainJuan'sexistence,thepopeissuedtwobulls,oneofthemsecret.Theofficialbulldeclaredthatthechild,delicatelydescribedthereinas"theRomaninfant"(infansRomanus),wasthesonof
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CesareBorgiabyanunnamedspinster;thesecretbull,ontheotherhand,maintainedthatthechildwasthatofAlexanderVIhimselfbythesameunnamedspinster.Thechildwasundoubtedlyhis,conceivedwhilehewaspope,butitwastheidentityofthespinsterthatcaughttheimaginationoftheRomangossips;giventhewidelybelievedrumoursthatincestwasrampantamongthe
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Borgias,itwasperhapsinevitablethatshewasquicklyidentifiedasthepope'sowndaughter(thoughLucreziaherselfwouldalwaysconsiderJuanasherhalf-brother,aswouldlaterhistorians).
Meanwhile,arrangementsforLucrezia'sNeapolitanmarriagewentahead,andAlexanderVIagreedtoprovidethesumof40,000
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ducatsforhisdaughter'sdowry,athirdmorethanhehadpaidforhermarriagetoGiovanniSforza.OnJuly21,1498,LucreziaandAlfonso,DukeofBisceglie,wereformallypronouncedmanandwifeinaprivateceremony,held"withoutpomp,"accordingtoBurchard,inLucrezia'spalaceatSantaMariainPortico,where,inthepresenceofvariousecclesiasticsincludingseveral
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bishopsandthreecardinals,aswordwasheldovertheheadsofthebrideandbridegroom.
Thecouple—heagood-looking,livelyyoungman,shestillapretty,high-spiritedgirl—consummatedtheirmarriageandspentthenextfewdaysfeastinganddancing.AfightbetweenCesare'sservantswiththoseofSanciamarredthedecorum
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oftheweddingfestivitiesbutdidnotaltogetherspoilthem.Cesarehimself,stillacardinal,causedconsiderablesurpriseand,nodoubt,ironicalamusementbyappearingwithhisbrothersandcourtiersinamasquedressedintheguiseofaunicorn,thehornedemblemoffemalechastity.
However,evenwhiletheNeapolitanalliancewasbeing
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celebratedinRome,thestormcloudsweregatheringontheItalianhorizon.OnApril7,1498,theyoungKingCharlesVIIIhaddied,verysuddenly,afterstrikinghisheadonadoorlintelatthechâteauofAmboise.Hewasjustoveramonthshortofhistwenty-eighthbirthdayandhadbeenmarriedforoversixyears;hiswife,AnneofBrittany,hadbornehimfourchildrenbutnonehadsurvivedinfancy,
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andsothecrownpassedtohiscousin,thethirty-six-year-oldLouis,DukeofOrléans.
Eightdaysbeforehedied,CharlesVIIIhadseenagreatserpentinhisdreams,andwhenaskedwhatthismeant,hisastrologershadrepliedthatitwasasignthathewouldreturntoItaly.Butafterhisdeath,reportedtheVenetiandiaristMarinSanudo,"thesaidastrologers
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changedtheirminds,sayingthattheserpentmeantthathewouldbesucceededbytheDukeofOrléans,ashashappened,becausetheDukecarriesthisemblemonhiscoat-of-arms."TheserpentonhisshieldwastheViscontiviper:LouiswasthelegitimateheiroftheoldregimethathadruledMilanbeforetheSforzashadseizedpower,andheintendedtoenforcehisclaim.
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Chapter13TheUnwantedCardinal'sHat
"HISMINDANDHISDESIREANDHISINCLINATIONWERE
STILL
FORTHESECULARLIFE"
TALLINSTATURE,withalongfaceandagravecountenance,thenewFrenchking,Louis
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XII,wascertainlymoreregalinappearancethanhisuglypredecessor;afteramisspentyouth,hehadsettledintomiddleage,devotinghistimetohuntingandfalconry.AthisunexpectedsuccessiontotheFrenchthrone,hehadseveralreasonsfornegotiatinganearlyalliancewiththeBorgiapope.
LouisXIIneededAlexanderVI'ssupporttoenforcehis
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claimtotheduchyofMilan;asthelegitimategrandsonofValentinaVisconti,daughterofthegreatDukeGianGaleazzo,hehadabetterrighttothetitlethanthecurrentduke,LudovicoSforza,brotherofCardinalAscanio,whoseancestorshadbeenbornonthewrongsideoftheblanket(Ludovicohadinheritedthetitlein1494atthedeathofhisnephew,GianGaleazzo,which,soitwas
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said,hadbeen"provokedbyanimmoderatecoitus").LouisXIIalsointendedtorevivetheFrenchclaimtoNaples,whichCharlesVIIIhadfailedtoretainafterhisconquestofthekingdomthreeyearsearlier.Morepressing,however,wastheking'sneedforadivorcefromhishunchbackedandbarrenwife,andforapapaldispensationthatwouldallowhimtomarryCharlesVIII's
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widow,AnneofBrittany,notonlytoretainthattroublesomeregionfortheFrenchrealmbutalsotoproduceanheir.
Inreturnforthedissolutionofhismarriage,aswellasacardinal'shatforhistrustedfriendandcouncillorGeorgesd'Amboise,thearchbishopofRouen,LouisXIIdevisedanofferthatneitherAlexanderVInortheambitiousCesare
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couldrefuse.Inadditiontoahandsomesumofmoney,thekingproposedtogiveCesaretheduchyofValenceandtobestowuponhimthecovetedcollaroftheFrenchroyalchivalricOrderofSt.Michael.HealsoofferedtousehisinfluencetoarrangeCesare'smarriagetoCarlottaofAragon,daughterofthekingofNaplesandlady-in-waitingtoAnneofBrittany.Moreover,providingCesare
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agreedtofightwiththeFrencharmyduringhisforthcomingcampaigntoousttheSforzasfromMilan,LouisXIIpromisedtogivehimthecommandofalargebodyofarmedFrenchlancers,whichwouldbemaintainedattheking'sexpensebutwouldserveunderCesare'scommand,wherever,significantly,thenewdukewished.
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Theofferwasaccepted,justasthekinghadhoped.Andso,onJuly29,1498,AlexanderVIdulyissuedapapalbrieflistingeightreasonswhytheroyalmarriagewasinvalidandsetupacommissionofcardinalsandprelatesinFrancetoexamineLouisXII'scasefordivorce.ItwasnowtimeforCesareto"putoffthepurple...withtheleastpossiblescandal...andwiththemost
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decorouspretext."Threeweekslater,onAugust17,asBurchardrecorded:
TherewasasecretconsistoryinwhichCardinalCesareBorgiadeclaredthatfromhisearlyyearshewasalways,withallhisspirit,inclinedtothesecularcondition;butthattheHolyFatherhad
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wishedabsolutelythatheshouldgivehimselftotheecclesiasticalstate,andhehadnotbelievedheshouldopposehiswill.Butsincehismindandhisdesireandhisinclinationwerestillforthesecularlife,hebesoughtHisHolinessOurLord,thatheshouldcondescend,
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withspecialclemency,togivehimadispensation,sothat,havingputofftherobeandtheecclesiasticaldignity,hemightbepermittedtoreturntothesecularestateandcontractmatrimony;andthathenowprayedtheMostReverendLordcardinalstogivetheirconsentwillinglyto
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suchadispensation.
Thatsameday,LouisdeVilleneuve,BarondeTrans,arrivedatthegatesofRome,bringingwithhimLouisXII'sletterappointingCesareasDukeofValenceandaninvitationforthisnewFrencharistocrattovisithiscourt."HecameinthenameoftheKingofFrance,"reportedBurchard,"toescortthemostreverendCardinalofValencia
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tothatcountry."Tothepedanticmasterofceremonies,Cesarewasstillacardinal,despitehavingannouncedhisresignation,becausehisdecisionhadnot,thatday,beenratifiedbythecollege.
Ratherthanagreetothismostunusualarrangement,severalcardinalshadavoidedvotingbyabsentingthemselvesfromthe
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consistoryonAugust17,makingtheexcusethatcasesofplagueinRomerendereditprudentforthemtoleavethecityforthehealthierairofthecountryside.Butthepopecalledanotherconsistorysixdayslater,writingtoallthecardinalswhowereintheneighbourhood,sotheVenetianenvoyreported,"tellingthemthattheymustcometoRomebecausemattersconcerningthe
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welfareoftheChurchandChristianityweretobediscussed.Sothedissidentcardinalsyielded,"clearlywithsomereluctance,"andCesareBorgiacouldnowtakeoffhis[cardinal's]hatandmakehimselfasoldierandgethimselfawife."Thetwenty-three-year-oldcardinalofValenciahadbecometheDukeofValence,fromwhichhederivedhisnickname,ilValentino.He
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wasnowfreetomarryandprofesshimselfopenlyasasoldier.
Cesare'sbehaviourhadlongbeeninappropriateforaprinceofthechurch.Herarelyworehisplainclericalgarb,preferringinsteadtheelaborateoutfitsofacourtieroreven,onoccasion,fancydress."MonsignorofValenciaexercisesthepracticeofarmseveryday,"
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wroteCristoforoPoggiotoMantuaonJanuary19,1498,observingthathe"seemsresolvedtobeagallantsoldier."Norwerehisreligiousobservancessuchasthoseexpectedofamemberofthesacredcollege:"CardinalValentinoattendedthesolemnmassinthepapalchapel,"wroteBurchardonApril21,theSaturdayafterEaster,lamentinghisconspicuousabsenceduring
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theceremoniesheldduringHolyWeek,"buthehasnotpreviouslybeenseentheresincePassionSunday."
Nowthathewasadukeratherthanacardinal,Cesaretookpleasureindemonstratinghisskills,martialandequestrian,beforeastonishedspectators.Thedayafterannouncinghisresignationfromthesacredcollege,sotheMantuan
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ambassadorGianLucidoCattaneoreported,hedidsoinCardinalAscanio'shuntingparkbeforeanaudiencethatincludedLucreziaandSancia:"Armedasajanissary,withanotherfourteenmen,hegavemanyproofsofstrengthinkillingeightbulls,"and,addedCattaneo,"inafewdaysIhopetoseehimfullyarmedonthepiazza."
Indeed,Cesareneededto
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honehisathleticskillstoimpresstheFrenchcourt,wherehewouldsoonbeaguest,andspentmuchofhistimepractising"theexerciseofarms,horsesandleaping."Hesometimesoverreachedhimself;onedayintheBelvedere,forinstance,whenpractisingleapsacrossthebacksofhorsesandmules,hetried,inonebound,"tomountamulerathertallerthantherest,"Cattaneoreported,"and
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whenhewasintheairthemuletookfrightandkickedhimintheribsandonthebackofthehead,andhelayunconsciousformorethananhour."
Cattaneowas,however,notsoimpressedwiththenewduke'sappearance."Heiswellenoughincountenanceatpresent,"hereported,somewhatgrudgingly,"buthisfaceisblotchedbeneath
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theskinasisusualwiththegreatpox."Thesemarkswerethecustomarysignsofsecondarysyphilis,andCattaneobelievedthatCesarewasapprehensiveaboutgoingtoFrancetomarrytheNeapolitanprincessCarlottaofAragon,lestthatscarredfaceofhis,"spoiledbytheFrenchdisease,"wouldinducehisintendedbridetorefusehim.
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ThiswasnotCesare'sonlyconcern;therewerereportsthatthekingofSpainwas"extremelydispleased"abouttheBorgiaalliancewithFrance.CattaneoreportedthatthepopehadassuredonecardinalthatLouisXIIwasmostanxioustohaveCesareinhisserviceandthecardinalhadrepliedthat"itistrueValenceisadexterousman,"buthewarnedthepope,"Beware,HolyFather,that
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youdonotaimsohighthatifyouorhefall,youwillbreaktoomanybones."ManyItaliansalsofearedthisalliancebetweenthepopeandakingwhoopenlyprofessedhisclaimtobothMilanandNaples;itpromisedanotherinvasionoftheruthlessmenofthenorthand,asCattaneodramaticallyputit,"theruinofItaly."
Suchwarningsdidnotdeter
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AlexanderVI,whowasdeterminedtodoallthathecouldtofurtherhisson'scareer.Heraised200,000ducatstocovertheexpensesofCesare'striptoFrancetoensurethathisappearanceattheFrenchcourtwasasdramaticallyimposingaspossible.Thishugesumcamepartly,soitwasbelieved,fromimpositionsontheJewsinRomeandpartlyfromthesaleofgoodsconfiscatedby
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thepopefromhisSpanishmajordomo,aconvertedJewwhohadbeenappointedasbishopofCalahorraandhadbeenchargedbyAlexanderVIwithheresy.
Cesarespentmostofthismoneyon"jewels,stuffs,cloth-of-goldandcloth-of-silver,silksandotherluxuriousgoods,muchofthemimportedatconsiderableexpensefrom
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Venice."ForhisuseonthejourneytoFrance,hecommissionedacommodeforhispersonaluse,"coveredwithgoldbrocadeoutsideandscarletinside,withsilvervesselswithinthesilverurinals."ItwassaidthateventheshoesofCesare'shorseswereinlaidwithsilverandloosenedsothattheyfellofftobepickedupbythemostnimble-footedamongthecheeringcrowds.
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Soitwasthat,onOctober1,1498,CesareleftRomeforCivitavecchia,wheretwoFrenchgalleyswerewaitingtotakehimtoMarseilles."Wearesendingyouourheart,"AlexanderVIhadwrittentoLouisXIIinaletterthatCesarewastakingwithhimtoFrance,"thatistosayourbelovedson."Thepopewatchedthedepartureofhis"belovedson,"standingatthewindowoftheVaticanuntil
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thecavalcadewasoutofsight.
Cesarewas,asusual,gorgeouslydressed,wearingablackvelvetmantleoverhisshoulder,awhitebrocadetunic,ablackvelvetcap,sparklingwithrubies,andbootssewnwithgoldchainsandpearldroplets.Ridingabayhorsecaparisonedinredandgold,theFrenchroyalcolours,hewasaccompanied
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bytheFrenchenvoyBarondeTransandbyanostentatiouslylargeretinue:themembersofhishousehold,notforgettinghisdiligentphysician,GasparTorella;arichlydressedcrowdofyoungnoblemen,SpanishandRoman;scoresofpages,grooms,andguards;fiftymulesandtwelvecartspiledhighwithbaggage.Carefullysecretedinhisluggagewasthecardinal'shat
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forGeorgesd'Amboise,thearchbishopofRouen,andthedispensation,signedbythepope,thatwouldallowLouisXIItoremarry,providing,ofcourse,thedivorcecommissionpronouncedintheking'sfavour.Thenewdukewasfinallyonhiswaytofindhisownbride.
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Chapter14Cesare'sFrenchBride
"THEMOSTCONTENTEDMAN
INTHEWORLD"
CESARE'SRECEPTIONATMARSEILLES
wassuitablyboisterous.Welcomedbytheroarofcannons,theroyalguestsweremetbyfourhundredarcherswhomarchedforward
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toescortthevisitorstothequartersreservedforthem.Theyspentalmostaweekinthecity,enjoyingtheentertainmentsonoffer,feastingatseveralbanquets,andbeingshownsuchsightsastheplacehadtooffer.
LeavingMarseillesattheendofOctober,CesareandhisentouragestartedthelongjourneynorthtotheFrenchcourt,whichwascurrentlyin
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residenceinChinon,sometwenty-fivemilessouthwestofTours,wherethedivorcecommissionwasstilldeliberatingLouisXII'sdivorce.AtAvignontheyweretheguestsofthepapallegate—thiswasnoneotherthanCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,whowould,asPopeJuliusII,latercausesuchterribletroubleforCesare.Fornow,outwardlyatleast,theywereonamicableterms,
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particularlysinceAlexanderVIwasrelyingonthecardinaltoassistwithnegotiationsattheFrenchcourtinreturnforthepope'shelpinrestoringthedellaRoverefamilytotheirformerpositionofinfluenceinRome.
Asademonstrationofthisalliance,uneasythoughitwas,betweenAlexanderVIandGiuliano,thelegatehad
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riddentwomilesoutofAvignontomeetCesareandescorthimintothecity."Avignonneverwitnessedsuchanenthusiasticwelcome,"wroteawitnessofthescene."Norinthecityhadthereeverbeenamoresplendidprocession."Hewasgreetedwithfountainsgushingwine,presentedwithvaluablepiecesofsilverplate,and"fêtedbyladiesandbeautifulgirlsinwhomthe
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saidCesaretakesmuchpleasure,knowingwellhowtodanceandentertainthem,thedancesbeingmorrisses,mummeriesandotherfrivolities."
Unfortunately,Cesarewasinnomoodtoenjoythefestivities.Onceagainhewassufferingfromarecurrenceofhisvenerealdisease.So,indeed,wasGiuliano:"DellaRoverehasfallensickagain
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ofthatillnessofhis,"oneinformanttoldLudovicoSforza."Nowtheflowers[asthesyphiliticrasheswereeuphemisticallyknown]arestartingtobloomagain;ifGoddoesnothelphim,hewillneverbequitehealthy.AlsotheysaypubliclyofCesarethathetoohasthemaladyofSt.Lazarusinhisfaceand,moreover,heisinadiscontentedframeofmind."
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FromAvignonCesaretravelleduptheRhônevalleytoValence,thecapitalofhisduchy,andthenontoLyons,wherehearrivedonNovember7.FromLyonshedawdled,takingeveryopportunitytodelayhisarrivalattheFrenchcourtuntilthedivorcecommissionhaddeclareditsverdict.Crowdsgatheredineverytowntowatchhimpassby;asthesonofapope,hewasan
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objectofconsiderablecuriosity.Hisentouragewasledbyaparadeofsumptermules,eachbearingtheBorgiacrestandfollowedbytwomoremulescarryinghugechests,thecontentsofwhichbecamealivelysubjectofdebateamongthecrowdsofonlookers.AfterthesecamethegentlemenofCesare'shousehold,theirhorsescaparisonedwithimmensecockadesandsilver
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bridles,followedbytwentypagesdressedinredvelvetandcloth-of-gold,byyoungnoblemenofRomeandSpain,andbyhispersonalbodyguardofSpanishmercenaries.Cesarehimselfrodepastimperiously,pearlsandpreciousstonesdecoratinghisblackvelvetcostume,hishat,andevenhisboots.
Hedidnotcreateagood
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impressiononhisroutenorthtoChinon.Hewassaidtobealoofandarrogant,alltooreadytotakeoffenceandtogiveit.TotheFrench,hisostentatiousretinueappearedabsurdlypretentiousforatwenty-three-year-oldyouthwhowasnotonlyillegitimatebutwasalsounabletoclaimonedropofroyalblood.Hisimpassivemannerwasviewedashaughty;onoccasionhewaseven
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insolent,aswhen,atareceptionatValence,LouisXII'srepresentativecameforwardwiththecollaroftheOrderofSt.Michaelandwouldhaveplaceditaroundhisneck,butCesarepusheditaway,sayingthatitwasforthekinghimselftobestow.
Finally,onDecember17,thecardinalofLuxembourgannouncedthatthedivorcecommissionhadfoundin
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LouisXII'sfavour,freeinghimfromwhathehimselfdescribedasthis"cripple,afflictedwithscrofula,repellentinpersonandmind."Thedivorcedwife,byherownadmissionnotabeauty,hadremaineddignifiedthroughouttheproceedings;sheretiredtoaconvent,foundedherownorderofnuns,andwascanonizedin1950.
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ThefollowingdayCesaremadehisformalentryintoChinon,crossingthebridgeovertheViennewiththegreatmedievalcastle,strongholdofthePlantagenetkingdominFrance,loomingmightilyoverthetown.HewasaccompaniedbyGeorgesd'Amboise,whoseredhatwasintheduke'sbaggage,alongwiththepapaldispensationthatwouldallowLouisXIItomarryAnneof
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Brittany.Amanwhowastheregaveadescriptionoftheoccasion:
TheDukeofValenceenteredthusonWednesday,theeighteenthdayofDecember1498...precededbytwenty-fourhandsomemulescarryingtrunks,coffersandchests,coveredwithcloths
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bearingtheDuke'sarms,thenagaincomeanothertwenty-fourmuleswiththeirtrappingshalvedinredandyellow....Thentwelvemuleswithcoveringsofyellowstripedsatin.Thencamesixmuleswithtrappingsofcloth-of-gold....Andaftercamesixteenbeautifulgreat
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chargers,ledbygrooms,coveredincloth-of-gold,crimsonandyellow...afterthesecameeighteenpages,eachoneonafinecharger,ofwhomsixteenweredressedincrimsonvelvet,thetwoothersincloth-of-gold....Thencamesixfinemulesrichlyequippedwithsaddles,bridlesand
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trappingsincrimsonvelvet,accompaniedbygroomsdressedinthesame.Thentwomulescarryingcoffersandallcoveredincloth-of-gold....Thenaftercamethirtynoblemencladincloth-of-goldandsilver,followedbythreemusicians,twotamboursandonerebec,dressedin
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cloth-of-goldaccordingtothestyleoftheircountry,andtheirrebecshadstringsofgold.TheymarchedbetweenthegentlemenandtheDukeofValence,playingallthewhile.Thencamefourmusicianswithtrumpetsandclarionsofsilver,richlydressed,playingtheir
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instrumentswithoutceasing.Therewerealsotwenty-fourlackeysallcladincrimsonvelvethalvedwithyellowsilk,andtheywereallaroundtheDuke;besidehimrode[Georgesd'Amboise],conversingwithhim.
AstotheDuke,hewasmountedona
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greattallhorseveryrichlyharnessed,withacoveringofredsatin,halvedwithcloth-of-goldandembroideredwithveryrichgemsandlargepearls.Inhiscapweretwodoublerowsoffiveorsixrubies,aslargeasabigbean,whichgaveoutagreatlight.Onthebrimofhiscaptherewere
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alsoagreatquantityofjewels,eventohisboots,whichwerealladornedwithchainsofgoldandedgedwithpearls.
CesarerodethroughthetownofChinon,glitteringwithjewelsandthefinestclothes.Fromthecastlewindowshighabove,thekingandhiscourtierswatchedtheprocessionandwere
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exceedinglyentertainedbywhattheyconsideredthe"vanityandridiculouspomposityofthisduke."Onenteringthechâteau,Cesaremade"aprofoundreverencetothegroundtoHisMajesty,"reportedtheVenetianambassador,"then,halfwayacrossthegreathall,hemadeanotherreverence,andthen,cominguptotheKing,hemadeasiftokisshisfoot,buttheKingprevented
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this,sohekissedhishandinstead,asdidthegentlemenofhissuite."AndafterdinnerCesarewasescortedtotheroyalapartments,whereheremainedwiththeking"tothefourthhourofthenight,"andthefollowingdayLouisXIIentertainedCesareinthecompanyofseveralfashionableladies.Indeed,despitehisearlierridicule,thekingwasclearlydeeplyimpressedwiththis
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extraordinaryyoungman,whocouldbesoagreeablewhenhechosetobeso,especiallywhenflatteredbyroyalty.
OnDecember21,inamagnificentceremonyintheChurchofSt.-MexmeatChinon,inthepresenceofKingLouisandCesare,CardinalGiulianodellaRoveresolemnlyinvestedGeorgesd'Amboisewithhis
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cardinal'shat."Onthejourneyfromtheroyalcourttothechurch,"reportedBurchard,whowasnottherebutwasinformedoftheevent,"theillustriousCesare,DukeofValence,formerlycardinal,carryingthehatforalltosee,walkedbehindtheotherprincesandimmediatelyinfrontoftheKing,asifheweretheroyalequerry."
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CardinalGiulianosentnewstoRomeofCesare'ssuccessattheFrenchcourt."IcannotrefrainfrominformingYourHolinessthatthemostillustriousDukeissoendowedwithprudence,abilityandeveryvirtueofmindandbody,thathehasconqueredeverybody,"hewrotetothepopeonJanuary18,1499."HehasfoundsomuchfavourwiththeKing,andalltheprincesofthis
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court,"headded,"thateveryoneholdshiminesteemandhonourofwhichfactIwillinglyandgladlygivetestimony."
LouisXIIandAnneofBrittanyweremarriedinthecastleatNantesonJanuary6,1499.Cesare'smaritalprospects,however,werenotlookingsopositive.HehadhopedthatbynowCarlottaofAragonmighthavechanged
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hermindaboutmarryinghim;buttheNeapolitanprincesswasmorestubbornthaneverinherrefusaltodoso,"unless,"soCardinaldellaRoverereported,"herfatherinsistsonit."KingFederigowouldonlyagreetothemarriageifhisrightfulpositionaskingofNapleswasconfirmedbybothAlexanderVIandLouisXII;LouisXIIhadhisownideasaboutwhowastherightful
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kingofNaples.Forhisownpart,hedidtrytoforceCarlottatoconsenttothemarriage,andfacedbywhathesawasher"feminineperversity,"evenwentsofarastothreatentoexileherfromtheFrenchcourt.Itwasalltonoavail,andinduecourseshemarriedtheBretonwithwhomshehadfalleninlove.
Cesare,whoseprincipal
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reasonforgoingtoFrancewastogetmarried,wasfurious,blamingtheFrenchkingfornotdoingmoretohelphimandthreateningtoreturntoRometocomplainofhistreatmenttohisfather,whowasasangryashisson."AllEurope,"AlexanderVIdeclared,"wasverywellawarethat,butforthedefinitepromiseoftheKingofFrancetofindawifeforhim,Cesarewouldhave
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remainedinItaly."
InRome,meanwhile,theissueofthealliancewithFrancewascausingviolentriftsinthecollege."Yesterdayinconsistory,"theVenetianambassadorhadreportedinDecember1498,"CardinalAscanio[Sforza]toldthePopethatsendinghissontoFrancewouldbetheruinofItaly.ThePopeshoutedinreplythatithad
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beenAscanio'sbrotherwhohadfirstbroughttheFrenchintoItaly."AlexanderVIhadapoint—itwasLudovicowhohadencouragedtheadventurousCharlesVIIItoinvadeItalyandasserthisclaimtothekingdomofNaples,apolicythat,inhindsight,appearedrashintheextreme,particularlynowhissuccessortothethroneofFrancehadabetterclaimtoMilanthandidLudovicoand
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hisbrother.ThequarrelendedwiththepopethreateningtohurlAscaniointotheTiber.
Yet,despiteallthedifficulties,CesarewaspersuadedtostayoninFrance.TherewerehopesthatallhadbeenresolvedwhenitwasreportedthatKingLouisandCesarehadhaddinneralonetogether.InlateFebruaryBurchardreportedtherumourthat"thePope's
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son,Cesare,latelytheCardinalofValence,hascontractedmatrimonywiththedaughteroftheKingofNaples,whoislivinginFrance,"addingthat"themarriagehasbeenconsummated."Lessthanaweeklater,thiswasflatlycontradictedinaletterfromCardinalGiulianodellaRovere:"ThemarriageofDukeValentinowiththedaughteroftheKing,"he
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wrote,"isnowdefinitelyexcluded."
RumoursofapossibleFrenchbridewerenowrifeinRomeandcausingsuchconcernandconfusionthatthepopenotonlyhadtoreceivedeputationsofprotestfromseveralEuropeanpowers,evenfromPortugal,butfeltobligedtoappearinpublicwithanarmedguard.Thepopedeclaredtothe
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Venetianambassador,whocametoseehimaboutsomeothermatter,thatatthemomenthecaredlittleaboutotherproblems;hewaswaitingfornewsfromFrance."Heisveryanxioustohearwhatishappeningthereandiskeptinsuspense."
Finally,afteranxiousweeksofwaitingonthepartofthepope,andincreasingimpatienceonthepartof
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Cesare,LouisXIIproposedthatsinceamarriagetoCarlottaofAragoncouldnotbearranged,Cesareshouldmarry—insteadofanItalianbride—aFrenchone.Theking'schoicewasthesixteen-year-oldCharlotted'Albret,aquiet,religious,good-looking,andgood-temperedgirlwhohadexcellentroyalconnections;herfatherwastheDukeofGuienne,hermotherwasrelatedtothenew
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queen,andherbrotherwasthekingofNavarre.
ThenewsthatCesarewastomarryCharlotted'AlbretarrivedinRomeinlateMarch.Thepopedisapprovedofthematch,knowingtheinevitabletroubleitwouldmakeforthepapacyinItaly,andwouldhavepreventedithadhebeenabletodoso;butinviewofhisson'sdetermination,hefelt
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constrainedtogiveway,evenagreeingtogiveacardinal'shattothegirl'sbrother,Amanieud'Albret.
ThemarriagecontractwassignedonMay10,andtwodayslatertheweddingtookplaceinthequeen'sapartmentsatthechâteauofBlois.Thisfamilyceremonywasfollowedbyagrandweddingbreakfastservedinhugemarqueesputupinthe
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groundsbelowthechâteauwalls;andafterthemeal,themarriagewasconsummatedwhileCharlotte'sgigglingyoungladiestookturnsinwatchingtheactivitiesofthecouplethroughthekeyhole.Thepleasureofthebrideandgroomwasevidentlyspoiled,however,inamannerdescribedbyRobertdelaMarck,theLordofFleurange:
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TotellyouoftheDukeofValence'sweddingnight:heaskedtheapothecaryforsomepillstopleasurehislady.Buthereceivedabadturnfor,insteadofgivinghimwhatheaskedfor,theapothecarygavehimlaxativepillswhichhadsuchaneffectthatheneverceasedgoingtothe
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privythewholenight.
ThenextdayCesaresentatrustySpanishmessengertohisfatherinRome.OnarrivalthecourierwasimmediatelysummonedtotheVaticanandkeptthereforseveralhours,soanxiouswasthepopetoheareverydetailofthemarriage,itspreliminariesanditsaftermath.Hewaspleasedandamusedtohearthathissonhad"brokenthe
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lance"eighttimesontheweddingnight—eventhepedanticBurchardrecordedthispieceofinformationinhisdiary.AndtheFrenchkingwrotetothepopewiththeinformationthatithadbeenabetterperformancethanhehimselfhadbeenabletomanage;he,too,had"consummatedthematrimonyeighttimes,"buttheseeighttimesconsistedoftwobeforesupperandsixatnight.
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Overthenextfewweeks,morecouriersarrivedfromFrance,eachwithlettersreportingfurtherdetailsofCesare'ssuccess.ThepopewasdelightedwiththenewsthatLouisXIIhadgivenCesaretherighttousethearmorialbearingsoftheFrenchroyalhouse;theduke'scoat-of-armswouldhenceforthshowtheBorgiabullquarteredwiththeliliesofFrance.Hewasalso
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delightedtohearofCesare'snewcommandintheFrencharmy,withanelitecorpsofonehundredlancers,ofhiscollaroftheroyalchivalricOrderofSt.Michael,whichKingLouisXIIbestowedonhimaweekafterthewedding,andoftheestateinFrancethathadbeenboughtwiththemoneythatCharlottehadinheritedfromhermother.Cesarehimselfwrotetohisfathertosaythathe
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was"themostcontentedmanintheworld."
EvenCharlottewrotetoherfathertosaythatshewasverywellsatisfiedwithherhusband;andshehopedtobeabletogotoRomeonedaysoontoseeherfather-in-law.Shewasalsosatisfiedwiththepresentsshowereduponherbyherenthusiasticbridegroom,manyofwhichhadbeenboughtbyCesare
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forCarlottaofAragon,andwellshemighthavebeen,fortheyincludednumerouspreciousstones,pearlsanddiamonds,brocadesandsilks,goldchains,silver-giltdinnerservices,vesselsandvases,miniaturesilverbelltowersandcitadels,andmother-of-pearlmodelsofwarships.
OnMay23,thedaythenewsoftheweddingarrivedinRome,thepopedeclared
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aneveningofcelebrations.ThatnightRomewasenfête.Fireworksexplodedinthesky;torchesburnedthroughoutthenight;"bonfireswerelitasasignofjoyinthecity,"recordedBurchard,whoreportedthatevenLucreziahadlitherownfire,despitethefactthattheFrenchalliancespelledimminentdisasterforherhusband,AlfonsoofAragon,andforhersister-in-law
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Sancia.ForBurchard,too,themarriagedidnotbodewell:"Itwasinrealityagreatdishonour,asourceofgreatshameforHisHolinessandfortheHolySee."
Thepope,however,washugelyrelieved.Headmittedtooneforeignenvoythathehadentertainedrealdoubtsastothemarriageevertakingplace,butnowthatithaddonesohewasdelighted,
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and,whereasheusedtospeakillofFrance,hewas"nowallFrenchbecauseofthelovetheKingofFrancehadshowntowardshisDuke."Soanxiousandimpatientoflate,hewascontentedoncemoreandraisednoobjectionwhenaskedtopaythe30,000ducatsrequiredinFrancetowardthecostofaccommodatingandentertaininghissonduringhisstaythere.Thebenefits
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thathewasexpectingfromthisalliancewithFrancewouldbringhim,andparticularlyhisson,advantagesthatwouldfaroutweighthissumofmoney.
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Chapter15Conquests
"AUTCAESARAUTNIHIL"
ITWASINTHEMIDDLEofJuly1499thatnewsreachedRomethatthekingofFrancewasgatheringhistroopsinLyonsreadyfortheinvasionofItalyandthemilitarycampaigntoenforcehisclaimstoMilan
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andNaples.Knowingwhatwasinstoreforhisfamily,CardinalAscanioSforzafledthecitytojoinhisbrother,DukeLudovico.Thepope'sson-in-law,AlfonsoofAragon,leftonAugust2,ridingtowardNaples,muchtothemiseryofLucrezia;theyoungman,accordingtotheVenetianambassador,had"desertedhiswifewhohasbeenwithchildforsixmonthsandshecries
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constantly."Afewdayslater,AlexanderVIsenthisreluctantdaughter-in-lawSanciaofftojoinherbrotherinNaplesand,onAugust8,dispatchedtheirspouses,LucreziaandJofrè,northtoSpoleto,atownintheApennines,towhichhenowappointedthenineteen-year-oldLucreziaasgovernor,anunusualappointmentbutonethatconfirmedtherespectthepopehadforhisdaughter's
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abilitiesandthetrustheplacedinherloyalty—itwasanappointmentthatwouldhavebeenconventionalforason.Outofrespectforherdelicatecondition,heequippedherwithalitter,whichwasdecoratedinsidewithwhiteandcrimsonsatin,toeasewhatwouldbeanextremelyuncomfortablejourneyupintothehillsintheharshsummerheat.
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Cesare,meanwhile,hadtakenleaveofhisnewbrideinearlyJuly,justtwomonthsafterhiswedding,andriddensouthfromBloistojointheFrenchtroopsmassingatLyons.Withanarmyofsixthousandcavalry,onecompanyofwhichwasunderCesare'scommand,andseventeenthousandinfantry,LouisXIIwasoptimisticabouthischancesofconqueringtheprosperous
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duchyofMilan.Hedeclined,however,toleadthetroopshimself,preferringinsteadtofollowtheoldFrenchtraditionwherebyakingwithoutadirectmaleheirshouldremaininFrance.
Bytheendofthemonth,theFrencharmyhadcrossedtheAlps,negotiatingthepasseswitheaseinthemidsummerheat,andwerenowencampedonthePoplain.Alessandria
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capitulatedafterashortsiege,andseveralothertowns,mindfulofthepricetheywouldpayforresistance,chosetosurrenderpeacefully.OnSeptember2DukeLudovicoSforza,whowasnotpopularinMilanandwassuspectedbymanyofhavingpoisonedhisnephewtoacquirehistitle,fledthecity.TheMilanese,unwillingtosufferasAlessandriahaddone,openedtheirgatesto
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theFrenchinvaders.Amonthlater,onSunday,October6,LouisXIImadehisformalentryintothecity,hailedas"KingoftheFranks,DukeofMilan."
Leadingthecavalcadewasanarmedguardofsixhundredsoldiers,followedbyLouisXII'Sgeneralcarryingthegildedbaton.TheFrenchkingrodeabaychargercaparisonedingoldand
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clatteredtriumphantlythroughthecitystreets,whichhadbeenhungwithwhiteawningsemblazonedwiththeFrenchfleur-de-lis.AlsotakingpartintheprocessionwereCesareBorgiaandCardinalGiulianodellaRovere,aswellastheambassadorsofVenice,Spain,Genoa,Florence,Ferrara,andMantua.Thecavalcade,however,wasnotgreetedwithasmuch
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enthusiasmasLouisXIIhadhoped;oneVenetianeyewitnessreportedthatheheardonlyafewshouting,"France!France!"
Theonce-proudSforzadynastyhadcollapsedintoruins.WhenLouisXIIopenedthetreasurechestsintheCastelloSforzesco,Ludovico'smassivefortress,hefoundthemempty—Ludovicohadmanagedto
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escapewithafortuneingoldandjewels.Leonardo'sfamousfrescoofTheLastSupperintheconventofSantaMariadelleGrazie,towhichthekingmadeaspecialvisit,accompaniedbyCesare,hadalreadybeguntoflakeoffthewallsoftherefectory,and,saddestofall,Leonardo'sclaymodelofahorse,intendedbyLudovicoSforzaforabronzeequestrianstatueofhisfather,
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Francesco,hadsymbolicallycrumbledundertheshotsoftheFrenchsoldierswhohaduseditfortargetpractice.
WiththeFrenchconquestofMilanaccomplished,Cesarehadfulfilledhispartofthebargainthathisfather,thepope,hadreachedwiththekingofFrance,anditwastimeforLouisXIItohonourthepromisehehadmadetoCesare,toprovidehimwitha
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contingentofFrenchtroopstofightundertheduke'sorders.ThearrivaloftheFrencharmyinItalyprovidedAlexanderVIandhissonwiththepretexttheyneededtoestablishastateforCesareinnorthernItaly,usingthethinlydisguisedexcuseoftheneedtoreassertcontrolofthePapalStatestocounterthestrongFrenchpresenceinthearea.
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ThePapalStatescoveredalargeareainnorthernandcentralItaly,stretchingdowntheAdriaticcoastfromBolognaandRavennatoAnconaandacrosstheApenninesintotheTibervalleytoincludeLazioandthecountrysidearoundRome.Itwasamosaicofsmallstates,eachbelongingtothechurch,borderedtothenorthbytheduchyofFerraraandtothesouthbythatofUrbino,
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bothpapalfiefs,andtothewestbytheindependentRepublicofFlorence.SomeofthesestateswereadministereddirectlyfromRome,likeSpoleto,whereLucreziawasgovernor;otherswereruledbyquasi-autonomouslords,knownasvicars.
AsNiccolòMachiavelliobservedwithoutexcessiveexaggeration,theselands
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were"anurseryofalltheworstcrimes,ofoutbreaksofrapineandmurder,resultingfromthewickednessoflocallordsandnot,astheselordsmaintained,fromthedispositionoftheirsubjects.Fortheselordswerepoor,yetendeavouringtoliveasthoughtheywererich,theyresortedtoinnumerablecruelties...andpassedlawsprohibitingcertainactsonlytogiveoccasionforbreaking
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them...andpunishingoffendersbyimposingheavyfineswhichtheycollected."Theareamighthavebeenintermittentlylawless,butmuchofitwashighlyfertile,especiallyinthenorth,whereagricultureflourishedonthealluvialsoilsofthePoplain.Itwasalsoofenormousstrategicimportance,offeringthepossibility,oncefirmlyunified,ofastateasconsiderableasthoseof
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Naples,Venice,orFlorence.ItwasthisareathatAlexanderVIintended,withthehelpoftheFrench,touniteintoaduchyforhisson.
InOctober,shortlyafterLouisXII'striumphantentryintoMilan,AlexanderVIannouncedthat"thevicarsofRimini,Pesaro,Imola,Forlì,CamerinoandFaenza,aswellastheDukeofUrbino,feudatoriesoftheChurchin
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Rome,havefailedtopaytheirannualcensustotheApostolicChamber,"accordingtoBurchard'sreport,"andso[thepope]hasremovedtheirtitlesanddeclaredthemforfeit."BurchardaddedthatthecityofMilan—bywhichhemeantthenewFrenchgovernment—hadloaned45,000ducatstothepopetoraisetroopstoretaketheseterritories:"TheDukeofValence,"he
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reported,"captainofthesetroops,hasreceivedthissuminthenameoftheChurch."
OnNovember18CesarereturnedtoRomeforabriefvisit,enteringthecitylatethatafternoonthroughoneofthesmallergatestoavoiddetection.HespentthenexttwodaysattheVatican,muchofthetimeinprivatediscussionwithhisfather,thoughhedidfindthe
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opportunitytovisithisbelovedLucrezia,whohadgivenbirthtoababyboyduringthenightofNovember1.TheboyhadbeenchristenedRodrigo,afterhisgrandfather,inasplendidceremonyinSt.Peter's,attendedbyallthosecardinalswhowereinRome.
CesareleftRomeagainonNovember21,androdenorthwithallpossiblespeed,
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accompaniedby1,500soldiersofthepapalarmy,towardthenorthernbordersofthePapalStates,wherehisFrenchtroops—4,000infantryand1,800cavalryunderthecommandofYvesd'Alègre—werewaitingforhim.HewasnowreadytoembarkonthefirststageofhiscampaigntoestablishtheruleoftheBorgiaovertheRomagnainthenameofthechurchwithanattackon
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ImolaandForlì,twotownsonthegreatRomanroad,theViaEmilia,whichwereheldinthenameoftheRiariofamilybyGirolamoRiario'swidow,CaterinaSforza-Riario.
AlexanderVI,meanwhile,dispatchedthefifty-two-year-oldcardinalofMonreale,thepope'snephewandanothervictimofthemalfrancese,toVeniceinordertoreassure
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thegovernmentofthatcitythatVenetianinterestsintheRomagnawerenotunderthreat,agesturethatacquiredgreaterforcewhenbackedopenlybyLouisXII.TheFrenchkingpersonallyreassuredtheBentivogliofamily,therulersofBologna,thathewouldsafeguardtheirstate.ButhemadeitclearthattheBorgiacampaignhadhisbacking:"AttherequestofourHolyFather,"hewrote,
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"andwishingtohelphimre-coverthoselands,signoriesanddomains[ofthePapalStates]andespeciallythecastlesandlandsofImolaandForlì,wehaveappointedourdearandwell-belovedcousin,theDukeofValence,asourlieutenant."
Withtheself-confidencehenowalwayschosetodisplay,Cesareannouncedthatthe"recoveryofthelandsand
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lordshipsofImolaandForlì"wouldnowbeachievedwithoutunduedelay.TheRiariofamily,heinsisted,hadbecomesodislikedbytheirsubjectsthattheycouldnotdependupontheresistanceoftheinhabitants,whoweremorethanlikelytoopentheirgatestotheirliberators.Thisconfidentestimate,however,didnottakeintoaccounttheresolutionofGirolamoRiario'swidow,Caterina
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Sforza-Riario.
Imolaprovednoobstacle,andthefortresssurrenderedtoCesare'sarmiesonDecember11,afterabrief,almosttokenresistancebyCaterinaSforza-Riario'scastellan,andsixdayslaterAlexanderVI'sgreat-nephewCardinalJuanBorgiareceivedtheoathofobediencefromthecivicauthoritiesonbehalfofthe
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pope.Forlì,however,wastoproveagreaterobstacle;thecityitselffellwithoutastrugglebutthefortress,towhichCaterinahadretreated,wasoneofthestrongestinItaly.Whilesheheldoutinsidethecastle,CesareenteredForlìwithhislanceatrestinsilentacknowledgementofhisvictory.FrenchandSwissmercenaries,followedbyhundredsofrapaciouscamp
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followers,pouredinthroughthegates,plunderingthecapturedtownsandviolatingtheirwomen.
Cesaremadelittleefforttostemtheviolence:whenthecitizensappealedtohimtocurbhissoldiers,heusedthespuriousexcusethatthetroopswereanswerabletothekingofFranceandhecouldnotcontrolthem.Hedid,however,succeedinplacating
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theresponsiblecitizensofbothImolaandForlìbyassuringthemthatifhesurvivedtokeephispromise,hewouldmakeituptothemandensurethatwhenpeacewasfullyrestored,theywouldbere-appointedtoanyofficestheymighthaveundeservedlylost.
Caterinawasaremarkablewoman.TheillegitimatedaughterofDukeGaleazzo
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MariaSforza,shewasnowthirty-sixyearsold.Tallandbeautiful,braveandunscrupulous,shewasgiventooutburstsoffury,realorassumed,andwas"muchfearedbyhermen,"whoknewheramongthemselvesastheVirago.Onoccasionsheworefullarmour,adaptedtoconformtoherfullfigure,andwasimmediatelyrecognizedbythefalconperchedonherarm.Shehad
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beenmarriedthreetimes,hadhadseverallovers,andhadborneninechildren.
Aftertheassassinationofherhusband,GirolamoRiario,in1488,shehadrunforsheltertothecastleinForlì,leavingherchildrentothemercyofhismurderers,whohadthreatenedtokillthemtoo.Shehadrespondedinacharacteristicmanner,standingonthebattlementsof
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thecastle,herskirtraisedinherarmsandshouting:"Fools!Can'tyouseethatIcanmakemore?"
Shewasalsoallegedtobeawitchwithanarcaneknowledgeofmagicalpotions,therecipesforwhichshekeptinasafelyguardedbookandthatwere,infact,potions,salves,bleaches,andallkindsofcosmeticsthatsheusedtopreserveandenhance
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herundoubtedbeauty.
Herfirstreactionuponhearingthatthepopehadconfiscatedherstatewastoplanhismurder.OntheeveningofthedaythatCesarehadleftRome,Burchardreported,"acertainTomasinodaForlì,amusicianofthePope,andoneofhiscolleagueswerearrestedandtakentoCastelSant'Angelo."Itemergedthat
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TomasinohadjustarrivedinRomecarryinglettersthatpurportedtobeanofferofpeacefromCaterinaandthathehadintended,afterbribingoneoftheVaticanguardstogainentrytothepalace,topresenttothepopeinperson.
"IfthePopehadopenedthem,"continuedBurchard,"hewouldhavebeenpoisonedandwouldhavebeendeadafewhoursor
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dayslater."Tomasinoconfessedthat"ithadbeenhisfirmbeliefthat,oncethePopewasdead,thecitiesofImolaandForlìwouldhavebeenliberatedfromthesiegeimposedbytheDukeofValence."Whatexactlyhadbeeninthepackagenooneknewforsure,butitwaswidelyrumouredthatCaterinahadwrappedthelettersinthegraveclothofthecorpseofamanwhohad
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recentlydiedoftheplague.HernephewCardinalRaffaelloRiariofledRomeafewdayslater,takingwithhimasmallgroupofservantsandstickingtominorroadstoevadeanypursuers.
Despitethefailureofherdeviousplot,theformidableCaterinastillrefusedtogiveup,andshenowwaitedinhercitadelabovethetownatForlì,determinedtoholdout
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aslongasshecouldagainsttheBorgiaadvance.Standingdefiantlyontheramparts,sherebuffedCesarewhenhecameuptwicetotheedgeofthemoattodemandhersurrender,andononeoftheseoccasions,soitwasreported,shealmostcapturedhimbyinducinghimtocomeontothedrawbridgetodiscussthetermsandthengivingordersforthedrawbridgetoberaised.
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Bythelastweekoftheyear1499,Cesare'sFrenchtroopshadputtheirartilleryinpositionandtheattackonthecastlebeganinearnest.Wheneverthegunsfellsilentforatime,Caterinacouldbeseenscramblingoverfallenmasonry,sometimesinarmourandwithherswordinhand,atothersdressedasthoughforsomegrandfête,alwaysapparentlyundaunted.
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Theoutcome,however,wasneverindoubt.Aftertwoweeksofheavybombardment,withCesare'sgunnersbatteringthecitadelbynightaswellasbyday,thekeepcollapsedandthenalargepartoftheouterwallfellintothemoat.Astormingpartycrossedthemoatonrafts,clamberingupthetumbledstonesandthroughthebreachinthewalls,pouringintothefortressto
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hackandstabatthedefenders.OnJanuary14thedefencecollapsed,fourhundredofCaterina'ssoldiersweredead,andCaterinaherselfwastakenprisoner.Theslaughterwastotal:Burchard,whoreportedthatnewsofthevictoryatForlìreachedRomethatnight,wrotethat"themagnificentCountess,widowofCountGirolamoRiario,hasbeencaptured;alltheothershave
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beenkilled."Andthepapallegate,thecardinalofMonreale,whowasillwithafeverinUrbino,rashlylefthissickbedtoridetoForlìtocongratulatehiscousinonhisvictory,butheonlygotasfarasFossombrone,wherehecollapsedanddied.
ItwassaidafterwardthatCesareandYvesd'AlègrequarrelledoverwhoshouldtakechargeofCaterina—
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d'Alègrehadbeenhercaptor;Cesarewasincommand.IntheendCesarewontheargumentanddraggedthestrugglingwomantohisquarters,wherehewasallegedtohavecommentedthatshehaddefendedhercastlemorevigorouslythanshehadherultimatelywillingbody.TheVenetiandiaristMarinSanudoreportedthattherelationshipbetweenCesareandCaterinawasfar
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frombeingmerelythatofcaptorandprisoner:DukeValentino,hewrote,"iskeepingtheladyofForlì...whoisamostbeautifulwoman,daughterofDukeGaleazzoSforzaofMilan,dayandnightinhisroom.And,intheopinionofall,heistakinghispleasure."LouisXII'sgeneral,theMilanesecondottiereGianJacopoTrivulzio,putitmorebluntly:"Oh,goodMadonna,now
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youwillnotlackforfucking."
FromForlì,CesareintendedtomarchsouthtoattackPesaro,thestateofhisex-brother-in-law,GiovanniSforza,butbeforehecoulddoso,acourierbroughtthestartlingnewsthatLudovicoSforzahadmanagedtoraisealargeforceofeighty-fivehundredmercenariesandwasabouttomarchonMilanto
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reclaimhisduchy.LouisXIInowrequestedthattheFrenchsoldiersservingunderCesareweretobewithdrawn,temporarily,fromhiscommandandrecalledtoLombardy.ThefirststageofCesare'scampaignwasnowatanend,andhedecidedtoreturntoRome,leavingsomeofhistroopstogarrisonhisnewpossessionsandbringinghisfamousprisonerwithhimforincarcerationinthe
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dungeonsofCastelSant'Angelo.
ThepopepreparedatumultuouswelcomeinRomeforhisson,andtheentry,whichwastotakeplaceduringCarnival,wouldaddimpressivelytothecustomaryeventsstagedduringthatseason."OnWednesday26February,allthecardinals,ontheorderofHisHoliness,"reportedBurchard,"received
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notificationthattheyweretoarrangefortheirhouseholdstobeoutsidethegateofSantaMariadelPopolo"atmiddaytowelcomeCesareonhisreturn.Burchardalsoannouncedthatallambassadors,governmentrepresentatives,andofficialsoftheCuriaweretobethere"inperson,"aswerethecardinalsthemselves.Theyhadalong,coldwait;itwasnotuntilafterthreeo'clock
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thatthecrowdsatthegatefinallyheardthedistantsoundsoftrumpetsandpipesthatheraldedCesare'sarrival.
HisentrywasrecordedindetailbyBurchard,whohadarrangedthewholeeventandwasevidentlydispleasedthatnotalloftheparticipantssharedhisowndesirefororder:
Thecardinals,
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learningthatDonCesarewasapproaching,mountedtheirmulesandwaitedincustomaryfashionoutsidethegate.Theydoffedtheirhatstowelcomehim,andheinturntookoffhisowncapandgraciouslythankedthem.TheprocessionmadeitswaytotheVatican,
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DonCesareridingbetweenCardinalsPallaviciniandOrsini,passingalongtheViaLatatothechurchofSantaMariasopraMinerva...andtheCampodeiFiori.
Aboutahundredpackhorsesinnewblacktrappingsledthecavalcade,walkingingood
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order,andbehind,rathermorehaphazardlystrungout,werefiftymore.Iwasunabletoarrangethehouseholdsinanysortofordersincetherewereintheprocessionaboutathousandinfantrysoldiers,SwissandGascons,whomarchedalonginranksoffiveeach
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undertheirownseparatestandards,allblazonedwithDonCesare'sarms,andwerenotinterestedinourarrangementsatall.WhenthePope'sinfantryapproached,carryingtheirownbanner,theSwiss,onmeetingthem,demandedthattheyshouldlowerthisstandard.They
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absolutelyrefusedtomarchalongwithit,andthisledtoaconsiderableargument,butDonCesarequicklysettledit.DonCesarehadaroundhimahundredgrooms,eachonedressedinacloakofblackvelvetreachingtohisknees,withacollarofsimpleandseveredesign.There
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wereanumberoftrumpetersintheprocession,allwearingDonCesare'sarms,andtwoofhisownheralds,butbothtrumpetersandothermusiciansremainedsilentthroughoutthejourney.
TheDukeofBisceglie[AlfonsoofAragon]andDon
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JofrèBorgiafollowednextintheprocession,andthenDonCesareBorgiabetweentwocardinals,withthebishopsandambassadorsbehindthemridingtwoabreast.Therewasawrangleoverprecedencebetweentwoambassadors...[who]refusedtotakeanyfurtherpartinthe
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ceremonies.TheambassadorsforVenice,Florence,Savoyandotherstateswere,however,present.BehindthemcameVitellozzoVitelli[thecondottiere]inchargeofthemen-at-arms,whomarchedalonginsuchdisorderthattheecclesiasticscouldnottaketheirplacesand
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consequentlyforthemostpartalsowithdrew.
TowelcomeDonCesareattheVatican,thePopecametotheroomovertheloggiaoftheentrancetothepalace.WhenDonCesarereachedtheSaladeiParamenti,thePopeclimbedtotheSaladel
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Pappagallo,wherehetookhisseatandhadfivebrocadedcushionsarranged,sothatonewasonthethrone,oneunderhisfeet,andtheotherthreeonthefloorinfrontofhim.ThedoorofthePappagallowasthenopened,andDonCesareentered...kneelingbeforeHisHoliness,hemadea
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briefspeechinSpanishtothankhimforbeingthoughtworthyofsuchanhonour,andtothisthePoperepliedalsoinSpanish.Forthisreason,Ididnotunderstandwhathesaid.DonCesarenextkissedbothfeetandtherighthandofthePope,andfollowingthisceremony,those
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lordswhoalsosodesiredalsokissedHisHoliness'sfoot.
TheCastelSant'Angelowasmostelaboratelydecoratedonthisoccasion.TwobannersweresetuponthelowerroundtoweroverlookingthePonteSant'Angelo,whilstonthehighertower,where
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trumpetersplayed,thereweredisplayedfourorfivemorebanners,allwiththepapalarms.Abovethewalls,andbetweeneachturretfacingthebridge,therestoodthreemenarmedfromheadtofootandholdinghalberdsintheirhands,whilstabovethewallsoftheroundtowerwere
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fifteensoldiersandasmanyagainwherethetrumpeterswereblowing.Sometwohundredormoreexplosionsinturnshooktheareawithagreatdealofnoise...withreverberationsthatbroughtdownseveralwindowsandshutters....Ihadneverseensuchasplendidnortriumphant
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display.
SodelightedwasthepopetowelcomehissonhometoRomeasLordofImolaandForlìthathewasreportedasbeingunabletodecidewhethertolaughorcryandsodidbothalternately.Cesarehad,indeed,achievedmuchandhaddonesoatlittlecosttoeitherhisfather'spurseortothetroopsunderhiscommand.And,
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strikingly,inthismomentofrealtriumph,hehadchosendeliberatelytodressbothhimselfandhishouseholdmoremodestlythanhehadinthepast.Heandhisbodyguardmadetheirentryintothecityallclothedinblack,CesareproudlywearinghisgoldencollaroftheOrderofSt.Michael;andinblackagain,heappearedbeforehisfatherintheVaticantomakehisreport.
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Thefollowingday,February27,RomewitnessedoneofthehighlightsoftheCarnivalseason,thecavalcadeofelaboratelydecoratedcartsinthePiazzaNavona,anditwaswatchedeagerlybythecrowdswhohadlinedthestreetstoseetheparadeasitmadeitswayfromthepiazzatotheVaticanPalace.ThethemethatyearwastheTriumphsofCaesarandthetableauxdepictedonthe
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wagonscelebratedthemilitarysuccessesofJuliusCaesar,thevictoriousgeneralofancientRome,whoappearedonthefinalwagon,crownedwithhisvictor'swreathoflaurels.
Withhisusualrelishforsuchoccasions,Cesareaccompaniedthecavalcadeastridehismagnificentcharger.Thepope,whowaswatchingthedisplayinthe
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piazzaofSt.Peter'sfromabalconyintheVaticanPalace,wassoimpressedthatheaskedforanencore,andhissondulyturnedtheprocessionaroundtoallowittopassoncemorebeneathhisfather'swindow.
TheprogrammefortheCarnivalpageant,drawnupbyhumanistsemployedbythepopeandexecutedbyartistsworkingonpapal
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projectsintheVatican,wasclearlydesignedtodrawparallelsbetweenCaesarandCesare.AndthemessagewouldnothavebeenmissedbythoseonlookerswhohadwatchedCesare'striumphalentryintothecitythedaybefore,wheretheyhadseenthevictorioussoldiercarryinghisownsword,whichwasengravedwiththelettersCESAR,andthesamelettersembroideredontheclothesof
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hispersonalbodyguard.Cesarewassoontoadoptashismotto"autCaesarautnihil"—Caesarornothing—averyambitiousdeclarationofintent.
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Chapter16Jubilee
"THEPOPEINTENDSTOMAKE
THEDUKEVALENTINOAGREATMAN
ANDKINGOFITALYIFHECAN"
"ONTHEMORNINGofthefourthSundayofLent,29March,"
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BurchardrecordedjustamonthafterCesare'striumphantreturntoRomeasLordofImolaandForlì,"thecardinalsassembledattheaccustomedhourintheSaladelPappagalloandwerethencesummonedmoreprivatelytomeetHisHolinessinhissmallaudiencechamber,where,havingtakentheiradvice,"asthemasterofceremonieseuphemisticallydescribedthe
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processwherebythepopeinformedthecollegeofhisintentions,"hedecidedtobestowtheGoldenRoseontheillustriousCesareBorgia,hismuch-lovedson,andtocreatehimCaptain-GeneralandGonfalonier[standard-bearer]oftheHolyRomanChurch."
Theceremonyhad,ofcourse,beenplannedwellinadvance.Directlyafterthe
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meeting,thepopewascarriedonhisthroneintoSt.Peter's,withtheGoldenRoseinhislefthand,followedbyCesare,eedressedinacoatofbrocade,thecardinals,andothermembersofthepapalcourt,tojointheambassadors,prelates,andofficialsassembledinthebasilica.InsideCesarewasformallyenrobedwiththeinsigniaofhisnewoffice:thegreatmantleandthegilded
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helmetwithitsermineplumescrownedbythefigureofadovethatglistenedwithpearls.Kneelingbeforehisfather,hemadehissolemnvows:
I,CesareBorgiaofFrance,DukeofValence,Gonfalonierandstandard-bearer,Captain-GeneraloftheHolyRomanChurch,dosolemnly
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swearfromthisdayforwardsthatIwillfaithfullysubmittoSt.Peter,totheHolyRomanChurchandtoyou,mymostholylord,PopeAlexanderVI,andtoyourcanonicalsuccessors.NeverwillIintend,planorundertaketodepriveyouoflifeorlimb,totakepossessionofyour
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personinawickedfashion,tolaymyhandsviolentlyonyouoryoursuccessors,whateverisdoneagainstme,whateverwrongsarepropagatedagainstmeandunderwhateverpretext,andIwillrevealtonoonetheplansthatyouoryoursuccessorsconfideinme.
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"Receivethesestandards,"AlexanderVIresponded,givinghissonthebannersofthechurch,"whichhavebeensanctifiedbytheblessingofHeaven,andwillbeterribletotheenemiesofChristendom."HethenhandedtohissonthebatonofcommandandfinallytheGoldenRose.Attheendoftheceremony,thebannerswerehoistedbytwomen-at-arms,andthecongregation
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followedthemoutofthebasilicaandintothepiazza:theambassadors,eightflautists,fourdrummers,threeheralds,soldiers,cardinals,andfinallythedukehimself,followedbythefootmenandprelatesandbyCesare'smen,"whomarched,"toBurchard'sobviousdistress,"ininevitabledisorder."
TheproudCesarecould
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nowaddthepontificalkeysofSt.PetertotheBorgiabullandtheliliesofFranceonhiscoat-of-arms,buthisambitionstoenlargehismodeststateintheRomagna,whichdependedheavilyonthesupportofLouisXII,had,forthemoment,stalled.Aftertheeuphoria,whichwasnoticedinhisbehaviouratthistime,hefellintooneofthosemoodsofdeepgloom,symptomsofthemanic-
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depressive."Iknowthatinmytwenty-sixthyear,"hewasquotedashavingsaid,"Istandindangerofendingmylifeinarmsandbyarms."HealsoaskedtheGermanhumanistLorenzBehaimtocasthishoroscope;anditseemsthattheresultwasnotencouraging.
LudovicoSforza'scampaigntoseizehisduchybackfromtheFrenchhadmetwith
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surprisingsuccess.Hehadsucceededinre-conqueringMilan,althoughthegreatSforzacastleremainedinFrenchhands,andonFebruary6hehadmadehistriumphantreturn,welcomedbyhissubjectswithmuchjoy.TheFrencharmyhadwithdrawntoNovara,awaitingtheirchancetoretakethecity,Yvesd'Alègreandhisgunners,whichCesareneededforhis
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Romagnacampaign,amongthem.Therewas,however,muchthatthepopeandhissoncoulddotoplanthenextstageoftheircampaign,andmuchmoneytoberaisedtofinanceit.
Theyear1500wasaJubileeyearinRome,whenthousandsofpilgrimswereexpectedtoflocktothecity,where,byvisitingcertainchurches,fasting,praying,
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attendingconfessionandCommunion,andgivingalms,theywouldreceivepardonforalltheirsins.ThetraditionoftheChristianJubileeyearwasnotanancientone;foundedbyPopeBonifaceXIIIin1300,asameansofraisingfundstofillthepapalcoffers,ithadinitiallybeenintendedasacelebrationforthebeginningofeachcentury,thoughPaulIIhaddecreedin1470thatit
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shouldbeheldeverytwenty-fiveyears.
BurchardgivesalengthyaccountofthepreparationsmadeinthecityfortheJubilee;provisionforhousingthepilgrims,sweeperstoclearthelitterfromchurchfloors,specialpatrolstopreventtrampsloiteringaroundtheporches,and"largestrongcasks,"addedBurchard,"weretobe
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providedforfreewillofferingsnexttotheChapelofSt.AndrewinSt.Peter's,andtheyweretobeprotectedwiththreedifferentlocksandkeys,onekeytobekeptbytheDatary,asecondbyoneoftheconfessorsandthethirdinanotherofficial'shand."
Inanattempttoattractmorepilgrimsthanusual,AlexanderVIannouncedthatforthe1500Jubilee,theHoly
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DoorofSt.Peter'swouldbereopened.Thisdoor,whichhadlongbeenwalledup,wasbytraditiontheGoldenGateofJerusalem,throughwhichChristhimselfhadenteredthecityonPalmSunday.IthadreputedlybeenbroughttoRomebyEmperorVespasianaftertheRomanconquestoftheJewishcapitalin70A.D.,anditwaswidelybelievedthatanysinnerwhowalkedthroughit,evenamurderer,
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wouldhavehissinsforgiven.
Accordingly,onDecember24,1499,hugecrowdsassembledinthepiazzainfrontofSt.Peter'stowatchtheceremonialopeningoftheHolyDoor.Thepopearrivedamidmuchfanfareandcelebration,and,accordingtoBurchard,hewas"handedanordinaryworkman'shammer"byoneofthebuilders,whohadspentseveraldays
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chisellingawayattheHolyDoorfrominsidethebasilicatoweakenit.Thepope"gavethreeormoreblows"tothewall,thuscreatingasmallopening,beforeretiringtohispapalchairafewyardsawaytowatchtheworkmendemolishingtherest."Onthistasktheyspenthalfanhour,duringwhichtimeourchoirsangcontinually,"themasterofceremoniesreported.
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AlexanderVI,dressedinfullpontificalrobesandwearingthetripletiara,ledtheceremonialprocessionthroughtheHolyDoorintoSt.Peter's,holdingacandleinhislefthandandBurchard'scolleaguesupportinghisrightelbow,followedbythecardinalsandthepapalcourt(thebuildersthemselveshadbeenforbidden,"underpenaltyoflosingtheirheads,"togothroughthedoorway
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whiletheyweredemolishingit).
Theexpectedinfluxofpilgrimsdidindeedmaterialize,andsodidtheirofferings.TheFlorentinediaristLucaLanduccireportedlargenumbersofnortherners,manyfromacrosstheAlps,passingthroughthecityontheirwaysouthtotheJubilee.Fromtheirlodgingsinoneof
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Rome'smanyinnsandtavernsor,morecheaply,inthehospicesthatallChristiannationsmaintainedinthecity,thepilgrimsthrongedthestreetsofthecapitaloftheirfaithastheywalkedfromchurchtochurch,seeingandbelievinginthesightsandsitesofChristianlegend.
AtSantaMariaMaggioretheyworshippedatthemangerthathadoncebeen
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Christ'sowncribinthestableatBethlehem;atSanGiovanniinLateranotheymarvelledattheswaddlingclothesthathadwrappedthebabyJesusandthetablewhereheandhisapostleshadeatentheirLastSupper;here,too,theycouldclimbthestairsofPontiusPilate'shouseinJerusalem,following,ontheirknees,inthefootstepsofChristhimself.AtSt.Peter'sthey
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couldseethelancethathadpiercedChrist'sbodyduringtheCrucifixion,amuch-treasuredrelicthatthebasilicahadacquiredasrecentlyas1492,thoughBurchardrecordedthatseveralcardinalshadnotedthatthesamelancecouldalsobeseeninbothParisandNuremberg.
Romewas,indubitably,thecitywhereSt.PeterandSt.
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Paulhadpreachedanddiedfortheirfaith;thegreatbasilicasofSt.Peter'sandSanPaolofuorileMuramarkedtheirgraves.AndtheheadsofthesegreatleadersoftheearlyChurchcouldbeseenbythepilgrims,atcertainhours,inachapelinSanGiovanniinLaterano;asonepilgrimnotedwithawe,they"stillhavetheirflesh,colourandbeardsasiftheywerestillalive."
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Thefaithful,however,alsoprovidedeasypickingsforthepickpocketsandcutpurseswhoroamedthecitystreets.BurchardreportedthatonApril10,1500,sixmenwerehungonthegallowsforthecrimeofrobbingpilgrims.OnMay27,theeveoftheFeastoftheAscension,eighteenmorewerehungonthePonteSant'Angelo,wheretheywouldhavebeenhideouslyvisibletoallthosecrossing
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theTiberontheirwaytoSt.Peter'stowalkthroughtheHolyDoorbeforesayingtheirprayersintheveneratedbasilicaandleavingtheirofferingsinthecasksprovided.ThefirsttobehungwasadoctorfromthehospitalatSanGiovanniinLaterano,whohadbeeninthehabitofleavinghiswardseachmorning,armedwithacrossbow,tokillandrobanyonehefound;amongthe
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otherswereabandofhighwaymenwhohadattackedagroupoftravellersinthehillsoutsideViterbo.
Duringthespring,newsarrivedinRomethatmusthavedonemuchtoliftthespiritsofthepopeandhisson.OnApril10LouisXIIhadcelebratedagreatvictoryoverLudovicoSforzaatNovara,aftertheSwissmercenariesfightingfor
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LudovicorefusedtousetheirarmsagainsttheFrench.Landuccireportedthattwelvethousandweredead.LudovicohimselfhadbeencapturedandtakentoFrance;thefateofCardinalAscanioSforzaremainedobscure,butearlyonthemorningofMaundyThursday,April16,acourierarrivedinRomewiththenewsthathehadbeenfoundinacastlenearPiacenza,wherehehadfled
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withsixhundredhorsemenandvaluablesworth200,000ducats.He,too,wasnowaprisoner,andthepope,accordingtoBurchard,wassopleasedwiththenewsthathetippedthecourier100ducats.
Farfromofferinghelp,orevensupport,tohiserstwhilefriendinthishourofneed,AlexanderVItooktheopportunitytoseizeAscanio's
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valuablecollectionofartworksandjewels,includingasetoftwelvesilver-giltstatuesoftheapostles;ittookfourhoursforthecarts,operatinginsecretunderthecoverofdarkness,totransportthegoodsfromthecardinal'spalacetotheVatican.
Meanwhile,Cesarewasbeginningtoenjoyhisenforcedrestfromthe
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battlefield;andwhilehiswifeCharlotted'Albret,whohadgivenbirthtohisdaughter,remainedinFrance,Cesarespentmuchofhistimewithhismistress,anextremelyprettyandentertainingyoungwoman,Fiammettade'Michelis,whoseaccomplishmentsandcomplaisanceasacortigianahadenabledhertobuythreehousesinRomeaswellasacountryhouseoutsidethecity
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walls.Cultivatedaswellasdesirable,shespokeLatin,knewpagesofOvidandPetrarchbyheart,sangwell,andplayedthelyre;herhandsomeloverwasoftentobeseenonhiswaytoandfromherhousenearthePiazzaNavona.
Lucrezia,however,waslesshappy,herenjoymentofthewarmthofearlysummermarredbyincreasingfriction
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betweenherhusband,AlfonsoofAragon,andherfatherandbrother,whosealliancewithFrancewasprovingaproblemforbothAlfonsoandhissisterSancia.WhenthenewsspreadaroundRomethataBurgundianhadchallengedaFrenchmantoaduel,tosettleanargumentoverabanner,Cesaretried,unsuccessfully,tobribetheBurgundiantowithdraw:"Hewouldprefer,"sotherumour
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went,"tohavelost20,000ducatsratherthanseeaFrenchmanbeaten."Sancia,ontheotherhand,madeapointofdressingherownsquiresintheBurgundiancolours,toshowwhereherloyaltieslay.
Cesarewascarefulnottopubliclydisplayanysignofthegrowingfrictionbetweenhimselfandhisbrother-in-law.Whenthetwomenwere
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seentogether,theyappearedtobeonperfectlyamicableterms,ridingaboutthecityinevidentamity.YettherewasnoticedinCesare'smanneramorethanusualimpatience,"asthoughhewereanxiousforimportantactionstounfold."
Cesarealsoappearedinpublicduringthissummerof1500honinghisskillsasabullfighter.OnJune24,the
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FeastofSt.JohntheBaptist,hedemonstratedhisprowesswiththeswordinthepiazzaofSt.Peter's,whichhadbeencordonedofftopreventthebullsfromescaping.Onanotheroccasion,sotheVenetianenvoyPaoloCapelloreported,hekilled"sevenbulls,fightingonhorsebackintheSpanishstyleandcuttingofftheheadofoneofthemwithhisfirststroke,afeatwhichseemed
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greattoallRome."
OnJune29,shortlybeforesunset,thepopehimselfwasluckytoescapewithhislifethankstoanactnotofman,butofGod.Duringanexceptionallyviolentstorm,with"hailstonesthesizeofbroadbeansandanextremelyviolentwind,"reportedBurchard,achimneyintheVaticancollapsed,breakingtwobeamsinanupper
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chamberthatbroughtdowntheceilingoftheroombelow,whereAlexanderVIwasindiscussionwithacardinalandoneofhisprivatesecretaries.Thetwomenwerejustclosingthewindows,asthepopehadaskedthemtodo,whentheyheardthethunderouscrashandturnedimmediatelytofindthepapalthronehiddenunderapileofrubble:"Theycriedtotheguards,'ThePopeisdead!
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ThePopeisdead!'andthenewsquicklyspreadthroughoutthecity."AlexanderVI,however,wasonlyunconscious;whentheyremovedtheplasterandbricks,theyfoundhimseatedonhisthrone,withtwosmallcutstothehead,twolargeronesonhisrighthand,andanotheronhisrightarm,miraculouslystillalive.Asonechroniclerobserved,thisluckyescape"wasseenasa
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greatsignandomenforthePope."
Sometwoweekslater,ontheeveningofJuly15,1500,AlfonsoofAragonwenttotheVaticantodinewiththepope;afterwhatseemstohavebeenapleasantevening,hetookhisleaveofhisfellowgueststowalktheshortdistancehometothepalaceofSantaMariainPorticojustacrossthepiazzaofSt.
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Peter's,accompaniedbyagentlemanofhishousehold,TomasoAlbanese,andagroom.Astheypassedbythebasilica,anumberofmen,apparentlysleepingontheflightofgreatceremonialsteps,rousedfromtheir"slumbers,"rosetotheirfeet,andsuddenlyfelluponAlfonso,stabbinghimwiththeirdaggers.Theywouldhavecarriedhimofftotheirtetheredhorseshadnothis
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companionsrushedtohisaidanddraggedhimawaytothesafetyoftheVatican.
Insidethepalace,Lucreziafaintedatthesightofherwoundedhusband.Bythelightofthetapersandcandles,itwassooncleartoallthatAlfonso'sinjurieswereserious;hehaddeepgashestohisheadandhisshoulder,"eitheroneofwhichcouldprovemortal,"asthe
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Florentineambassadorreported.ThePopehadhimtakentooneofhisownroomsintheBorgiaapartments,wherehiswoundsweredressed.Herecoveredslowly,underthewatchfuleyeofadoctorsenttohimbythekingofNaplesandthecarefulnursingofLucreziaandSancia,hisroomguardedbysoldiersandhisfoodpreparedbyhislovingwife,fearfulofanother
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attemptonhislife.
ItwasgenerallysupposedthattheinstigatoroftheattackwasCesareBorgia.Thepopewasinclinedtoagree:atleast,hetoldtheVenetianambassadorthatifCesarehad,indeed,beenresponsiblefortheattack,Alfonsothoroughlydeservedit.Alfonsohimselfclearlyhadnodoubtsastowhowasresponsible,andhewasonly
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tooreadytoavengethisviciousattackonhisperson.WhenhecaughtsightofCesareonedayinthegardensbelowhisbedroomwindow,hepickedupacrossbowandshotaboltthatonlynarrowlymisseditstarget.
OnAugust18Alfonso,stillinbedbutmuchrecovered,togetherwithhiswifeandhissister,wasenjoyingthecompanyofhisuncleandthe
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Neapolitanambassador,whenapartyofarmedmen,ledbyMigueldeCorella,Cesare'strustedSpanishlieutenantandknownbysomeashis"executioner,"rushedintotheroom,claimingthattheyhadorderstoarrestthevisitors.Therehadbeenaplot,Corellaannounced:CesareBorgia'slifehadbeenthreatened.LucreziaandSanciaprotested—theythemselveshadnotbeen
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warnedofanysuchplot;theofficermusthavewrittenauthoritybeforetheycouldallowanymemberoftheirpatient'shouseholdtobetakenaway.
Possiblyhehadmistakenhisorders,Corellareplied;andhesuggestedthatthetwoladiesshouldgotothepopeandaskhimtoconfirmthattheenvoywastobearrested.Sothetwoyoungwomenleft
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forthepope'sapartments;andwhentheyreturned,theyfoundthedoorofAlfonso'sroomlockedagainstthem.Therehadbeenanaccident,theyweretold;thedukehadtrippedandfallen;hiswoundshadreopened;regrettablyhewasdead.Burchardreported,succinctly,thathehadbeen"strangledinhisbed."
Alfonsowasburiedthat
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nightintheChurchofSantaMariadellaFebbre;anditwasgivenoutthathehadbeenthevictimofadreadfulplot,detailsofwhichwouldbepublishedlater.Naturally,theyneverwere.Though,withinashorttime,accordingtoFerdinandGregorovius,themurderwasnolongeramysterysinceCesare,DukeofValence,hadopenlydeclaredthathehadkilledhisbrother-in-lawbecausehis
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ownlifehadbeenthreatenedbyAlfonso.
LucrezialeftRomeafewdayslater,accompaniedbyjustsixriders,boundforhercastleatNepi.ThiscastlehadbeenafavouriteresidenceofAlexanderVIwhilehewasacardinal,anditwashewhohadgiventhetownitsforbiddingaspectwhenhebuiltanewcircuitofwallstofortifythisstrategic
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strongholdontheViaCassia,sometwenty-fivemilesnorthofRome,thatguardedoneofthemainapproachestothecity.Oncepope,hehadgiventhetowntoCardinalAscanioSforzaingratitudeforSforza'ssupportintheconclave,butafterthecardinal'sflightfromRometheprevioussummer,hehadrescindedthegift,bestowingitinsteadonhisdaughter.InFebruary1500thefondand
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indulgentfatherhadalsospent24,000ducatsonthetownofSermoneta,withitscastlesandlandtothesouthofRome,forhisbelovedLucreziatoaddtoherownershipofSpoletoandNepi.
LucreziaspentfourquietmonthssecludedatNepiwithherbabyboy,Rodrigo."Thereasonforthisjourney,"explainedBurchard,"wasto
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findsomeconsolationordistractionfromtheanguishandshockshehasfeltsincethedeathofherhusband,Alfonso."HermiserywasevidentatthebottomofthelettersshewrotetoherhouseholdinRome,whereshesignedherself"LaInfelicissima"(mostunhappywoman)andshespentlargesumsofmoneyarrangingforprayerstobesaidforthesoulofhermurderedhusbandand
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toassuageherowngrief.
ShehadhadcausetofeelisolatedinRome.Herformerfriendswerewaryand,inthewordsoftheMantuanenvoy,"neitherherbrothernorherfathercouldforgiveherfortheloveshehadborneherhusband."AccordingtothefancifulaccountoftheVenetianambassadorinRome,Lucreziahad"drunksodeeplyatthespringof
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sorrow"uponthemurderofherhusband,that"inasinglenightshehadbecomemorelikeawomanthreetimesherage,anditwasclearthatshewouldneverrecoverheryouthfulbeauty."
OnedayinlateAugust,shortlyafterAlfonso'sassassination,BarondeTransarrivedinRome,onceagainactingasenvoyforLouisXIIwithamessageforCesare.
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Hestoppedataninnjustoutsidethecitywallsandsoonafterward,accordingtoBurchard,"therecameacertainhorseman,maskedandridingfast,whodismountedattheinnand,keepingonhismask,whichhedidnotlower,embracedMonsieurdeTransandspokewithhim.Afterashortwhilethemaskedmanreturnedtothecity.TheysayitwasDukeValentino."
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NowthatLouisXIIwassecureinhispossessionofMilan,hisattentionhadturnedtohisnextobjective—thecaptureofNaples—forwhichheneededthehelpofbothAlexanderVIandhisson.DeTranshadbroughtwithhimtoRomealetterfromtheFrenchkingaskingthepopeforpoliticalsupportfortheplannedconquestofNaples,unhinderedpassageforhisarmiesthroughthe
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PapalStates,andrecognitionastherightfulking;fromCesareherequiredtheduke'sundoubtedmilitaryskillsinthecampaign.Inreturn,Cesarewastobeofferedalargeforceofinfantryandlancers,underthecommandonceagainofYvesd'Alègre,forthenextstageofhisconquestoftheRomagna.
AstheMantuanenvoyreportedominously,"The
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PopeintendstomaketheDukeValentinoagreatmanandKingofItalyifhecan.""Iamnotdreaming,"headded,"mybrainsarenotdisordered,Iwillsaynomore."Cesarehadalreadyenlistedthehelpofvariouscondottieriandwasrunningoutofmoneytopaythem.Hisfatherhaddonewhathecouldtohelphim,goingsofarastodivertnotonlysomeofthefundshehad
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accumulatedtofinanceacrusadeagainsttheTurks,butalsomuchofthemoneyreceivedfrompilgrimsinRomefortheJubilee.ItwastoaugmentthesefundsthatAlexanderVIdecidedtocreatealargenumberofcardinals,imposingafeeforeachnomination.
Accordingly,onSeptember18,afterthecardinalshadreturnedfromtheirsummer
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retreatintheirvillasinthehillsoutsideRome,AlexanderVIsummonedthemtoasecretconsistorytodiscussthedistributionofthenewredhats.ButnotenoughmembersofthesacredcollegeturnedupattheVaticanthatmorning;thecardinalofLisbonwrotetoapologizebuthewasill;thecardinalofSienaalsoapologizedbuthewasbedriddenwithgout.Aweek
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laterthepopetriedagain;thistimetheconsistorytookplace,butsuchwastheoppositiontohisplanthatnodecisioncouldbetaken.
Meanwhile,theTurkishthreattoVenicehadprovidedAlexanderVIwiththeleverheneededtoenlisttheaidofthatcity'sgovernmenttoCesare'scampaignintheRomagna.WithVenetiancoloniesontheDalmatian
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coastfallinglikeninepinstothemightyTurkishnavy,twoenvoyshadbeendispatchedtoRomeinSeptembertoseekthepope'shelp.
AlexanderVIreceivedthemgraciouslyandproceededtoadmonishthemfortheirpastbehaviour."ThegovernmentofVenicehasuntilnowactedungratefullytowardsHisHoliness,"hesaid,accordingtotheFlorentine
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ambassador'sreportoftheconversation,and"iftheywishtopleaseHisHolinesstheymustactdifferentlyin[the]future.TheyansweredthattheywishedtodoanythingforHisHoliness,andtoembracetheDukeValentinoandconsiderhimtheirgoodson,andtogivehimacondottaonthemostgeneroustermsand,asforRiminiandFaenza,theywouldbeperfectlywillingfor
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himtocarryouthisintentionsinthoseplaces.ThePopeansweredthathewantednomoreoftheirfinewords—hehadhadquiteenoughofthesealready—nowhewanteddeeds."
AlexanderVIwasgivenhiswish;thegovernmentofVenicecreatedCesareanhereditarygentiluomoofthecityandpresentedhimwithapalacethereinorderto
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maintainthissignalhonour.OnSeptember26,1500,thedayafterthesecondconsistoryhadfailedtoagreeonthepromotionofthenewcardinals,theVenetianambassadorfeltabletoreportthat"theorderhasnowbeengiventhatDukeValentinowillleavetwoorthreedaysafterthecardinalshavereceivedtheirhats,"morespecifically"accordingtowhattheastrologerconcludes
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willbeafavourablemoment."
TwodayslaterAlexanderVItriedathirdtimetopersuadethecollegetoagreetothecreationofthenewredhats;onthisoccasionfifteencardinalsarrivedattheVaticananddid,finally,agreeformallytothepromotionofthirteennewcolleagues.Guicciardiniwastoremark,someyearslater,
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thatthesecardinalswere"selectednotamongstthemostworthybutamongstthosewhoofferedhim[thepope]thehighestprice."Burchardlistedtheirnamesandthefeesthathadbeenlevieduponthevalueoftheirbenefices,whichamountedtotheenormoussumof160,000ducats.
Whenthenamesweremadepublic,itwascleartoallthat
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mosthadcloselinkstoCesareandhisfather:Amanieud'AlbretwasCesare'sbrother-in-lawandhishathadbeenpromisedaspartofthecontractforhismarriagetoCharlotte;PedroLuisBorgiawashiscousin;FranciscoBorgiaandJaimeSerra,whohadbeentutortohisbrother,themurderedJuan,weremoredistantrelations;JuanVerawasCesare'sowntutor;Pedro
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IsvalieswasthegovernorofRome;LudovicoPodocatharowasAlexanderVI'spersonalphysician;GianbattistaFerrariwasdatarytothepope;andsoon.
JustsixofthenewcardinalswereinRomewhentheconsistoryagreedtotheirpromotion,andtheyweresummonedimmediatelytotheVaticantoawaittheendofthemeeting."There,once
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thedoorswereopen,theykissedthePope'sfoot,thenhishandandhismouth,"announcedBurchard,andthecardinals"escortedthemtotheDukeofValence'srooms,whichareabovetheSaladelPappagallo."AstheVenetianambassadorreported,"TheywenttotheDuke,offeringthemselvestohim,theydinedwithhim,settledtheiraccountsandsworetheirloyaltytohim."
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Itwaswithunusualhaste,justfourdayslateronOctober2,thatthesesixmenattendedaceremonyinSt.Peter'sduringwhichthepopesolemnlygaveeachonehiscardinal'shat,withitsdistinctivehangingtassels.LaterthatdayCesareleftRometojoinhisarmymarchingnorthuptheViaFlaminiatowardtheRomagna.
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Chapter17DukeoftheRomagna
"FROMALLPARTSCOMEREPORTS
OFTHEILLINTENTIONSOFTHEPOPEANDTHE
DUKE"
CESARERODEOUTOFROMEonOctober2,1500,withanentourageofyoungRoman
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nobles,papalbureaucratstomantheadministrationofhisnewstate,andmembersofhishousehold,includinghissecretary,histreasurer,andhisdoctor,theever-presentGasparTorella.AfterabriefdetourtovisitthegrievingLucreziaatNepi,hejoinedhisformidablearmyofovertenthousandmen,whohadnowreachedthefoothillsoftheApennines.
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MarchingunderCesare'scommandweresomeofthefinestcondottiericaptainsavailable;or,asMachiavelliputit,"nearlyalltheprofessionalsoldiersinItaly."InadditiontotheFrenchmanYvesd'Alègreandhisthreehundredlancers,andtheSpaniardMigueldeCorella,Cesare's"executioner,"wereGianpaoloBaglioni,LordofPerugia;PaoloOrsini,onceacaptaininFlorence'sarmies;
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andVitellozzoVitelli,thefamousartilleryexpertwhosefamilyruledthepapalfiefofCittàdiCastello.
AmongthetroopswastheFlorentineartistPietroTorrigiano,famousforhavingbrokenthenoseofhisfellowstudentMichelangelo:"MoneybeingofferedintheserviceofDukeValentino,"asGiorgioVasarirecorded,he"changedhimselfina
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momentfromasculptortoasoldier,"thoughhewaslatertoreturntostone-cuttingandtravelledtoEngland,wherehecreatedthetombofKingHenryVIIinWestminsterAbbey,whichhasbeenrightlydescribedasEngland'sgreatestmemorialoftheItalianRenaissance.
Cesare'sobjective,beforewinterclosedinandthefightingseasonended,wasto
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consolidatehiscontroloftheViaEmiliabytakingFaenza,astronglyfortifiedcitybetweenForlìandImola,andtoextendthestatesouthtotheAdriaticcoastwithRiminiandPesaro,twotownssouthofCesena.ThegoingwasslowonthelongmarchnorthfromRome,themudthickontheroad;butCesarewasinnohurrytocommithimselftoexpensivemilitaryaction,hopingthattheagents
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hehadinfiltratedintothesetownswouldpersuadetheexcommunicatedvicarstosurrenderwithoutafight.
InRiminithedespisedPandolfoMalatesta,arrogantgrandsonofthefamouscondottiereSigismondoMalatesta,madelittletrouble.HehandedoverthekeysofhiscitytoCesare'srepresentative,thebishopofIsernia,beforetakingaboat
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toVenice,muchtothereliefofhissubjects,whohadfailedintheirattempttoremovehimjusttwoyearspreviously.ItprovedalmostaseasytoconvinceGiovanniSforzatoleavePesaro.Onhearingthathiserstwhilebrother-in-law'stroopswerecrossingtheApenninesandapproachingthecity,Giovanni,whohadalreadybeenhumiliatedbytheBorgiasoncebefore,fledand,
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justafewdaysafteracceptingthekeysofRimini,thebishopofIserniadidthesameinPesaro.
CesareenteredthecityofPesaroonOctober27,hismen-at-armscladinhispersonallivery,whichhadbeenembroideredwithanewemblem,theseven-headedHydra,themythicalbeastthatwhenoneheadwascutoffcouldgrowanother—an
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appropriatemetaphorforCesare'smilitaryambitions.
TheconquestofRiminiandPesaroachievedwithsolittletroubleandexpense,Cesarewasinanaccommodatingmood,exercisingtheingratiatingcharmthathecouldsummonatwillwhenrequired.HeapologizedtotheDukeofFerrara'sambassadorwith"muchamiability"fornothaving
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seenhimthedaybeforewhentheenvoyhadcalledathisheadquarters.Buthehadhadsomuchtodo;alsohehadbeentroubledbyapainfululcerinhisgroin.
"TheDuke'sdailylifeisasfollows,"theambassadorcontinued."Hegoestobedbetweenthreeandfiveo'clockinthemorningandconsequentlymiddayishisdawn."Despitehisunusual
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hours,however,itwasclearthatCesareworkedhardandhadearnedtherespectofhiscaptains."Heisconsideredbraveandstrongandgenerousandsetsgreatstorebystraightforwardmen;butheishardinrevengeasIhaveoftenbeentold,"addedtheenvoy."Heisthirstingforfameandseemsmoreeagertoseizestatesthantoadministerthem."
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HavingmadeaquicksurveyofPesaroandinstructingoneoftheartistsinhisentouragetomakeapaintingofthecitadeltosendtohisfatherinRome,Cesaresetoutalongthecoastforthetwenty-mileridetoRimini,wherehemadehisceremonialentryonOctober30.
CesarenowmovednorthalongtheViaEmiliatowardFaenza,which,ashehad
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informedtheFerrareseambassadorafewdaysearlier,hefearedwouldnotprovesostraightforwardaseitherRiminiorPesaro;andhewasright.Here,unlikesomanyoftheotherfiefsintheRomagna,thedynasticlords,theManfredi,werewelllikedandrespectedbythepeople.AconspiracytodelivertheplaceovertoCesarewasdiscoveredandtheplottersarrested:Cesarewasforcedto
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concludethathefacedalongsiege.
Afteraheavybombardmentofthetown,anassaultwasattemptedbutfailed.AFerraresechroniclerreportedthenewsofthisunprecedenteddefeatwithill-concealedjubilation."OnSaturday28NovembernewsarrivedinFerrarathatthemenofDukeValentino,bastardsonofthePope,had
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cometoFaenzawithartilleryandmanyFrenchmeninordertoevicttheLordofFaenzabutthemenofthatlandkilledmanyoftheDuke'smen,andwoundedmanymore,whichwasamarvel,"particularly,asthechroniclerexplained,"becausehehadalreadyacquiredthelordshipsofRimini,Pesaro,Cesena,ForlìandImolabytricksandtreacheryanddrivenoutthoseunfortunaterulers."
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Cesare'shopesofaquicksurrenderhadbeenmetwithbravedefiance.TowardtheendofNovember,withsnowalreadylyingheavyontheground,hisstoresalmostexhausted,andhisirregularlypaidmercenariesdesertingonebyoneasthefightingseasoncametoanend,CesaredecidedtowithdrawhismentoForlì,leavingasmallforceoutsideFaenzatocontinuetheblockadeofthe
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town.
HespentChristmasthatyearatCesena,establishingtheadministrationofhisnewstateandorderingthestrengtheningofthefortificationsoftheconqueredterritories.HealsogainedthesupportofthepeopleoftheRomagnabysuchgesturesascontributinggenerouslytothepeasantsinthecountrysidesoasto
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compensatethemforthedamagedonetotheirfieldsandwoodsduringtherecentcampaigns.
Atfirsthewasinsuchseclusionthathewasrarelyseenoutsidethepalaceinwhichhehadestablishedhisheadquarters,issuingtheorderscalculatedtogainhimthegoodopinionofthepeople,hanginglootersandmenwhostoleorrefusedto
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payafairpriceforprovisions.Hethengainedareputationasaprankster,goingaboutmasked,swordinhand,spatteringpedestrianswithmudordemonstratinghisstrengthinwrestlingcontests,hisabilitytooutpaceallcomersinrunningraces,orhisskillatthequintana,ajoustinggameinwhichhorsemengallopedatafigureofaTurk,gainingpointsdependinguponthepartof
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thedummytheystruck.Healsoexcelledatthegiostraall'anello(theringgame),inwhichridersarmedwithlanceschargedataringstuckonapoleinanattempttoremoveit.
InthemiddleofFebruary1501,Cesareindulgedinanotherofhispleasures,thepursuitandconquestofabeautifulyounglady,thepleasurenodoubtheightened
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bytheconsiderablerisksinvolved.TheladyinquestionwasDoroteaMalatesta,thetwenty-three-year-oldsisterofPandolfoMalatestaandbrideofGiambattistaCaracciolo,acaptainintheVenetianarmy.ShewasonherwayfromUrbinotoVenice,whereshewastojoinherhusband,andCesarehadbeenaskedbytheVenetiangovernmenttoprovideanescortforher
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partywhileitwastravellinguptheViaEmilia.SoonaftertheescorthadseenhersafelyintoVenetianterritory,shewaswaylaid,lateintheafternoon,byagangoftenhorsemenarmedwithcrossbows,whocarriedheroff,afterwoundingseveralofthemeninherentourage.ThemayorofRavenna,whohadbeentoldtokeepaneyeonDorotea,gaveacolourfulaccountofwhathappenedto
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herandherfemalecompanionaftertheywerecarriedoff.
Thetwowomen,"protestingandlamentinggreatly,theirhairdishevelled,"weretakenbackacrossthebordertoavillagenearCesena,wherethemenorderedDoroteatodismountandledherintoacottage,wherethey"demandedthefiretobelitandthesupperprepared."
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WhenDoroteaaskedwhereshewasbeingtaken,theyanswered,"Donotseektoknow;youareingoodhandsandyouwillbegoingtobetterones,whereyouareawaitedwithhighdesire."Whenshetriedtofindouttheidentityofherkidnapper,theyreplied:"Enough,mylady,donotseektoknowmore."Themayorcontinued:"Andtheysether,weepingandgroaning,downtoeat.
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Shedidnotwantfood,sotheythreatenedher,andshewasforcedtotakeanegg;thenshewasputtosleepwithhercompanionandthepeasant'swife,andshewasnotmolestedthatnight."Herdestination,accordingtothemayor,wasForlì.
Cesarewasimmediatelysuspectedofthekidnapping.TheVenetianauthoritiesprotestedloudlytothepapal
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legateandtotheFrenchambassadorinVeniceabouttheduke'ssupposedinvolvementintheaffair;theabductionof"oneofthemostbeautifulandnotableladiesinItaly"wasahorriblecrime,tobe"abominatedanddetested."
ThegovernmentalsosentarepresentativetoCesaretocomplainofthecrimeandtodemandDorotea'srelease.
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Cesaredeniedallknowledgeoftheabduction,andwhentheVenetianagent—whohadbeeninstructedtomakenosalutationtohim—wasreceivedbyCesare,hewasarrogantlyrebuffed.Cesareassuredthemanthathehad"nolackofwomen"anddidnotneedtoabductthem.Hedeclared,moreover,thatthecrimehadbeencommittedbyoneofhisSpanishofficers,DiegoRamires,andthatit
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washeandDoroteawhohadbeenlovers.Indeed,claimedCesare,DiegoRamireshadshownhimsomeshirtsthatDoroteahadgivenhim.
TheVenetiangovernmentwasnotaloneinprotestingatCesare'sguilt.ThekingofFrancealsocomplained;sodidFrancescoGonzaga,theMarquisofMantua,onbehalfofhissister,theDuchessofUrbino,inwhosecare
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Doroteahadbeenbeforehermarriage.ButCesarebrushedasideallsuchprotests,andasthedaysandweekspassed,whiletherewererumoursthatDoroteawasbeingkeptincaptivityagainstherwill,perhapsinthecastleofForlì,nothingreliablewasheardofherforthemoment.Shereappeared,however,inFebruary1504,atFaenzaafteralongsojourninaconvent.
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ItwascertainlythecasethatRamireswassuspectedbymanyinItalyofbeingguiltyofthecrime.Indeed,onecontemporarychronicler,GiulianoFantaguzzi,wroteunequivocallythatDoroteawas"attackedandabductedbyMesserDiegoRamiro,soldierofDukeValentinoandformerlycourtieroftheDukeofUrbino."
Others,however,were
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certainCesarewasguilty.Eventhepopebelievedthathissonmightwellhavecommittedthe"horridanddetestablecrime."HeinformedtheVenetianambassadorinRome:"Idonotknowwhatpunishmentwhoeverdiditdeserves,"addingthat"iftheDukehasdoneit,hehaslosthismind."HeshowedtheenvoyaletterwrittentoCesaredemandingthattheculpritbeseverely
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punished;andhemaintainedthatwhentheabductiontookplace,hissonhadbeeninImola,notForlì.Despitehis"boldwords,"however,thepopeshowedhowdeeplytheaffair"hadupsethim."
Meanwhile,FaenzawasholdingoutagainstthesiegeofCesare'sarmies,"supplied,"astheFerraresechroniclerexplained,"withvictualsthankstothecovert
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assistanceofFlorence,BolognaandotherItalianpowers."CesarehadresumedhisattackonthecityattheendofJanuary:"Yvesd'Alègrewith1,000horses,"reportedthechronicler,"passedthroughReggioEmiliatohelpDukeValentinowhohasdecidedtotakeFaenzabyforce."Thechronicleralsonotedlargequantities,"10,000theysay"ofFrenchcavalry,foot
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soldiers,lancers,andartillerymovingthroughtheduchyofFerrarainMarchandearlyApril.
CesarefinallytookFaenzaduringtheweekfollowingEaster,whichfellonApril11thatyear.Asmanyastwothousandwerekilled;manymorewerewounded.Cesarelostsevenhundredofhisownmenandseveralofhiscaptains,onthefirstdayof
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thebattle.InRomeAlexanderVIfailedtoattendMassintheSistineChapelonEasterSaturday—"itwassaid,"reportedBurchard,"thatthePopehadnotcomebecauseofarumourthatmanyoftheDuke'ssoldiershavebeenkilledoutsideFaenza."Butafewdayslater,hisworrieseasedwhennewsarrivedthatthecityhadfinallyfallen,thatAstorreManfredi,theyoungLordofFaenza,had
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surrendered,andthatFaenzahadpaid40,000ducatstoCesaretoavoidbeingsacked.
Thenews,whichhadarrivedinRomeonApril26,wasgreetedwithgreatexcitement.WhilethecannonsofCastelSant'Angeloroaredfromeighto'clockthateveninguntillightdawnedthenextday,Jofrèrodethroughthestreetscelebratinghis
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brother'svictory,accompaniedbyCarloOrsiniandalargegroupofrevellers,shouting,"TheDuke!TheDuke!Orsini!Orsini!"
Cesare,meanwhile,hadwastedlittletimeoncelebrations.JustdaysafterhisvictoryatFaenza,hehadseizedtheopportunitytoconsolidatehisholdontheareabymarchingsometenmilesuptheViaEmiliato
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takeCastelBolognese.ThisstrategicoutpostbelongedtoBologna,andCesare'smovehadcaughtGiovanniBentivoglio,therulerofthecity,bysurprise.Inordertoavoidadirectattack,hewasforcedintoanalliancewithCesare,recognizinghispossessionofCastelBologneseandagreeingtoprovidehimwithahundredsoldiers,whichweretobemaintainedatBologna's
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expense,inreturnfortheguaranteeofhissecurity.
AsLordofImola,CastelBolognese,Faenza,Forlì,Cesena,Rimini,andPesaro,Cesarewasnowtherulerofasubstantialstatethatstretchedseventy-fivemilesdowntheViaEmiliafromBolognatotheAdriaticcoast.AndinMayhisfather,thepope,investedhimwiththetitleofLordoftheRomagna.Hehad
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achievedhisstatedgoalascaptain-generalofthechurchofreturningthefiefsthathadbelongedtotheexcommunicatedvicarstopapalrule,andslightlyexceededhismandatewiththecaptureofCastelBolognese.
AlexanderVInoworderedhissontoreturntoRome.Itwassoonclear,however,thatCesarehadassumedanew
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importanceinhisowneyes.Actingindependentlyofthepope,andinawaythatwasdirectlycontrarytohisfather'swishes,CesarenowturnedhisattentiontoFlorence.Hewasawareoftheneedforspeed:Yvesd'AlègreandtheotherFrenchtroopswouldsoonbeobligedtoleavehimtojointheFrencharmythatwasmassingatParmaforLouisXII'scampaignagainst
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Naples.
Florence'srepublicangovernmentwasseriouslyalarmed."FromallpartscomereportsoftheillintentionsofthePopeandtheDuke,whointendtoattackusandchangeourconstitution,"theFlorentinerepresentativeinFrance,Machiavelli,wastold.TheFlorentineswereonlytooawarethatCesarewouldhave"suchconfidence
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inhisfortunethateveryundertaking,eventhemostdifficult,seemseasytohim."AndtheyworriedaboutthemotivesofseveralofCesare'scaptains,whomtheydescribedas"mostinimicaltoourcity."PaoloOrsini,forexample,hadcloselinkswiththeexiledanddetestedMedicifamily;orVitellozzoVitelli,whohadswornpubliclytotakerevengeontheFlorentinesforexecuting
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hisbrotherPaolo.
Inthecityitself,fearofCesarehadcaused"thegreatestdisorder,"soBiagioBuonaccorsisaid;manycitizenshadfledtheirhomes,headded,and"appealsweremadetotheKing[ofFrance]whowastoofarawaytobeofanyhelpinsourgentamatter;theKingdidwriteletterstotheDuke,butnoneofthemwasobeyedand
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everythingwasinsuspenseandgreattumult."
ByMay2,fivedaysafterseizingCastelBolognese,Cesare'stroopshadcrossedtheApenninesandsetupcampatFirenzuola,justthirtymilesfromFlorence.Hisarmyapproachedthecityslowly,takingeveryopportunitytodestroycrops,burnbarns,stealanimalsandfoodstores,eventocutthe
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grainripeninginthefields.OnMay13theFlorentineenvoysmetCesareatCampiand,muchtothereliefofthecity,negotiatedatreatyofalliancewiththeboldinvader,payingCesare36,000ducatsayearfortheprivilege.BuonaccorsiclaimedthattheFlorentineshadsigned"merelytogetCesareofftheirbacks,"butthethreathadbeenveryreal.
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"Thislordisveryproud,"MachiavelliwastowritelaterofCesare,"and,asasoldier,heissoenterprisingthatnothingissogreatthatitdoesnotseemtrivialtohim.And,forthesakeofgloryandofacquiringlands,hedoesnotrest,andacknowledgesnofatigueordanger.Hearrivesatoneplacebeforeheisknowntohavelefttheother;heendearshimselftohissoldiers;hehasgotholdof
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thebestmeninItaly,andthesefactors,togetherwithcontinualgoodfortune,makehimvictoriousanddangerous."
CesarenowwithdrewhismentotheTuscancoast,allowingthemtoplunderindiscriminatelyontheirwaytotheircampnearPiombino,oppositetheislandofElba,fromwherehewasnowinapositiontothreatenbothPisa
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andSiena.Cesarehimself,however,hadotherobligations,notleasthispromisetoassistintheFrenchcampaigntoconquerNaples,andso,onJune27,hefinallyaccededtohisfather'srequestandreturnedtoRome.Hehadreasontofeelsatisfiedwithhimselfandhisachievements.Attheageoftwenty-five,thenewLordoftheRomagnahadbecomeaforcetocommandfearand
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respectinItalianaffairs.
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Chapter18TheNaplesCampaign
"THEYKILLEDWITHOUT
PITY"
CESARERETURNEDTOROMElateintheeveningofJune17,1501,stealinginquietlythroughoneofthesmallergatesinhischaracteristicallymysteriousway,unobservedinthe
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gatheringduskandinthegeneralcommotioncausedbythevanguardoftheFrencharmy,whohadsetupcampoutsidethecitywallsthedaybefore.
ThesoldiershadleftatrailofdestructionbehindthemastheyhadmarchedthroughcentralItaly.TheFlorentinediaristLucaLanduccireportedasmanyasthirtythousandtroops"doingmany
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wickedthings:theycutcropsfortheirhorseswherevertheywent,plunderedallthewinecellars,flogginganyoneintheirway;theyrespectedneitherthecommissionersnorthepeople;theykilledthepeasantswhotriedtostopthemfromtakingtheirhensandinonefighttheykilledtwentymen."OnhearingthenewsthattheFrenchhadarrivedinRome,Landucciexclaimedwithcompassion,
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"JustthinkwhatitislikeinRome."
TheFrencharmyoffourteenthousandmenhadbeenprovidedwithmeat,bread,andwine,andacamphadbeenestablishedforthemoutsidethewallsofRome.Theyhad,additionally,soBurchardsaid,beenprovidedwiththeservicesoftheveryinadequatenumberofsixteenprostitutes.Burchardalso
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saidthattheFlorentinemerchantsinRomehadbribedthecitygovernorwithageneroussumofducatstoavoidhavingseniorFrenchofficersbilletedintheirhouses;theFrenchwerebilletedonthemanyway,andthegovernorkeptthemoney.
Theircommander,RobertStuart,Lordd'Aubigny,aScotbybirth,arrivedinRomeonJune23andwas
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receivedatthegateofSantaMariadelPopolobyJofrè,whoescortedtheFrenchmantotheVatican.Thepopegreetedhisguest,and,sotheFrenchchroniclerJeand'Autonobserved,"dissimulatedhisfeelingswithajoyouscountenance."AlexanderVI,"despitethefactthathewasSpanishandnofriendoftheFrench,"continuedthechronicler,"receivedthecaptainsofthe
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Frencharmy,andtalkedmerrilywiththemonvarioussubjects."Hehandedoutlavishpresentstoall;d'Aubignyreceivedagreatgreycharger,"withharnesssosplendidthateveryonewasamazedbyit."
ThateveningCardinalSanseverino,thebrotherofthecommanderoftheItaliantroops,entertainedtheFrenchofficersat"amagnificent
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banquet,"whichwasheldinthegardensofCardinalAscanioSforza'svilla,"inwhichthereweregrovesoforangeandlemontreesandpomegranatesaswellasotherfruittreesandflowersofallkindsandscents,andsingers,jugglers,tragediansandcomediansallexercisedtheirartinturn."
TheFrencharmyleftRomeonJune28,aftermarching
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pastCastelSant'Angelo.Fromhispositionhighonthebalcony,AlexanderVIwatchedtheparadeof12,000infantry,2,000cavalry,and26carriagesladenwithartillery,observing,soitwassaid,"thedepartureofthesesoldierswithgreatjoy."AlsointheparadewasCesare,seeninpublicforthefirsttimesincehissecretreturntendaysearlier.
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ThefollowingdayLordd'AubignywenttotheVatican,wherehewasclosetedforsometimewiththepope,whotoldhisvisitorthenewsthat,inasecretconsistoryheldafewdaysearlier,hehadformallydispossessedFederigoofAragonofthekingdomofNaplesandbestoweditinsteadonthekingofFrance.Aftertheirprivatetalks,d'AubignywenttotheSala
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delPappagallo,where,Burchardreported,"allthecardinalspermittedhimthehonourofkissingthemonthemouth,"beforetakinghisleaveandrejoininghistroopsontheroadsouthtoNaples.
Despitetakingpartintheparade,CesarehimselfdidnotleaveRomeimmediately,delayinghisdepartureforseveralreasons.TheformidableCaterinaSforza,
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weakenedafterspendingnearlyayearimprisonedinthedungeonsofCastelSant'Angelo,wasfinallypersuadedtoabandonherrightstoImolaandForlì,andshewasre-leasedfromgaoltospendtherestofheryearsinexileinFlorence.Moreimportantly,CesarewaswaitingimpatientlyforhiscaptainVitellozzoVitelliandhissoldiers,whowereontheirwaysouthfrom
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Tuscany,havingtakenthestrategicallyimportantportofPiombino.FinallyCesareandhisfourhundredtroopswerereadytojointheFrencharmymarchingtoNaplesunderthecommandofd'Aubigny.
LittleseriousresistancewasofferedtotheFrenchtroopsandtheiralliesinAversa,Nola,andothertownsinthekingdomofNaples.OnlyCapua,twentymilesnorthof
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thecapital,putupafight,andbythemiddleofJuly,CesarewasabsorbedinaviolentandbloodycampaigntoseizethecityforLouisXII."ThetakingofCapuawasduetothetreasonofaninhabitantofthatcity,whosecretlyletintheDuke'stroopsandtheythenkilledhim,"reportedBurchard."Theykilledwithoutpitypriests,monksandnuns,inchurchesandconvents,andallthewomen
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theyfound:theyounggirlswereseizedandcruellyabused;thenumberofpeoplekilledamountedtoaround6,000."AccordingtoanimprobableaccountbyGuicciardini,Cesarehadthewomenofthetownlockedupinatowerandselectedthemostdesirableforhimself.Whatwascertainwasthatthisorgyofrape,murder,andlootingendedintheentirepopulationofCapuabeing
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killed.
OnAugust4d'AubignyenteredNaplesintriumph,whiletheex-kingFederigo,whohadbeencrownedbyCesare'shandjustfouryearsbefore,fledtotheislandofIschia.LouisXIIwasnowDukeofMilanandkingofNaples,andthedominantpowerinItaly,thankstothesupportofthepopeandhisson.WhenCesarearrivedin
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Naples,d'AubignyofferedhimgratefulthanksinthenameoftheFrenchkingandarewardof40,000ducatsforhisservicesaswellasthetitleofPrinceofAndria.
AlexanderVI,meanwhile,hadtakenadvantageoftheFrenchpresenceinthepeninsulatoconsolidatehisowncontroloverthelandsandcastlesthathadoncebelongedtothepowerful
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Colonnafamily,andonJuly27,thedayafterCapuahadbeencruellysacked,setoutonatourofinspectionofhisnewterritories.Ridingwithhimwerefiftyhorsemen,asmanyasonehundredonfoot,hishousehold,andmanyofthecardinals,eachaccompaniedbytheirownretinueofservantsandcourtiers.AfterlunchatCastelGandolfo,thepopewasrowedaroundLake
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Albano,listeningtothecrowdsgatheredatthelakesideshouting,"Borgia!Borgia!"andlettingoffvolleysofgunfire.
Duringhisabsence,AlexanderVIhadentrustedthecareoftheVatican,andthechurch,tothecapablehandsofhisdaughter,whomovedintothepapalapartments."ThePopegaveherauthorizationtoopen
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lettersaddressedtohimself,"reportedBurchard,and"toldherthatiftherewereanydifficultiesshewastotakeadvicefromtheCardinalofLisbonandtheothercardinals,whomshewasempoweredtosummon."Ononeoccasion,hecontinuedinanunusualdisplayofribaldry,shedidseekthecardinalofLisbon'sadvice:"Seeingthattheaffairwasofnoimportance,theCardinal
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saidtoher,'WhenthePopediscussesanissueinconsistory,thevice-chancelloror,inhisabsence,anothercardinal,writesarecordofthesolutionsproposedandofthecardinals'votes,soweshouldhavesomeoneheretotakenotesofourdiscourse.'Lucreziarepliedthatshewasquitecapableofwritingherself.TheCardinalthenasked,'Butwhereisyourpen?'Lucrezia
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understoodthejoke[penwasapopulartermforpenis]andshesmiled."
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Chapter19TheDukeandthe
BorgiaGirl
"IFICOULDOVERCOMEMYDISTASTE
FORTHESEBORGIA
UPSTARTS"
LUCREZIAHADRETURNEDtoRomefromherself-imposedexileatNepiintimeforChristmasin
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1500andtothenewsthatAlexanderVIhadstartedtoconsiderwhomsheshouldmarrynext.Shedidnotwanttomarryagain,shetoldherfather,accordingtoareportsentbytheVenetianambassador,addingthatshesaid"myhusbandshavebeenveryunlucky"and"sheleftinarage."Shewas,however,tohavelittlesayinthematter.
Thepopecarefully
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consideredthemeritsofallianceswithvariousItalianfamiliesbeforedecidingonAlfonsod'Este,theeldestsonofErcoleI,DukeofFerrara.Thetwenty-four-year-oldprincewasawidower,hiswifehavingdiedinchildbirththreeyearsearlier.ThelineageoftheEstefamilywashonourable,theirpossessionsenviable.OneoftheoldestnobledynastiesinItalyandundisputedmastersofFerrara
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anditssurroundingterritorysince1240,theirstatewasnotsolargeaseitherVeniceorMilan,butitbenefitedfromthelushsoilsofthePoplain,waswellandprofitablyadministered,andFerraraitselfwasalivelycentreofthearts.Itwas,moreover,justtothenorthofCesare'sduchyoftheRomagna,andthealliance,sothepopethought,wouldbenefitbothofhisbelovedchildren.
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Theproposal,however,wasnotatallwelcomeinFerrara,wheretheBorgiaswereconsideredsociallyinferiorandmorallycorrupt.TheEstefamilymayhavehadmanyskeletonsintheirowncupboard,andAlfonsowasfarfrombeingamodelofproprietyhimself.Hewassaidtohavebuttwointerestsinlife;onewasthecastingofcannonsinhisownfoundry;theotherwaswalkingthe
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streetsofFerraraatnight,adrawnswordinonehand,hiserectpenisintheother.Hisdeadwifehadalsobeenthesubjectofscandaloustalk;neglectedbyherhusband,shehadsharedherbedwithayoungNegrogirlwithwhomshetookmalepartsinthetheatricalsforwhichtheFerraresecourtwasrenowned.
Nevertheless,whentheoffer
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wasmadeinthespringof1501,DukeErcoleandhisfamilywerehorrified,notleastattheprospectofanalliancebetweenthemselvesandthemancurrentlyundersuspicionofabductingandrapingtheprettyyoungbrideDoroteaMalatesta.ThatCesarewasguiltyofthecrime,despitehisprotestationsofinnocence,nooneinFerraradoubted.AndAlfonso'ssister,Isabella
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d'Este,wifeoftheMarquisofMantua,hadaspecialinterestinthecase;theunfortunateDoroteahadbeenaprotégéeofhersister-in-lawtheDuchessofUrbino.
Moreover,DukeErcoleIwascurrentlypursuingtheprospectofroyalconnections,hopingforthenieceofLouisXIIasabrideforhisson.Whenthepope'senvoyCardinalGianbattistaFerrari
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proposedaunionbetweentheBorgiasandtheEstes,hewashaughtilyinformedbythedukethatitwouldbe"impossibletocountermandtheplansalreadyinprocessofsettlementwithHisMajestyofFrance:onedoesnotsnatchfromtheconsiderationofakingplanswhichitpleaseshimtoconsider,asawilfulchildmightteaseacatbyhidingitsbowlofmilk."
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Undeterred,indeedprovoked,bythisrebuff,thepopehintedattheconsequencesthatmightensueuponDukeErcole'scontinuedrefusalofaBorgiamarriage,goingsofarastosuggestthroughhisenvoythatthe"advantage"ofsuchamarriagewouldbethatDukeCesarewould"nolongerbeathreattothesouthofhisExcellency'sdominions"andthatLucreziawouldbringto
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Ferraraadowryofnolessthan200,000ducats:"Istronglyurgeyou,"thepope'senvoywasinstructedtosay,"tomakeabondwithHisHoliness."AlexanderVIalsomadedirectoverturestoLouisXII,whorespondedbyinforminghimthatnothingwouldinducehimto"unraveltheskeinsoflove"thatlinkedhisniecewithAlfonsod'Este,whowouldsoonbecomeherhusband.
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Theking,however,neededthehelpoftheBorgiastofurtherhisownambitionsinItalyand,somewhatreluctantly,agreedtocallahalttothenegotiationsfortheproposedmarriagebetweenAlfonsoandhisniece,andtopressDukeErcoleinsteadtoacceptLucreziaashisnewdaughter-in-law.Andsoitwastobe.
Inalettertohisson-in-law
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FrancescoGonzaga,theMarquisofMantua,DukeErcoleexplainedhischangeofplan:
Wehaverecentlydecided,owingtopracticalconsiderations,toconsenttoanalliancebetweenourhouseandthatofhisHoliness—inshorttothemarriageofour
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eldestson,Alfonso,andtheillustriousladyLucrezia,sisteroftheillustriousDukeofRomagnaandValence,mainlybecausewewereurgedtodosobyhisMostChristianMajesty[thekingofFrance]andonconditionthatHisHolinesswouldagreetoeverything
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stipulatedinthemarriagecontract.SubsequentlyHisHolinessandourselvescametoanagreementandtheMostChristianKingpersistentlyurgedustoapprovethecontract.
Theduke,however,declinedtogivewaywithoutastruggle;hedemandedan
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increaseinthedowrywithanother20,000ducatsworthofpreciousstones;hedemandedthatthe4,500ducatshewasobligedtopayeachyeartotheVaticanberescinded.Healsodemanded,withoutmuchhopeofbeinggrantedthem,theterritoriesofCento,Pieve,andCesenatico,aswellasvariousbeneficesforhisyoungerson,Ippolito,whohadbeenmadeacardinalbyAlexanderVIin
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1493.Unwillingtocommithimselftotheproposedmarriageofhissonintoafamilyheconsideredupstarts,hehadraisedobjectionafterobjection,stipulatedconditionaftercondition,askedforguaranteesthatthedowrywouldbepaid,untilAlexanderVIhadcomplainedthatthemanwasbehaving"likeashopkeeper."
ErcoleIhadalsoheardthe
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distastefulrumoursclaimingthatLucreziahadindulgedinincestuousrelationshipswithbothherfatherandbrother—indeedtherewerefewinItalywhohadnotheardthem—andbeforeagreeingtothematch,hesenttwodiplomaticofficialstoRometomakeenquiriesabouttheBorgiagirlandhersuitabilityforadmittanceintothedistinguishedHouseofEste.
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WhentheenvoysarrivedinRome,theywereadmittedimmediatelytoLucrezia'spresence.Laterthatdaytheyreportedtotheir"mostillustriousandexcellentprince"that"weenteredthepalacewheretheillustriousLucrezialives,andwhere,tiredwithridingandthinkingweweregoingtorest,wewereimmediatelyconductedintothesaidLucrezia'spresence,wherewewere
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graciouslyreceived.WeexpressedtheinfinitepleasureandcontentmentofyourExcellency,andthegreatlovewhichyourExcellencybearsher,"emphasizing,astheyhadbeenorderedtodo,"howperfectlydisposedyourExcellencyistotreatherwell."Thetwoenvoysdidtheirworkconscientiously,takingalmostfourmonthsoveritandfinallydeciding
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thatLucreziawasanacceptablebride.
TherewereseveralproblemsconcerningLucrezia'spastthatneededcarefulconsideration.HersonRodrigowasonesuchissue.HewaslivingwithhismotherinRome;butitwasdecidedthatitwouldnotdoforhimtoaccompanyhertoFerrara.TheFerrareseambassadorinRomewenttoseeLucrezia
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aboutthistoaskher"whatwastobedonewithhim;shereplied,'HewillremaininRomeandwillhaveanallowanceof15,000ducats.'"ThefactthatLucreziahadalreadyborneasonwas,ofcourse,anadvantagetoadukeinneedofgrandsonstosecurehisfamilyline.
TherewasalsotheissueofLucrezia'sdivorcedhusband,GiovanniSforza,whowas
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livinginFerrara,tobesettled.ThepopewroteaboutthistothetwoenvoyswhohadbeensentbyErcoleItomakeenquiriesconcerningLucrezia.They,inturn,passedhisrequestontotheduke;thepope"hasaskedustowritetoYourExcellencytorequestthatyouseetoitthattheLordGiovanniofPesaroshallnotbeinFerraraatthetimeofthemarriagecelebrations,for,althoughhis
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divorcefromtheillustriousladywasabsolutelylegal,"theyinsisted,"himselffullyconsentingtoit,hemay,neverthelessstillfeelsomeresentment."
Meanwhile,negotiationsaboutthedowryhadreachedtheirconclusion,anditwasclearthatErcoleIhadextractedahighprice.ItwasagreedthatLucreziashouldbring100,000ducatsandthat
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sheshouldalsotaketoFerrarajewellery,carpets,linen,tapestries,furniture,silver,andobjetsd'artanddevertuworthafurther75,000ducats.ThedukewouldreceivethecastlesandlandsofCentoandPieve—thoughnottheportofCesenatico,whichproperlybelongedtotheduchyofRomagna—aswellasareductionintheannualcensuspayabletotheVaticanfrom4,500ducatsto
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atokensumof100ducats.CardinalIppolitod'EstewastobemadebishopofFerraraandreceiveotherbeneficesworth14,000ducatsayearandapalacebySt.Peter's.ErcoleIwasjubilant;thedeal,hethought,wasworthatotalof400,000ducatstohisfamily."IfIcouldovercomemydistastefortheseBorgiaupstarts,"Alfonsoinformedhisfather,"Imightevenconsidermyselffortunate."
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Atlast,onAugust26,1501,themarriagecontractwassigned,andLucrezia,justtwenty-oneyearsold,wastobeabrideforthethirdtime.Forherownpart,havingbeensentaportraitofherfuturehusbandandheardreportsofhistasteforlowlifeandlowcompany,shedecidedthat,onceshehadgivenhimchildren,Alfonsowouldlethergoherownway.Moreover,theproposed
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marriageintotheEstefamilywouldallowhertoescapefromRome,aplaceassociatedwithunhappyepisodesinheryounglife.
Andtheolddukewassoontobegratefultohisprospectivedaughter-in-lawformorethanmeremoney.In1499ErcoleIhadheardofanunattheDominicanconventatViterbo,SisterLuciadaNarni,whohadbeen
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developingstigmataonherhandseveryFriday.Amanmuchintriguedbysuchmiracles,thedukedecidedtobringthenuntoFerrara.Themothersuperior,however,wasreluctanttopartwithsopotentiallyvaluableanasset,thoughSisterLuciaherselfwasquitewillingtogo.SothedukearrangedforhertobespiritedoutoftheconventinabasketandtakentoFerrara,where,unfortunately,
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shefeltdreadfullyhomesick,missingthenunswhomshehadleftbehindinViterbo.Verywellthen,thedukedecided,theothernunsshouldalsocometoFerrara,whereanewconventwouldbebuiltforthem.
DukeErcolethensentatrustedcourtier,BartolomeoBresciano,ashisenvoytoViterbotoputthisproposaltotheprioressoftheconvent,
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butsheobjectedinthestrongesttermstotheduke'ssuggestion.Bresciano,appalledbyherbossiness,calledherawoman"moreobstinatethantheDevilhimself"andturnedtoLucreziatoaskhertouseherinfluenceatthepapalcourt.Lucrezia,whomhedescribedas"adelightfulladywithafirst-classmind,"wentoutofherwaytoassist,negotiatinginpersonwiththepopeand
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theDominicansuntil,atlast,theprioresswasforcedtoletnineofhernunsgotoFerrara.Lucrezia"isendowedwithsuchgraciousnessandgoodness,"wroteBrescianotoDukeErcole,"andthinksonlyofhowtoserveyou."
Nowthatthecontracthadbeensigned,theformalbetrothalbetweenAlfonsoandLucreziacouldtakeplace.Accordingly,as
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Burchardrecorded,"aboutthehourofVespersonSaturday4SeptembernewscameofthemarriagecontractedandconcludedbetweenAlfonsod'Este,eldersonoftheDukeofFerrara,andLucreziaBorgia,formerlytheDuchessofBisceglieandearlierthewifeofGiovanniSforza."
ThenewsoftheforthcomingmarriagewasgreetedinRomewith
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exceptionalexcitementandwiththecelebrationsthatthecitizenssomuchenjoyedontheseoccasions;a"continualcannonade"ofartilleryfirednoisilyfromtherampartsofCastelSant'Angelowhilefireworksflashedandsplutteredinthesky.Thefollowingday,Sunday,sawLucrezia,dressedinarobeofgoldbrocadeandaccompaniedbyherladiesandseveralbishops,ridingin
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theplaceofhonourinagrandprocessionofthreehundredhorsesfromherpalacetotheChurchofSantaMariadelPopolo,whileherSpanishdwarfsskippedandjumpedthroughthestreets.
Thatevening,asthegreatCapitolinebelltolled,bonfireswerelitatCastelSant'Angeloandthroughoutthecity,illuminatingthetowersofthecastle,the
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Capitol,andotherbuildings:"Thepeoplebecamewildlyexcited,"which,accordingtoBurchard,"causedsomeanxiety."OnMondaytwoclowns"paradedthroughalltheprincipalstreetsandpiazzas,"continuedBurchard.Theywentontheirway,oneonhorseback,oneonfoot,bothshoutingloudly,"LonglivetheDuchessofFerrara!LonglivePopeAlexander!Viva!Viva!"Lucreziahad
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giveneachofthemadressfromherwardrobe;theridingclownhadreceivedthenewgoldbrocaderobeshehadworntheeveningbefore,whichwassaidtobeworthasmuchas300ducats.
Thepopealsocelebratedhisdaughter'sbetrothalwithasuccessionofpartiesandbanquetsattheVatican.Hejoinedinthefestivitieswithrelish,undeterredbyabad
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coldandaloosetooth,andthefactthathewasapproachinghisseventiethbirthday,remarkingcheerfullytotheFerrareseambassadorthat,althoughhisfacewastiedup,hewouldhappilyinvitethebridegroom'sfathertoawildboarhunt.
Cesare,whohadreturnedfromNaplesonSeptember15,wasexhaustedafterthe
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fighting.Afewdayslaterhereceivedavisitor—oneoftherareoccasionswhenhereceivedthematall—lyingdownbutfullydressed."Ithoughthewasill,"thesurprisedFerrareseenvoywrote,"butyesterdayeveninghedancedwithoutintermissionandwilldosoagaintonightatthePope'spalacewheretheillustriousDuchess[Lucrezia]isgoingtosupper."Burchardalso
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commentedonCesare'scondition:"TheDukehasrecentlybeenillagainwithhisoldcomplaint,whichreturneduponhimaftertheconquestofNaplesandhas,someofhisphysiciansthink,affectedhismindaswellashisbody.Althoughforcinghimselftotakepartindancesandentertainments,itisseenandreportedbyhisservantsthattheydiscoverhimexhaustedandsometimesin
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painuponhisbed."
Lucrezia,too,wasbeginningtofeelthestrainofunremittingpartiesanddancesthatthepopewassofondofattendingandwatching."WheneversheisatthePope'spalace,"theFerrareseenvoyreported,"theentirenight,untiltwoorthreeinthemorning,isspentdancingandatplay,whichfatigueshergreatly."
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OnSeptember25thecelebrationswerehaltedwhenthepopeandhissonleftRomeforaweek,leavingLucreziaonceagaininchargeattheVatican,whiletheywentonatourofinspectionofthepapalcastlesnorthofRome,stoppingatNepiand,inparticular,thefortressatCivitaCastellana,fortymilesnorthofRome,whichwasbeingbuiltunderthedirectionofthemilitary
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architectAntoniodaSangallo.ThetwomendidthesameinOctober,thistimetravellingsouthtoviewthefortressesrecentlyseizedfromtheColonnafamily.
BytheendofOctober,CesareandhisfatherwerebackinRome.PerhapsitwasthesetripsthatrevitalizedCesare,buthehadcertainlyrecoveredhisspiritsbyOctober31,whenhehosteda
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supperpartyinhisapartmentsintheVaticanPalacetowhichheinvitedhisfather,hissister,andmanyfriends,alongwithfiftycourtesans.ThisparticularlycolourfulpartywasdescribedindetailbyBurchard:
OnSundaythelastdayofOctober1501theretookplaceasupperattendedalsobyfiftyhonest
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prostitutes,thosewhoarecalledcourtesans.Aftersuppertheydancedwiththeservantsandotherswhowerethere,firstclothed,thennaked.Aftersupperthelightedcandelabrawhichhadbeenonthetablewereplacedonthefloor,andchestnutsthrownamongthemwhich
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theprostituteshadtopickupastheycrawledbetweenthecandles.ThePope,theDukeandLucrezia,hissister,werepresentlookingon.Attheendtheydisplayedprizes,silkmantles,boots,capsandotherobjectswhichwerepromisedtowhomsoevershouldhavemadeloveto
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theseprostitutesthegreatestnumberoftimes.Theprizesweredistributedtothewinnersaccordingtothejudgementofthosepresent.
Fourdayslater,sotheFlorentineambassadorFrancescoPepireported,thepopefailedtoattendMassinthepapalchapel.Itwasrumouredthathewasill,no
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doubttheafter-effectsofCesare'sparty,atwhich,accordingtoPepi,theelderlypopehadspent"thenightuntilthetwelfthhourwiththeDukewhohadbroughtintothepalacethatnight,singersandcourtesans;andallnighttheyspentinpleasure,dancingandlaughter."Ratherlessreliably,thePerugianchroniclerFrancescoMatarazzoreportedthatthepope"hadallthelightsput
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out,andthenallthewomenwhowerethere,andasmanymenaswell,tookoffalltheirclothes,andtherewasmuchplayandfestivity."
Lucreziawasagainseentobeenjoyingherselfwhen,afewdaysafterthegamewiththechestnutsandcandles,therewasadisplayofanimallubricityinsidetheVatican.Burcharddescribedhowafarmerhadbroughtsome
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maresthroughtheViridariagatebythepalacecarryingloadsofwoodforthemarketand
whenthemaresreachedthepiazzaofSt.Peter's,someofthepalaceguardcameupandcutthroughthestrapsandthrewoffthepacksaddlesandthewoodinordertoleadthemaresintothe
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courtyardimmediatelyinsidethepalacegate.Fourstallionswerethenfreedfromtheirreinsandharnessandletoutofthepalacestables.Theyimmediatelyrantothemares,overwhomtheyproceededtofightfuriouslyandnoisilyamongstthemselves,bitingand
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kickingintheireffortstomountthemandseriouslywoundingthemwiththeirhoofs.ThePopeandLucrezia,laughingwithevidentsatisfaction,watchedallthatwashappeningfromawindowabovethepalacegate.
Cesarewasevidentlynotpresentonthisoccasion;and
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itappearsthattherewasatthistimeagrowingfrictionbetweenfatherandson,thepopebecomingincreasinglyannoyedbyhisson's"turningdayintonightandnightintoday,"asoneoftheFerrareseenvoysputit,andextremelyhardtopindowntoameetingtodiscussaffairsofstate.
ItseemedasthoughCesare,increasinglyindependent,elusive,andself-assured,and
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liabletoflyoffthehandleattheleasthintofcriticismofhisactions,nolongervaluedtheadviceofhisfatherandcertainlyrarelysoughtit.Cesare'sarrogantatheismwasanotherboneofcontentionsince,althoughhisfather'smoralswerewidelyheldtobedeeplycorrupt—indeed,AgostinoVespuccitoldMachiavellithatitwas"knowntoeveryonethatHisHolinessbroughtevery
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eveningtotheVaticantwenty-fivewomenormore...sothatthepalaceismanifestlymadethebrothelofallfilth"—thepopewasscrupulousintheoutwardobservancesofhisreligiousdutiesandhadanapparentlysinceredevotiontothecultoftheVirginMary.
Whenwearinghisblackmaskbyday,Cesarenaturallybecameanobjectofcuriosity
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onthestreetsofRome;butmenwhostaredathimsoonlearnedthatitwasdangeroustodoso.Cesarehadonemanarrestedandimprisonedforapparentlymakingacriticalremark;thatnighthishandwascutoff,histonguerippedoutandattachedtothelittlefingeroftheseveredhand,andthewholegrislyensemblewashungoutoftheprisonwindowforalltosee.Yetanother,guiltyofsome
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unknownoffence,was"secretlystrangledandhisbodycastintotheTiber."MennaturallygrewevermorewaryinCesare'spresence.
"Hecannottolerateinsults,"hisfatherconfidedinconversationwiththeVenetianambassador."IhaveoftentoldhimthatRomeisafreecityandthateveryonemayspeakandwriteasthey
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please.EvilisoftenspokenofmebutIletitpass.TheDukerepliedtome,'ItmaybetruethatRomansareaccustomedtospeakandwriteastheypleasebutIwillteachpeopletotakecarewhattheysayaboutme.'"Hewasasgoodashisword—morethanonemanhadahandstruckofforhistonguerippedoutforwritingorspeakingmockinglyoftheDukeofValence.
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UneasyasrelationsbetweenthepopeandCesarewerefromtimetotime,bothremaineddevotedtoLucrezia.Indeed,thepopepatentlyadoredhisdaughter,the"appleofhiseye,"and,usefulashermarriagetoAlfonsod'Estewouldbetobothofthempolitically,providingareliablealliancewithFerrara,bothfatherandbrotherlookeduponitasasacrifice,onethatwould
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bringLucrezia'sinevitabledeparturefromRome.
Meanwhile,DukeErcole'sambassadorscontinuedtosendfavourablereportsregardingthebehaviourofthegirlsoontobehisdaughter-in-law."Lucreziaisahighlyintelligent,graciousandextremelygracefulyounglady,modestandlovable,"oneenvoyreportedinNovember1501."Sheisalso
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devoutanddutifulasaChristian.TomorrowshewillgotoconfessionandintendstoreceivecommunionduringChristmasweek."
Theduke'sdaughter,Isabellad'Este,however,wassuspiciousofthisattractivetwenty-one-year-oldwomanwhowastobecomehersister-in-lawandwastoreceivesomanyvaluablefamilyjewelsandsumptuous
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clothesinconsequence.ShedispatchedtoRomeamanwhocouldbetrustedtosendheraccuratereportsoftheunwelcomebride,hertrousseau,andtheladiesofhercourt.Theman,havingundertaken"tofollowthemostexcellentladyasashadowfollowsabody,"sentbacktoMantuareportsthatcannothavepleasedIsabella,describinga"charmingandverygracefullady":
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OnSundayIwenttoseeherintheevening[oneofthereportsran]andfoundhersittingnearherbedwithtenmaidsofhonourandtwentyotherladieswearinghandkerchiefsontheirheadsintheRomanfashion.TheysoonbegantodanceandMadonnaLucreziadidsoverygracefully....
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Sheworeacamorraofblackvelvetwithawhitechemise...agold-stripedveilandagreensilkcapwitharubyclasp....Hermaidsofhonourhavenotyetgottheirweddingdresses.Ourownladiesarequiteequaltotheminlooksand,indeed,ineverythingelse....Thenumberofhorsesand
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peoplethePopewillplaceatherdisposalwillamounttoonethousand.Therewillbetwohundredcarriages....TheescortwhichwilltakehertoFerrarawilltravelinthese.
Finally,atthebeginningofDecember1501,DukeErcolegavetheorderforthedepartureofthegrand
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cavalcadethatwastotraveltoRomeinordertoescorthisson'sbridebacktohernewhome.ThreeofAlfonso'sbrothers—Ferrante,Sigismondo,andCardinalIppolito—ledthepartyofducalcourtiers,secretaries,councillors,bishops,soldiers,andservants,horses,mules,andwagons.Theweatherwasdreadful,thegoingexceptionallyhard.Theystruggledforthreeweeks
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throughthesnowboundpassesoftheApenninesanddowntothefloodedTiberplain.Finally,justbeforeChristmas,thelonglineofhorsemen,carriages,andcartsdrewtoahaltoutsidethewallsofRomeatthegatebySantaMariadelPopolo.
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Chapter20FrolicsandFestivities
"THECUSTOMARY
FESTIVITIES[FORCARNIVAL],
INCLUDINGTHEHORSERACES,
WILLCOMMENCEAFTERCHRISTMAS"
LATEINTHEAFTERNOONofDecember23,1501,the
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entirepapalcourtassembled,atAlexanderVI'sorders,atthegateofSantaMariadelPopolotogreettheEsteprincesandtheircourtiers,whohadcometoRometoescortLucreziabacktoFerrara.Thecardinalswaitedanuncomfortablehourontheirmulesbeforedismountingandretiringtothecomparativewarmthofthechurch,wheretheywaitedanotherhourbeforethe
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visitorsfinallyarrived.
TheywerereceivedbyCesare,whowasaccompaniedbypagesinsilktunics,abandoftrumpeters,andfourthousandsoldiers,allwearinghispersonallivery.Andafterthelengthyspeechesofwelcomehadbeenfinished,heescortedtheFerraresepartythroughthecity,acrossthePonteSant'Angelo,tothedeafening
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roarofcannonsthatthunderedfromtherampartsofthecastle,andontotheVatican.Hisappearancethrilledthecrowdsthathadgatheredonthestreetstowatchthecavalcadepass:Burchardrecordedthathe"excitedgreatadmirationinthemindsofallwhobeheldhim,forhewasmagnificentlydressedinacoatoftheFrenchfashion,fastenedwithagoldbeltwhichsetoffhis
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gracefulyetathleticformtoadvantage,androdeafine,strongchargerwhichwassomagnificentlycaparisonedthatitstrappingsaloneweresaidtobeworth10,000ducats."
AttheVaticanAlexanderVIgraciouslywelcomedhisguests,thebridegroom'sthreebrothers,Ferrante,Sigismondo,andCardinalIppolito.Cesarethenledthem
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acrossthepiazzaofSt.Peter'stobegreetedbyhissister,whowaslookingdramaticallyradiantinawhitedress,herlongfairhairpartiallyconcealedbyagreengossamernet,securedbyagoldbandandtworowsoffinepearlsencirclingherforehead.
ThepreparationsinRomeforthereceptionoftheFerraresevisitorscould
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scarcelyhavebeenmoreimpressive.Cesare,inhisextravagantway,wasdeterminedtomakeeverythingassplendidaspossible:"Thethingsthatareorderedhereforthesefestivitiesareunheardof,"wrotetheFlorentineambassadorFrancescoPepi,shockedattheextravagance,adding,"TheshoesoftheDuke'sfootmenaremadeofgoldbrocade,andsoarethe
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shoesofthePope'sgroomswhileheandtheDukeviewitheachotherinwearingthemostmagnificent,themostfashionableandthemostexpensivethings."
Magnificentashehimselfchosetoappear,CesarewiselydecidednottotrytotakeprecedenceovertheEstebrothers,whowere,afterall,hisguests.Thistactfulbehaviourwas"consideredas
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highlycomplimentarytotheembassy,"Burchardcommented,"asitwasknownthateversincehismarriagetoCharlotted'Albret,sisteroftheKingofNavarre,hispridehadsomuchincreasedthatheallowedneitherambassadorsfromkingsnoranyoftheprincesofGermany,norevencardinals,totakeprecedenceoverhiminanyway,makinganexceptiononlyinfavourofthebloodroyalofFrance."
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Inordertoentertainhisguestsassplendidlyaspossible,thepopehadissuedadecreeannouncingthatCarnivalwouldbecelebratedearly:"Thecustomaryfestivities,"wroteBurchard,"includingthehorseraces,willcommenceafterChristmas."Accordingly,onDecember26thestreetsfilledwithrevellers;themaskedfiguresofCesareandtheEsteprinceswerealsotobeseen
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joininginthebawdyfunascourtesansranaboutdressedasboysandthrowingeggshellsfilledwithrosewaterateachotherandatpassersby.
ThateveningLucreziahostedaball,where,soIsabellad'Este'ssecretinformanttoldher,theyoungbride"dancedwithextremegraceandliveliness,wearingacamorraofblackvelvet
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borderedwithgold,"thedécolletagechastelyobscuredbeneathafilmofgildedgauze,"withastringofpearlsaroundherneck,andagreennetwithachainofrubiesonherhead,"and,headded,"afewofherladies-in-waitingareverypretty."
ThenextmorningtheCarnivalwasinfullswing.Forthefollowingthreedays,thestreetsofRomewere
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filledwithcrowdswatching,andtakingpart,inthegreatracesrunbetweenCampodeiFioriandthepiazzainfrontofSt.Peter's.TheJewswerethefirsttorun,butthewinnerwasdisqualifiedbecause,itwassaid,hehadbrokentherules,anditwasannouncedthattheracewouldbererunthenextday.Therewereracesforoldmenandforprostitutes,aparticularfavouritewiththepopulace.
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AccordingtoBurchard,therewasalsoaraceforwildboars,mountedbyyouths,"whobeatthemwithsticksandkeptcontroloftheirheadswithreinsattachedtotheringsthatpiercedtheirsnouts,whilstothermenguidedthemalongandpreventedthemfromrunningintosidealleys."
Whenthelastracewasover,onDecember29,those
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gatheredinthepiazzaofSt.Peter'swatchedastrumpetersandplayersofothermusicalinstrumentsassembledontheplatformabovethestepsofthebasilicaandbegantosoundthefanfaretoannouncethearrivalofthebride.Burchardrecordedthescene:
FromherresidencenexttoSt.Peter's,DonnaLucreziaemerged,clothedina
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robeofgoldenbrocade,decoratedintheSpanishfashion,andwithalongtrainbehindherwhichwasbornebyayounggirl.Athersidewerethetwobrothersofherbridegroom,FerranteontherightandSigismondoontheleft.FiftyRomanladies,mostbeautifullyattired,
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camenext,followedbyLucrezia'sownladies-in-waiting,walkinginpairs.
WhenthebridalprocessionhadenteredtheVatican,thecrowdswatchedasawoodencastlewaswheeledintothepiazzaandtwocompaniesofCesare'ssoldiersfoughtamockbattle,withplentyofnoiseandcolour,forpossessionofthestructure.
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Meanwhile,insidethepalace,Lucreziawasreceivedbyherfather,accompaniedbythirteencardinalsandbyherbrotherCesare,andtheceremonybegan.Thesermon,whichwasdeliveredbythebishopofAdria,anephewofDukeErcole,waslongandtedious:"HisHoliness,"reportedBurchard,interruptedthebishopseveraltimes,"repeatedlyurginghimtohurrythroughmore
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quickly."Thebishop,however,wasnottobehurried;anditwassomeconsiderabletimebeforehecametotheconclusionofhisaddress.
Whenthesermonwasfinallyover,atablewasbroughtoutandplacedinasuitablepositioninfrontofthepope.Ferranted'Este,actingasproxyforhisbrotherthegroom,"broughtDonna
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LucreziatoHisHolinessand,inhisbrother'sname,presentedherwithagoldenring,"andCardinalIppolito"broughtinfourotherringsofgreatvalue,adiamond,aruby,anemeraldandaturquoisetogetherwithasmallcasket,whichwasplacedonthetableand,bytheCardinal'sorder,opened."
Theboxcontainedaglitteringcollectionofthe
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Estefamilyjewels,averitabletroveoftreasure:twobeautifulcaps,oneofwhichwas"studdedwithfourteendiamonds,asmanyrubiesandabout150pearls,"fourjewelledcollars,onejewelledpendant,severalbracelets,"fourofwhichwereofverygreatvalue,"fourstringsoflargepearls,andfourjewelledcrossesstuddedwithdiamonds.Theexquisitejewels,valuedat8,000
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ducats,werenowgiventoLucreziabythecardinal,whopromisedhermoreofthesamefromhernewfather-in-law.Thesejewels,however,wereevidentlynotintendedasagiftbutmerelyasaloan,sothattheduke,asoneofhisenvoyswrote,"needhavenoanxiety,"addingthat"thedocumentregardingthismarriagesimplystatesthatDonnaLucreziawillbegiventhebridalringasapresent,
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andnothinghasbeensaidofanyotherpresent."
Thebride"withherladiesandmanyothersallremainedinthepalaceuntilfiveo'clockthefollowingmorning,"andthefestivitiescontinuedforthenextfewdays."Thefollowingnight,"reportedBurchard,"anumberofcomedieswererecitedinthePope'sapartments,andballetsperformed,withsomesinging
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aswell."OneplayperformedintheSaladelPappagallohadbeeninspiredbytheworkoftheRomanpoetVirgil,anditstarredtwoyoungmenplayingthepartsofCesareandhisnewbrother-in-lawasrulersofthelandsofthePo.
OnThursday,December30,theretookplace,oneaftertheother,theracesoftheBarbaryhorses,oftheSpanishjennets,andthe
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fillies.ThisdayofracingwasoneofthehighlightsoftheCarnivalfestivities,eagerlyanticipatedbytheRomancrowds,whothrongedthestreetstowatchthespectacle,andbythebettingtoutswhostoodtomakefortunesfromthegulliblepunters.
Thisparticularyear,accordingtoBurchard,"therewasagreatdealofviolenceandinjustice."Thewinnerof
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thefirstracewastheArabhorsebelongingtotheMarquisofMantua,"butitwasnotawardedtheprizebecauseithadlostitsrider,whohadclumsilyfallenoffatthestartoftherace,"leavingasthewinnertheArabbelongingtoCesare.Burcharddidnotrecordwhethertheunfortunateriderhadbeenunseateddeliberately,buttheremusthavebeenmanyinRomethat
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nightdiscussingCesare'smannerofwinningthenexttworaces.
OneofCesare'sstaffhadwontheraceoftheSpanishjennets"mostunfairly,"asBurchardreported."ThehorsedidnotbegininthecoursewiththeothersontheCampodeiFioributranoutofahousebesidethevice-chancellor'sresidenceastheothersarrived,thusgettinga
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leadonthemandwinningtheprize."Thefilliesracewasequallysuspicious."Duringtherace,whenthehorseswereonthePonteSant'Angelo,oneofCesare'sgroomscrossedthecourseonhishorse,stoppedthemarewhowasintheleadandforceditsrideroutofhissaddle."
OnJanuary1theusualparadeofCarnivalcartstook
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place,andthethemethisyear,notsurprisingly,extolledthevirtuesofthedukesofValenceandFerraraintheguiseofJuliusCaesar(Cesare)andHercules(Ercole),inaseriesoftableauxthatwereparadedonwagonsnotintheusualsettingofPiazzaNavonabutagainstthemuchgranderbackdropofSt.Peter's.Thepiazzawasthenbarricadedtoserveasthestagefora
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bullfight.Eightbullsandonebuffalowerekilled—fourmorebullsandanotherbuffaloweresparedforasimilarspectacleonthefollowingday.
ThedaywasapproachingwhenLucreziawouldleaveRomeforever.OnthemorningofJanuary6,1502,theFeastoftheEpiphany,shewenttobidfarewelltoherfather.Herdowryhadbeen
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formallycountedthenightbeforeandhandedovertohernewbrothers-in-law,FerranteandSigismondod'Este.IntheSaladelPappagallo,Lucrezia,Cesare,andtheirfatherspokequietlytogetherinSpanish.Asfondofthemasshehadalwaysbeen,sheborethepartingassheboreallpartings,withherusualequanimity.
Mountingherhorse,she
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rodeoutoftheVatican,flankedbyCesareandCardinalIppolitoandescortedbyahugeprocession;"shewasnotwearingvaluableclothesbecauseitwassnowing,"reportedBurchard.Thepopewasclearlydeeplymovedashewatchedherleave,hurryingfromwindowtowindowofthepalacetocatchaglimpseofthecavalcadeuntilitwasfinallyoutof
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sight.Hewouldneverseehisdaughteragain.
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Chapter21TheNewBride
"LOOKATTHEGREATLADY!"
THEBRIDALCAVALCADEtravelledslowlyuptheViaFlaminiainthegentlyfallingsnow.AfewmilesnorthofRome,LucreziabidfarewelltoCardinalIppolitod'Esteand
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herbelovedbrotherCesare,whoreturnedtothecityandthewarmthoftheirownfireplaces,leavingLucreziatocontinueherlongjourneythroughtheApenninesnorthtoFerrarawithherownretinue,whichnumberedsomesevenhundredpeople,escortedbythefivehundredmenoftheFerraresepartythathadtravelledtoRomethepreviousDecember.
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"Therewasnobishop,norprotonotary,norabbot,"recordedashockedBurchard,butLucreziawasaccompaniedbyhercousinCardinalFranciscoBorgia,whomAlexanderVIhadappointedlegatetothePapalStates.AndtoaugmentthepartyofRomannoblestravellingwithher,Cesarehadprovidedhernotonlywithtwohundredgentlemenfromhisownhousehold,but
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hadalsoorderedanumberofmusiciansandclownstoentertainheronherway.Aswellassome10,000ducatsforherexpensesonthejourney,thepopehadprovidedherwithasedanchair,whichshewastosharewiththeDuchessofUrbino,fromGubbiotoFerrara.Lucrezia'sretinuewasalsoimpressive,includingnumeroussquiresandcooks,stableboysanddressmakers,
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and,ofcourse,herownladies-in-waiting,amongwhom,accordingtothereportsIsabellad'Estereceivedfromherinformant,wereseveralbeauties,onewithsyphilis,and"oneMoor,themostbeautifulwomanIhaveeverseen."
Providingmountsforalltheseattendantshadprovedaproblemforthepope,whowastemporarilyshortof
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fundsafterthespectacularexpenseshehadincurredinentertainingtheEstepartyinRome,andhehadobligedallcardinalsinthecitytoloaneithertwohorsesortwomulesforLucrezia'sjourney—"noneoftheseanimalswasreturned,"commentedBurchard.
Thelongstringofbaggageanimalswindingitswaythroughthesnowbound
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passesoftheApennineswasheavilyladen.StrappedtothebacksofseveralmulesweretheheavypadlockedchestscontainingLucrezia'sdowry.Overonehundredmuleswereneededtocarryherjewels,linen,andclothes;shetookwithhernofewerthantwohundredexpensiveshiftsandalmostasmanyhats,oneofwhich,accordingtoIsabellad'Este'sinformant,wasvaluedat10,000ducats.
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Despitebeingshieldedfromtheworstoftheweatherbehindthecurtainsofherlitter,Lucreziafoundthejourneyexhausting.AtSpoletosheinsistedonstoppingfortwonights,muchtotheexasperationoftheFerrareseparty,whowerekeentogethome.DukeErcolewasalsoinformedthatsheneededtowashherhairwithtiresomefrequency,andhewasforewarnedthatit
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wouldbeadvisableforhimtopostponethedateofthebride'sofficialreceptionatFerrara.
Thepopealsoreceivedregularreportsontheprogressofhisdaughter'sjourneyandwrotetohertosaythathehopedtohearfromherwhenshereachedFerraraandthathealsohopedshewas"ingoodhealthandspiritsand,aboveall,thather
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faceandbodywerewrappedupagainstthetempestuousandsnowyweather."ShealsoheardfromCardinalIppolitod'Este,whowrotetoreassureheraboutherlittletwo-year-oldson,Rodrigo,whomshehadbeensodistressedtoleavebehindinRome:"Havingsentsomeonethismorningtovisitthemostillustriouslord,DonRodrigoyourson,themessengerreportedthatHisLordship
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wassleepingveryquietlyandcontentedly;andthanksbetoGodheisashandsomeandashealthyasanyonecouldwish."
OnJanuary16,tendaysafterbiddingfarewelltoherfather,thecavalcadeturnedofftheViaFlaminiaontothesteeproadleadingtothehilltoptownofGubbio,wheretheredoubtableDuchessofUrbino,Elisabetta
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Gonzaga,sister-in-lawtoIsabellad'Este,dressedinherhabitualblack,waitedunsmilinglytomeetthehorsemenandrumblingcarriages.ThefollowingdayLucrezia,accompaniedbythethirty-year-oldduchess,continuedthejourneyinthegildedsedanchair,behindthecurtainsofwhichthetwowomenconductedanevidentlystiltedconversation,theirfriendshiphamperednot
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leastbythefactthattheduchessbelievedCesareguiltyofabductingherprotégée,DoroteaMalatesta,ayearearlier.
AtUrbinotheduke,GuidobaldodaMontefeltro,wasawaitingtheirarrivalontheroadleadingtohiscapital,thestreetsofwhichweredecoratedwithflagsandstreamersandgarlandsofdriedflowers.Beneaththese
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thebrightlypaintedandheavilyladencarts,drawnbybullocks,rattledandscreechedintothecourtyardoftheducalpalace,whereLucreziawastostay.
FortwonightsLucreziaremainedinUrbino,stayingintheimposingcastleandenjoyingnotonlythecomfortsofaristocraticlifebutalsoitslavishballs,banquets,andtheatrical
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entertainments.Sheappearedatoneballinadressofblackvelvetwithahugediamondonherforehead,whiletheSpanishdwarfs,whoformedanill-disciplinedandnoisyadditiontohersuite,hoppedandrompedaroundher,crying,"Lookatthegreatlady!"
Lucreziawasawarethatreportsaboutherappearanceandbehaviour,evendetailsof
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herpersonalhygiene,werebeingsenttothejealousandformidableIsabellad'Estebyhersecretinformant,amanknownasIlPrete(thepriest)butwhoseidentityremainsmysterious.WhenhisinquisitivebehaviourcametoLucrezia'snotice,shesentfortheman,questionedhimatlength,andmanagedtoelicitmoreinformationabouthernewsister-in-lawthanhehadintendedtodivulge."Sheisa
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ladyofkeenintelligenceandperspicacity,"heafterwardreportedofLucrezia;"onehadtohaveone'switsaboutonewhenspeakingtoher."
Theluxuriesoftheducalpalace,however,werenottobeenjoyedforlong,andonceagaintheslowandexhaustingjourneywasresumed,nowtowardPesaro,stillinthestiltedcompanyoftheDuchessofUrbino,who
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wouldstaywithheruntiltheyreachedtheirdestination.ThetwowomenarrivedatPesaroonJanuary21,thankfulatleastthatthestonysnowymountainswere,atlast,behindthem.
AtPesaro—thecitythathadoncebelongedtoherfirsthusband,GiovanniSforza,andwasnowthepossessionofherbrother—itwasCesare'sSpanishgovernor,
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RamirodeLorqua,whowaswaitingtowelcomeherandescortherpasttheexpectantpopulacecrowdingthestreets.Whenthecavalcadefinallyhaltedthatevening,Lucreziapleadedfatigueasanexcusefornotjoiningaballthathadbeenarrangedinherhonourbutthatwouldbeattendedbymanyofherex-husband'ssubjects;andsheretiredwithherladiestothequartersassignedtoher,
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whereoneofhermaidsperformedwhatwasalmostadailyritualbywashinghermistress'slongblondhair.
RidingthroughCesare'sduchy,thejourneyalongtheViaEmiliapleasantlysmoothaftertheroughjoltingoverthehillroads,LucreziareachedCesena,herbrother'scapital,onJanuary24.Here,however,anunsettlingrumouroftroubleahead
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broughtanendtosuchcarefreegaiety;itwassaidthatDoroteaMalatesta'sfiancé,themercenarycommanderGiambattistaCaracciolo,hadsworntotakerevengeforthekidnappingandwasnowawaitingtofallupontheBorgiabridesomewherenearby.
Thethreat,however,didnotmaterialize,andLucreziareachedBolognawithout
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incident,thoughherdecisiontodelayherarrivalinthatcitybyspendingasecondnightatImolainordertorestmusthaveirritatedGiovanniBentivoglioandhiswife,herhostsinBologna.Afterasplendidprocessionthroughthecity,watchedbyhugecrowds,andanotherball,Lucreziawassotiredthatsheoversleptthenextmorning.
OnthelastdayofJanuary,
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LucreziaandtheDuchessofUrbinoleftBolognaforthevillaoftheirhostsatBentivoglio,neartheborderoftheduchyofFerrara,andthelaststoponherexhaustinglylongjourneyfromRome.Justbeforesunsetanunexpectedpartyoffourhorsemenwereseendismountingatthedoor.Lucrezia'sbridegroom,Alfonsod'Este,hadimpetuouslydecidedtocome
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inpersontogreethisbride."Thisactpleasedeveryone,"wroteBernardinoZambotti,theFerraresediarist,"andespeciallythebrideandherladies,thathislordshipwishedtoseeher,"anddidmuchtocounterthewidespreadrumoursofAlfonso'soppositiontothematch.
Alfonsohimselfwasclearlypleasedbywhathesaw;and,
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soitwasreported,hesuggestedthatheandLucreziagotobedtogetherthereandthen.Dissuadedfromthisimpropriety,hereturnedtoFerrara,where,thenextday,standingbesidehisfather,withacompanyofcrossbowmenbehindthem,hewelcomedtheducalbargeinwhich,instateroomsofconsiderablesplendour,Lucreziahadtravelledthetwentymilesofwaterway
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fromBentivoglio.
AtMalalbergoshehadbeenjoinedbyhernewsister-in-law,thejealousandhostileIsabellad'Este,whowasreluctantlyacting,ascustomdictated,ashostessforherwidowedfather,theduke.Hereyeswouldfillwithtears,soIsabellasaid,whenshesawhermother'srubynecklacehangingaroundLucrezia'sgracefulneck.
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ItwasnotuntilshedisembarkedfromtheducalbargeoutsidethewallsofFerrarathatLucreziamethernewfather-in-lawforthefirsttime.TheelderlyDukeErcole,almostseventyyearsold,seemedgreatlystruckbyherappearanceandwasmuchentertainedbythejokesandposturingsofherclowns.HegraciouslykissedherhandbeforeescortinghertothehouseofAlbertod'Este,his
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illegitimatebrother,whereshewouldstaythenightinordertoprepareforherstateentryintoFerrarathefollowingday.
ThepreparationsinFerraraforthearrivaloftheheir'sbridehadbeengatheringpaceoverthepastweeks:streetswerecleaned,horsedroppingsandmudcartedaway;innswerefullybooked;shopswerestocked
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withsplendidstuffsandmementos;tailorsanddressmakersworkeddayandnighttofinishthenewoutfitsorderedbythecity'scourtiers;playwrightsandpoetswerebusywritingtheirdramas,whileactorsandoratorswererehearsingtheirlines;flagsandbannerswereembroideredwithinterwovendepictionsoftheBorgiabullandtheEstearms;coats-of-armsofthetwofamilieswere
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emblazonedonthegatesoftheducalpalace.Garlandswerehungovershopfrontsandtapestriesdrapedfromwindowsabove.Thearmyofpaintersandcarpentershadmanagedtofinishaseriesofelaboratearcheserectedalongtheroutetheprocessionwouldtake,decoratedwithmythologicalscenestoproclaimtheunionofthetwofamilies,theBorgiabullstandingsolidlybesidethe
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blackandwhiteeaglesoftheEstedynasty.
Thecityseethedwithexcitement;oneFerraresediaristspokeformanywhenherespondedtoonemanwhothoughtthefestivities"agrossinconvenience,butinmyopinionhewasspeakinglikeafool."
Thecity'sleadingfamiliescompetedwitheachotherfor
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thehonourofprovidingadaughtertojointhebride'snewhouseholdandpreparedapartmentsintheirpalacestoaccommodatetheofficialguestswhohadbeeninvited.AmbassadorsarrivedfromLucca,Florence,andSiena;theVenetianembassynumbered150;aroundthenecksoftheFrenchembassy,metbythedukeinperson,oneobservercountedeighty-fourheavygoldchains,
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worth,hethought,some35,000ducats.Therewere"somanyvisitorsinFerrara,"henoted,"thatitwasalmostimpossibletobelieve."
Finally,lateintheclear,coldafternoonofFebruary2,theFeastofCandlemas,LucreziarodeacrossthebridgeoverthePoatCastelTedaldotoenterthecitythatwouldbeherhomefortherestofherlife.
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Eightytrumpetersledthecavalcade,followedbyahundredmountedcrossbowmen,alldressedinthered-and-whiteEsteliveryandwearingcapsmadeintheFrenchstyle,amarkofhonourtoLouisXII,whosealliancewiththepopeandCesarehadprecipitatedthemarriage.Nextcametheheraldswearingblack-and-goldtabardsandcarryingsilvertrumpets,followedby
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drummersridingwhitemules,byarmedhalberdiers,bymountedpagesandnoblesandbishopsandambassadors,agaudyarrayofgoldandsilver,redandpurple,velvetsandsilks,andcostlyfur-linedcloaks—theSpanishcourtiersofCesare'shouseholdprovidedasobercontrastintheircustomaryplainblack.
SpontaneouscheersgreetedthebridegroomAlfonso,who
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wassplendidlydressedingreyvelvetembroideredwithgold—theembroideryalonewassaidtobeworth8,000ducats—andacaptrimmedwithfeathers,ridingwithhissquiresastrideasuperbbaychargercaparisonedinpurplevelvet.Thencamethebishops,inwhitecopesandjewelledmitres;theambassadorsintheirofficialfinery;andthenthedrummersandjesters,who
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heraldedthearrivalofthebride.Thiswaswhatthecrowdshadbeenwaitingfor,andtheyroaredtheirapproval.
Ridingasnow-whitehorsewithgoldtrappings,LucreziaenteredFerrarabeneathawhitesilkcanopydecoratedwithgoldfringe,whichwascarriedbyeightdoctorsoftheuniversity.Sheworeajewelledcoifonherhead,its
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valueestimatedat15,000ducats,oneofthecapsthat,asIsabellad'Esteacidlyremarked,"mylordfathersentherinRome,"adding,"Aroundherthroatwasthenecklacewhichhadbelongedtomymother."Onherfeetwasapairofslippersworth2,000ducats,andsheworeadressofgoldbrocadestripedwithpurplesatin,ornamented,accordingtooneobserver,"withsomany
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jewelsthatitwasamarvel,"withagoldcloakthrownbackoveroneshouldertodisplayitserminelining.
BehindhercameseveralopencarriagesbearingnumerousFerrareseladiesandotherguestsand,lastofall,thelonglineofpackmulescarryingthechestsfilledwithherclothes,jewellery,andotherpossessions,theirloads
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coveredwithlengthsofdeepredsatinembroideredwithherowndevice.
Lucrezia'smount,anelegantbayhorse,wasstartledbythesuddendeafeningroarofartilleryfromCastelTedaldothatsoundedasshecrossedthebridge,anditrearedup,throwinghertotheground.Fortunatelyshewasnothurtbutpickedherselfup,laughingmerrily,"andthisI
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sawmyselfbecauseIwasrightthere,"wroteoneobserveroftheevent.Amulewasbroughtforhertocontinue,andshemadeherwaythroughthenarrowwindingstreets,pasttheentertainmentsstagedforherateveryturn,andfinallyintothegreatpiazzainfrontoftheducalcastle.
Thepiazzawascrowdedwithpeople,"sofull,"
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remarkedoneobserver,"thatifagrainofmillethadfallenfromtheskyitwouldnothavereachedtheground."Thearrivalofthecavalcadewasheraldedbyatremendousfanfarefromthe113trumpetersandpipersplayingonthebalconyoftheducalpalace,andthedungeonsbeneathwereopenedtoreleaseastreamofprisoners.Twomenthendescendeddownropesfrom
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thetopofthehightowersinthepiazza,theirarmsoutstretchedsothat"theylookedlikebirds,"asonemansaid,tolandatLucrezia'sfeet.Zambotticommentedthat"everyonethoughtitagreatmarvelbecauseithappenedsoquicklyandneitherofthemwashurt."
Lucreziarodeintothecourtyardofthepalace,
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whereshedismountedandclimbedthemarblestaircase,atthetopofwhichIsabellad'EsteandotherfemalemembersoftheducalfamilywaitedtoembraceherbeforeescortingherintotheGreatHall,whichhadbeenhungwithcloth-of-gold"andsilksofgreatvalue"tomarktheoccasion.Thereshewasguestofhonouratthefeast,thehighlightofwhichwasaseriesoflife-sizesculptures
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allmadeinsugar,followedbyaball.
Attheendoftheevening,thebridalcouplemadetheirwaytotheirbedchamberintheapartmentsthathadoncebelongedtoAlfonso'smother.Thefollowingday,thebridegroom'sfatherreportedtothepope:"Lastnightourillustriousson,DonAlfonso,wenttobedwithhiswife,andfromallaccounts,itappears
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theywerequitesatisfiedwithoneanother."Herhusbandseemedpleasedwithherandwasattentiveforthefirstfewdays,eventhoughhedidnotlingerforlongofamorningintheirbed,but,havingsleptwithher,sotheFerrareseambassadortoRometoldthepope,he"tookhispleasurewithotherwomenduringtheday.""Beingyoung,"thepopehadcommented,complacently,"itdoeshim
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good."
Thephlegmatic,silentbridegroom,amanwhoseinterests,soitwassaid,werelimitedtosewersandartillery,hadregardedhismarriageasnomorethanapainfulduty.Thetwowomenhehadmostdeeplycaredforhadbothdiedyoung;hismother,EleonoraofAragon,thesisterofKingFederigo,haddiedwhenhewas
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seventeenyearsold;hisyoungersister,Beatrice,haddiedinchildbirthfouryearslater.Alfonso'ssecretarythoughtitwasinterestingtospeculateonhismaster'sfeelingstowardthebrideinwhomhehadappearedtoshownoinitialinterest.AshecametoknowLucreziabetter,however,themoreinterestingandattractivehefoundher;heactuallysoughtouthercompany,gratefulto
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havereasontodisbelievethestoriesofherdebauchedpast."Whateverhisfeelingswerebeforehemether,beforelongheconceived,"soitseemedtothesecretary,"aloveasardentaswastheaversionhehadfeltforherwhenthemarriagehadfirstbeenproposed."
Theweddingfestivitiescontinuedforoveraweek.Therewerejoustsmostdays
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inthegreatsquareinfrontofthepalace,followedbybanquetsandballseverynight.AtroupeofactorsperformedthecomediesofPlautuseachafternoon,whichtheduke,determinedtoshowoffthequalityofcultureforwhichFerrarawasjustlyfamous,hadinsistedweretobebetterthananythingthatLucreziawouldhaveseeninRome.Therewerealsothecustomaryceremonial
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offeringsofpresentstothebrideandgroom.TheVenetiansproducedtwosuperbmantlesofdeepredvelvet,worth300ducatseach.TheFrenchambassadorhadbroughtexpensivegiftsfromLouisXII:arosaryforLucrezia,itsbeadsofperforatedgoldfilledwitharomaticmusk,andashieldforAlfonso,decoratedwiththefigureofMaryMagdalene,which,the
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ambassadorwasatpainstoexplain,wastoshowthathehadtakenawomanofvirtue,thoughallofthosepresenthadheardtherumoursofincestandmanybelievedthatLucrezia'spast,liketheMagdalene's,hadbeenfarfromvirtuous.
Lucrezia,itseems,thoroughlyenjoyedtheparties.Zambottidescribedherasbeing"fulloflifeand
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gaiety."Thepope'sdaughter,soitwasagreed,danced"admirably"anddressed"beautifully."DukeErcolewasfullofpraiseforthedaughter-in-lawhehadbeensoreluctanttoacceptandseemstohavebecomegenuinelyfondofLucrezia,takingher,asamarkofhisfavour,tovisitSisterLuciadaNarni,thenunshehadhelpedtomovefromViterbotoFerrara."Hervirtuesand
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goodqualitieshavesopleasedme,"thedukewrotetoAlexanderVIaboutLucrezia,"thatsheisthedearestthingIhaveinthisworld."
Isabellad'EsteandElisabettaGonzagawerelessenthusiasticabouttheirnewsister-in-law.Nolongerintheirprime,theDuchessofUrbinowasthirtyandIsabellajustthreeyears
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younger,whileLucrezia,despiteherthreehusbands,wasstillonlytwenty-oneyearsold.Thetwoolderwomenwereclearlyputoutbythebride,whowasundeniablyyoungerandprettierthanthemselvesand,moreover,tookprecedenceoverthematcourt.
ThemaliciousIsabelladidherutmosttomaketheunwelcomebride
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uncomfortable;"yesterday,"shewrotegrumpilytoherhusbandinMantua,"weallhadtostayinourroomsuntilfiveo'clockbecauseLucreziachoosestospendhoursdressingsothatshecanputtheDuchessofUrbinoandmyselfintotheshadeintheeyesoftheworld."TheBorgiagirl,shecomplained,spentanunconscionabletimedressing,washingherhair,andchatteringinherrooms;
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shealsodeclinedtoattendsuchfestivitiesasdidnotappealtoher;andwhenarisquécomedywasperformed,shewasobviouslyamusedbyit,whileIsabellamadeitclearthatshe,likeallrespectableladies,founditmostobjectionable.
WiththedepartureoftheguestsonFebruary9,AshWednesdayandthebeginningofLent,Lucreziasettled
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downtolifeatcourtaswifetoAlfonso,theduke'sheir.OnMaundyThursdaysheactedashostessforherfather-in-lawatthecustomarydinnergivento160poorpeople,servingtheirfoodandassistinginthewashingoftheirfeet.Thenextday,GoodFriday,sheattendedMassinthecathedral,wherethecongregationwasentertainedbyaPassionplay,afive-hourspectaclewithangels
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descendingfromtherooftohoveroverChristasheprayedinthegardenofGethsemane,hisCrucifixiononahillspeciallybuiltinfrontofthehighaltarandhisDescentintoHellthroughtheheadofahugewrithingserpent.
Yetasthedayspassed,shefoundlifeinFerrarahard,homesickforRomeandherbelovedfather.Shespent
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morningsinbed;shelayinthescentedwatersofherbath,accompaniedbyoneofheryoungladies,who,whentheyemerged,wouldreaderoticnovelstoher.ShepassedincreasinglylongperiodsintheroomsthathadbeenassignedtoherwithherSpanishattendantstowhomshespokeintheirownValenciandialectandwithwhomtheFerrareseladiesweresoonontheworstof
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terms.Sheevenoffendedherconservativefather-in-law,asshedidmanyotherFerrarese,byintroducingatcourtaSpanishcostume,zaraguelles,wide,pleatedpantaloonsofsilkormuslinwornundertheskirt.
DukeErcole,despitehisaffectionforLucrezia,wasgrowinganxiousaboutthecostofalltheentertainingthathewasexpectedto
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provide.Mostofthemarriageguestshaddeparted;butseveralmembersofLucrezia'scourtremained,and"thesewomen,"herfather-in-lawcomplained,"byremainingherecausealargenumberofotherpersons,menaswellaswomen,tolingeron....[I]tisagreatburdenandcausesheavyexpense.Theretinueoftheseladies...numbersnotfarshortof450personsand350horses."He
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alsoworriedaboutthecostofmaintainingLucrezia'slargeandmostlySpanishhousehold,declaringthatthenumberofhisdaughter-in-law'sladiesandservantsmustbereduced;and,despiteherprotests,hedismissedfromhercourtallwhomheconsideredunnecessary.
Totheevidentsurpriseofhercritics,sheacceptedherfather-in-law'sdecisionwith
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goodgrace;andnotonlythis,shesetaboutconciliatingthemostcriticaloftheFerrareseladies.AmongthemwasafriendofIsabellad'Este,TeodoraAngelini,whowasfrequentlyinvitedtodineatLucrezia'stable,anenticingprivilege,especiallyduringLent,whentheduke'stablebecameexcessivelymonotonous,whileLucrezia'swasplentifullysuppliedwithavarietyofdishesfrom
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oystersandscampitosturgeon,crayfish,andcaviar.
TheextravaganceofthemealsservedatLucrezia'stablenaturallyhorrifiedtheduke.Heconsultedhisdaughter,Isabella,whodeclaredthatLucrezia'sneedscouldeasilybemetbyanallowanceof8,000ducatsayearratherthanthe12,000ducatsthatthepopewasdemandingforher.Theduke
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offeredtocompromisebyallowingher10,000ducats;thisthepoperefused;andLucrezia,anxioustoescapetheacrimoniousgossipthatthisquarrelwascausingatcourtand,sufferingthesymptomsthattoldhershewasnowbearingAlfonso'schild,retreatedtotheconventofCorpusDomini.
ThenewsthatLucreziawaspregnant,sosoonafterthe
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marriage,delightedthedukeandalsothepope."HisHolinesshastakenonanewleaseoflifeinconsequenceofthenewsfromFerrara,"wroteBurchard,"andeverynightheiscommandingintohispresenceyoungwomenchosenfromthebestRomanbrothels."AsthoughincelebrationofLucrezia'spregnancy,healsosentforJofrè,Jofrè'swife,Sancia,andevenforSancia'slover,
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ProsperoColonna;oneparticularlyluridaccountsuggeststhatthepopethenleftthetwomeninanantechamberwhilehetookSanciaofftooneoftheprivateroomsfromwhichhereturnedafterawhiletotellJofrèandColonnathatshewas"stillworththeseriousattentionofayoungman."
Thepope'scheerfulmoodinhopesofagrandchild,
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however,weresoontoendindisappointmentandworry.InMayAlfonsohadleftFerraraonbusiness,andLucreziahadtakenadvantageofhisabsencetogotoBelriguardo,oneoftheduke'smanyvillasinthecountrysideandwhere,shehoped,thefreshairandbeautifulsurroundingswouldimproveherhealth.ShehadfeltmuchbetteronherreturntoFerrara,butthesultrysummerheatinthecitysoon
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causedarelapse.BythemiddleofthathotJulyof1502,shefelldangerouslyill.Herhusbandwassentfor;sowereseveraldoctorsinadditiontoFrancescoCastello,thecourtphysician.Thepope,gravelyconcerned,maintainedthattheillnesshadbeencausedbyhisdaughter'sdistressatbeingkeptsoshortofmoney.
Meanwhile,thepatientgrew
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worse,sufferingfromparoxysmsandfitsofdelirium.Itwassupposed,inevitably,thatshehadbeenpoisoned;butitwassoonclearthatavirulentoutbreakofthefluxhadgrippedtheentirecourt.Herconditiongrewworse,anditwaswidelyfearedshewoulddie;herhusbandandherbelovedbrotherhastenedtoherbedsideand,miraculously,foundherbetter,sittingupin
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bed.Dayslatershesufferedanotherrelapse;allAugustshelayclosetodeathuntilfinally,onSeptember5,shegavebirthtoastillborndaughter.
CesarearrivedinFerraratwodayslatertofindherillwithpuerperalfeverandrefusingtoallowherdoctorstobleedher.Cesare'scompanyseemedtorallyher,andheinducedhertogive
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waytothedoctors'advice."WebledMadonnaontherightfoot,"oneofthedoctorsreported."Itwasextremelydifficulttodo,andwecouldnothavedoneithaditnotbeenfor[Cesare]whoheldherfoot,andmadeherlaughandcheeredhergreatly."
Lucreziarecoveredslowlyfromherordeal,andwhenshewaswellenoughtotravel,shewascarriedina
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littertothecareofthesistersoftheconventofCorpusDomini.Shewasaccompaniedbyhercontritehusband,who,althoughhehadmadeavowtomakeapilgrimagetotheshrineoftheVirginatLoreto,aplacemuchveneratedbythosewhoexperiencedproblemswithconceptionandpregnancy,intendingtowalkthe170milesonfootshouldGodspareherlife,hecontented
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himselfwithtravellingtherebyboatandthenmakingoneofthoseinspectionsofmilitaryestablishmentsthatheundertooksooften.
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Chapter22CastlesandCondottieri
"THEAMOUNTOFAPOPE'SINCOME
ISWHATEVERHECHOOSESITTOBE"
INMARCH1502,whileLucreziawasadjustingtolifeattheducalcourtinFerrara,
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aneventoccurredthatdemonstratedjusthowstrongandresourcefulboththepopeandCesarecouldbeinmomentsofcrisis.Thetwomen—accompaniedbysixcardinals,oneofwhomwasLucrezia'sbrother-in-lawIppolitod'Este,sevenprelates,andalargenumberofcourtiers,secretaries,andservants—hadtravelledbyboattoPiombino,wheretheyhadreviewedthedefencesof
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thisstrategicportcapturedbyCesare'stroopsthesummerbefore."Sixtriremeshadbeenprepared,"recordedBurchard,"usingthoseprisonersincarceratedforpettycrimestomantheoars";othershadbeenpress-ganged"byviolenceorbytrickeryinthetavernsofRome,"andthepopehadalso"requisitionedallbargeownersandmanyfishermen."
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HavingfinishedtheirtourofinspectioninPiombino,thepopeproposedtohiscompanionstotakeadaysailingaroundthecoast"toamusethemselves."Unfortunately,anunexpectedstormblewup,assometimeshappensintheTyrrhenianSea,makingitimpossiblydangerousforthemtoreentertheharbouratPiombinoandforcingthemtospendthenextfewnightsatsea.Onthe
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fourthdaythestormhadworsened,bringinghugebreakerscrashingoverthebowsoftheirboats,andCesare,"fearinggreatdanger,"riskedhisownlifebyleavingthegalleyinasmallboattorowashoretogethelp.
Then,accordingtoBurchard,whorecountedwhathehadheardfromthesurvivors:
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ThePopestayedonthegalley,unabletoputintoport.Hiscompanions,paralysedbyfear,laystretchedoutinthebottomoftheboat;onlyHisHoliness,seatedonthepoop,keptaresoluteandbravestand.Whentheseapoundedtheboatwithanger,hecried"Jesus!"andmadethe
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signofthecrossandtoldthesailorstogetonwithpreparingthemeal.Buttheyrepliedthatthecrashingwavesandtheroaringwindpreventedthemfromlightingafire.FinallytheseagrewcalmeranditwaspossibletofryfishforthePopetoeat.
BackinRomeafewdays
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later,thepopeandCesareturnedtheirthoughtstothenextstageoftheexpansionoftheduchyofRomagnaandtotheraisingofthelargesumsofmoneyrequiredtoprosecuteit.WiththenorthernborderoftheduchysecuredbythemarriageofLucreziatoAlfonsod'Este,Cesaresethissightsontwosmallpapalfiefs,CamerinoandSenigallia;morecovertly,fatherandsonhadplotteda
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farmoreambitiousschemetoseizethemuchlargerfiefsofUrbinoandBolognaandalsotoexpandintoTuscanybyfomentingrebellioninArezzoandPisa,twocitiesthatmuchresentedtheirsubjugationtorepublicanFlorence.
Withthiscampaigninmind,itwasataboutthistime,inthesummerof1502,thatCesareappointedLeonardodaVinciashis"Architectand
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GeneralEngineer"and,assuch,instructedhimto"surveythestrongholdsandfortresses"ofhisterritories.BythiscommissionLeonardowastobeexemptfrom"allpublictollforhimselfandhiscompany"andtobegivenfreeaccessto"see,measureandestimateallthathemaywish."
Leonardo,whoseLastSupperintheconventof
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SantaMariadelleGrazieinMilanwassomuchadmiredbyLouisXII,hadbeenemployedasamilitaryengineerbythelucklessDukeLudovicoSforzasincehewasapainter.ForCesarehedrewmaps,proposedsystemsofdefenceworks,anddesignedacanalconnectingCesenawiththeportofCesenatico.FortenmonthshetravelledacrossthePapalStates,clearlyfascinatedbythe
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characterandambitionsofhisgiftedandmysteriousemployer;severalmapssurviveamongLeonardo'spapers,includingoneshowingtheapproachestoArezzo.
BythebeginningofJune,AlexanderVIandCesarehadlaidtheirplans.Bycoincidence,anewambassadorarrivedfromVeniceataboutthesame
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time;thiswasAntonioGiustinian,whoseperceptiveandilluminatingdispatchesweretokeeptheVenetiangovernmentaswellinformedaboutpapalaffairsascouldbeexpected.Histask,however,washamperedbyCesare,who,hereported,continuedtoclothehisintentionsbehindacurtainofsecrecyanddeclinedtogiveadatewhenhecouldsparetimetoseetheenvoy.
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Inoneofhisfirstdispatches,GiustinianreportedthatthereweredifferencesbetweenAlexanderVIandhisson,especiallyregardingmoney."TodaythePopehashadsomedifficultieswiththeDuke,whorequiresanother20,000ducatsforhiscampaign,forwhichHisHolinesshasalreadypaidagreatdeal,"hewrote,beforecomingtotheconclusionthat
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"althoughthePopeisreluctanttogivehimthemoney,hewillcomeroundintheend,ashedoeswitheverythingconcerninghisson."
IntheendGiustiniandidnothavetowaitlongforthenatureofCesare'splanstoberevealed.OnJune5,withindaysoftheenvoy'sarrival,newscamethroughofariotagainsttheunpopular
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FlorentinegovernmentinArezzo,outsidewhichCesare'strustedcondottiereVitellozzoVitelliandanarmyofthreethousandmenawaitedorders;Vitellienteredthecitytwodayslater,wherehewasjoinedbyanotherofCesare'scaptains,GianpaoloBaglioni.Almostimmediately,newsalsoarrivedofasuccessfuluprisinginPisa,andthecityoffereditsallegianceto
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Cesare.FourdayslaterBurchardnotedthat"thecorpseofAstorreManfredi,LordofFaenza,"whohadbeenoverthrownbyCesareafteralongsiegethepreviousyearandimprisonedinCastelSant'Angelo,"hasbeenfishedoutoftheTiber,drownedbyastonetiedroundhisneck."Themasterofceremonieslamentedhisdeath:"Thisyoungman,just18yearsold,wasofsuchbeautyand
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staturethatitwouldnotbepossibletofindhisequalamongathousandofhiscontemporaries."
AlthoughbothAlexanderVIandCesarevigorouslydeniedanyinvolvementinthetakingofArezzo,protestinginsteadthatVitellihadacteduponhisowninitiative,fewinRomebelievedthem.Anditwasgenerallyacceptedthatthe
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murderofManfrediwasalsocommittedontheordersofCesare,whowasanxioustoavoidanytroublefromthesupportersofthepopularAstorrewhilehewasawayfromRomewithhisarmy.
AfewdayslaterCesarewasatSpoletowithhisarmyofsixthousandinfantryandtwothousandcavalry,andhiscondottiericaptains,theSpaniardsUgodeMoncada
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andMigueldeCorella,andtheItaliansPaoloOrsiniandhiscousinFrancesco,theDukeofGravina;OliverottoEuffreducci,LordofFermo;GianpaoloBaglioni,LordofPerugia;andVitellozzoVitelli,LordofCittàdiCastello,whohadreluctantlysubmittedtoCesare'srequesttowithdrawfromArezzo.MassingintheRomagna,meanwhile,anotherarmy,ledbyCesare'sgovernor,Ramiro
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deLorqua,preparedtomovesouth.
TherewasatfirstsomedoubtinRomeastowherethesearmiesweremarching;somesaidPisa,othersArezzo,thoughmostassumedthattheirdestinationwasCamerino,thestateofGiulioCesaredaVarano,whohadbeenexcommunicatedbyAlexanderVIonJune5onachargeoffratricide.Tothis
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end,theDukeofUrbinohadgivenpermissionforRamirodeLorquaandtheRomagnatroopstopassthroughhisstate;thoughhehadalso,unwiselyasitwastoturnout,offeredhelptoVaranotodefendCamerino.
Infact,CesarewasabouttoattemptahighlyambitiouscoupandseizeUrbinoitself,withitscommandingpositionbetweentheRomagnaand
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Rome;andtojustifythisunprovokedattackbyclaimingthattheduke,GuidobaldodeMontefeltro,hadactedtreasonablyinhisoffertoassistVarano.
TheDukeofUrbino,meanwhile,believingCesaretobemanymilesawaytothesouthandhavingnoreasontodoubthisprotestationsoffriendship,hadgonetoenjoyanalfrescodinnerinthepark
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ofamonasteryjustoutsidethewallsofhiscapital.Inthemiddleofthemeal,acourierwasobservedridingatspeedintotheparkwithanurgentmessage:Cesare'stroopsweremarchingonUrbinoitself;theywerelessthantwentymilesaway.Guidobaldofledand,evadingCesare'stroopswhohadbeenorderedtointercepthim,hearrived,dishevelledandexhausted,inMantuaaweek
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later.
TheexiledGuidobaldodaMontefeltrodid,however,retainhisdignity,refusingtheofferofacardinal'shatandapensioninexchangeforhisrightstothedukedomofUrbino.Tohumiliatethedukestillfurther,itwasrevealedatthistimethathewasimpotent,amisfortunethathadremainedasecretoutsidethefamilyforyears.
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Still,hisloyalwife,Elisabetta,declaredthatshewouldratherlivewithhimashissisterthannolongerashiswife.
InanattempttonegotiatetherestorationoftheirauthorityinArezzo,theFlorentinesnowsenttoUrbinoahigh-rankingdelegationledbyFrancescoSoderini,bishopofVolterraandbrothertotheheadofthe
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Florentinerepublic,whichwasrequiredtoreportonthesituationtothegovernmentbackhome.ThesecretarytothisdelegationwasnoneotherthanNiccolòMachiavelli,whowasdeeplyimpressedwithCesare,somuchsoinfactthathisenemieswouldlaterclaimthatthesecretaryhadbeenbribedbytheduke,thoughnoevidencehaseveremergedtosupporttheserumours.
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"ThisLordisverysplendidandmagnificent,"MachiavelliwroteinalettersignedbySoderini:
Inwarthereisnoenterprisesogreatthatitdoesnotappearlittletohim.Inhispursuitofgloryandlandsheneverrests,norisheputoffbydangerorfatigue.Hearrivesinoneplace
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beforeitisknownthathehasleftanother.Heiswelllikedbyhissoldiers,andhehadcollectedthebestmeninItaly.Thesethingsbringhimvictoryandmakehimformidable,especiallywhencombinedwithunaperpetuafortuna.
Machiavellimighthaveaddedhowexasperatingwas
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Cesare,who,havingkepthimwaitingforhoursonendforaninterview,wouldsuddenlysummonhiminthemiddleofthenightortheearlyhoursofthemorning,oftennotappearingwhensomemeetinghadbeenarranged,and,onoccasion,ridingawaytowherehisarmywasincampatFermignano,afewmilessouthofUrbino,wherehecouldbeseenearlyinthemorninghuntingwithhis
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leopardsinthesurroundinghills,accompaniedby"ahostofservants,hisfacewrappedingauze."
WhenatUrbino,muchofCesare'stimewasspentsupervisingthedispatchbymuletrainofnumerousMontefeltrotreasurestothefortressesatForlìandCesena—thosecostlyfurnishingsandworksofartthathadornamentedthemagnificent
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ducalpalacewhereLucreziahadbeenmuchhonouredasaguestjustfivemonthsearlier."HehadallGuidobaldodaMontefeltro'sfurnituretakenfromthepalace,"alocalchroniclerreported,"sothat,overtheperiodofamonth,180muleswereemployedeachday;thuswasanhonouredfamilydespoiledofsilverandrichtapestries,andthemagnificentlibraryofrarebooks,whichhadbeen
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assembledwithsuchlovingcarebyGuidobaldo'sfather,DukeFederigo."Inhisnotebooks,Leonardoalsorecordedthestringsof"mulescarryingrichloadsofgoldandsilver,manytreasuresandgreatwealth."
AmongthesetreasureswereworksofartthatIsabellad'Este,whopossessedbyherownadmission"aninsatiabledesireforantiquethings,"
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waseagertoacquire.ShewrotetoherbrotherinRome,CardinalIppolitod'Este,askinghimtoapproachCesarewitharequestfortwoantiquestatues,oneofaCupidattributedbysometotheancientGreeksculptorPraxiteles,andtheother"alittleantiquemarbleVenus,"whichshehopedCesaremightbepreparedtopartwithsincehedidnot"takemuchpleasureinantiquities."
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Infact,theCupidwasnotanantiquebutamodernworkcarvedbytheFlorentinesculptorMichelangelo,andCesarecouldwellspareit.Indeed,hisagentdeliveredthestatuestoIsabellainMantuaonJuly21.Shehadsoughtpermissionfromtheexiledduke,herbrother-in-law,beforepurchasingtheseitems,butwhenGuidobaldotriedtoreclaimthesculptureslater,she,somewhatmeanly,
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refusedtoletthemgo.
AfterCesare'ssuccessatUrbino,theseizureofCamerinoofferedfewproblems;andtheagedlordoftheplace,GiulioCesaredaVarano,togetherwithhistwosons,washandedovertoCesareandwaslaterstrangledinthecastleofLaPergola.
InRomethepopecelebrated
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Cesare'svictoryatCamerinoinhisusualexuberantmannerwiththecustomarycannonadefromtherampartsofCastelSant'Angeloand,thatevening,asBurchardreported,with"bonfires,fireworksandagreatpartyinthepiazzaofSt.Peter's."
FirmlyincontrolofanobedientRomagna,Cesarenowsetaboutraisingmoneytofeedandequiphisarmy,
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whichwassaidtocosthimmorethan1,000ducatsaday.Heturnedtohisfatherforassistance,andalthoughthepopewasalwaysofafarmorecautiousturnofmindwheremoneywasconcerned,andconstantlylamentingtheextravagancesofhisson,Cesaredidnotturninvain.
Indeed,thepoperesortedtoallmannerofexpedientsinordertoraisethenecessary
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amountsofcash.LargesumspouredinfromtheimpositionoffinesandpenaltiesuponJewsandfromthecreationofnumerousofficesinthepapaladministrationthatwereprofitablysoldforasmuchas700ducatseach.Headoptedthequestionabletacticofcountermandinglegalwills,appointinghimselfasheirandreplacingthenamedexecutorswithhisownmen;heeven,soitwassaid,
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resortedtomurdertohelphissonfinanciallysofarashecould.
AddingsubstantiallytothepapalcofferswasthedeathonJuly20,1502,ofCardinalGianbattistaFerrari,AlexanderVI'serstwhiledatary,whohadpaid22,000ducatsforhisredhatinSeptember1500,aspartofthepope'seffortstoraisefundsforCesare'scampaign
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againstFaenza,Rimini,andPesaro.ThecardinalhadfallenillinearlyJune,Burchardreported,and"declinedallmedicaltreatment,refusingstubbornlytobegivenenemas,tobebled,totakesyrupsorpillsoranyothermedicines."Afterafewdaysinbed,hehadbeenwellenoughtodineon"breadsoupandapintofexcellentCorsicanwine,"butsoonsufferedarelapse,severe
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enoughtobegiventhelastrites;however,heralliedagainandlastedforanothermonth,stillrefusingmedicinesofanykind.
Themorningofhisdeath,somewhatdelirious,hecomplainedthathehadbeenrobbedof10ducatsinatransactionrelatingtoapetition.Twomonkswhowere
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presenttoldhim"MostReverendLord,donottroubleyourselfaboutthesetransactions.YoumustrecommendyourselftoHimwhowilldeliveryoufromallfraudanddeceit."Hekissedthecrucifixandmadethesignofthecrossbystrikinghismouthwithhisrighthand.Shortly
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afterwardsheyieldeduphisspirit.
Thecardinal'sintermentinSantaMariadellaFebbrewasnotadignifiedceremony;amemberofthedeadman'shouseholdhurriedtowardthecoffintoretrieveapairofglovesthat,heclaimed,belongedtohim,aswellasaringthat,sohemaintained,wasalsohisproperty.Thenitwasfoundthatthelidofthe
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coffinwouldnotcloseuponthecorpse,soacarpenterwascalledtokneelonittoforceitdown.
Althougharichmanwhowasreportedtohaveaccumulatedalargefortuneinducatsandingoldandsilver,byextremelyquestionablemeans,GianbattistaFerrarihadbeennotoriouslyparsimonious;andBurchardrecordedthe
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jokethatwasbeingtoldofhimatthattimeinRome,that,onpresentinghimselfatthegatesofheaven,St.Peterhadaskedhimforanentrancefeeof1,000ducats.Heprotestedthathecouldnotpossiblypaysuchasum.Well,saidSt.Peter,hewouldsettlefor500ducats.That,too,wasquiteimpossible;thepricewaseventuallydroppedtooneducat,buteventhiswastoomuchforthemiserly
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cardinal."Ifyoucannotpayasingleducat,"St.Peterthenexclaimed,"gototheDevil,andremainapauperwithhimforalleternity."
Sothedeathofthecardinalwasnotwidelymourned;hisstinginessanddisregardfortheplightofthepoorhadearnedhimanevilreputation;andwhilehislastillnessseemstohavebeencausedbyafeverendemicinRome,
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thereweremanywhobelievedthathehadbeenpoisonedinthemannerinwhichhehimselfwassupposedtohavearrangedthedeathsofseveralofthosewhocrossedhispath.Certainly,muchofthecardinal'sfortune,whichBurchardestimatedat80,000ducats,notcountinghisclothesandjewels,passedintothehandsofthepope,andthenceintoCesare's
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battlechest.
HavingtakenUrbinoandCamerino,Cesarewasnowreadyforthenextstepinhisruthlesscampaign.ForthisheneededthecooperationofLouisXII,whowas,convenientlyforCesare,onhiswayfromFranceinpersontovisitMilan,wherehewasexpectedonJuly28.So,justfourdaysafterthesurrenderofCamerino,
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CesaregallopedoutofhiscampatFermignano,togetherwiththreecompanions,"disguisedasaKnightofSt.JohnofJerusalem,withacrossonhiscoat,"reportedBurchard,andavailinghimselfoftheorder'schain-of-posthorsesalongtheroad.
AtBorgoSanDonnino,Cesareandhiscompanionsfeastedonahugequantityofchickensandpigeons,so
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manyindeedthat"theyshockedthelocals,"claimedBurchard,"coveringthemselveswithshame."TheystoppedbrieflyinFerrara,whereCesarevisitedhisbelovedLucrezia,whowasseriouslyill,androdeontoMilan,wheretheyarrivedonAugust5.
AwitnessreportedtoIsabellad'EstethemannerofCesare'sreceptionbyLouis
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XII:
TheKingpubliclyembracedandwelcomedhimwithgreatjoyandledhimintothecastlewherehehadhiminstalledinthechambernearesthisown,andtheKinghimselforderedhissupper,choosingdiversedishes...andheorderedthathis
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guestshoulddressintheKing'sownshirtandtunic,sinceDukeValentinohadbroughtnobaggageanimalswithhim,onlyhorses.Inshort—hecouldnothavedonemoreforasonorabrother.
Thepopewasdispleasedbyhisson'sactions—aboutwhichhehadbeenincreasinglyoftenkeptinthe
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dark—and,alwaysinclinedtobewaryofFrance,was"highlytroubledbythisjourneyofhisson'stoMilan,"Giustinianhadreported,"becauseIhearfromacompletelyreliablesourcethatheundertookthejourneywithoutanyconsultationoreveninformingHisHoliness."
ForCesare,however,thejourneywastoprovehighly
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profitable;notonlydidhecementhisfriendshipandunderstandingwithLouisXII,buthealsosucceededinintimidatinghisenemieswhohadclusteredaroundtheFrenchcourt.Cesare'sreceptionbythekingmusthavebeengallingformanyoftheotherguests,notablyforGiovanniSforzaandGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,bothofwhomhadbeenusurpedbyCesareandwere
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hopingforFrenchaidtoregaintheirdominions.
AmongthemostoutspokenofCesare'senemiesgatheredattheFrenchcourtwasIsabellad'Este'shusband,FrancescoGonzaga,whohadswornthathewouldfightaduelwithCesare,"thatbastardsonofapriest's,"butnowfeltobligedtorecant,andreportedtoafriendthatheandCesarehad"embraced
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eachotherasgoodbrothers,"adding,"WehavespentallthisdaydancingandfeastingwithHisMajesty."
DespitehisangeratthearrogancewithwhichCesareflauntedhismilitarystrength,andespeciallywithhisencroachmentintotheterritoryofFlorence,whichremainedanimportantallyofFrance,thekingneededthesupportofAlexanderVI,and
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ofthepope'sson'sarmy,todefendhisauthorityinNaples,wheretherelationsbetweenFranceandSpain,unusuallycordialinrecentyears,hadbeguntoreturntotheircustomaryhostility.Andso,LouisXIIandCesarecametoanagreementwherebythekingagreedtogivethedukeafreehandinBolognawhileCesarewastolendsupporttoFrenchambitionsinNaples.
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CesarespentnearlyamonthwiththeFrenchcourt,travellingwiththekingfirsttoPavia,wheretheywereentertainedwitharitualduelbetweentwofeudingmembersoftheGonzagafamily,whowerethenseatedoppositeeachotheratthelavishbanquetthatfollowed.TheythenrodeontoGenoa,whereaspectacularreceptionhadbeenplannedtowelcomeLouisXII,atacosttothecity
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of12,000ducats.
OnSeptember2CesareleftGenoaandfivedayslaterwasinFerraratocheertheailingLucrezia,whowassufferingfrompuerperalfever.HethenrodesouthtoCamerinotoconferwithhisfather,whowasinthecitytoinstallasthenewDukeofCamerinothefour-and-a-half-year-oldJuan,theboywidelysupposedtohavebeenthe
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resultofLucrezia'sinfamousaffairwiththepapalvaletPedroCalderon.ThepopeandCesarehadmuchtodiscuss,notleasttheplanforseizingBologna.
InfulfilmentofhisagreementwithCesare,LouisXIIhadsentanenvoytoGiovanniBentivoglioatBologna,informinghimthathewouldnotopposethewishesofAlexanderVI,who
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nowcalledBentivogliotoRometoanswerchargesofmisgovernment.
Cesare'scaptains,however,hadbecomeincreasinglysuspiciousoftheirmaster'sintentions.IfGiovanniBentivogliowasabouttolosehisstate,howsafeweretheirownterritories,whichalllayontheedgesofCesare'sduchy,theirsecurityguaranteed,sotheythought,
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bytheirserviceintheduke'sarmies.Accordingly,CardinalOrsinicalledameetingatthecastleofMagione,ashortdistancefromLakeTrasimeno,whichwasattendedbyallthethreatenedrulers:GianpaoloBaglioniofPerugia;FrancescoOrsini,DukeofGravina;PaoloOrsiniofPalombara;OliverottoEuffreducciofFermo;evenVitellozzoVitelli,Lordof
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CittàdiCastello,whowassufferingfromanacutelypainfulattackofsyphilisandhadtobecarriedthereonastretcher.AndthosewhocouldnotcomeinpersontoMagionewererepresented:GiovanniBentivoglioofBolognasenthisson,Ermes;PandolfoPetrucciofSienasenttwocourtiers;GuidobaldodaMontefeltrosentanother;andsoon.
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GianpaoloBaglioniwarnedthoseattendingtheconferencethattheyallriskedbeing"devouredonebyonebythedragon"iftheydidnotactagainstCesare.YetsolongasnotonlyFrancebutalsoFlorenceandVenicedeclinedtohelpthem,themajorityofthemembersoftheconferencewerereluctanttofaceuptothedangerthatconfrontedthem.OnOctober7,however,therewasan
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uprisingagainsttheBorgiasinthefortressofSanLeoinUrbino;and,withthisencouragement,agreementwasreached;itwassettledthatCesarewastobeattackedsimultaneouslybyGiovanniBentivogliointheRomagnaandbythemembersoftheOrsinifamily,whoweretoencouragetherevoltinUrbino.
Whenheheardofthis
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threat,whichseemedforatimetoweakenhisholdonhisstate,CesarewithdrewhisforcestoImolaandthesecurityoftheRomagna.WhenMachiavellijoinedhimthere,toofferthesupportofFlorence,hefoundtheduketobequiteunperturbed,evenindifferent.HeacceptedthelossofUrbinowithapparentnonchalanceandpreparedforwarwithevidentconfidenceinvictory,raisingtroopsand
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money,andappointingnewcondottiericaptains,manyofwhomwereSpanish,toreplacetheconspirators.HealsospentsuchlargesumsonhisintelligenceservicesthatMachiavellithoughtthathe"laidoutasmuchoncouriersandspecialmessengersintwoweeksasanyoneelsewouldhavespentintwoyears."
Atfirstthemilitary
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operationsdidnotgowellforCesare;andtowardtheendofOctober,theduchyofUrbinofelltotheconspirators,who,accordingtoBurchard,afterhavingassembledsomefivehundredcavalryandtwothousandtroops,restoredthecityofUrbinoandallitsterritorytotheillustriousGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,rightfulDukeofUrbino.
Butasmoremoneycamein
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andmoretroopswereenlisted,thetide,asMachiavellisaid,begantoturn.Hisenemieswere"tardyinpressinghim";theyhadfailedtoseizethemoment,ashehimselfundoubtedlywouldhavedone,and,astheybegantoloseheartinopposinghim,wereeventuallypersuadedtocometotermswithhim.
AsMachiavelliwaslaterto
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writeinThePrince,Cesare"overcametherevoltofUrbino,theuprisingsintheRomagna,andthecountlessthreatswiththehelpoftheFrench"towhichheaddedhisownnotinconsiderablepoliticalskills:
HisformerstandinginItalywasrestored,buthenolongertrustedtheFrenchortheforcesofothers,and
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inordertoavoidtheriskofdoingso,heresortedtostratagems.HispowersofdissimulationweresoimpressivethateventheOrsini,throughLordPaolo[ofPalombara]reconciledthemselveswithhim.TheDukeusedeverydeviceofdiplomacytoreassurePaoloOrsini,givinghim
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giftsofmoney,clothesandhorses.
ThegeneraldesirenowtoregainthegoodopinionofCesarewas,soMachiavellisaid,reflectedinthesubmissiveletteraddressedtohimbyVitellozzoVitelli,whoexcusedhimselfforhavingjoinedtheallianceagainstthedukeandsayingthatifheeverhadtheopportunitytospeaktohim
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personally,hehadnodoubthewouldbeabletojustifyhimselfcompletely.
Receivingnoreplytohisletter,anddeniedapersonalinterviewwithCesare,VitellicouldbutguesswhatCesareintendedtodonext.Machiavelliwasalsokeptinthedark."IhavenottriedtospeaktotheDuke,havingnothingnewtotellhim,"hereportedtoFlorence,"andthe
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samethingswouldborehim;youmustrealisethathetalkstonobodyotherthanthreeorfourofhisministersandvariousforeignerswhoareobligedtodealwithhimaboutimportantmattersandhedoesnotcomeoutofhisstudyuntillateatnight;andsothereisnoopportunitytospeaktohimexceptwhenanaudiencehasbeenappointed.
"Besides,"continued
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Machiavelli,"heisverysecretive.Idonotbelievethatwhatheisgoingtodoisknowntoanyoneotherthanhimself.Hissecretarieshavetoldmeoftenthathedoesnotrevealhisplansuntiltheyarereadytobecarriedout.SoIbegyourLordshipswillexcusemeandnotputitdowntomynegligenceifIdonotsatisfyyourLordshipswithinformation,becausemostofthetimeIdonoteven
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satisfymyself."
SoMachiavellicouldnotbyanymeansdiscoverwhatCesareintendedtodonext.Then,justbeforeChristmas,therewasnews;CesarehadsummonedalltheFrenchofficersinhisarmytocometoseehimandhadtoldthemthathenolongerneededthem;theirupkeepinidlenesswasanexpensethathenolongerwishedtoafford.On
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thedayoftheirdeparture,aballwasheldinCesare'shonouratCesena.Theprettywifeofoneoftheseofficersattractedhisattention,andhedancedwithherseveraltimes,closelywatchedbyherhusband.
Whilehewasapparentlyenjoyingthisball,themilitarygovernoroftheRomagna,thefierce,aggressiveRamirodeLorqua,wasimmediately
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arrestedonhisreturnfromPesaroandcastintoprison.Atdawnthreedayslater,hewasbeheadedinthepiazzaatCesena.Hisdecapitatedbodywasleftontheblock,hisheaddisplayedonalance.
NoexplanationwasgivenforthissuddenexecutionotherthanthatRamirohadbeenguiltyofcorruptionintheexerciseofhisoffice;butthissolutiontothemystery
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wasnotgenerallyaccepted.TherewasarumourthatRamirohadbeenincorrespondencewiththeconspirators,notablyinsomekindofplotwithGiovanniBentivoglio,Vitelli,andmembersoftheOrsinifamily."Thereasonforhisdeathisnotknown,"Machiavellicommented,"butperhapsitpleasedthePrincewholikestoshowthatheknowshowtomakeandunmakemenathis
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will."
CertainlyCesare'soccupyingtroopshadbeenill-disciplinedatfirst,whiletheSpanishofficers,liketheunpopularandcorruptRamirodeLorqua,whowereinstalledasadministrators,haddealtmostharshlywithrecalcitrantpeople.But,intime,ItaliansreplacedSpaniards;and,tothegeneralsatisfaction,aperipatetic
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courtofappealwasestablishedunderthedirectionofalawyerofgoodreputation,AntoniodelMonte.
WhatatleastseemedcertainafterRamiro'sexecutionwasthatCesarewaspreparingsomekindofmoveagainstthecondottiericaptainswhohadbeenplottinghisownmurder.InthemeantimetheyagreedtotakeinCesare's
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namethesmalltownofSenigalliaontheAdriaticcoastsouthofFano.SenigalliahadbeenthefiefofGiovannidellaRovere,brotherofCardinalGiuliano,buthehaddiedinNovember1501,leavinghiswife,Giovanna,sisterofGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,actingasregentforhisyoungson.CardinalGiulianodellaRovere,mindfulofthefateofAstorreManfredi,had
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arrangedforhistwelve-year-oldnephew,FrancescoMaria,tobesmuggledoutoftheareatothesafetyofhisownpalaceinSavona.And,knowingCesare'sreputationforcruelty,thecardinalhadwarnedGiovannanottoofferanyresistance.
Thetownfellwithoutastruggle,butitsmilitarycommanderrefusedtosurrenderthecitadelto
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anyoneotherthanCesareBorgiahimself.Wearingfullarmour,CesarerodetowardSenigalliaonDecember31,1502,attheheadofhisarmy,thecondottiericaptainscomingouttomeethimandfollowinghimbackintothetown,thegatesofwhichwereclosedbehindthem.
Cesarenowcalleduponhiscaptainstoattendaconferenceinthehousehe
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chosetooccupyashisheadquarters.Respondingtohisinvitationtojoinhimattable,theyenteredthecourtyardofthishouseasCesare,accordingtooneaccount,wasmountingastaircaseinorder,sohesaid,to"answeracallofnature."Whenhewashalfwayupthestairs,heturnedtonodtoMigueldeCorella.Andinobediencetothissignal,thecondottieriweresuddenly
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surroundedbyarmedsoldiers;onlyVitellihadtimetodrawhisswordandwoundseveralofthesoldiers,beforetheywereallarrestedanddisarmed.
ThateveningMachiavelliarrivedfromFanotofindthetowninanuproar.HesentamessagetoFlorencereportingthearrestofthecondottiericaptainsandadded,ominously,"Inmyviewthey
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willnotbealivetomorrowmorning."SoonafterwardVitellozzoVitelliandOliverottoEuffreducciweregarrottedbyCesare's"executioner,"Corella,astheysatbacktobackonabench.ThethreeOrsinis—Paolo,Francesco,andRoberto—hadbeentakenawayasprisoners,soMachiavelliwastold,and"facedasimilarfate,"andCesaresentanurgentletterto
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RomeorderinghisfathertoarrestCardinalOrsiniassoonaspossible.WhenthecardinalarrivedattheVaticanthenextmorninginordertocongratulatethepopeonCesare'sseizureofSenigallia,hemadehisentranceintotheSaladelPappagallo,where,accordingtoBurchard,"hewasterrifiedtofindhimselfsurroundedbyarmedmenandimmediatelycastintoprison."Burchardaddedthat
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"allhispossessionswereseized,"beforebeing"loadedontomulesandtakentotheVatican."
Thepunishmentofthefaithlesscondottieriwasconsideredwellmerited.EvenIsabellad'EstewrotetocongratulateCesareonhispunishmentofthem,sendinghimapresentofonehundredcarnivalmasksandexpressingthehopethat
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"afterthestrainsandfatigues"thathehadundergonein"thesegloriousundertakings,"heshouldnowfindtimetoenjoyhimself."Heinsistedonexaminingthemaskswithhisownhand,"Isabellasaid,"sayinghowfinetheywere,andhowmuchtheyresembledvariouspeopleofhisacquaintance."
ThedayafterthemurdersofVitellozzoandOliverotto,
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CesareleftSenigallia,havingacceptedthesurrenderofitscitadel,and,inthepouringrain,setouttoclaimthestatesofhisdisloyalcaptainsforhisown.CittàdiCastellofellquickly.AtPerugia,GianpaoloBaglionifledathisapproach,seekingrefugewithPandolfoPetrucciinSiena.CesaremarchedtowardSiena,seizingthecity'soutpostsalongtheway,hismensacking,pillaging,and
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rapingatwill.AtSanQuiricod'Orcia,hissoldiersfoundjusttwomenandninewomen,allelderly,whomtheyhungupbytheirarms,kindlingafirebeneaththeirfeettotorturethemintoconfessingwheretheirvaluableswerehidden;theoldpeopledidnotknow,orwerenotpreparedtorevealanything,andtheydied.
Declaringthatheactedas
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captain-generalofthechurchandthathehadnoselfishmotives,CesarethendrovePetruccifromSienaand,havingdoneso,movedagainsttheOrsinicastlesandlandsinthecountrysidearoundRome.ThestrongholdofCerisurrenderedafterasavagebombardmentonApril5,1503.OtherOrsinicastles,includingPalombaraandCerveteri,followedsuit;PaoloOrsini,Lordof
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Palombara,wasstrangled;FrancescoOrsini,DukeofGravina,wasalsomurdered,soitwaswidelysupposed,ontheordersofthepope.OnlyGiangiordanoOrsini,LordofBracciano,wasspared;likeCesare,hewasaknightoftheFrenchroyalOrderofSt.Michael,whosememberssworeasolemnoathonreceivingtheircollarnottomakewarononeanother.
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Lookingbackontheeventsofthepreviousyear,Machiavelliwrote:"DukeValentinoenjoysexceptionalgoodfortune,courageandconfidencethatarealmostinhuman,andabeliefthathecanaccomplishwhateverheundertakes."Asasoldier,histalentslayinanextraordinarycapacityforrapidmovementanddeceit.Nosoonerwashereportedtobeinoneplacethanhesuddenlyappearedin
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another,milesaway.Heturnedtheartofwar,soitwassaidofhim,intotheartofdeceit.Thereareveryfewdescriptionsofhimasacommanderinthefield;butthereisonethatdemonstratestheastonishingpowerofhispersonality.Hismenwerecrossingariverwhen,infearofdrowning,theypanicked.Shoutastheydid,theirofficerscouldnotrestoreorder.Cesarerodedownto
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theriverbank.Hismensawhimsittingthere,gazinguponthescene,silentandimpressive.Whentheycaughtsightofhim,thesoldierswerebroughtimmediatelytoorder;andtheycrossedtheriverquietly.
Andinhispresentsituation,Cesareacceptedthefactthathewouldhavetoundertakearealignmentinhisrelationswithforeignpowersnowthat
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SpainwasemergingasthestrongerpowerinherstrugglewithFranceoverNaples,notablysinceApril28,whenthecommanderoftheSpanisharmy,GonsalvodiCórdoba,wonadecisivevictoryovertheFrenchatCerignola,exposingtheweaknessoftheFrenchholdoverNaples.CesarehadhiseyesonTuscany,anditwasbelievedthathehaditinmindtoformanalliancewith
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theSpaniardstogainhisend.
Cesarecoulddonothing,however,untilhehadraisedmoremoneytoreplenishhiscoffers,whichhadbeensodrasticallydepletedbyhiscampaignofthepreviousyear,byhisattacksontheOrsini,andbyhiswildextravagance.Onceagainheturnedtohisfather.
WhentherichVenetian
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CardinalGiovanniMichieldiedinmysteriouscircumstancesonApril10,1503,afterdaysofvomitinganddiarrhoea,itwaswidelyconjecturedthatthepopehimselfhadbeeninstrumentalinhavinghimpoisoned.Certainly,sotheVenetianambassadorAntonioGiustinianwastold:"AssoonasthePopeheardofhisdeathhesentamantohishouseand,beforedawn,itwas
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completelyplundered,"addingthat"thedeathoftheCardinalhasbroughthimover150,000ducats."
Furtheramounts,soGiustinianclaimed,wereraisedbythecreationofcardinals.InMay1503thenominationwasagreedinasecretconsistoryofninenewcardinals;thethreeItalianswereallBorgiamen,onewasGerman,afavourtothe
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emperor,andtheotherfivewereSpaniards,allwelldisposedtowardtheSpanishpopeandareflectionofAlexanderVI'schangeofpolicy;none,significantly,wereFrench."Todaytherewasaconsistory,"GiustinianreportedtotheVenetiangovernment,"andninenewcardinalswerenominated,mostlymenofdubiousreputationandallhavepaidhandsomelyfortheir
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elevation,some20,000ducatsandmore,sothatfrom120,000to130,000ducatshavebeencollected;itisnotoriousthatHisHolinessisshowingtheworldthattheamountofapope'sincomeiswhateverhechoosesittobe."
Amanwhohadworkedfortheminthepastandhadhopedtoberewardedwitharedhat,FrancescoTroche,didnottroubletoconcealhis
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disappointmentandspokeslightinglyofCesare."HisHolinessthePopetoldhimthathewasamadmantospeaklikethatandiftheDukecametohearofithewouldbekilled,"reportedoneambassadortohismaster,"anditwasbecauseofthewordsofHisBeatitudethat,terrified,Trochetookflight."HefledfirsttoGenoaandthen,bywayofSardinia,endedupinCorsica;butthere
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hewascaughtandbroughtbacktoRome,wherehewasstrangledbyCesare'ssinisterlieutenant,MigueldaCorella.Onthesameday,anothermanwhohadfallenfoulofCesare,JacopodiSantacroce,aRomannoblemanandformerBorgiasupporter,washangedandhisbodydisplayedonthePonteSant'AngeloasawarningtoallenemiesoftheBorgias.
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Cesarewasnowattheheightofhispower.Havingraisedenoughmoneybyallthemeansathisdisposal,andriddinghimselfofseveralenemies,henowenrolledanarmyofsometwelvehundredlightcavalryandoverfourthousandinfantry,allwearinghisred-and-yellowlivery,withthewordCESARinlargelettersembroideredonthechestsandbacksoftheiruniforms."Allthebest
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soldierswerewithhim,"thechroniclerMatarazzowrote."AndhehadsomuchaccumulatedtreasureandpossessionsthatitseemedtherewasnotasmuchelsewhereinallItaly.Norwerethereasmanywell-disciplinedsoldierssowellsuppliedwitharmsandhorses."
Cesarewasreadyforhisnextcampaign.Atthe
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beginningofJuly,thepopeconfirmedhimasrulerofCittàdiCastelloandorderedthecityofPerugiatoaccepthislordship;heexpectedsoontoaddthecitiesofPisa,Lucca,andSienatohisdominion.PoisedforhisTuscancampaign,Cesare'swell-suppliedandwell-trainedarmybegantomarchnorthuptheViaFlaminiatowardPerugiaandthebordersofTuscany.Cesare
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himselfremainedinRome,waitingfortherightmomenttostart.WiththeSpanisharmyfacingunexpectedoppositioninitsconquestofthekingdomofNaples,itsadvanceslowed;theFrenchtroopsinnorthernItaly,meanwhile,hadbeguntheirlongmarchsouthtorelievetheirbeleagueredcomrades.CesarehadtogambleontheSpanishwinningthroughandfixedthedateofhisdeparture
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forAugust9.
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Chapter23TheDeathofthePope
"THISMONTHISFATALFORSTOUTMEN"
THEWEATHERINROMEthatsummerof1503wasunusuallyhotandhumid.AlexanderVIhadfallenillinJuly,andwhentheVenetianambassadorhadvisitedhim
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inthepapalapartmentsintheVatican,hehadfoundthepope"recliningonasofa,fullyclothed."GiustinianreportedthatAlexanderVI"receivedmewithgoodhumour,sayingthatforthreedayshehadbeeninconveniencedbyaslightdysenterybutthathehopeditwouldbenothingserious."
"Therearemanyillwithfeverhere,"aFlorentine
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workinginRomewrotethatJuly;"andpeoplearedyingingreatnumbers."OneofthedeadwastheformerFlorentineambassador,whosesuccessorwasnowgravelyill.Despitehisseventy-threeyears,thepoperecoveredhishealthquicklyenoughbutnothisnormallyebullientdemeanour.AlexanderVIgrewunusuallydepressedasthedailydeathtollgrewofmen,women,and
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childrenwhohadsuccumbedtothefever—typhoid,typhus,orperhapsmalaria—thatragedinthecity.HeadmittedasmuchtoGiustinian,towhomheconfessedthathewaspreoccupiedwiththesereports:"Allthesedeathsmakeusfearfulandpersuadeustotakemorecareofourhealth."OnAugust1hisnephewCardinalJuanBorgiadied;andasthepopewatchedthefuneralprocessionpass
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beneathhiswindow,heremarked,withuncharacteristicmournfulness,"Thismonthisfatalforstoutmen."ThesultrymonthsofJulyandAugusthadindeedprovedfatalforhisfivepredecessors,InnocentVIII,SixtusIV,PaulII,PiusII,andthepope'sownuncleCalixtusIII.
OnAugust5,justfourdaysbeforeCesarewasdueto
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leaveRome,fatherandsonacceptedaninvitationtodinneratthevillaofCardinalAdrianoCastellesiinthecountrysidesomemilesoutsideofRome.OnthisoccasionitwasCesare'shealththatcausedthegreateranxiety,sincehewasnotonlysufferingfrompaininhisstomach,butalso,accordingtoBurchard,hewas"muchirritatedbytheskinonhisfaceinthelowerpart,which
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fallsapartlikerottenleavesandresultsinapusthatheismuchconcernedtohidewithhismask."
OntheirarrivalatCastellesi'svilla,fatherandsonwerebothextremelythirstyandaskedforcupsofwine,whichtheydrank"mostgratefully."Itwasasultryevening,andtheguestsdinedalfresco,thankfulfortheshadecastbythetreesinthe
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garden.Thenextdaytheirhostfeltillandwenttobed;aweeklaterthepopealsotooktohisbed;Cesarethenfellill;sodidseveralofthecardinal'sotherguests,aswellassomeofhisservants.Poisonwasnaturallysuspected.Giustinianwasamongthosewhobelievedthataservanthadbeenresponsible;otherssuggestedthatCesarewasthepoisoner.Yetotherssaidthatthepopehimselfwas
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responsible,thathehadintendedpoisoninghisformersecretaryforsomereasonbuthadinadvertentlydrunkthepoisonedwinehimself.Itwasnotthewinethathadbeentamperedwith,othersmaintained,butpoisonedsweetmeatsthathadbeenpassedaroundamongtheguestsafterthemeal.
Butthepopehimselfdeclaredthattheputridairin
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Romeduringthisintolerableheatwavewasprobablyresponsible.BeltrandoCostabili,theFerrareseambassadorinRome,reportedthatitwasnotsurprisingthatthepopeandhissonhadbothfallenill,"sinceallthepalaceofficialsareinthesameconditionbecauseoftheunwholesomeairhere."
Burchardrecordeddaily
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bulletinsonthepope'shealth.OnAugust12hewrotethat"HisHolinessshowssignsofafeverwhichdoesnotabate."ThenextdayGiustinianreportedtoVenice:
ThePopevomitedyesterdayeveningandhasbeenfeverishallnight;andDukeCesareisinasimilarcondition.Thedoctorsattendconstantlyand
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areconsideringwhetherornottobleed...someofmyinformantstalkoffourteenouncesofbloodtakenaway;othersofsixteenounces.Perhapstenouncesismorelikely;andeventhatisagreatquantityforamanoftheageofHisHoliness.But,greatorsmall,ithashadno
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effectandthefeverdoesnotabate.AsforDukeCesare,heisworse.
CostabilisentasimilarlydispiritingreporttoFerrara:
YesterdaymorningIwastoldongoodauthoritythatHisHolinesshassummonedtheBishopofVenosaandanother
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physician;andthatthesearenotallowedtoleavehim.IwastoldthatthePopewasfeverishandvomitingyesterday,andthattheyhavetakennineouncesofhisblood....DuringthedayHisHolinessaskedsomeofthecardinalstoplaycardsinhisroomwhileherested....Butthisafternoonthere
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wasacrisissuchastherewasonSaturdayandthismakeshisattendantsuneasy.Everyoneisunwillingtotalkofhiscondition;andthemoreIseek,thelessIamtold.Thephysicians,surgeonsandapothecariesarenotallowedtoleavehimfromwhichIdeducethathis
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conditionisgrave.
Thesamenewswassentbyotherenvoystotheirvariousstates.Giustinianwasparticularlyassiduousinthisrespect,reportingonAugust16,1503:"EarlythismorningOurLordthePope,wellawarethathisillnessisdangerous,receivedhisrites;andsomecardinalshavebeenadmittedintohisbedchamber;theviaticum
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wasgiveninsecret,forthoseabouthimtrytoconcealhisconditionasmuchastheycan."Thebishopwhohadadministeredtherites"lefttheroomintearssayingthatthedangerwasverygreatandcomplainingoftheineffectivenessofthemedicinesthathavebeenadministered."
BynowAlexanderVIwasinahighfeverandwas
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violentlysickduringthenight.HewasbledsocopiouslythatGiustinianwasshockedtohearofit.Cesarealsohadbeenseverelybledbeforebeingplungedintoabathofice-coldwater,fromwhichheemergedwiththeskinpeelingfromhisback.Bothfatherandsonwerestillfeverishthenextmorning,soGiustinianwastold,theduke"moreseverelywithrecurrentparoxysmsoffeveroneafter
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theotherandstrangefits,"andGiustinianaddedthatCesarehad"sentforthedoctorswhoarelookingafterhimandhewillnotletthemleave,andisinsistentthathisconditionmustnotgenerallybeknown."
Thefollowingday,Friday,August18,AlexanderVIdied;asBurchardcommented,hehad"madehisconfessiontotheBishopof
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Carignolawhothensaidmassinhispresenceand,aftertheBishophadtakencommunionhimself,heofferedthesacramentoftheEucharisttothePopeinhisbed."AftertheMassthepopetoldthecardinalsgatheredaroundhisbedside"thathefeltverypoorly."Thecardinalsevidentlylefttheroomshortlyafterward;thepope"receivedExtremeUnctionfromtheBishopofCarignola
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atthehourofVespersanddiedwithjusttheBishop,theDataryandapapalgroompresent."
Cesarewasinformedimmediatelyofhisfather'sdeath.Althoughhewasgivinghisdoctorssomehopethathewouldrecover,Cesarewasstilldesperatelyillandveryweak,barelycapableofmakingthedecisionsandissuingtheordersthatthe
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crisisnowdemanded.Fortunatelyforhim,hisloyallieutenant,MigueldeCorella,wasalreadyinthepalaceandabletoactonhismaster'sbehalf.
Keepingthenewsacloselyguardedsecret,Corellanowtookapartyofmenandlockedallthedoorsleadingintothepapalapartments.Hethenmarchedintothepope'sbedchamber,wherehefound
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CardinalCasanovaand,holdingaknifetohisthroat,threatenedtocutitopenandthrowhimoutofthewindowifhedidnothandoverthekeystothecupboardsandclosets,where,Cesarehadinformedhim,alargesumofmoneywasstored.Theterrifiedcardinalhandedoverthekeyswithoutprotest,whereuponCorellaandhismenunlockedthechestsandappropriatedthemoneyand
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silvertheycontained;accordingtoGiustinian'sreporttotheVenetianSenate,theyremovedcoins,silver,andjewelsworth500,000ducats.
CorellanowmadethepublicannouncementthatAlexanderVIwasdead,andimmediatelythepope'sservantsranintotheapartmentstohelpthemselvestotheclothestheyfoundin
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hiswardrobeandotheritems.Nothingofvaluewasleft,soBurchardsaid,"exceptthepapalchairs,somecushionsandthetapestriesnailedtothewalls."
Though,infact,whenthecardinalscametomakeaninventoryofthepope'spossessionsafewdayslater,theyfoundalotof"silver,jewelsandpreciousobjects,"accordingtoBurchard,items
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thatCorellahadoverlookedor,perhaps,hadbeenhiddenbythepopeevenfromhisownson."Theyfoundthetiara,twovaluablemitres,alltheringswhichthePopeusedatmass,andallthesacredvesselsthePopeusedwhenheofficiatedatmass,whichfilledeightlargecoffers."AccordingtoBurchard,theyalsofounda"cypresschestcoveredwithgreentapestry,whichtoohadescaped
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Corellaandhismen,insideofwhichtheyfoundpreciousstonesandvaluableringsworth25,000ducats."
ItwasnotuntilearlyeveningthatBurchardhimselfwasinformedofthepope'sdeath,andtheloyalmasterofceremonieshastenedintothepapalapartments."AfterIhadseenthePope'sbody,"whichhadalreadybeenwashed,"I
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clotheditinredbrocadevestments,withsilkenamiceandchasuble."Hecouldnotfindthepope'sshoesbutdidfindapairofslippersproperlyembroideredwithcrosses"andtwostringsthatIusedforbindingthemtohisfeet,"buthewasunabletoreplacethepope'smissingring,whichhad,nodoubt,beenrippedoffhisfingerbyCorellaandhismen.Burchardthenhadthecorpse
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putonabierintheantechamberbeforebeingtakenintotheSaladelPappagallo,whereitwasplacedonatablecoveredwithacrimsonclothand"apieceoffinetapestry";andfourmonksbegantorecitetheOfficeoftheDead.
Messagesweresenttoallthecardinals,instructingthemtoassembleintheChurchofSantaMariasopra
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Minervathenextmorning,andtoalltheclergyinRome,instructingthemtogatherforthefuneralprocessionfromtheSistineChapeltotheBasilicaofSt.Peter'sthefollowingday.Withanescortofcardinals,monks,clerics,andthecanonsofSt.Peter's,aswellasmembersofAlexanderVI'shousehold,manyofwhomcarriedthe140tallwaxtapersthataccompaniedtheprocession,
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thepope'sbierproceededintoSt.Peter's.Thebieritselfwascarried,aswasthecustom,byanumberofpauperswhoweretraditionallyrewardedwithatokensumforthisservice,aservicethatwasperformedonthisoccasionwithmorereverencethanthatdisplayedbytheclerics,who,accordingtoBurchard,ambledalongbesidethebier"indisorderlyfashion."
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Therewasfurtherunseemlybehaviourinsidethebasilica,where,whiletheprayerswerebeingchanted,thepalaceguardssetuponthemembersoftheprocessioninordertoseizethetallwaxtapersthattheywerecarrying.Theclergyfledtothesacristy,abandoningthepope'sbody,whileBurchard,"withthehelpofthreeothers,"soherecorded,"tookholdofthebierandmoveditintoa
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positionbehindthehighaltar."Evenhereitdidnotseemsafe;thebishopofSessa"wonderediftheangrypeoplemightnotclimbuptoreachthebodyandsomeonewhohadbeenwrongedbythePopewouldgethisrevenge;sothebierwasmovedbehindtheirongrilleofthechapelentranceandtherethebodyremainedthroughouttheday,withtheirongrillefirmlyclosed."
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ThereBurchardleftitanduponhisreturnhewasappalledtoseethedeadpope'sface"hadchangedtothecolouroftheblackestcloth,andcoveredinblue-blackspots;thenosewasswollen,themouthdistended,thetonguebentbackdouble,thelipsseemedtofilleverythingandtheappearanceofthefacewasmorehorrifyingthananythingeverseen."Francesco
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Gonzagaconfirmedthisinalettertohiswife,Isabellad'Este;thecorpse"hadlostallhumanform,"hewrote,addingthat"everyonerefusedtotouchitthougheventuallyoneoftheportersdraggedittothegravebymeansofaropeattachedtooneofthefeet."
Thesixportersmadegruesomejokesaboutitsappearanceastheystruggled
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togettheswollencorpseintoacoffinthatwasmuchtoosmall."Thecarpenters,"accordingtoBurchard,"hadmadethecoffintoonarrowandtooshortandsotheyhadtoremovethemitrefromthePope'sheadandplaceitbyhisside,beforerollinguphisbodyinanoldcarpet,andpummellingandpushingitintothecoffinwiththeirfists."Burchardadded,sadly,that"nowaxtapersorcandles
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wereusedandnopriestsnoranyotherpersonsattendedthebody."
Thenextdaygruesomestorieswerespreadaboutthecity:ThedeadpopehadbeenheardinconversationwithSatan;hehadboughtthepapacyforthepriceofhissoul;hehadstruckabargainwiththedevilandhadagreedtowearthepapalcrownforelevenyearsandhaddoneso
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forthatperiodoftimeplussevendays.Attheend,soitwasrumoured,waterhadboiledinhismouth,causingsteamtofilltheroominwhichhedied,andthat,inthewordsofamacabrejest,whenrigormortissetin,"indeathasinlife,heremainederect."Itwasatleastcertainthat,intheterribleheatofthatAugust,theskinofthecorpsehadturnedblackandthesmellthatemanatedfrom
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itwasintolerable.
Inevitablytherewererumoursthatthedeathwasnotanaturalone,thatthewineheandCesarehaddrunksothirstilyontheirarrivalatCardinalCastellesi'scountryhousehadbeenpoisoned.ManyclaimedthatCesareandhisfatherhadplannedtokillthecardinalforhisgreatriches,butthattheservantwhohadbeenbribedto
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poisonthewineservedatthemealhadpouredthedeadlyconcoctionintothewrongflagons.Thisreportspreadfarandwide,irrespectiveofthefactthatnoneoftheguests,whohaddrunkthesamewine,displayedanyilleffectsuntilaweeklater.
LucreziawasatthevillaofMedelanawhenCardinalIppolitorodeoverfromFerraratobringherthesad
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news;andonhearingthedreadedwords,sheafterwardsaidthather"onlywishwastodieherself."Fewweresomoved.Machiavellirecorded,inverse,how"thesoulofAlexanderwasbroughttorest,gloriousamongtheblessed,"andfollowingin"thePope'ssaintlyfootstepscamehisthreeservantsandbelovedhandmaidens,extravagance,simonyandcruelty."
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DukeErcolealsohadfewregrets.InalettertohisambassadorinMilan,whichhewasconfidentwouldbepassedonbytheFrenchgovernorofthecitytoLouisXII,hewrote:
KnowingthatmanywillaskyouhowweareaffectedbythePope'sdeath,wewishtoinformyouthatitwasinnoway
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displeasingtous....ThereneverwasaPopefromwhomwereceivedfewerfavours...evenafterconcludinganalliancewithhim.Infact,itwasonlywiththegreatestdifficultythatweobtainedfromhimwhathehadpromisedus,forwhichweholdtheDukeofRomagnaresponsible.Hewas
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neverfrankwithus,nevertellingusofhisplans,thoughwealwaystoldhimofours.
HealsohopedforbetterthingsfromAlexanderVI'ssuccessor,piouslyobservingthat"forthesakeofChristendomhehadoftendesiredthatdivinegoodnessandprovidencewouldprovideavirtuousand
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exemplaryshepherdandthatallscandalwouldberemovedfromtheChurch."
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Chapter24Conclaves
"HECOULDNOTHAVEFORESEENTHAT,
ATTHETIMEOFHISFATHER'SDEATH,
HESHOULDHIMSELFHAVEBEENSOSERIOUSLYILL"
THESEDEVACANTE,theperiodofthe"emptythrone"betweenthedeathofonepopeandthe
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electionofhissuccessor,wasoftenatenseandtroubledtimeinRome,anditwasparticularlysointhesummerof1503.OnthemorningofAugust19,thedayafterAlexanderVIdied,allthosecardinalswhowereinRome,sixteeninall,assembledinthechapterhouseofSantaMariasopraMinerva:"ThegreatsealofAlexanderVIwasbrokenintheirpresence,"thesymbolicactwherebythe
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collegeofcardinalsformallyassumedresponsibilityforthegovernmentofthechurchandofthecityofRomeuntilsuchatimewhenthenewpopewouldbeelected.Althoughthefirstpartoftheirtaskprovedrelativelystraightforward,thesecondwasfraughtwithdifficultyanddanger.
Romewasinanuproar.OnAugust24theOrsiniarrived
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inthecitywithtwelvehundredarmedmen"andimmediatelystartedsackinganddestroyingthehousesofSpaniards,"accordingtoareportmadetotheVenetianSenate;"therewereweaponseverywhere."ThebulletinsfromtheVaticansuggestedthatthecommanderofthepapalarmywasclosetodeath:"TheDukeismorefeverishthanever,"GiustinianwroteofCesare
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thatday;andtherewas"hopeinRomethathewillshortlyfollowhisfathertothegrave."Certainlyhisenemieswereeagerlyawaitingthispieceofnews.WhileCesare'smen,underthecapableleadershipofMigueldeCorella,hadtakenholdoftheBorgo—theareaaroundtheVaticanandCastelSant'Angelo—therestofthecitywasoutoftheircontrol.
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MuchofthecitywasinthehandsofsupportersoftherivalOrsiniandColonnafamilies,unitedforonceintheirhatredoftheBorgias,takingwhatadvantagetheycouldofthepope'sdemise.AstherumoursofCesare'sworseningconditionspreadrapidlythroughRome,gangsofmenmarchedthreateninglythroughthestreets,shouting,astheywouldneverhavedaredtodowhileAlexander
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VIwasstillalive,"DownwiththeodiousCatalan."
Thetensioninthecityintensified,moreover,whenitbecameknownthatthreearmieswereapproachingRome.TheFrenchtroops,ledbyFrancescoGonzaga,MarquisofMantua,wereontheirwaysouthtodefendNaplesandhadreachedViterbo,justfortymilesnorthofthecitywalls;aforceof
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SpaniardsunderGonsalvodiCórdobawasmarchingnorthfromNaples;andCesare'sownbattalions,poisedforthestartofwhatwastohavebeenhisTuscancampaign,werenowrecalledfromtheircampnearPerugiatomarchbackdowntheViaFlaminia.
LouisXIIofFranceandFerdinandandIsabellaofSpainwerehopingtoprofitfromCesare'sincapacity;all
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ofthem—Cesare,perhaps,mostofall—wereintentuponusingarmedforcetoinfluencetheforthcomingconclaveinordertoensurethatthenewpopetobeelectedwasamansympathetictotheirinterests.
Cesarehimselfwasstilltooilltotakepersonalcontrolofthesituation,unabletoseizetheadvantagetoestablishhiscontrolofRomeortodefend
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hisauthorityinhisduchy."Hetoldmehimself,"Machiavelliwrote,"thathehadforeseeneverydifficultythatcouldariseonthedeathofhisfatherandhadpreparedadequateremedies;buthecouldnothaveforeseenthat,atthetimeofhisfather'sdeath,heshouldhimselfhavebeensoseriouslyill."Thosewhoselandshadbeendispossessedusedtheopportunityofferedby
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Cesare'sincapacitytotakethembackagain.Italywasinanuproar,ashisempirebegantofallapart:GuidobaldodaMontefeltroreturnedtopowerinUrbino;GianpaoloBaglionicamebacktoPerugia;theVaranofamilytoCamerino;GiovanniSforzatoPesaro;andtheOrsiniretookpossessionoftheircastles.
YetCesare'spositionwas
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notasweakashisenemieshoped.HestillcontrolledtheBorgo;hehadathiscommandawell-trainedarmyandalsothemoneyneededtopayitsmen;mostofthecitiesoftheRomagnaremainedfirmlyloyal,andhewouldhaveconsiderableinfluenceintheimminentconclave.AccordingtoGiustinian'sreckoning,therewere"eightcardinalswhowouldfollowhimineverything,"and
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severalmorebesides.Buthealsohadinveterateandinfluentialenemiesinthecollege,too,notablyAscanioSforzaandthecousinsRaffaelloRiarioandGiulianodellaRovere,thelatterofwhomwasonhiswaytoRomewithanescortofonehundredcrossbowmenincaseofattackbyCesare'smen,whohadbeenorderedtointercepthim.
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Inhisweakenedstate,lyinginbedinhisroomsabovetheBorgiaapartmentsintheVatican,Cesarehadbeenuncharacteristicallyhesitantduringthefirstfewdaysofthesedevacante.Now,inanattempttomakeupforlosttime,hestartedtomakeoverturesatthesametimetobothFrenchandSpanishcandidatesintheconclave,offendingbothfactionswhenhisbehaviourbecameknown.
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HehadalsobeenabletocometoasecretagreementwithLouisXIIwherebyheagreedtoplaceallhismenattheking'sdisposalontheunderstandingthatLouisXIIwouldprotecttheterritoriesthatCesarestilloccupiedandhelphimtorecoverthosethathadrecentlybeenlost.
Healsosworehisallegiancetothecollegeofcardinals,andafewdayslater,a
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deputationofcardinalsapproachedtheVenetianambassador,AntonioGiustinian,witharequestthatheshouldusehispersuasiveskillstoinduceCesaretoremovehistroopsfromRomesothatafreeconclavecouldbeheld.Since,asGiustinianputit,thiswasnobusinessofhisandhehadnoinstructionsfromVeniceinthematter,he,atfirst,declined.Underpressure,however,and
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persuadedthathisactionswouldbringgreatcredittohisgovernment,theambassadordid,intheend,convinceCesare.Andso,onSeptember2,havingbeenconfirmedbythecollegeinhispositionascaptain-generalofthechurchuntiltheelectionofanewpope,andhavingbeeninformedthatthesoldiersofProsperoColonnahadindeedleftthecity,ashehadrequested,Cesarefinally
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leftforthecastleatNepi.
Cesare,tooweaktoride,wascarriedoutofthecityonalitterbornebytwelvehalberdiers,concealedfromviewbehindcrimsondamaskcurtains.Thosewhocaughtglimpsesofhimatthistimereportedhimaslookingdesperatelyill,pale,andhaggard,hisfeetsoswollenthathecouldnotstandup.Followingthelitterwalkeda
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splendidchargerwithtrappingsofblackvelvet,embroideredwithhiscoat-of-armsandhisducalcrown.AccordingtoFerdinandGregorovius,Cesarewasalsoaccompaniedbyhismother,Vannozzade'Catanei,andbyhisbrotherJofrè,aswellasmorethanonehundredwagonspiledhighwithhisluggage."NowthatCesarehasgone,"AntonioGiustiniancommented,"itis
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thoughtthattheconclavewilltakeplacewithoutanydisturbance,sinceeveryonerespectstheSacredCollege."
Thecollege,meanwhile,hadbeenbusyorganizingtheobsequiesforthedeadpope,whichopenedonSeptember4withthefirstofthememorialMassesforhissoul.TheycontinuedeverydayatthecatafalquethathadbeenerectedinSt.Peter'sforthe
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followingeightdays.Theseobsequies,however,wereofscantinterestcomparedwiththeheateddiscussionsabouttheoutcomeoftheimminentelection.ManybelievedthatthenextpopemightbeAscanioSforzaortheFrenchmanGeorgesd'Amboise,cardinalofRouen.ButmostsupposedthatGiulianodellaRovere,aftertenyearsinexile,wouldbechosen;onhisarrivalin
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Romeinthehopethathislong-heldambitiontobeelectedwasabouttobefulfilled,hehadtoldGiustinian,succinctly,"IhavecometoRometolookaftermyowninterestsandnotthoseofotherpeople."
WhentheconclavefinallyopenedonSeptember16,withthirty-sevencardinalsinattendance,itwassoonclearthatthecardinalofRouen
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couldnotwinthetiara;boththeItaliansandSpaniardswereagainsthim,andinordertobreakthedeadlockcausedbyrivalnationalinterestsandbyfearsthatCesareBorgiamightrecoversufficientlyfromhisillnesstointerfereintheelection,thesearchturnedtoacompromisecandidate,onewhowasnotexpectedtosurviveforlongandwhowouldprovideatemporary
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measureallowingallpartiestobuildupsupportforacandidateoftheirown.TheirchoiceconsequentlyfelluponFrancescoTodeschiniPiccolomini,archbishopofSiena,thekindlynephewofPiusII,whowasrackedbygoutandalreadygavetheappearanceofaveryoldman,despitebeingonlysixty-fouryearsold.Whenhewaselected,onSeptember22,hechosetobeknownasPiusIII,
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inhonourofhisuncle.
PiusIIIwasalearnedandculturedman,aprotégéofhisuncle,whohadtakenhimintohishouseholdandarrangedforhimtoattendcoursesinlegalstudiesatPerugia.Attheageoftwenty-one,hehadbecome,againathisuncle'sinstigation,archbishopofSienaandsoonafterwardcardinalofSant'Eustachio.ForCesare,
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everythingnowhingedonwhetherhewouldenjoythefavourofthisman,hisfather'ssuccessor.
TheenforcedconvalescenceatNepihadbynowalmostrestoredCesaretohispreviousgoodhealth,thoughhewascarefultoensurethatreportsofhisworseningconditioncontinuedtocirculateinRome.Andhisspiritsrosewhenhewas
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givengroundstobelievethathewouldsoonbeconfirmedinhisofficeascaptain-generalofthechurchbythenewpopeandreturnedtoauthorityinhisformerestatesintheRomagna.Certainly,PiusIIIseemedpreparedtocondonetheindulgenceofCesare'sambitions,declaringthatithadbeenGod'swillthatthoselordswhomCesarehaddispossessedshouldlosetheirauthority,eventhoughit
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hadbeencarriedoutbya"wretchedinstrument."
"InconsequenceofthepressureputuponmebytheSpanishcardinals,IhavebeencompelledtoissuesomebriefsinfavourofCesareBorgia,"heexplainedtoGiustinian,"butIwillnotgivehimanyfurtherhelp."PiusIII'sopinionofhispredecessor'ssonwasnotencouraging:"Idonotwish
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anyharmtotheDuke,sinceitismydutyasPopetohavecompassionforallmen,butIforeseethat,byGod'sjudgement,theDukemustcometoabadend."Giustinianreportedthat"theDukehashadgoodwordsfromthePope,"addinglater,"ButHisHolinessdoesnottrusthim."
CesarenowdecidedtoreturntoRome,wherehe
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hopedtobeabletopressPiusIIItoconfirmhiminhisofficesofcaptaingeneralofthechurchandDukeofRomagna.Heneededpapalpermission,however,toenterthecityandorderedtheSpanishcardinalstopleadhiscase."Theytellmeheisveryill,"PiusIIIinformedtheFerrareseenvoyBeltrandoCostabili,whoreportedthatthepopehadneverimaginedhewouldfeelpityforCesare
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butdidnow"indeedmostdeeplypityhim,"addingthat"hewantstocometoRometodie,soIhavegivenmypermission."MuchtothesurpriseofallinRome,whenCesarereturnedonOctober3,heseemedtobeinthebestofhealth.
AfewdayslaterGiustinianreportedthatCesarewas"notsoillasweallbelieved,"and,moreover,"nowspeakswith
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hiscustomaryarroganceandboaststhathewillsoonregainpossessionofallhisstates."Therusehadworked,though,andonOctober8,thedayofhiscoronation,PiusIIIconfirmedCesareascaptain-generalofthechurch.Suchwasthepope'sillhealth,however,thatthecustomaryprocessionfromSt.Peter'stoSanGiovanniinLateranohadtobecancelled;PiusIIIwassufferingsopainfullyfrom
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goutthathewasunabletoundertakethislengthyceremonyandretiredtohisapartmentsintheVatican,where,tendayslater,hedied.
CesarehadspentthosetendaysmakingpreparationstoreturnwithhisarmytotheRomagna,wherehisgraspwasweakeningaseachdaypassed,andseekingtoacquirethesafe-conductpassesneededtomovehis
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troopsthroughFlorentineterritories.ButCesare,stillobligedtospendmuchtimeinbed,andseeminglydisturbedinmindaswellassickinbody,wasnowapparentlyincapableofactingasdecisivelyashehadbeeninthepast;andwhenhedidmakedecisions,theywerenotinfrequentlythewrongones.HisdecisiontocometoRomeaftertheelectionofPiusIII,ratherthantraveldirectly
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fromNepitotheRomagna,wouldprovetobeoneofthese.
Inthemeantime,however,hisplanssoonhadtobemodifiedashisenemiesCardinaldellaRovereandCardinalRaffaelloRiario,GianpaoloBaglioniandGiovanniBentivoglio,andtheOrsiniandtheColonnafamilies,stillinuneasyalliance,allbegantomove,
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oneaftertheother,againsthim.Notonlythreatenedbyhisenemies,Cesarewasalsotroubledbyamutinyofhisownsoldiers,whoweredemandingbetterpay;thenhebecameinvolvedinaferociousfightwithOrsinisupportersand,desertedbymanyofhismen,wasforcedtotakeshelterfirstintheVatican,theninCastelSant'Angelo.
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Hissituationseemedhopeless,butthedeathofPiusIIIafewdayslaterrescuedhimfromdisaster,castingawayhisformergloomandrenewinghishopesforthefuture."TheDukestilloccupiesquartersintheCastelSant'Angelo,"MachiavellireportedonOctober27."Heismoreconfidentthaneverthathecanstilldogreatthingsforhebelievesthatapope
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favourabletohimwillnowbeelected."
Throughoutthistime,CardinalGiulianodellaRoverehadbeenstrengtheninghispositioninRome.Asthebargainingbeganbetweenthecardinalsfortheelectionofthenewpope,itwasclearthathewasthefront-runner.HismainrivalwastheFrenchmanGeorgesd'Amboise,whose
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electionwassupportedbyLouisXII;Giuliano'semphaticprotestationsthataFrenchpopemightwelltakethepapacybacktoAvignonbroughthimmuchsupportamongtheItaliancardinals.
Cesare'sownpositionweakenedconsiderablywhen,towardtheendofOctober,newsarrivedthatForlì,Faenza,Rimini,andPesarohadfallentohisenemies.On
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October29,twodaysbeforetheconclavewasduetoopen,CesareandCardinalGiulianosignedanagreementintheVaticanwherebyalltheSpanishcardinalsagreedtovoteforthecardinalontheunderstandingthat,assuminghewaselectedpope,hewouldconfirmCesareinhisofficesofgonfalonierandcaptain-generalanddohisutmosttohelpCesareestablishhimselfoncemore
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inhispossessionoftheduchyintheRomagna.
MachiavelliwasastoundedwhenheheardthatCesarehadofferedhissupporttoGiulianodellaRovere,hisfather'soldenemy."NoonecanbeunawareoftheextremehatewhichtheCardinalbearsCesare,sincehecannoteasilyforgettheexileinwhichhehadbeenkeptfortenyears;theDuke,
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ontheotherhand,allowshimselftobeguidedbyablind,unjustifiedconfidence."
Intheend,theconclavewasnocontest.Whenitcametothecountingoftheslipsthathadbeenplacedinthegoldenchaliceafterthefirstroundofvoting,itwasfoundthatallbutthreeofthemborethenameofGiulianodellaRovere.Hehadacquiredthe
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necessarytwo-thirdsmajorityinoneoftheshortestconclavesinthehistoryofthepapacy,andhechosetobeknownasPopeJuliusII.FrancescoGuicciardinicommented:
Everyonemarvelledgreatlythatthepapacyshouldhavebeengrantedwithsuchwidespreadagreementtoa
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cardinalwhowasknowntobeverydifficultbynatureandformidablewitheveryone.Hewasnotoriouslyrestlessandhadspenthislifeincontinualhardshipsandhadinevitablyoffendedmanypeople,arousingthehatredandprovokingtheenmityofmanygreatmen....Hehad
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beenaverypowerfulcardinalforalongtime...andhiscausewasgreatlypromotedbytheimmoderatepromiseswhichhadbeenmadetoanyonewhomightproveusefultohim.
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Chapter25CesareatBay
"THEDUKE'SCHOICEWASAMISTAKENONE;
ANDITWASTHECAUSEOFHISULTIMATE
DOWNFALL"
AMONTHSHORTofhissixtiethbirthdaywhenelected,JuliusIIwas,unlikehispredecessor,unusually
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vigorousandenergetic;stillinhisprimeandenjoyingrobusthealth,hewasastrong-willed,purposeful,andresoluteman,withaverydeterminedviewoftheworldandhispositioninit.
ThegrandsonofafishermanfromLiguriainnorthernItaly,hewasproudofhishumblebirthandmuchgiventoboastingofhispoverty-strickenchildhoodandof
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havingsaileddownthecoastwithcargoesofonions.Hisplanstopursueacareerincommercehadbeendramaticallycutshortin1471when,attheageoftwenty-seven,hewasmadeacardinalbyhisuncleSixtusIV.
Atall,rough,impulsive,andhandsomeman,talkative,arrogant,andrestless,hehadafiercelycommanding
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expressionandaveryshorttemper.Hehabituallycarriedastickwithwhichhebeatmenwhoannoyedorprovokedhim,andhewouldhurlanythingathand,includinghisspectacles,atmessengerswhobroughthimunwelcomenews.Hehadhadmanymistressesinthepast,fromoneofwhomhehadcontractedsyphilis,andasacardinalhehadfatheredthreedaughters.Buthehad
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thereaftershownnointerestinwomen,concentratinghissensualappetitesonfoodanddrink,whichheenjoyedtothefull.HerelishedgameandsucklingpigandthestrongwinesofGreeceandCorsica;andduringLent,likemanyotherswhocouldaffordtodoso,hemadedowithlargedishesoflampreys,prawns,caviar,andtunnyfish.Hepaidnoattentiontohisdoctors'wordsofcaution,and
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whenill,treatedhisindispositionbychewingquantitiesofstrawberriesandplums,whichhebelievedhadcurativeproperties.
Hewasnoscholar,heusedtosaywithdefensivepride;hewasmoresuitedtothelifeofasoldier.Indeed,hesometimessaidthatheoughttohavebeenasoldier;andcertainlywhenhepersonallyledhisarmiesoutofRometo
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compeltheobedienceofrebelcitiesinthePapalStatesandtorecoverlostterritoriesforthechurch,hedisplayedatasteforhardcampaigningthatdismayedthelessrobustcardinalswhomheobligedtoaccompanyhim.ItwasJuliusIIwho,unwillingtorelyuponcapriciousandoftenirresolutemercenaries,decidedtoformaprofessionalpapalarmy;andthisdecisionledin1506to
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thecreationoftheSwissGuards,whoremainedafightingforceuntil1825,whentheybecameasmallerdomesticbodyguard,thoughstillretainingtheirolduniformofslasheddoublets,stripedhose,andrakishberets,aswellastheirpikesandhalberds.
Whenasculptoraskedhimwhatshouldbeplacedinthehandofastatueofhim,he
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replied,"Putaswordinmyhand,notabook."Asasoldierheworefullarmour,withatiaratakingtheplaceofahelmet.Onecontemporarylikenedhimtoashipguidedneitherbycompassnorbycharts."Noonehasanyinfluenceoverhim,andheconsultsfewornone,"theVenetianambassadorwrote;"anythingthathehasbeenthinkingaboutduringthedayhastobe
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carriedoutimmediately,"theenvoyadded."Everythingabouthimisonamagnificentscale,bothhisundertakingsandhispassions."
OneofhisoverpoweringpassionswasadeephatredoftheBorgiafamily.Asacardinal,andfearingassassination,hehadfledtoFrance,wherehehadencouragedCharlesVIIItoinvadeItalyandhad
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accompaniedhimonhiscampaign.Hehadfailedinhisattempttohaveacouncilappointedtodeposethepopeforsimony;but,deprivedofthesatisfactionofdethroningAlexanderVI,"thatSpaniardofaccursedmemory,"hedeterminedtopursueAlexander'ssontothedeath,toreestablishthechurch'sruleinthePapalStates,andtorestorethetemporalpowerofthepapacy,whichheknew
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tobeessentialtohisauthority.
AsMachiavelliwrote,JuliusII'shatredofCesare"wasnotorious;anditisnottobesupposedthatthePopewillsoquicklyhaveforgottenthetenyearsofexilewhichhehadhadtoendureunderAlexanderVI."InaconversationwithGiustinian,thenewpopesaid,"Wedonotwant[theduke]tobe
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undertheillusionthatwewillfavourhim,northatheshallhaveevenonerampartintheRomagna,andalthoughwehavepromisedhimsomething,weintendthatourpromiseshallonlyextendtothesecurityofhislifeandofthemoneyandgoodsthathehasstolen."Forthemoment,however,hewaspreparedtogivetheimpressionthatthepastenmity,whichhadcharacterizedtherelationship
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betweenhimselfand"thatdetestedfamily,"wasnowtobemodified.
Thenewpope,havingatlastachievedthepositionforwhichhehadyearnedforsolong,seemeddisposedtoabidebytheundertakingshehadgivenCesarebeforetheconclave.TheFlorentinesweretoldtograntthedukeandhistroopsfreepassagethroughtheirterritorytothe
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Romagna;whilesolongasCesarestayedinRome,hewasfreetoleavethedarkroomsinCastelSant'AngeloandtooccupyapartmentsintheVatican.JuliusIIalsopromisedtoconfirmCesareinhisappointmentascaptain-general,and,initiallyatleast,hecontinuedtoshowrespectforCesare,goingsofarastorefertohimas"ourbelovedson"inabrieftoFaenzawrittenwithindaysofhis
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election.
Cesare'sduchyhadbeguntodisintegrateintheaftermathofAlexanderVI'sdeath:"OnlythestatesoftheRomagnastoodfirm,"FrancescoGuicciardiniobserved,andtheydidsobecausethegovernmenthadbeenentrustedbyCesare"tothehandsofmenwhoruledwithsomuchjusticeandintegritythathewasgreatly
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lovedbythem."Otherwritersmaintainedthat,inthewordsofthePerugianchroniclerMatarazzo,"thepeopleremainedquietfromfearratherthancontentment";whiletheVenetiansgenerallybelievedthathissubjectswere"fullofdiscontentbecauseofthetyrannyandviolencepractisedbytheofficialsoftheDukeValentino."
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NowCesarecouldonlycountontheloyaltyofhisSpanishgovernorsinCesena,Imola,andthefortressofForlì,buthecouldrelyonthestrengthofthesenewlybuiltfortifications.JuliusII,however,despitetheearlierpromisesreportedbyMachiavelli,hadnointentionofallowingCesaretoretaincontrolofthem."WewantthestatestoreturntotheChurch,"hedeclared."Itis
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ourintentiontorecoverthem,"andalthough"wemadecertainpromisestotheDuke,"heexplained,"weintendedmerelytoguaranteehispersonalsafetyandhisfortune,eventhough,afterall,itwasstolenfromitsrightfulowners."
JuliusIIwasanoldhandatplayingthelonggame.FullyawarethatbydeprivingCesareofhisduchyinthe
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Romagna,hewouldcreateadangerouspoliticalvacuumintowhichVenicewouldbethefirsttostep,heneededatallcoststoavoidtheexpansionofanalready-powerfulVenetianrepublicinordertopreservehisownauthorityinthePapalStates.Equally,heneededtoensurethathedidnotgiveCesaretheopportunitytoreestablishhisownpositionintheRomagna.Heneeded,in
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otherwords,totreadwithconsiderablecare.
ItwasnotlongbeforeitbecameclearthatCesarewas,indeed,overconfidentinhisbeliefthatJuliusIIwouldfavourhim,eventothelimitedextentthathehadbeenledtobelievewashisdue;andthemoreclearlyherealisedthatthepopewasdeceivinghim,themoreangryhebecame.When
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MachiavelliwasgrantedaninterviewwithhimearlyinNovember,hefoundhiminanunusuallyemotionalmood,angryandresentful,ramblingonatlength"withwordsfullofpoisonandanger."CesarewasnolongertheforcefulandcompetentleaderMachiavellihadmeteighteenmonthsearlierinUrbino.
Otherobserversgave
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similardescriptionsof"anangry,brokenman,outofhismindandnotknowingwhathewantedtodo."FrancescoSoderinidescribedhimas"inconstant,irresolute,andsuspicious,notstandingfirminanydecision."Machiavellireportedthathisplanswereuncertain:
Nooneknowswhetherornotheintendstostayin
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Rome.SomepeopleseemtothinkhewillgotoGenoa,whereheissaidtohavedepositedlargesumswiththemerchantsthere,andfromGenoatogoontoLombardytoraisetroopsforanadvanceontheRomagna.Hecandothisapparentlybecausehehad200,000ducats
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depositedwiththeGenoesemerchants.OthersbelievehewillstayinRomeforthePope'scoronationwhen,aspromised,hewillbeproclaimedGonfalonieroftheChurch.
Infact,CesarestillhopedtomarchnorthfromRometohisstrongholdsintheRomagna,andaccordingly
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waitedanxiouslyfortheletterheexpectedfromFlorenceconfirminghissafeconductthroughtherepublic'sterritories.ButtheFlorentines,advisedbyMachiavellithatJuliusII'ssupportofCesarewasonlyatemporarymeasure,decidednottoagreetoCesare'srequest.
Andso,onNovember18,hispowerandpossessions
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crumblingaroundhim,CesareleftRomeforOstia,fromwhereheintendedtoreachhisstrongholdsintheRomagna,avoidingFlorentineterritorybytravellingbyseatoLivornoandfromtheremarchingeastacrosstheApenninestoCesena.Beforehecouldleave,however,twocardinalsarrivedinOstiawithordersfromJuliusIIforCesaretohandoverthepasswordshe
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hadagreedwithhiscastellansforeachofthefortresses.Cesarerefusedtodoso.
JuliusII,fearfulofrumoursthatVeniceplannedtoseizethesestrategicallyvitalcitadelsforherself,wasincensedwithrageandorderedCesaretoreturntoRomeimmediately;andifhedeclinedtoobeytheorder,hewastobebroughtbackbyforce.
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Atthesametime,thepopeissuedawarrantforthearrestofCesare'slieutenantMigueldeCorella,whowastobequestionedaboutthedeathsofmanypersons:Juan,theDukeofGandía,Cesare'sbrother,whosebodyhadbeenfishedoutoftheTiberinJune1497;AlfonsoofAragon,Lucrezia'ssecondhusband,whohadbeenstrangledonhissickbed;AstorreManfredi,LordofFaenza,
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andhisbrother,whosebodies,weightedwithstones,hadbeenfoundintheTiberinJune1502;GiulioCesaredaVarano,LordofCamerino,whohadbeenstrangledatLaPergolashortlyafterward,andhistwosons,whohadhadtheirthroatscut;andmanymore.
So,onNovember29,threedaysafterJuliusII'smagnificentandextravagant
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coronationprocession,CesarereturnedtoRome,aprisoner.Therewereunconfirmedreportsthat,nowincustody,hisspirithadfinallybroken.TherewerestoriesthatheweptwhenhewasdraggedintohiscellintheTorreBorgia,thathehadfallenontohiskneesbeforeGuidobaldodaMontefeltro,beggedforforgivenessforwhathehaddoneinUrbino,andundertooktoreturnthe
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worksofartthathadbeenstolenfromtheducalpalace.AndonDecember1camethenewsthatabodyofCesare'stroops,undertheleadershipofCorella,hadbeencapturednearArezzo,thanks,itwassaid,toawarningsenttotheFlorentinegovernmentbyMachiavellithatthesemenwereontheirwaynorth.
Worsewassoontofollow,whenanumberofwagons
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belongingtoCesare,buttravellingunderthenameofLucrezia'sbrother-in-lawCardinalIppolitod'Este,cametotheattentionofthecustomsmeninBologna,whowereinspectingbaggagefortaxablegoods."Whentheyopenedthechestsandbales,"wrotetheFerraresechroniclerBernardinoZambotti,"theyfoundinsidegreatrichestakenfromtheChurch,namely,thecrossof
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St.Peter,coveredwithgemsofaninfinitevalue,"severalotherpiecesofgem-encrustedjewellerythatwerethepropertyofthechurch,pricelessclothesandaltarhangings,"alittlegildedcatwithdiamondsforitseyes,"andevenalittlealtarpieceoftheVirgin,worthatotal,soZambottiestimated,of300,000ducats.
Withhisloyallieutenant
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underarrestinFlorenceandmuchofhisfortuneconfiscatedinBologna,thereseemedlittlealternativetoCesarebuttodivulgethepasswordshehadbeenatsuchpainstoconceal.Machiavellicommentedthathislifewouldnotbeworthmuchafterthestrongholdssurrendered."Itseemstome,"hewrote,"thatthisDukeofoursisslippinglittlebylittledowntohisgrave."The
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castellans,however,whetheroutofloyaltytotheirdukeorfollowingsomeprearrangedplan,valiantlyrefusedtosurrenderthefortressesuntiltheyhadpositiveproofthatCesarewasnolongeraprisoner.
Thestalematecontinued,muchtoJuliusII'sfury,untiltheendoftheyear,whennewsarrivedinRomethatmuchcheeredCesare:
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GonsalvodiCórdobahadwonadecisivevictoryovertheFrenchattheBattleofGariglianoonDecember27.Hoping,indeedexpecting,supportfromaSpanishNaples,CesaresignedaformalagreementonJanuary29,1504,agreeingtosurrenderhisRomagnafortressesinreturnforhisfreedom.Pendingthesurrender,CesarewastakentoOstiawhile,onebyone,
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hisstrongholdsweretakenbyJuliusII'stroops.
InApril1504hesetforth,inoptimisticspirits,inagalleyboundforNaplesandthecourtofGonsalvodiCórdoba,DukeofTerranova,whohadbeenappointedviceroyofthekingdombyFerdinandandIsabellaofSpain.Hewasnotwelcome,however.TheSpanishmonarchs,"theirCatholic
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Majesties,"hadinformedtheirambassadorinNaplesthat"weregardthearrivaloftheDukewithgreatdispleasureandnotforpoliticalreasonsalone;for,asyouknow,themanisdeeplyabhorrenttousbecauseofthegravityofhiscrimesandwecertainlydonotwishthatsuchamanshouldbeconsideredtobeinourservice."Theyhad,theyinformedtheambassador,
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alsowrittentoGonsalvodiCórdoba,askinghimtoarrestCesareand"tosendtheDuketousandtoprovidetwogalleysforthejourneysothathecannotescapeelsewhere."
EvenbeforeGonsalvodiCórdobahadreceivedtheseorders,Cesare,hisconfidencebynowrestored,hadsetaboutplanningamarchintotheRomagnatoregainwhathehadrecentlylost.When
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theroyalinstructionsarrivedfromSpain,hebelievedthatasafellowSpaniard,Gonsalvowouldbepreparedtooverlookthem,andhestartedtoraisetroopsforacampaigninItalythathehopedwouldrestorehimtopower.Gonsalvo,however,remainedloyaltohismasters.
TheFlorentineambassadorinNaplesreportedwhathappenednext:
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On1June[Cesare]askedforaninterviewwith[GonsalvodiCórdoba]todiscusshisaffairs.Hehadalreadypreparedtheartilleryforhisproposedcampaignandhadorderedwine,breadandotherthingsnecessaryforhisexpedition.Intheeveninghehadhisinterviewwith
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Gonsalvo...[who]wasaccompaniedbyNiugnodelCampo,castellanoftheCastelNuovoinNaples,andwhen[Cesare]turnedtodescendthestairs,Niugnostoppedhimsaying,"Signore,yourwaylieshere,"andledhimintoaroomintheTorredell'Oro....OnTuesdayhewastransferredtoanother
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roomwhichwasverybeautifulbutverystrongwithwindowsprotectedbyironbars.Itiscalled"theoven"andseveralimportantpeoplehavebeenheldprisonerthereatonetimeoranother.Heistherenowwithtwoservants.TheGrandCaptainrefusestotalktohim.Thereisnotasinglemanwhodoes
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notpraisethisdeed.Intruth,itispleasingtoall.
SoonafterthisdispatchwasreceivedinFlorence,CesarewasputontoagalleyboundforSpain,where,sohissisterheard,hewas"shutupwithapage"inthecastleofChinchilla,highinthemountainsbehindValencia.
Cesare'sfallhadbeenas
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dramaticashismeteoricrise.MachiavelliblameditonCesare'sdecisiontosupportJuliusII'selection,thoughitisdifficulttoseehowhecouldhaveorganizedanalternativecandidatetocounterthefront-runnerandensureenoughsupportintheconclavetoachievetherequiredtwo-thirdsmajorityamongthecardinals.
AsMachiavellicommented
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inThePrince:
[Cesare]shouldneverhaveallowedtheelectionofoneofthosecardinalshehadinjured,oronewhowouldhavecausetofearhim.Mendoyouharmeitherbecausetheyfearyouorbecausetheyhateyou....TheDuke'saim,firstand
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foremost,shouldhavebeentoengineertheelectionofoneoftheSpanishcardinalsand,failingthat,toenableittobeRouen[Georgesd'Amboise]notSanPietroinVincoli[GiulianodellaRovere].Whoeverbelievesthatgreatmenallownewservicestoeraseoldinjuriesisdeceiving
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himself.SotheDuke'schoicewasamistakenone;anditwasthecauseofhisultimatedownfall.
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Chapter26DuchessofFerrara
"MYJOYINSEEINGYOUISNEVERDONE"
THEDEATHOFHERFATHER,AlexanderVI,followedsorapidlybythecollapseofCesare'sempireandhisambitions,andhishumiliatingimprisonmentso
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farawayinSpain,musthavebeendevastatingtothetwenty-three-year-oldLucrezia.Allthemoreso,isolatedinFerrara,where,accordingtothechroniclerBernardinoZambotti,itwaswidelybelievedthatthepopehadbeenpoisoned;Cesare,too,"wasfoundtohavebeenpoisoned,"hereported,addingthat"itwaschieflyduetothefactthathewasplacedinsidethestillwarm
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entrailsoftwomulesthathewascured."
ThetorrentialrainthatlashedFerrarathatSeptemberandOctober,causingthePotoburstitsbanks,floodingbothfieldsandcitystreets,matchedthedepthsofhermisery.CouriersarriveddailywithnewsofCesare'scitiesandfortressesastheyfell,onebyone,somereturningtotheirearlierrulers,others
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seizedbyVenice;ofthenewtenantofheroldhome,theVaticanPalace,andhowthenewpopehadshutupherfather'sapartments,whereshehadoncedancedandlaughedsogaily,andvilified"thatSpaniardofaccursedmemory."
Itwasnotjustherprivategriefatthelossofherfatherandbrotherthatoverwhelmedher;itwasclearfromthe
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gossipatcourtthatLucrezia'spositionaswifeoftheheirtotheduchywasnowalsounderthreat.Onefriendadvisedhertodoallshecouldtoassuagehergrieflestpeoplethoughtshewasovercomebyapprehensionaboutherownfuture.
LouisXIIhimselfwasreadytorepudiatebothCesareandLucrezianowthatAlexanderVIwasdead;andhetoldthe
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FerrareseenvoythatheknewverywellthattheEstefamilyhadneverbeenpleasedwiththeBorgiaalliance,and"thereforetheFrenchcourtdidnotregardMadonnaLucreziaasDonAlfonso'srealwife."Alfonso,however,hadbecomeattachedtoLucrezia.Hearingofherfather'sdeath,hecamehometoFerraratocomforthiswifeandthustoshowthatalthoughthemarriagehad
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lostitspoliticalraisond'être,itstillretaineditsprivatelustre.
Theyseemedtohavebeen"quitesatisfiedwithoneanother,"andtheymaywellhavebeenso,buttheirtemperamentswereverydifferent;whilehestillcontinuedtospendalargepartofeachdayinthelecturehallsoftheuniversityorinhisworkshop,poringover
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proposalsforpublicworks,militaryengineering,andfirearms,sheenjoyedthelifeatcourt,wheremasquesandtableaux,dramaandpoetryoccupiedtheeveninghours.
MusicwastheinterestclosesttoLucrezia'sheart,andoneshesharedwithherhusband,whowashimselfanaccomplishedplayeroftheviol.Sheemployedherownsingers,pipers,andlute
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players,evenherowndancingmaster,spendingalargepartofherincomeonthepatronageofmusic.Shewasparticularlyfondofsongs,ofthelovelySpanishpoemsthatweresettomusicbyhermusicians;andsheviedwithherrival,Isabellad'Este,toattractthebestplayersandcomposerstohercourt.
ThecourtatFerrarawas
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famousthroughoutItalyasacentreofculture.DukeErcolehaddoubledthesizeofthecityandtransformeditintoasettingworthyofducalgrandeur,enclosingahugehuntingpark,completewithitsownracecourse,whereladiesofthecourtcouldwatchtheirknightsdisplayingtheirskills,joustingattheringorpursuinggamewithtrainedleopards;headdednewgardensandgilded
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receptionroomstotheducalpalaceand,in1504,decidedtobuildonthegroundstheSaladelleComedie,thefirstpurpose-builttheatresinceantiquity.
AmongthemanyforeignwritersandmusiciansattractedtothislivelyculturalcentrewerethescholarlyhumanistsErcoleStrozziandPietroBembo.AmemberoftheFlorentinefamilywhose
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grandpalazzo,builtforFilippoStrozzi,isoneofthemostimposinginFlorence,ErcoleStrozziwasapoetofdistinction.MuchdislikedbyLucrezia'shusbandbutadmiredandsponsoredbyherfather-in-law,StrozziwasadistinctivefigureinFerrara,wherehehobbledaboutoncrutchesthathisclubfeetrenderedindispensable.
Strozziwasclearlyand
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immediatelyattractedtoLucrezia,asshewastohim.Hesympathisedwithherinherdifferenceswithherfather-in-law,whokepther,soshecomplained,soshortofmoneythatshewasnotabletodresswiththedistinctionthatwasherdue.Strozzimadelightofhercomplaints;shecouldalwaysborrowmoney;andsincehehimselfwasshortlytogotoVenice,hewouldbuyforher
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theresuchmaterialsasthoseforwhichthatcitywascelebrated.HereturnedwithlargebundlestothedelightnotonlyofLucreziabutalsoofherladies,whowerepresentedwithrollsofmaterialtobemadeupintodressesofexceptionalsplendour.
PietroBembo,ontheotherhand,wasaVenetianpoet,handsomeandcharming,a
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maninhisearlythirtieswhosecompanyLucreziafoundespeciallyalluring.Indeed,therewerewhispersatcourtthattheduke'snewdaughter-in-lawmighthavesuccumbedtoBembo'scharms;itwasgenerallysupposedthattheysoonbecamelovers.CertainlyshewasalwaysreadytoenjoythecompanyofthelivelybrilliantpoetwhenhewasinFerraraoraguestatErcole
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Strozzi'slovelyvillaatOstellato,ontheshoresofthelagoonatComacchio,travellingtherefromtimetotimealongthewatersofthePoinherpaintedbarge.
Whenapart,thetwowrotepassionateletterstoeachotherinthefashionoftheirtimes.Lucreziacalledhim"MesserBembomio"(myMr.Bembo),andhewrotetoherwithdeepaffection.She
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gavehimalockofherlovelyblondhair,whichcanstillbeseentoday,ondisplayintheBibliotecaAmbrosianainMilan,alongwithmuchoftheircorrespondenceandthepoemstheywrotetoeachother;seeing"thosebeautifullocksthatIloveevermoredeeply,"ranoneofBembo'sverses,"myheartwastornfrommeandcaught."Oneofhisletterstoherends:"WithmyheartdoInowkissthat
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handofyours,whichsoonIshallkisswithmylipsthateverhaveyournameengraveduponthem."
"WereIanangelassheis,"BembotoldLucrezia'scousinAngelaBorgia,"IwouldtakepityonanyonewholovedasIlove."Andinoneoftheverseshesenther,hewrote:
Avess'ioalmend'unbelcristalloilcore
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Chequelch'iotaccio,MadonnanonvedeDel'internomiomal,senzaaltrefedeAsuoiocchitraducessefore.
[HadIaheartmadeoffinecrystalratherthantheoneIhide,whichMadonnadoesnotseefrominsidememypain
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wouldbetrayitselfinhereyes.]
WhenLucreziareplied(theletterisdatedJune24,1503)thatinthecrystalofherheartshehadfoundaperfectconformitywithBembo's,herepliedthathisowncrystalwasnowmoreprecioustohimthan"allthepearlsoftheIndianseas."
WhenBemboheardofthe
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deathofAlexanderVI,heimmediatelyrodethetenmilesorsofromOstellatototheducalvillaatMedelanawhereLucreziawasstayingtoseewhathecoulddotocomfortherinhergrief.Butshewas,forthemoment,beyondgrief."AssoonasIsawyoulyinginyourdarkenedroom,wearingyourblackgown,weepinganddesolate,"hewrotetoherthefollowingday,"Iwasso
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overcomebymyfeelingsthatIstoodstill,asthoughstruckdumb,notknowingwhattosay.Insteadofofferingsympathy,Ifeltinneedofsympathymyself.Ileft,fumblingandspeechless,overcomewithemotionatthesightofyourmisery."Hecouldofferlittleinthewayofsolace:"Iknownotwhatelsetosayexcepttoremindyouthattimesoothesandeasesalloursorrows,"hesaid,adding
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thatalthoughAlexanderVI,"yourverygreatfather,"haddied,"thisisnotthefirstmisfortunewhichyouhavehadtoendureatthehandsofyourcruelandmaligndestiny."
Assummerturnedtoautumnandtheplightofherbelovedbrothergrewworseandworse,BembocontinuedtoofferwhathelphecouldtocomfortLucrezia,writingto
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herwhentheywereapartwiththatromanticpassionshefoundsobeguiling."Thewholeofthisnightinmydreams,andinthewakefulwatches,howeverlongtheywere,Iwaswithyou,"oneofhislettersran."AndIhopethateveryothernightofmylife,whateveritholdsinstoreforme,thesamethingwillhappen."
Lucrezia,inreturn,asked
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BembototranslateoneofherownSpanishsonnetsintoItalian:
Yoursistheradiancewhichmakesmeburn,AndgrowingwitheachactandgraciouswordMyjoyinseeingyouisneverdone.
ButthesecontenteddaysatMedelanaweresoontoend:
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Bembo'syoungerbrother,Carlo,fellseriouslyillatVenice;Bembohurriedtohisbedsidetoolatetoseehimbeforehedied."IamsendingformybookswhichIleftbehindinFerrara,"BembowrotetoLucreziainearly1504,tosaythat"Ishallremainhereforawhileinorderthatmyagedandsorrowfulfatherneednotremainentirelyaloneforitisclearhehasmuchneedofmy
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company."
ItwastobemanymonthsbeforeheandLucreziasaweachotheragain,andbythentheardouroftheirattachmenttoeachotherhadcooledtofriendship,onethatwastolastuntiltheendofherlife.In1505hededicatedhisdialoguesonPlatoniclove,GliAsolani,toLucrezia,whosevisittohimononeoccasionwhenhehadbeenill
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had"curedhimofeveryfeverishlanguore"thatbesethim.ThefollowingyearhemovedfromVenicetothelivelycourtofGuidobaldodaMontefeltroandElisabettaGonzaga,nowreinstatedinUrbino,andhewasoneoftheleadingcharactersinBaldassareCastiglione'sBookoftheCourtier.AfewyearslaterhemovedtoRometotakeuphisappointmentassecretarytoPopeLeoXand
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wouldlaterbemadeacardinalbyPaulIII.HavingestablishedareputationforLatinlyricpoetry,heturnedtoItalianverse,thecollectededitionofhisItalianpoemsappearingin1530.
OneofthelastlettersLucreziawrotetohimwasquiteperfunctory;certainlyshehadnotwrittenmuchoflate,shetoldhim,buthemustrestassuredthattherewere
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manygoodreasonswhyshehadnotbeenabletodoso.Sheremained,sheaddedcaringly,asanxiousasevertopleasehim.
ItwasaroundthetimewhenBemboleftforVenicethatLucreziabegantoappearmorefrequentlyinpublic,fulfillingherdutiesandresponsibilitiesasDuchessofFerrara.Usingtheskillsshehadlearnedatherfather's
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court,shereceivedembassieswithagracethatherhusbandwasquiteunabletomusteronsuchoccasions.Withherextensiveknowledgeofpoliticalaffairs,shetookanunfeignedinterestinthegovernmentoftheduchyanditsrelationshipswiththeotherItalianstatesandwithforeignpowers.
ShewasalsobusyfulfillingherprimarydutyasAlfonso's
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wife,endeavouringtoproduceanheirfortheduchy,asubjectparticularlyclosetoDukeErcole'sheart.Ayearafterthedisappointmentofherstillborndaughter,Lucreziawaspregnantagain,andyetagainshemiscarried.AtChristmas1504Lucreziawaspregnantoncemore,bearingAlfonso'schildforathirdtime,muchtothejoyofherseventy-one-year-oldfather-in-law,whoseown
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longlifewasfinallydrawingtoaclose.
Duringtheprevioussummer,thedukehadtravelledtoFlorenceinordertovisitthemiraculousimageoftheVirginintheChurchofSantissimaAnnunziata,butonhisreturn,"muchfatiguedbythejourney,"accordingtotheFerraresechroniclerBernardinoZambotti,hehadfallenseriouslyill.Alfonso,
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whowasonatriptoFrancetovisitLouisXII,wasinformedimmediatelybyacouriersentposthastetotheFrenchcourt,andherushedhometojoinIsabella,whohadarrivedfromMantua,attheirfather'sbedside.Alfonsoarrived,accordingtoZambotti,"healthyandsafebutverydowncastwithanxietyandsorrow";hewas"muchconcernedwithwhatmighthaveoccurredifhis
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fatherhaddiedinhisabsence."Withfourbrothers,oneofwhomwasillegitimate,hedidhaveoccasiontoworry.
TheolddukefinallydiedonJanuary25,1505,muchmournedbyhisfamilyandbyhissubjects;Alfonsowasproclaimedhissuccessorlaterthatsamedaybeforeridinginagrandceremonialprocessionthroughthestreets
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ofFerrara,accompaniedbyhiscourt,dressedintheducalmantleofwhitesatinlinedwithfurandthegreatgoldchainofstatehangingacrosshisbreast.WhenLucreziadutifullykneltbeforehimtoofferherhomage,thenewdukeembracedherwarmlyandkissedherbeforeleadingheroutontothebalcony,herhandinhis,todisplaythenewduchesstoherpeople.
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Duringthesummerof1505,therivalrybetweenAlfonso'sbrotherserupteddramaticallyintoopenhostility.Lifeinthehot,humidcityofFerrarawasmoreunpleasantthanusualthatyear;onMay17,reportedonechronicler,"therewasnowheatforsaleinthemarketplace,norfodderofanysort,exceptforrice,"whichwassellingatdoublethenormalprice,"andfortwodaystherewasno
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breadforsaleeither."Whenthewheatdidarrive,itwasfoundtobefullofweevils,andthepoorcouldbeseenacrossthecity,"cryingoutforasliceofbread."InthemiddleofJune,withthepriceoffoodstuffsrisingdaily,aten-year-oldboywasfounddeadonthestreet,andwhentheneighbourswenttohishouse,theyfoundthathisparentshaddiedoftheplague.
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Lucrezia,concernedbyreportsoftheoutbreakoftheplague,decidedtotakeherhouseholdtoModenabothforherownsake—sinceherfluctuatingtemperaturehadinducedhertoconsultherdoctor,whoadvisedhertoleavethecity—andforthesakeofthechildshewascarrying.Herbrother-in-lawGiuliod'Este,DukeErcole'sbastardson,askedifhemightgowithher.Hewasarather
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tiresomeyoungman,conceited,frivolous,quick-witted,andheadstrong;butLucreziaenjoyedhisamusingcompanyandsoshereadilyassented.Theoldduke,wellawareoftheyoungman'sextravagance,hadonlygrantedhimamodestallowanceandhadwantedhimtogointothechurch.ButGiuliohadstronglyresistedthisplanandwasmuchrelievedwhenhisbrother,the
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newduke,presentedhimwithagenerousincomeaswellasapalace.
CardinalIppolitowasexasperatedbytheindulgencethatAlfonsohadshowntosuchaflightyandarrogantwastrel;and,asanopeninggambitinthedisputethatwasdevelopingbetweenIppolitoandhisillegitimatebrother,hehadachaplaininGiulio'shouseholdarrestedand
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imprisoned.Giuliopromptlybrokeintotheprisonandreleasedtheman.
Thecardinalwasasardonic,elegant,supercilious,andargumentativeman.Hemuchregrettedhavingbeenmadeacardinalandcertainlydidnotallowhisunwantedeminenceinthechurchtointerferewithhispassionsforhuntingandwomen.Hisoutburstsoftemperwerenotorious;on
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oneoccasionheflewintoaragewithoneofhisfather'scrossbowmenandhadhimbeatensosavagelythathewasalmostkilled.Lucreziawasintriguedbyhim,andshewasseensoofteninhiscompanythattheRomanambassadorinFerrarareportedthat"shebelongedtoherhusbandatnight,andtotheCardinalbyday."
Meanwhile,Lucrezia,
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accompaniedbyGiulio,wasforcedtoleaveModena,whereplaguehadbythenalsobrokenout,andmadeforReggio,wheretheywereinterceptedbyamessengerfromDukeAlfonsowithanorderbanishingGiuliotoaremoteestate.AtfirstGiuliorefusedtogothere,buteventuallyhewaspersuadedtoleave,whileLucreziainducedthechaplainwhomGiuliohadreleasedfrom
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prisontoreturntherevoluntarilyforthemoment.
NorwasthistheonlyaspectofGiulio'sbehaviourthatwasprovokingsuchfuryinhisbrotherthecardinal.FormonthsGiuliohadbeenpursuingthepretty,alluringAngelaBorgia,Lucrezia'scousin;andwhenshebecamepregnant,itwasgenerallysupposedthathewasthefatherofherchild.Herewas
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anotherproblemforLucrezia,for,whileconductinganaffairwithGiuliod'Este,AngelawassimultaneouslybeingpursuedbyabesottedCardinalIppolito.
ItwasatReggioonSeptember19,1505,thatLucreziagavebirthtoanotherchild,aboythistime,whowasnamedAlessandroinmemoryofherfather.Bemboofferedhiscongratulations.
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"Itgavemeinfinitepleasure,"hewrote,"tohearofthehappybirthofamalechildtoyourladyship;allthemoreso,"headded,after"thecrueldisappointmentandvainhopes"thathadaccompaniedhermiscarriageofthepreviousyear.Heprayedalsothatthis"dearlyawaitedson"wouldgrowintoaman"worthyofsofineamother."Hishopes,andthoseofAlfonsoandLucrezia,
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however,weretobeonceagaincruellydashed.Theinfantprovedpoorandsickly;AlfonsosenthisowndoctortoReggiotocareforthebaby,butdespitehisministrations,barelyamonthlaterAlessandrowasdead.
WritingtocomfortLucrezia,whohadalsosufferedaboutofpuerperalfeverafterthebirth,FrancescoGonzaga,Marquis
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ofMantua,invitedhertostayatBorgoforte,acastleontheborderofFerraraandMantuathatbelongedtohisfamily.
Thethirty-nine-year-oldFrancescowasbynomeansacaptivatingpersonality,buthispresencewouldbesomecomforttoLucreziaafterthedepartureofGiulioandthedeathofherbaby.Besides,itwouldannoyIsabellad'Este,whowaseightmonths
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pregnant,andwhosediscomfitureLucreziaalwaysfoundpleasurable.SosheagreedtomeetGonzagaatBorgoforte,where,inhisbrusqueanddidacticway,hedidhisbesttocomfortandentertainher,evenofferingtosendanenvoytoSpaintohearnewsofCesare;andwhenthetimecametoleavethecastle,shewrotetoAlfonsototellhimthatshehadbeeninvitedto
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accompanythemarquistoMantuaonherwayhometoFerrara."Ihavebeenurgedwithsuchpassion,"shewrotetohim,"togotomorrowtovisittheillustriousMarchioness,that,althoughIresistedstrongly,Icouldnotbutobey."
Shehadreasontobegratefulforhavingdoneso.TheMantuancourtpossessedanenviablecollectionof
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worksofartthatIsabellawasdelightedtoshowherguest,booksandjewels,enamels,glassandsilver,andpaintingsnotonlybyPeruginoandLorenzoCostabutalsobyAndreaMantegna.
Mantegna,appointedcourtpainterin1460,hadcompletedworkontheCameradegliSposiintheducalpalacein1474,aprojectcommissionedby
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Francesco'sgrandfather,MarquisLodovico.ForFrancescohimself,hehadpaintedtheninehugecanvasesoftheTriumphofCaesar,whichwerelaterboughtbyKingCharlesIandarenowintheOrangeryatHamptonCourt.ForIsabella,Lucrezia'shostess,hehadpaintedtheParnassusin1497and,threeyearslater,theTriumphofVirtue,bothnowintheLouvre.
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BythetimehehadfinishedworkontheTriumphofVirtue,Mantegnawasnearlyseventyyearsold,agrumpyoldman,bynomeanssowelloffashethoughtheoughttobeandinconstantdisputewithhisneighbours.HewasalsoindisputewiththeillustriousIsabellaoveranantiquebustoftheEmpressFaustina,whichhehadofferedtosellherfor100ducats,farlessthanhe
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thoughtitwasworth.Eventually,aftertreatingtheofferwithdisdainfulsilence,Isabellaagreedtoacquireitbysettlingtheoldartist'sdebtsuptothatamount.
LucrezialeftMantuaattheendofOctober,havinggreatlyannoyedtheheavilypregnantIsabellabyhavingsoobviouslyarousedinherhusbandthepassionsanddesireshewasmoreinthe
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habitoffeelingforhiswife'smaids-of-honour.TravellinginFrancesco'sceremonialbarge,shearrivedatBelriguardo,whereshewasgreetedbyAlfonsoandbyGiulio,hisbanishmentrescindedbyhisindulgenthalf-brother.
Afewdayslater,GiuliowasreturningtoBelriguardofromahuntingexpedition,ridingalongtheroadtowardthe
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villa,whenhewasmetbyafuriouslyjealousCardinalIppolitod'Este;hehadbeenspurned,yetagain,bytheprettyAngelaBorgia,whohadscornfullytoldthecardinalthathisbrother'sliquidbrowneyeswereworthmoretoherthan"thewholeofyourperson."Inanexcessofrage,Ippolitonowshoutedorderstohisfourfootmentokillthemanandputouthiseyes,thoseeyesthatAngela
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hadtoldhimshesoextravagantlyadmired.Ippolito'sfootmenobedientlypulledGiuliofromhissaddletotheground,wheretheystabbedathiseyeswiththeirdaggersuntilhisfacewascoveredwithbloodandhiseyelidsalmostsevered.
IppolitorodebacktoBelriguardowiththenewsthathehadfoundGiuliolyingonthegroundandwounded;
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thefootmenfledabroad.Menweresentouttocarryhimbacktothevilla,andurgentsummonsweresenttosurgeonsatFerrara.Giulioseemedtobeonthepointofdeathor,atleast,blindedforlife.
CardinalIppolitoatfirstdeniedallresponsibilityfortheincident;thenheclaimedthatthefourfootmenwere"formerlyinourhousehold."
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Alfonso,reluctanttohavehisownbrotherarraignedonachargeofmurder,tookcarethatthisversionoftheeventswassenttoeverycourtinItaly,whereitsoonbecamethesubjectofgossip.InaprivatelettertoIsabella,however,Alfonsoconfessedtheterribletruth,begginghissisternottorevealthetruedetailsof"thisshamefulact";Isabellarepliedthatitwastoolate,thateverybarberinthe
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marketplaceknewwhathadreallyhappened.LikeAlfonso,shewasalsoshocked;whenIppolitohimselffledtoMantuahopingtofindrefugeathissister'scourt,shewassohorrifiedbywhathehaddonethathewassoonforcedtoleave.
Eventually,whenGiuliohadpartiallyrecoveredhissight,Ippolitowasadmittedback
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intoFerrara,wherehewasinducedtomakeaguardedapology;andthat,Alfonsohoped,wouldbetheendofthematter.ButGiulio,stillingreatpainandfindingcomfortonlyindarkenedrooms,remainedbitterlyresentful,notonlyofthecardinalbutalsoofDukeAlfonso,whomheblamedfornotchargingIppolitowithhiscrime.
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ThedukeandduchessreturnedtoFerrara,aswasthecustom,tocelebrateChristmas,NewYear,andCarnivalintheducalcapital.Lucreziaclearlyenjoyedherself,joininginthedancing,relishingthesaucycomediesthatsheaskedtobeperformedattheducaltheatreduringCarnival,whenshebecameafamiliarfigureinthestreets,throughwhichsherodewearingamask,
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sometimesinawhitedress,atothertimesgold.ShedidwhatshecouldtocomfortGiulio,endeavouringtofindhimaprofitableappointmentwiththeKnightsofMalta.Shealsowentoutofherwaytohelpthetiresome,importunateAngelaBorgia,whohaddiscardedthenolongerhandsomeGiuliowithout,apparently,asecondthoughtandhadrecentlybeenbetrothedtotheyoung
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AlessandroPioandnowbadgeredLucreziaforhelpinpurchasinganextravaganttrousseau,includinganextremelyexpensivedressofcloth-of-gold.
Whilethecourtlaughedandjokedanddanced,Giulioremainedinhisdarkenedroom,hisresentmentgrowingashelistenedtotherevelriesoutsideonthecitystreets.Hehadbeguntorecoverhis
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sight;atfirstmurkyoutlinescouldbeseenoffacesandobjects,buthisvisionsooncleared.Stillinintolerablepain,however,hethoughtoflittleotherthantherevengehewouldinflictonIppolitoandAlfonso.Hewasjoinedbyhishalf-brotherFerrante,hiscompanioninthecarefreeexploitsofearlierdays,whohadhopesofusurpingAlfonsoasDukeofFerrara.Theydiscussedwaysof
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achievingtheiraims;theydrewothers,asincompetentasthemselves,intotheirconspiracy;theydiscussedmethodsofpoisoning,possibleambushes,trapsandsnaresanddisguises."Somethingsinisterisbeingplanned,"Isabellad'Este'sfriendBernardinodiProsperiwrotetoheratMantua."Idon'tthinkthingswilleverberightagainbetweenDonGiulioandtheCardinal."
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Meanwhile,CardinalIppolito'sinformershadbeguntohearrumoursoftheplottersandtheirwretchedschemes;duringthesummerseveralmen,includingoneofGiulio'sservants,werearrested.GiuliohimselftookadvantageofAlfonso'sabsencefromFerraraonatriptoVenice,toescapetothesecurityofferedbyIsabellainMantua.WhenthedukecamehomeinearlyJuly,he
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orderedhishalf-brothertoreturnhome.Giuliorefused,claimingthathislifewasindangerinFerrara.Inanattempttomediatebetweenthebrothers,FrancescoGonzagaformallyrequestedAlfonsotoguaranteeGiulio'ssafety.AlfonsorepliedthathepromisedtostandsuretyforIppolito'sactionsbutwarnedGiuliothathecouldnotprotecthimfromthelawifhewastobefoundguiltyof
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treason.
FinallyitwasFerrantewhobetrayedtheconspiratorsandtoldofGiulio'sinvolvementintheaffair.Alfonsowasappalledattherealizationthathisownbrotherswereplottinghisassassination.Ferrantewasarrested,alongwiththeotherplotters,withtheexceptionofGiulio,whopreferredtoremaininMantuaundertheprotectionof
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FrancescoandIsabella.
ThetrialopenedonAugust3;andamonthlaterallwerefoundguiltyandcondemnedtodeathbyexecution.Alfonso,however,hadbeenfondofhisbrothersanddecidedtoreprievethem,sentencingthetwoyoungmeninsteadtolifeimprisonmentinthecastledungeons.ForFerrante,lifeimprisonmententailed
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captivityforforty-threeyearsuntilhisdeath;forGiulio,fifty-threeyears,untilhewasreleasedbyhisgreat-nephew,Lucrezia'sgrandsonDukeAlfonsoII.
AttheendofNovember1506,afterayearthathadseenherhusbandsuffersomuchanguish,Lucreziabroughthimnewsthatgladdenedboththeirhearts;shewaspregnantagainand
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would,Godwilling,bearthischild.AtthesametimewelcomenewsarrivedfromSpain:Cesarehadescapedfromprisonandwasonhiswaytothesafetyofthecourtofhisbrother-in-law,whowasnowkingofNavarre.Lucreziaawaitedeagerlytohearwhathewoulddonext;sheherselfwaspreparedtodoallshecouldtohelphim.
Hergaietywasplainforall
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toseethatyearduringCarnivalin1507,whenFrancescoGonzaga,nowcaptain-generalofthepapalforces,cametoFerraratodiscussfutureoperationswithDukeAlfonso,who,bynowquiteunconcernedbyhiswife'sobviousattractiontothisman,raisednoobjectiontotheattentionsthatsheandGonzagapaidtoeachother,tothetimetheyspentineachother'scompany,totheir
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dancingtogetheratballafterball.Abandonedyetgraceful,shethrewherselfenergeticallyintotheexcitementofthepalacedancesuntilshehadtotakeyetagaintoherbed.
AlltheexcitementhadprovedtoomuchforLucrezia,who,inthemiddleofJanuary,sufferedyetanothermiscarriage.Alfonsodespairedandchidedhiswife
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forherlackofpropercareforhercondition;toomuchdancing,heremonstrated,andtoomuchrevelry.Shealsohadtoendurethenews,whicharrivedafewweekslater,thatIsabellahadgivenbirthtoherthirdson,whomshenamedFerrante,inhonourofherbrother,languishingaprisonerinthecastledungeons.
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Chapter27TheEndoftheAffair
"THEHARDERITRYTOPLEASEGOD,
THEHARDERHETRIESME"
ONCESHEHADRECOVEREDfromhermiscarriage,LucreziatookupwithareformingfriarinthetraditionofSavonarolawhoproposed,amongmany
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otherpenances,atariffof"finestocurbprofanities"—1ducatfortakingthenameofasaintinvain,forexample,or2ducatsforanoathinvolvingOurLordortheVirginMary.ThiswastoomuchforthegoodcitizensofFerrara,whoproposedinvokingthehelpofDuchessLucreziabysendingadeputationaskinghertoproposetothefriarthat,ratherthanurgingthepunishmentofblasphemers
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andtheforsakingofcosmeticsanddécolletages,heshouldpreachagainstmoreheinoussins.Lucreziaundertooktospeaktohimbutseemstohavecontentedherselfbyremonstratingwithherladiesabouttheiroftenscandalousbehaviour.
Then,onApril22,1507,anunexpectedvisitorarrivedinFerrarawithdreadfulnews.ItwasoneofCesare'ssquires,
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whohadtravelledfromNavarretotellLucreziathatherbrotherwasdead,killedinbattle,asCesarehadalwayssuspectedhewouldbe,somesixweeksearlier,fightingforthekingofNavarre."TheharderItrytopleaseGod,theharderhetriesme,"weptLucreziawhensheheard.Inreplytoaletterfromherhusband,whowasinGenoawithLouisXIIandhadpennedahastynote
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tohercommiseratingwithherloss,shewrotethatshehopedhecould"returnhomeassoonaspossible,whichiswhatIwishwithallmyheart."Shethen,inhergrief,tooktoherbed;indeed,shewasnotseeninpublicforsolongthatrumoursaboundedthatshewaspregnantagain.
Bythesummer,however,shehadrecoveredenoughtorenewheraffairwith
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FrancescoGonzaga,whosheknewwasdeeplyattractedtoherandwithwhomshewasinlove.ThiswasadangerousliaisonandbecameevenmoresowhenErcoleStrozzi—whohadactedasgo-betweenwhenLucreziawasentangledwithPietroBembo—andErcole'sbrotherGuidoStrozzi,wholivedinMantua,nowbecamecarriersoflettersbetweenthemarquisandLucrezia.
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Theircorrespondencewasinterruptedattheendof1507whenLucreziaagainbecamepregnant.Onthisoccasionshewasfarfrombeingsonervousasshehadbeenduringpreviouspregnancies.Indeed,sheenteredenthusiasticallyintodiscussionaboutthedesignofthebaby'selaboratecradleanditsclothesandtheinterviewingofwould-bewetnurses.Sherelishedthe
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sweetmeatsthatweresenttoherfromSpainbyhersister-in-lawaswellasthealmondpastriesfilledwithhoneyandnougatthatsheateinthesteamingwaterofherbathorwhileplayingidlywithhercountlesspearls.
AndduringCarnivalatthebeginningof1508,itwasnoted,withrelief,thatLucreziawasfinallyheedingtheadviceofherdoctors,and
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theurgententreatiesofherhusband,andwasavoidingtheexcessesinwhichshehadindulgedinpreviousyears,eventotheextentofforgoingherpleasureindancing.Therewas,however,plentyforhertoenjoy:watchingthejoustsandtheotherdisplaysofhorsemanship;enjoyingthedaringfeatsofthetightropewalkersandacrobats;laughingattheribaldcomediesperformedin
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thetheatre;andlisteningtothenewsongsshehadcommissionedspeciallyforCarnival,whichwereperformed,alongwithsomeofheroldfavourites,bythecourtmusicians.
OnApril3DukeAlfonsohadtoleavehisheavilypregnantwifeforafewdaystogotoVeniceonurgentbusiness,nodoubtoptimisticthatthispregnancywouldend
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moresatisfactorilythanitspredecessors.Sohewasabsentwhen,thenextday,Lucreziagavebirthtoaboy,which,allwhosawthebabyagreed,appearedtobeperfectlyhealthy;andhewasnamedErcoleafterhispaternalgrandfather.
ThebirthofanheirwasgreetedwithgreatexcitementandjoyinFerrara;thechurchbellsrangoutacrossthecity;
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gunswerefired;fireworkslittheskies.Intheirenthusiasmforcelebrations,accordingtoalocalchronicler,thepopulacemadebonfiresof
allthescreensinthemarketplaceandelsewhereandallthebenchesofthenotariesandthetableofthejudgesfromthePalazzodellaRagione,aswellasall
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itswindowsanddoors,andtheyalsoburnttheladies'pewsfromthecathedralandtheotherlargechurches,andallthebenches,tables,stoolsanddoorsinthepublicschoolsatSanDomenicoandSanFrancesco,andthecelebrationswentonforthreenights.
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Ercolewaschristenedinthechapeloftheducalpalacesoonafterhisbirth."Hewasnotbaptizedinpublic,"reportedthechronicler,"anditisnotknownwhoheldhimatthefont,"thoughhedidknowtheidentityofthewetnurseemployedtofeedhim,whowasthedaughterofacarpenterinthecity.Noristhereanyevidencethattheapparentlyhastyandprivatechristeningbetokenedany
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infirmityonthepartofthebaby.Indeed,onceDukeAlfonsoreturnedfromVeniceafewdayslater,heproudlydisplayedhislittleheirtotheambassadorsandotherdignitaries,whowereaskedtoexaminelittleErcolelyingnakedonhisback,lesshandsomethanhehadfirstbeenreportedbutevidently"complete."
Alfonsoannouncedthebirth
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ofhisheirinjubilantlettersdispatchedtocourtsthroughoutItalyandbeyond.Thedukehadinformedhisbrother-in-lawFrancescoGonzagainalettersentbeforeheleftVenice,andthemarquisreturnedthisgestureoffriendshipbysendinghisownsecretarytoFerraratooffercongratulationsonhisbehalf.Lucrezia,followingtheconventionsoftheperiod,senthernewstoIsabella
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d'Este.Awarethatthefriendshipbetweenhiswifeandhisbrother-in-lawwascausingfoodforgossipsatcourt,AlfonsowasdeterminedthatLucreziashouldbehaveintheusualformalmannerandforbadehertocommunicatethenewstothemarquis;Lucreziahadbeenfuriousandmadeitquiteplainthatshewasso.Coulditbe,thequestionwasinevitablyasked,thatthe
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babywasnotthechildofAlfonsod'Este,DukeofFerrara,butofFrancescoGonzaga,MarquisofMantua,amanwhomAlfonsomuchdisliked?Certainlythebaby'snoselookedrathersquashedasdoesFrancescoGonzaga'sinMantegna'sMadonnadellaVittoria.Certainly,also,Lucrezia,nowthatherbabywasborn,continuedtourgeGonzagatocometoFerraratoseeher.
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WhenIsabella'sinformantBernardinodiProsperisawthebaby,healsopronouncedtheheirtobehandsomeandlively.HewasalsofullofpraiseforthecradlethatLucreziahadcommissioned,aclassicallyinspiredstructure,allgilded,withcoverletsofcloth-of-goldandfinecambricsheets,whichhadbeenbeautifullyembroidered:"ofsuchsplendour,"hethought,"thatI
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donothavewordstodescribeit."
OnApril12,justoveraweekafterErcole'sbirth,DukeAlfonsodepartedonceagainonbusiness,thistimetoFrance,leavingLucreziaaloneoncemoreandhopefulthatFrancescoGonzagawouldpayheravisit."Youwouldbemoredeartoherthan25,000ducatsandmore,ifyouweretocome,"Ercole
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Strozziassuredthemarquis.Everyday,hesaid,wetalkofyou."Icannotdescribethepassionwhichhasoverwhelmedher,"hewrote;"sheismostanxioustohearwhyyouhavenotansweredherletters."
Noreplycametothisletter.ItmaywellhavebeenthatFrancescoGonzagawasconcernedbywhatmighthappentohimifhewereto
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gotoFerraratoseeLucrezia.HehadrecentlybeentroubledbyamanpurportingtorepresentherwhohadarrivedatMantuawiththesuggestionthathemightgotoFerraratoseeherinsecret.Gonzagasuspectedatrapandpaidnoattentiontothissuggestion,whereuponthemanofferedhimaminiatureofLucreziathatGonzagadeclined.
Meanwhile,stillnowordfor
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LucreziacamefromMantua.Strozzi'slettersonherbehalfbecamealmostdesperate."Shelovesyoupassionately,muchmorethanyoucanimagine.Ifyouknewthisyouwouldbemuchmoreardentinyourlettersandmuchmoreanxioustocometoseeherwherevershewas.Doatleastgivehersomesignoflovingher.Sheasksfornothingmore....Domakeeveryefforttocometoher.Inanycase
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writetoheranddon'tappearsocold."
StillFrancescoGonzagadidnotrespond;anditseemedthathiscautionwaswelljustified.OnJune5LucreziahadwrittentohimwiththenewsthattheSpanishpriestwhohadhelpedCesareescapefromprisonandwhohadjoinedherhouseholdinFerrarahadbeenfound"treacherouslymurdered";
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thatverynightErcoleStrozzialsowaskilled.ThechroniclerGiovanniMariaZerbinatireportedthedeathofthis"mostdistinguishedpoet,"who,hesaid,"wasfounddeadoutsidethechurchofSanFrancesco,inthemiddleofthestreetbythepictureoftheVirginthatisonthepilasterattachedtothewallofthechurch";thebodywasfoundtohavereceived"twenty-twostabwoundsand
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histhroatwascutandnooneknowswhokilledhim,"thoughmanyinFerraraandMantuahadtheirsuspicionsthatCardinalIppolito,orevenDukeAlfonso,hadahandinthecrime.
LucrezianowhadtofindanewmessengerforherletterstoGonzaga;andshefoundoneinErcoleStrozzi'sbrother."LorenzoStrozziiscomingtoMantua,"shewrote
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toGonzaga."HeisasdevotedaservantaswasErcole,hisbrother."
ButGonzagahadnointentionofgoingtoseeLucrezia.Hewrotetosaythathewasill,tooilltotravel.Shepleadedwithhim;hewasstilltooill.Inthatcase,shesaid,shewouldcometolookafterhim;andshewasonthepointofjoininghimwhenherhusbandandCardinal
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IppolitoheardofherintentionsandtookherbacktoFerrara.
AshadbeenthecasewithPietroBembo,theirardourcooledtoaffectionandthetworemainedonfriendlyterms,correspondingregularlyfortherestoftheirlives.Meanwhile,LucreziamournfullyresumedherlifeinFerrara,onceagainthedutifulwifeandconsort,and
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now,withage,lessthehappy,lively,youngwomanshehadoncebeen,whohadrejoicedinwearingthoseextravaganthatsshehaddesignedforherselfandherladiestoattendMassinthecathedral.
OnApril26,1509,newsarrivedinFerrarathatDukeAlfonsohadbeengiventhepostofcaptain-generalofthechurchbyJuliusII,muchtothefuryofhisbrother-in-law
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FrancescoGonzaga,buttothejoyofhissubjects,whogreetedtheannouncementwiththecustomarypealsofbells,thunderofartillery,andflashingfireworks.ThisappointmentwasparticularlyimportantinthelightofthefactthatthepopehadrecentlyarrangedanalliancetocurbthegrowingpowerofVenice,declaringthathewouldjoinforceswithanyoneinordertoreducethecityoncemore"to
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alittlefishingvillage"—and,indeed,hehadbeenjoinedbymostoftherulingheadsofEurope:EmperorMaximilian,LouisXIIofFrance,FerdinandofSpain,andmostoftheItalianpowers,includingbothMantuaandFerrara.
DukeAlfonsowastobeabsentfromFerraraforaconsiderablepartofthenextthreeyears,firstleading
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JuliusII'sarmiesagainstVenice,whichwasresoundinglydefeatedinMay1509attheBattleofAgnadello;whenJuliusIIabruptlychangedsidesthefollowingyear,toallyhimselfwithVeniceandtolaunchanattackontheFrenchforcesinItaly,inordertodrivethe"barbarians"backbeyondtheAlps,AlfonsoremainedloyaltoLouisXII,andthepope
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usedthisastheexcuseheneededtoexcommunicatethedukeanddeprivehimofhisfiefbeforemovingnorth,leadinghisarmiesinperson,toattacktheduchyofFerrara.
"HavingbeenunabletoseparatetheDukeofFerrarafromhisloyaltytotheFrenchKing,"wroteGuicciardini,"thePopehadmadeeveryefforttooccupytheduchy,pretendingthathehaddone
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soonaccountofadisputeoverthetaxesandtollsonsalt."ForAlfonso,theautumnof1510wasexceptionallybusyashestrengthenedhisfortifications,somethingaboutwhichheknewagreatdeal.Nevertheless,Modenasoonfelltothepapalforces,andtheynowmarchedontolaysiegetoAlfonso'sstrategicfortressofMirandola,whichhadbeen
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garrisonedwiththehelpofFrenchsoldiers.
JuliusIIhadalreadyprovedhimselfaformidableopponentonthebattlefieldwhen,in1506,havingdismemberedCesare'sempire,hehadturnedhisattentiontoBologna,conqueringthecityandremovingGiovanniBentivogliofrompower.HereturnedtoRomeintriumph.
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TheVenetianenvoythoughtthatneverhadanyemperororvictoriousgeneralreceivedsoremarkableawelcome.Afewthoughtfulmen,however,regrettedthattheVicarofChristshouldresemblemoretheLionofJudahthantheLambofGod.TheDutchscholarErasmus,himselfordainedapriest,wroteironicallyofJuliusII'sentryintoBolognaasthoughinthepope'sownwords:"Ah,
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wouldtoGodyouhadseenmebornealoftintoBologna!Thehorsesandchariots,themarchingbattalions,thegallopingcommanders,theflamingtorches,theprettypageboys,thepompofbishopsandgloryofcardinals...andIbornealoft,headandauthorofall!"HissatiricalattackonJuliusIIwasvicious:"Yournamesuitsyouperfectly,"hewrote,likeningthepopetoJulius
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Caesar."Youunjustlyseizedtyrannicalpower,despisingandignoringthegods,andplungingyourcountryintowar";theonlydifferenceErasmuscouldseewasthatJuliusIIwasofcommonstock.
InJanuary1511JuliusIIarrivedatMirandolatooverseeinpersonthesiegeofthecastle;hetookuplodgings,accordingto
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Guicciardini,"inafarmer'shovelwherehewaswithinrangeoftheenemyartillery."Hewentaboutthecampinthebittercoldanddrivingsnow,hisarmourconcealedbyawhitecloak,hisheadinasheepskinhood,cursinghisenemies,movinghisquarterswhentheywerehitbycannonballs,andshoutingorderstohiscaptains,hisenergyandenthusiasm"notchilledintheslightest
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degree,"addedthehistorian,"bythebittercoldwhichhistroopswerescarcelyabletoendure."
Inspiredbyhisrestlessenergy,hismenbreachedthewallsofMirandola,theirtaskmucheasedbytheicycoldthathadcausedthewaterinthemoattofreezedeepenoughtobeartheweightofthepapaltroops.Withnochanceofrelief,thecastle
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surrendered.Thisfreshvictoryencouragedothercitiestojointhepope.SpaincametohisaidagainsttheFrench,whowereDukeAlfonso'sprincipalallies,whilebothParmaandPiacenza,abandonedbytheFrench,declaredthemselveswillingtojointhePapalStates.JuliusIIannexedthemimmediately,announcingthathehatedtheSpanishquiteasmuchastheFrench,andthat
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hewouldnotrestuntiltheyhadbeendrivenoutofthepeninsulatoo.
Ferrara,however,wastoproveaharderpropositionforthebellicosepope.OnNovember28,1510,theFrencharmyarrivedatFerraratohelpthedefenceofthecity.Twodayslater,theduke,inthepresenceoftheFrenchcaptains,hadaddressedthe"courtiers,
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citizensandartisans"whohadgatheredearlyintheeveninginthetownhalltoheartheirdukespeak.ThechroniclerZerbinatitakesupthestory:
HetoldthepeoplehowhewasexpectingthePope'sarmytoarrivesoonandaskedthepeopletoremainasfaithfultohimastheyalwayshadbeen
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tothehouseofEste,andhepromisedthepeoplethathewouldnotabandonthem,ashehadbeenabandonedbyeveryoneexceptbytheFrench,andthatiftheystayedfaithfultohimhewassureofvictorybecausethecitywasstrong,thattheywouldfortifyitandthatwewerewell
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suppliedwithartilleryandwithfoodandwithalargepopulation;thenherepeatedthatifthepeoplekepttheirtrustinhimthenhehadnodoubtsatall....MesserAntonioCostabilirepliedwiselythathispeoplehadalwaysbeenmostfaithfultothehouseofEste,andforthefutureandfor
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thepresenttheywouldalwaysbeso,andthathewasnottoworryaboutthisbecausethepeoplewerereadyandpreparedtofightagainsthisenemiesandeveryonestartedtoshout:DukeAlfonso!DukeAlfonso!AndsoHisLordshipandtheFrenchcaptainsleft
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theroomwellsatisfiedwiththepopulacewhonowpreparedforthearrivaloftheenemyarmyinFerrara.
ThefollowingdayDukeAlfonsohadpublishedadecreeorderingallwarehousesandshopstoclosefortheweekandforeveryonetoworkinsteadonfortifyingthecity.Andthen
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theywaitedfortheenemytoarrive,goingabouttheirbusinessasnormallyaspossiblewhilethewintermonthspassedandJuliusII'sforcesfoughtrelentlesslyforthepossessionofMirandola,knowingthatoncethatfortresshadfallen,itwouldbetheirturnnext.
OnMaundyThursday,April17,thechaplainsofthecathedralheldthecustomary
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confirmationservicebehindcloseddoors,"whichtheydid,nothavingpermissionfromthePopetodobecauseoftheexcommunication,"reportedthechroniclerZerbinati,whoaddedinthemarginofhisnotebookthat"Iwastoldaboutthis,becauseIwasnotthere."
Thewinterof1511hadbeenunusuallylongandhard,"thegreatestcold,thethickest
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iceandtheheaviestsnowthatIhaveeverseen,"commentedZerbinati,addingthat"thewinterhaslastedforsolongthattoday,thelastdayofApril,wearestilllightingourfiresandwearestillwearingourfur-linedcoats."Threeweekslater,however,camenewsthatwarmedtheheartsofthebravepopulace:theBolognesehadrebelledagainstJuliusII,andtheBentivogliowereonceagain
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inpower.Thecelebrationsthatnightwereexceptionallyloud—bells,fireworks,cannonades,shouting,songs,youthsroisteringonthestreetsbrandishingbranchesoftreesonwhichblossomshadbeguntobloom—torejoiceatthedefeatofthemightypapalarmy"whichhasthreatenedusallthepastwinter."Thenextday"alltheshopswereclosed,asifitwereaSunday."
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ThroughoutthesedifficultyearswhileAlfonsohadbeenfrequentlyabsent,fightingfirstforJuliusIIandthenagainsthim,itwasLucrezia,hisduchess,whotookhisplaceasrulerofthecity,writingregularletterstohim,sometimesasmanyasthreeaday,reportingthenewsfromthemarketplace,thegossipatcourt,planningpolicy,andaskinghisadvice.Shehadpawnedherjewelstoraise
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moneyforherhusbandandalsomanaged,inwhatmusthavebeenexceptionallydifficultcircumstances,topresideovertheircourt,actingasagracioushostesstothemanyFrenchnobleswhohadcometoFerrarawiththeFrencharmyandwerequarteredintheducalpalaceorintheresidencesofthecourtiers."Sheisapearl,"oneFrenchmanremarked;"therehasneverbeensucha
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wonderfulduchess,"heextolled,praisingLucrezia'sbeautyandbenevolence,herkindnessandcharm,and,headded,"agreatservicetoherhusband."
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Chapter28TheDeathofthe
Duchess
"OTHERWOMENARETOLUCREZIA
ASTINISTOSILVER,COPPERTOGOLD"
NOWTHATTHEANXIETYandworryofthemuch-fearedpapalinvasionwasover,Lucrezia,
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assooftenhappensonsuchoccasions,fellillandretiredtotheconventofSanBernardinotorecover,whichshedid,aftersomemonthsofconvalescence,andofmourningforthedeathofthetwelve-year-oldRodrigoBisceglie,herfirstson,whomshehadnotseensincehewasatoddlerwhensheleftRomeforthelasttime.Shedid,however,havethecomfortofknowingthatherotherson
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Juan,theresultofheraffairwiththepapalvaletPedroCalderon,wassafeandwell.Since1505hehadbeenlivinginnearbyCarpiandwasfrequentlyavisitorinFerrara,where,thankstoherfather'sbull"explaining"theparentageoftheboy,hewasalwaysassumedtobeherhalf-brother.
InAugust1509,atthestartoftheconflictwithJuliusII
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andjustsixteenmonthsafterthebirthofErcole,Lucreziahadgivenbirthtoanotherhealthyson,namedIppolitoinhonourofAlfonso'sbrother,thecardinal.Duringthetroubledyearsthatfollowed,shehadtakenrefugewithheryoungsons,spendinglonghoursplayinggameswiththem,takingpartinmasquerades,tellingthemfairystories,listeningwiththemtostrangesurrealtales
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toldbyherdwarf,Santino,whosatpercheduponachairplaceduponatablelikeaminiaturestylite.Onoccasionsthechildren'sfatherwouldlookinonthescenewithanindulgenteye,nolongerjealousofsuchthreatstothecomposureofhismarriageasFrancescoGonzagaandPietroBembo.
JuliusII'sthreattoFerrarafinallyendedonApril11,
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1512,whenhisarmiesweredecisivelydefeatedbytheFrenchattheBattleofRavenna.DukeAlfonso'sknowledgeofartilleryhadplayedanimportantpartinthevictory,whichhadbeenfoughtatthecostoftenthousandlives,includingthatofCesare'serstwhilecaptain,Yvesd'Alègre.Andayearlater,towardtheendofJanuary1513,JuliusII,complainingofbeing
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suddenlytakenill,took,uncharacteristically,tohisbed.Bytheendoftheweek,feelingthattheendwasnear,hesummonedhismasterofceremoniestodictatedetailedinstructionsforhisfuneral;andonFebruary21hedied.
AgenevermellowedJulius;totheendhewasapapaterribile.Asasickoldman,hestillspokeofwagingawartodrivetheSpanishoutof
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Italy.Hewas,indeed,agreatpatriotand,unlikesomanyofhiscontemporaries,hethoughtofItalynotasamerecollectionofrivalstatesbutasanentityofitsown.Yet,howevermuchthewarriorpopehemayhavebeen,JuliusIIwasalsooneofthemostenlightenedanddiscriminatingpatronsofartthattheWesternworldhadeverknown.HehadmuchoftheVaticanPalace
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reconstructedandrebuiltthemaincourtyardaswellastheimmensecourtyardthatstretchesfromthepalacetowardtheBelvedere.Beneathitswallshelaidoutanextensiveandlovelygarden,thefirstgreatRomanpleasuregardensincethedaysoftheCaesars.
JuliusIIhiredartistsasifrecruitinganarmy—includingmostofthegreat
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livingmastersoftheItalianRenaissance.OneofthesewasRaphael,whoworkedforthepopeonthedecorationofthenewofficialquartersofthepalace,theVaticanStanze;anotherwasBramante,whoundertooktorebuildtheancientandveneratedBasilicaofSt.Peter's,clearingthesiteofthedecayingmedievalstructurewithsucheagernessthathebecameknownas"maestro
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Ruinante,"masterRuiner.HealsohiredtheFlorentineartistMichelangelotopaintthememorablefrescoesontheceilingoftheSistineChapelandtocastanenormousstatueofthepope—fourteenfeethighandweighingsixtons—whichwassetuponthefacadeofthecathedralinBolognaandthentorndownbythemobafterthecityrebelledagainstJuliusII'srule.Theruinedstatuewas
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giventoDukeAlfonso,whomelteditdownandmadeitintoacannon,whichhewittilynamedLaGiulia.
HehadbeenagreatchampionoftheChurchandofitscapitalcity.TheRomans,recognizingthis,weredeeplygrateful.Whenhediedin1513,peopleweptinthestreetsand,accordingtoFrancescoGuicciardini,they"throngedtokisshisfeet
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andgazeuponhisdeadface,forallknewhimtobeatrueRomanpontiff."Although"fulloffuryandextravagantconceptions,"Guicciardiniconcluded,"hewaslamentedaboveallhispredecessorsand...isheldinillustriousremembrance."
Afewdayslater,twenty-fivecardinalsassembledinRomefortheconclavethatwastoelecthissuccessor.
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Lessthanaweeklater,CardinalGiovannide'Medici,thesonofLorenzoilMagnificoandAlfonso'sprisoneraftertheBattleofRavenna,waselectedpopeasLeoX,andPietroBembo,onceLucrezia'slover,wasappointedpapalsecretary.
Itwasnotuntilthesummerof1513,fouryearsafterthebirthofherlastchild,Ippolito,thatLucreziafound
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herselfpregnantoncemore;butuponthisoccasion,thebabyboytowhomshegavebirthwasfarfrombeingashandsomeasIppolitoandErcole.DespitebeingnamedAlessandroafterherbelovedfather,itclearlypainedLucreziatolookuponthechildwithitsstrangelylargeandmisshapenhead,andshewasrelievedratherthandistressedwhenhegaveupthestruggletolive,agedjust
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twoyearsold.
Meanwhile,inJuly1515,whenAlessandrowasjustfifteenmonthsold,Lucreziahadgivenbirthyetagain,thistimetoadaughter,namedEleonoraafterAlfonso'smother.BythetimeAlessandrodied,shewaspregnantagainwithFrancesco,whowasborninNovember1516and,perhaps,asthenamechosenhad
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featuredinneitherherownfamilynorthatofAlfonso's,thebabywasnamedafteritsuncleFrancescoGonzaga;but,anyway,itwasaprettybabywhomsheclearlyadored.
So,withnolittlepleasure,Alfonsofoundhimselfthefatherofanumberofchildren—allhislegitimateheirs.Hewasengrossedinhisownaffairs;but,nevertheless,he
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washighlysatisfiedwiththeesteemandadmirationnowbestowedonhiswife.Theadmirationsheexcitedinformeryearswasduetoheryouthfulbeauty;itwasnotowingtohervirtues.She,whoasayounggirlhadbeenthemostvilifiedwomanofhertimes,had,inmiddleage,wonaplaceofthehighesthonour.
Theducalcouple,now
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clearlyateaseineachother'scompany,sharedaninterestinallthearts,notsolelymusic,andasthepatronofartistsandpoetsthatallRenaissanceprinceswereexpectedtobe,Alfonsorelieduponthetasteanddiscernmentofhiswifetoguidehim.ItwasshewhopersuadedhimtotakeintohisservicethepoetLudovicoAriosto,who,inreturn,praisedLucreziawithwild
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hyperboleinhisOrlandoFurioso:"OtherwomenaretoLucreziaastinistosilver,coppertogold...colouredglasstopreciousstones."
ItwasevidentlyAriostowhointroducedTitiantothecourtatFerrara.AtthistimeTitianwasabouttwenty-fiveyearsold.Thesonofaminorofficial,hewasborninthevillageofPievediCadorenorthofVenice,andatthe
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ageofnine,hehadgonewithhisbrothertolivewithanuncleinVenice,wherehebecameanapprenticetoamosaicistbeforemovingtotheworkshopoftheelderlyGiovanniBellini,themostcelebratedVenetianpainterofhisday.AlsoworkinginBellini'sstudioatthattimewasGiorgione,anartistsometenyearsolderthanhimself,withwhomheworkedonthefrescoesoftheFondacodei
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Tedeschi,thegreatstorehouseoftheGermanmerchantsclosetotheRialtoBridgeinVenice.
HavingmovedtoFerraratoworkforAlfonsod'Este,apparentlyatLucrezia'sinstigation,TitianworkedonacycleofmythologicalcompositionsfortheCamerinod'Alabastro,aroomthathadrecentlybeenrebuiltinthecastleatFerraraand
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whereAlfonsoproposedtodisplayhiscollection.HehadboughtGiovanniBellini'scanvasoftheFeastoftheGodsin1514and,fouryearslater,commissionedTitiantopainttwocompanionpieces,theWorshipofVenus(nowinthePradoatMadrid)andBacchusandAriadne(nowintheNationalGalleryinLondon).
Thesemasterpieceswere
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butthreeofthemagnificentworksofarttobeseeninFerrara.Thetapestrieshangingonthewallsoftheducalpalacewererenowned;sowasthecycleoffrescoes,mostlybyCosmèTura,inthePalazzoSchifanoiainFerraraandtheAnnunciationontheorgandoorsinthecathedral;so,too,wasthemagnificentgoldandsilverdolphinservicedesignedbyCosmèTura.Boththeworksandthe
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companyoftheseartistsclearlydelightedLucrezia,asdidthecompanyofherlivelyladies,whoaccompaniedheronherexpeditionstootherducalvillasinthecountrysideoutsideFerrara.
ShewasaccustomedtoleavingFerraraeachspring,withherladiesandhermusicians,tospendweeksonendinthecountry,choosingtostayinavillaneara
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conventwhereshecouldbearegularworshipperattheservicesheldthere.Atthevillatherewouldbegamesofcharades,songs,andstories,or,onoccasion,thecompanywouldbeentertainedbytalesrelatedbySantino,thedwarf,orthewildfantasiesandstrangebehaviourofthemadgirlCatarina,whomLucreziahaddoneherbesttoeducate.Andonwarmsunnydays,Lucreziawouldbatheinthe
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clearwatersofsomesecludedreachofthePo.
Yetinquietermoments,anauraofsadnesssurroundedLucrezia,whohadtakentowearingsackclothbeneathhersilkdressesandhadjoinedalayorderoftheFranciscans.Heronlysurvivingbrother,Jofrè,diedin1517,havingremarriedafterthedeathofthechildlessSanciain1506,andwasable
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topassthetitleofPrinceofSquillaceontohiseldestson.Shetooktomakingregularconfessionstoherpriestandwasjustasassiduousinattendanceatservicesinthecathedral.Sheputasidethe"pompandvanitiesoftheworldtowhichshehadbeenaccustomedsincechildhood,"inthewordsofPaoloGiovio,"andgaveherselfuptopiousworks,foundingconventsandhospitals.Shedidwhatshe
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couldtohelpthepoorintimesofdistress,goingsofarastopawnsomeofherjewelstohelppayfortheirrelief."
Shewasnowfarfromwell;thesuccessionofpregnanciesandbirths,somedifficultandalldebilitating,hadweakenedhersadly.Shehadlittleappetiteandfaintedoften.Therewerestillevenings,however,whenLucreziawouldcallforhermusicians,
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singers,anddancers,andthenAlfonsowouldappearwithhisviol,whichheplayedwithavirtuositythatastonishedthosewhoknewhimonlyasahardworkingrulerandageneraldevotedtohisartillery.Yetherhusband,inhisinsensitivity,stillmadelovetoherinhisrough,perfunctoryway,andintheautumnof1518,shefoundshewaspregnantonceagain.
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InNovemberthatyearnewsarrivedinFerraraofthedeathofhermother,Vannozzade'Catanei,who,unlikeLucrezia,hadalwaysbeenspokenofwithrespect,inRomeonNovember16,1518.AswellasherthreeinnsinRomeandvariousotherproperties,Vannozzaleftseveralflocksofsheepbeyondthecity'soutskirts,allofwhichwerebequeathedtovariousreligiousand
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charitableinstitutionsinthecity.TheVenetianenvoyMarinSanudowroteinhisdiary:
ThedaybeforeyesterdaydiedMadonnaVanozza,oncethemistressofPopeAlexanderandmotheroftheDuchessofFerraraandtheDukeValentino....Thedeathwas
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announced,accordingtotheRomancustom,inthefollowingformalwords:"MesserPaologivesnoticeofthedeathofMadonnaVanozza,motheroftheDukeofGandía;shebelongedtotheGonfaloneCompany."ShewasburiedyesterdayinSantaMariadelPopolo,withthe
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greatesthonours—almostlikeacardinal.Shewas76yearsofage.Sheleftallherproperty—whichwasconsiderable—toSanGiovanniinLaterano.ThePope'schamberlainattendedtheobsequies,whichwasunusual.
AsLucrezia'spregnancyprogressed,shenolongerfelt
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theinclinationtobathe;attheageofthirty-nine,shefeltherselftobegrowingtoooldforbearingchildren.OnMarch24FrancescoGonzagadied;thefollowingmonthshewasnotwellenoughtowatchhernine-year-oldson,Ippolito,beconfirmedandbeinstalledasarchbishopofMilan,oneofthepremierseesinEurope.Soonafterwardshecomplainedthatherheadhadgrowntooheavy
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forher.Herhairwasthencutoffandsweptuponthefloor.Shefelt,shesaid,thatshewasgoingblind.
OnJune15shegavebirthprematurelytoanothergirl,whowasbaptizedIsabellaMariathatsameday,andthistimethechroniclerhadnodoubtthatthechildwassickly.Lucreziaherselfcontractedpuerperalfever,and,paleanddrawn,shetook
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toherbedandthereafterrarelyleftit.Knowingthatshehadnotlongtolive,shewrotealettertoLeoX:
MostHolyFatherandHonouredMaster,withallrespectIkissyourHoliness'sfeetandcommendmyselfinallhumilitytoyourholymercy.Iapproachtheendofmylifewithpleasure,
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knowingthatinafewhoursImay...bereleased.Havingarrivedatthismoment,Idesire,asaChristian,althoughIamasinner,toaskyourHolinessinyourmercy,togivemeallpossibleconsolationandyourHoliness'sblessingformysoul....22June1519atFerrara,inthe
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fourteenthhour,yourHoliness'shumbleservant.
Shediedtwodayslater,onJune24,1519.DukeAlfonsolostconsciousnessduringherfuneralintheChurchofCorpusDomini.Devastatedwithgrief,hewrotetohisnephew,nowMarquisofMantua,that"ithaspleasedourLordGodtocalltoHimselfthesoulofourmost
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illustriousDuchess,ourwellbelovedwife,"and"Icannotwritetheselineswithoutweeping[,]sohardisittofindmyselfseparatedfromsuchadearwife."
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Chapter29SaintsandSinners
ACCORDINGTOTHEstandardsofthetime,LucreziahaddoneherdutyasDuchessofFerrara,leavinghergrievinghusbandwithfivechildren,threeofwhomwereboys.Alfonsomournedhislossbutintheendtookanotherwife,choosing,muchtothe
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surpriseofhiscourtiers,tomarryhismistress,LauraDianti,thelasciviousdaughterofaFerraresebonnetmaker,whoproducedtwomoresonsforhim.
WhenAlfonsodiedonOctober31,1534,hewasburiedinatombnexttohisbelovedLucreziainCorpusDominiandwassucceededbyErcole,forwhomhehadchosenasabrideRenéeof
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France,thedaughterofLouisXIIandsister-in-lawofthenewkingofFrance,FrancisI.ErcoleIIrecognizedsixchildren,twoboysandfourgirls—twoofhisdaughters,oneillegitimateandonelegitimate,werenamedLucrezia,atestamenttotheloveheboreher.Ippolito,destinedfromanearlyageforacareerinthechurch,wouldbemadeacardinalandbetheFrenchcandidateforelection
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insixconclaves.Renownedforhisextravagantlifestyleandhispatronageofthearts,hewouldspendmuchofhislifeinRome,thecityofLucrezia'sbirth,andbethepatronofthatsplendidmonumenttoRenaissancearchitectureandgardendesign,theVillad'EsteatTivoli.
ThebabyIsabella,whosebirthhadkilledLucrezia,died
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justshortofhersecondbirthday,leavingEleonoraastheonlysurvivingdaughter;shebecameanunattheageofeightand,tenyearslater,wasmadeabbessofCorpusDomini,Lucrezia'sfavouriteretreatintimesoftroubleandthesiteofhertomb.OfthepalacewhereAlfonsoandLucrezialived,sadlylittleremainsafterthebuildingwasdevastatedbyanearthquakein1570.
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WhenErcoleIIdiedin1559,hewassucceededbyhiseldestson,AlfonsoII,who,despitehisthreewives,provedunabletoproduceanheir,amisfortunethatbecameausefulpretextforPopeClementVIIItosucceed,whereJuliusIIhadfailed,inrestoringFerraratothePapalStates,leavingAlfonsoII'sillegitimatenephew,Cesare,asdukeonlyofModena.
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AlexanderVIhadbeenextraordinarilyambitiousforhischildren;yet,intheend,fewtracesoftheBorgianameappearintheannalsthattracethehistoryoftheillustriousfamiliesofRome.
Cesareleftthreechildren:Louise,hislegitimatedaughterbyCharlotted'Albret,marriedintotheupperechelonsoftheFrencharistocracy,andher
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descendantsarestillalivetoday.Littleisknownofhismanyillegitimateoffspring;onedaughter,Camilla,wasbroughtupbyLucreziainFerrara,and,likehercousinEleonora,shebecameanun,choosingtobeknownasSisterLucreziainhonourofherauntandlaterbecomingabbessofSanBernardino.
JofrèsdescendantsruledasprincesofSquillacetothe
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endofthesixteenthcentury,whenthetitlepassedtotheBorgiafamilyinSpain,thedescendantsofAlexanderVI'sfavouriteson,Juan,thesecondDukeofGandía.Hiswife,MariaEnriquez,producedason,anotherJuan,thethirdDukeofGandía,andadaughter,Isabella,who,likehercousinsinFerrara,preferredtheconventtothematrimonialbed.JuanIIIofGandíaproducedseventeen
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children,theeldestofwhom,Francisco,inheritedthetitleonlytoabdicateseveralyearslaterin1546infavourofhisson,afterthedeathofhiswife,tobecomeaJesuitandthentheorder'sthirdgeneral.
FranciscowasinFerrarainMay1572whennewsreachedhimofthedeathofPiusV,andofthehopesofmanyinfluentialpeopleinthechurchthatheshouldbe
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electedasPiusV'ssuccessor.HewastooweaktotravelbutdidreturntoRomelaterthatyearanddiedtwodayslater.Inoneofthosecuriousaccidentsofwhichhistoryissofond,AlexanderVI'sgreat-grandsonwouldbecanonizedin1671.
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Parker.London:FolioSociety,1963.
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Autobiography.TranslatedbyGeorgeBull.Harmondsworth,UK:PenguinBooks,1956.
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Index
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