with the addition of Reliability analysis and higher orderlag sequential analysis. The statistical reports generated in4.1 were quite useful, albeit problematic. There is oneoption of having the program ‘only show rows/columnsfor behaviors that occur’, and for our purposes we chosenot to have that option as the default, because we werecomparing across many different files. The Observerdisplayed all behaviours, both possible and impossible,combining all behaviours, subjects and modifiers acrossthe configuration file. This itself would not be unworkable;however, the program added in frequency values (nonzerovalues) for behaviours that were never scored, and in factdid not even exist. Thus, we had real data mixed in withdata that had values that could not have existed, andsorting through it was a nightmare. We recommendchoosing ‘only show rows/columns for behaviors thatoccur’ to get around this problem, but for those researcherscomparing across many observations, this option isa limitation. Thankfully, version 5.0 seems to have solvedthis problem. We were impressed after running our firstreport to see that only events and states that had beenscored had appropriate values associated with them, valuesof zero appeared in all appropriate places, and nonzerovalues did not appear where they should not have been.One of the best aspects of the 5.0 version is the Backup

Project function. This allows the researcher to back up anentire project to a disk or another hard drive with a clickof themouse. All files associatedwith that project includingconfiguration file, observations, statistical reports, analysesand customizations are saved within that backed-up pro-ject. This removes the stress of guessingwhether all the fileshave been backed up and makes project and file manage-ment easy. There have been other additions to dataselection and analysis features, including flexible ways ofdefining pre-event and postevent time windows andgrouping of observations, subjects, behaviours and modi-fiers, but the new Report Generator is particularly worthmentioning. This new function allows for customizedreports of configuration files, as well as data and analysisprofiles in aMicrosoftWord template. This function is idealfor reporting details and necessary elements within a re-searcher’s study in a report presentation format. Version 5.0is also more compatible with Microsoft Excel, makingexporting files to this program easier. Additional improve-ments indata selectionandanalyses includemultilevel dataselection, grouping, filtering and nesting, new descriptivestatistics, confusion matrices and Cohen kappa. Advancesin video technology in version 5.0 include the ability toscore behaviour fromDVDmovies, creatingMPEG 1, 2 and4 video clips, and encoding DV signals to AVI files directlyfromwithin theObserver, as well as the ability to score datafrom a tape in a Digital Video recorder or directly froma camera through a FireWire-type connection. The Observ-er 5.0 also has a new feature that generates video highlightswithin the program, without the need for a separate editingprogram. All of these features enhance the usability andversatility of an already powerful program.Versions 4.1 and 5.0 both have advantages and disadvan-

tages, although 5.0 has worked out many of the problemsthat we seemed to have with 4.1. Without this program,much of the detailed data and depth of our analyses would

not be possible. With The Observer, complex configura-tions allow us to record many behaviours and report theirfrequencies and durations. That information allows us toaddress predictions that would have been difficult orimpossible to explore without this technology,making thisprogramanamazinglypowerful tool. A steep learning curveand price are possible disadvantages that should beconsidered before purchasing TheObserver, although theseseem to pale in comparison to the advantages of theprogram. Version 5.0 of The Observer has solved many ofthe problems of 4.1, and the possibilities for usingmultimedia technology are very impressive.

GILLIAN ECKHARDTJANE WATERMAN

Biology Department,University of Central Florida,Orlando, FL 32816, U.S.A.

References

Noldus, L. P. J. J., Trienes, R. J. H.,Hendriksen,A.H.M., Jansen,H.&Jansen, R. G. 2000. The Observer Video-Pro: new software for thecollection, management, and presentation of time-structured data

from videotapes and digital media files. Behavior Research Methods,

Instruments and Computers, 32, 197e206.

Visser, M. E. 1993. The Observer, a software package for behav-

ioural observations. Animal Behaviour, 45, 1045e1048.

BOOK AND SOFTWARE REVIEWS 375

doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.11.001available online at http://www.ScienceDirect.com

The Biology of Traditions: Models and Evidence. Edited By D. M.FRAGASZY & S. PERRY. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress (2003). Pp. xvii+456. Price £65.00 hardback. .

Those of us interested in social learning in animals havebeen very fortunate in that there have been a number ofexcellent volumes published on the topic over the years(such as Zentall & Galef’s (1988) Social Learning: Psycho-logical and Biological Perspectives, and particularly Heyes &Galef’s (1996) Social Learning in Animals: The Roots ofCulture). I’m therefore pleased to be able to say that thisnew collection of chapters, edited by Fragaszy & Perry,easily lives up to this tradition (no pun intended).The Biology of Traditions: Models and Evidence contains 15

chapters, with contributions from many of the field’s bestresearchers. Traditions are defined throughout the volumeas relatively enduring behaviour patterns that are sharedby members of a group that depend to some degree onsocial learning. The specificity of this focus means that theemphasis is very much on field data (the chapter byVisalberghi & Adessi on food preferences in capuchins isan exception). This distinguishes this volume from theother collections mentioned above, which concern sociallearning more generally and include a number of chapterson laboratory-based studies. Also, as noted by the editors,

doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.11.002available online at http://www.ScienceDirect.com

Bumblebees: Behaviour and Ecology. By DAVE GOULSON.Oxford: Oxford University Press (2003). Pp. ix+235. Price£55.00 hardback, £27.50 paperback. .

Outside the world of vertebrates, bumblebees are one ofa select set of charismatic animals. With their brightcolours, industrious behaviour and generally sanguinedisposition, bumblebees attract the eyes and appreciationof the amateur naturalist. It is arguable that these samefeatures have been instrumental in their development as amodel system in behavioural, ecological and evolutionary

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR, 67, 2376

no attempt has been made to provide a balanced overviewin terms of the species discussed. Instead, there is aconscious bias towards those animals with long life spansand extended infancies (primates in particular), to whichan ability to learn socially may be of particular value.However, this strict focus will be considered by most as

a strength, rather than a failing, of Traditions. Editedcollections often seem to lack coherence, but this is notthe case here. The closely related chapter topics contributeto this, and tight editing does the rest. All authors adhereclosely to the same definition of ‘tradition’ (the moreslippery and certainly more contentious term ‘culture’ isavoided altogether) and most refer to at least one or two ofthe other chapters. This presents an overall impression ofcommon goals and understanding. Also, when terminolo-gies do differ between chapters, this is made explicit.Fragaszy & Perry’s ‘group contrast’ approach, Dewar’s‘regional contrast’ approach, and Van Schaik’s ‘method ofelimination’ all amount to the samemethodology. Howev-er, each of these authors draws attention to these termino-logical discrepancies, which avoids potential confusion.Furthermore, a number of common themes emerge from

the chapters. As noted above, certain species (primates andcetaceansmainly) havebeenproposed, for sound theoreticalreasons, to be particularly likely to exhibit behaviouraltraditions. It is perhaps ironic that the attributes thatencourage researchers to make these assertions (long lifespan, lengthy periods of dependence and high levels ofparental investment) are the same ones that make rigorousexperimental research on traditional behaviours extremelydifficult. There is therefore general agreement that, to date,some of the most watertight research on traditions comes,not from these species, but from those that are amenable tocontrolled experimentation (e.g. the chapterbyGalef,whichis a review of research on social learning in rats). Ideally, totest for behavioural traditions, one wouldmake use of cross-fostering and translocation methods (Laland & Hoppitt2003). Such methodologies have been used in research onfish and rats, but these are simply impractical for primate orcetacean research. As a consequence, within these fields,researchers have studied traditions more indirectly, by look-ing for systematic differences in behaviour between fieldsites, for example,orby tracing the rateofdiffusionofanovelbehaviour. Such methodologies are rife with difficulties ofinterpretation. However, many of the authors have novelsuggestions for improving the validity of such research.Laland & Kendal discuss the use of cumulative distri-

butions as a method of determining whether a behaviourwas socially transmitted through a group. Although, asthey point out, the view that social learning must result inaccelerating learning rates is now largely discredited, theysuggest that, if empirical data are used to refine models oftrait diffusion (rather than simply relying on purelytheoretical models), they could become sufficiently accu-rate to distinguish between the alternative interpretationsof social learning and independent discovery.The chapter by Dewar suggests using ‘cue reliability’, i.e.

taking into account how useful social information wouldbe to an animal, as compared with individually learnedinformation (in the case of predator avoidance learning,the answer is probably ‘very useful indeed’!).

Van Schaik presents interesting data from ape field sitestudies to support his proposal that data on opportunitiesfor social learning, i.e. time spent in association with otherindividuals, can be related to the number of apparentbehavioural traditions, providing verification for the roleof social interaction in their development.

There are therefore plenty of new insights provided bythis volume (too many, in fact, to list here) which willundoubtedly provide the inspiration for a great deal ofnew research. Most of the chapters are much more thanjust reviews of material already published elsewhere. Forthis reason, however, this book is not the one I wouldrecommend as an undergraduate text, although certainchapters would make useful reading for such students(Reader’s chapter on the relation between social learning,innovation and measures of relative brain size is a goodexample, as it is an exceptionally clear review of an areathat can be difficult to grasp).

For academics and research students interested in sociallearning, however, this volume will be essential reading.It is perhaps telling that, despite having already beggeda couple of the authors for preprints of their chapters priorto publication, I was none the less sufficiently eager tosecure myself a copy of the complete volume that Imanaged to agree to review it twice. However, this wasnot entirely accidental, and I can now say with somecertainty that if I could choose to ownmore than one copyof any book published recently, I would still pick this one.

CHRISTINE CALDWELLSchool of Psychology,Washington Singer Buildings,University of Exeter,Exeter EX4 4QG, U.K.

References

Heyes, C. M. & Galef, B. G. Jr. 1996. Social Learning in Animals: TheRoots of Culture. London: Academic Press.

Laland, K. N. & Hoppitt, W. 2003. Do animals have culture?

Evolutionary Anthropology, 12, 150e159.

Zentall, T. R. & Galef, & B. G. Jr (Eds). 1988. Social Learning: Psycho-

logical and Biological Perspectives. Hillsdale, New Jersey: L. Erlbaum.