The Apocalypse of St. John-Swete-Introduction

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IOHANNES APOCALYPTISTA

Caelum transit, veri rotam

solis uidit, ibi totam

mentis figens aciem

s!eculator s!iritalis"uasi sera!#im sub alis

$ei uidit faciem%

audiit in g&ro sedis

"uid !sallant cum cit#aroedis

"uater seni !roceres

de sigillo Trinitatis

nostrae nummo ciuitatis

im!ressit c#aracteres%

uolat auis sine meta

"uo nec uates nec !ro!#eta

euolauit altius

tam im!lenda "uam im!leta

num"uam uidit tot secreta

!urus #omo !urius%

INT'O$(CTION)% P'OPHECY IN THE APOSTOLIC CH('CH

)% T#e C#ristian era o!ened *it# a revival of Pro!#ec&% In t#e +accabean age and

t#e times t#at follo*ed it t#e !ro!#etic order *as believed to be dead, or in a state ofsus!ended vitalit& in matters !ertaining to -od men acted !rovisionall&, .till t#ere

s#ould arise a fait#ful !ro!#et)/ to inter!ret t#e $ivine 0ill% 0#et#er t#is im!ression

*as correct or not1, it is certain t#at t#e Advent *as mar2ed b& an outburst of !ro!#etic

utterance to *#ic# t#e t*o centuries before C#rist can offer no !arallel% Pro!#etic gifts

*ere e3ercised b& t#e !riest 4ac#arias, b& Simeon of 5erusalem, b& Hanna# of t#e tribe

of As#er 6% As for 5o#n, t#e son of 4ac#arias, #e *as not onl& universall& accounted a

!ro!#et, but !ronounced b& C#rist to be .muc# more,/ since t#e !ro!#et *#o *as t#e

Lord7s immediate forerunner #ad greater #onour t#an t#ose *#o from a distance

foresa* His coming8

%1% C#ristian !ro!#ec& begins *it# t#e +inistr& of C#rist% T#e cro*ds *#ic# #ung

u!on His li!s bot# in -alilee and at 5erusalem, and even t#e Samaritan *oman *#o at

first resented His teac#ing, recogni9ed in Him a Pro!#et,:!er#a!s a propheta

redivivus, a 5eremia# restored to life;% Nor did t#e Lord #esitate to acce!t t#is vie* of

1 Macc. 4:46, 9:27, 14:41; see also Ps. 74:9.

2 See Harnack, Mission u. Ausbreitung , 1. p. 240 f. (E. tr. 1. p. 414 f.).

!c. 1:67, 2:2", 2:6.

4 Mt. 11:9 ff., Mc. 11:2, !c. 7:26 ff.

" Mt. 16:14, Mc. 6:1", #o. 4:19, 6:14, 7:40, 9:17.

His mission< if it *as inade"uate, &et it correctl& described one side of His *or2% A

Pro!#et Himself, He came to inaugurate a ne* line of !ro!#ets He undertoo2 to endo*

His ne* Israel *it# t#e !ro!#etic S!irit *#ic# #ad been t#e glor& of t#e ancient !eo!le

of -od)% T#e C#urc# *as to !ossess not onl& .scribes,/ *#ose tas2 it *ould be to

inter!ret t#e C#ristian tradition, but ins!ired teac#ers, able t#roug# t#e S!irit to guide believers into ne* fields of t#oug#t and action1%

6% T#e earliest #istor& of t#e C#urc# s#e*s t#e fulfilment of t#ese #o!es and

!romises% On t#e $a& of Pentecost, in a s!eec# attributed to St Peter, t#e *ords of 5oel

are a!!lied to t#e future Israel your sons and your daughters shall prophesy … yea and

on my servants and on my handmaidens in those days will I pour forth of my Spirit, and

they shall prophesy6% Ho* soon a recogni9ed order of !ro!#ets arose in t#e C#urc# of

5erusalem t#ere is no evidence to s#e*, but about t#e &ear 86=88 C#ristian !ro!#ets

from 5erusalem, Agabus and ot#ers, made t#eir *a& to Antioc#, and s#ortl& after*ards

resident !ro!#ets ministered% t#ere in t#e congregation;% After t#e conference at

5erusalem >A%$% 8?@ t#e #ands of t#e Antioc#ian !ro!#ets *ere strengt#ened b& t#e

coming of t*o ot#er !ro!#ets from t#e mot#er C#urc#, 5udas arsabbas and Silas<%

Seven &ears later, t#e daug#ters of P#ili! t#e Evangelist are found e3ercising !ro!#etic

gifts at Caesarea and on t#e same occasion St Paul7s arrest at 5erusalem is foretold b& a

!ro!#et from 5udaea, one AgabusB, !robabl& t#e same !erson *#o #ad !redicted t#e

Claudian famine% His !ro!#ec& came as no sur!rise to t#e A!ostle, *#o #ad received

similar *arnings from C#ristian !ro!#ets in t#e cities t#roug# *#ic# #e #ad !assed on

#is *a& to Palestine% Pro!#ets *ere to be found ever&*#ere in t#e C#urc#es !lanted b&

St Paul%

8% Drom *#at #as been said it a!!ears t#at t#e ne* !ro!#ec& began at 5erusalem,and s!read from 5erusalem to Antioc#, and from Antioc# to Asia +inor and -reece%

T#e E!istles of St Paul bear *itness to its !resence at T#essalonica, at Corint#, at

E!#esus, and at 'ome) and !robabl& also in t#e C#urc#es of Sout# -alatia, at L&stra

6 Mc. 6:4, #o. 4:44; cf. $cts :22, 7:7.

1 !c. 11:49, #o. 16:12 ff.

2 Mt. 1:"2, 2:4, !c. 11:49.

$cts 2:17 f. (#oel 2:2% f.). &n t'e proalt* t'at t'e Petrne speec'es n t'e

$cts s+stantall* represent St Peters -ors see /p 'ase, Credibility of the

Acts, p. 117 ff.

4 follo- Mr +rners c'ronolo3* (Hastn3s, D.B. 1. p. 41" ff.).

" $cts 11:27, 1:1 f.

6 $cts 1":22; cf. ib. 2 καὶ αὐτοὶ προφῆται ὄντες.

7 $cts 21:10 ff.

% $cts 20:2 τὸ πνεῦμα τὸ ἅγιον κατὰ πόλιν διαμαρτυρεῖται. f. 21:4.

1 1 'ess. ":20, 1 or. 12:2%, 1:2, 14: ff., Ep'. :1 ff., 4:7 ff., o5. 12:6.

and Iconium1% To 'ome as to Antioc# t#e !ro!#ets ma& #ave come from 5erusalem in

t#e ot#er C#urc#es named above, !ro!#ec& *as one of t#e fruits of St Paul7s !reac#ing%

0e are able to note t#e im!ression *#ic# t#e gift !roduced u!on t#e -entile converts%

At T#essalonica t#ere *as a dis!osition to t#in2 lig#t of it, and even at Corint# it *as

valued less #ig#l& t#an t#e gift of tongues% St Paul, *#ile admitting t#e need ofdiscrimination bet*een t#e !ro!#et and t#e !retender, or bet*een *ort#& utterances and

un*ort#&6, insists t#at t#e true !ro!#et *as, after t#e a!ostle, t#e greatest of t#e gifts

besto*ed u!on t#e C#urc# b& t#e ascended C#rist8% T#e !ro!#et7s mission *as to build

u! t#e C#urc# *#ic# t#e a!ostle #ad founded to edif&, e3#ort, console believers; to

convict unbelievers, la&ing bare t#e secrets of t#eir #earts and assuring t#em of t#e

$ivine Presence in t#e C#ristian brot#er#ood<% T#e ideal !ro!#et 2ne* all m&steries and

all 2no*ledgeB% Yet !ro!#ec& *as liable to abuse, and its e3ercise needed to be

carefull& regulated% At Corint#, *#ere, *#en St Paul *rote #is first E!istle >!robabl& in

;;@, a strong tide of !ro!#etic !o*er #ad set in, it *as necessar& to enact t#at not more

t#an t*o or t#ree !ro!#ets s#ould s!ea2 at t#e same meeting of t#e C#urc#, and onl&

one !ro!#et at a time, and to remind t#e !ro!#ets t#emselves t#at t#e& *ere res!onsible

for t#e !ro!er control of t#eir gift t#e& *ere not automata in t#e #ands of t#e S!irit, for

the spirits of the prophets are subject to the prophets%

;% 0#ile t#e most remar2able dis!la& of !ro!#etic !o*ers of *#ic# *e #ave an&

detailed account too2 !lace at Corint#, it *as !er#a!s c#iefl& at E!#esus and in t#e

ot#er cities of Asia t#at t#e !ro!#ets too2 root as a recogni9ed order% T#e E!istle to t#e

E!#esians, !robabl& an enc&clical addressed to all t#e Asian C#urc#es, not merel&

assigns to t#e !ro!#etic order t#e same !lace of #onour *#ic# t#e& receive in I

Corint#ians, but la&s re!eated stress on t#e greatness of t#eir *or2 t#e local C#urc# #ad been built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets t#e !ro!#ets, as *ell as t#e

!astors and teac#ers, #ad been given for the complete equipment of the saints for the

work of service)%

It is from t#e !ro!#etic circles in t#is grou! of C#urc#es t#at t#e one great literar&

!roduct of earl& C#ristian !ro!#ec& emanates% In St Paul7s time t#e utterances of t#e

!ro!#ets seem to #ave been e3clusivel& oral it is in t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n t#at

!ro!#ec& under t#e Ne* Covenant first ta2es a *ritten form1% ot# in t#e !rologue and

in t#e e!ilogue, t#e *or2 of 5o#n la&s claim to a !ro!#etic c#aracter 6 and in t#e #eart of

t#e boo2 t#e *riter re!resents #imself as #earing a voice *#ic# *arns #im, Thou must

2 1 5. 4:14, 2 5. 1:6.

1 '. ":21, 1 or. 14:29. ontrast Didache 11.

4 1 or. 12:2%, Ep'. 4:11.

" 1 or. 14:, 14:4.

6 Ib. 2 ff.

7 1 or. 1:2.

% 1 or. 14:2.

1 Ep'. 4:12 (see ean $r5ta3e onsons note ad loc.).

prophesy again8% +oreover, it is clear t#at #e is not a solitar& !ro!#et, but a member of

an order *#ic# occu!ies a recogni9ed and im!ortant !osition in t#e C#ristian societies

of Asia% His brot#erF!ro!#ets7 are mentioned;, and t#e& a!!ear to form t#e most

cons!icuous circle in t#e local C#urc#es% T#e C#urc#, as vie*ed in t#e A!ocal&!se,

consists of t#e S!irit and t#e ride, t#e c#arismatic ministr& and t#e great bod& of believers% No s!ecial !lace is assigned to local C#urc# officers, *#et#er bis#o!s or

!resb&ters or deacons< unless t#e& are also !ro!#ets, *#ic# ma& often #ave been t#e

case, t#e& ta2e ran2 *it# ordinar& members of t#e C#urc#% 0e read of -od7s .servants

t#e !ro!#ets,/ of .!ro!#ets and saints,/ of .saints, a!ostles, and !ro!#etsB/ but no*#ere

of .t#e saints *it# t#e bis#o!s and deacons,/ or even of .!astors and teac#ers/ as

distinct from !ro!#ets?% T#e A!ocal&!tist7s stand!oint in reference to t#e C#ristian

ministr& is not "uite t#at of St Paul indeed, #e assigns to t#e a!ostles and !ro!#ets a

!osition even more !rominent t#an t#at *#ic# t#e& #old in t#e Didache)% In t#e age of

t#e A!ocal&!se, as in t#e lifetime of St Paul, t#e Asian C#urc#es doubtless #ad t#eir

!resb&ters and deacons, but in t#e e&es of St 5o#n t#e& *ere ecli!sed b& t#e greater

lustre of t#e c#arismatic orders% Suc# a vie* of t#e ministr& is not unnatural in a

!ro!#etic boo2, *ritten b& a !rominent member of t#e !ro!#etic order but t#at it s#ould

#ave been !resented fran2l& and *it#out reserve to C#urc#es so im!ortant and *ell

2 Ecept n t'e case of prop'eces -'c' for5 part of an apostolc letter, or 'a8e

een ncorporate n t'e ospels (e.3. 2 'ess. 2., Mc. 1.).

f. $poc. 1:, 22:7, 22:10, 22:1% f. t s scarcel* necessar* to sa* t'at t's

cla5 oes not re+re +s to epect rect prectons of f+t+re e8ents. $s r $.

/. a8son 'as -ell sa (O. T. Prophecy , p. 119), t'ere s 5+c' prop'ec*,

+t t'ere are fe- prectons, n t'e $pocal*pse.<

4 $poc. 10:11.

" $poc. 22:9.

6 =or t'e proale 5eann3 of t'e $n3els of t'e '+rc'es see t'e co55entar*

on $poc. 1:20.

7 $poc. 10:7, 16:6, 1%:20, 1%:24.

% P'l. 1:1 τοῖς ἁγίοις ... σν !πισκόποις καὶ διακόνοις

9 Ep'. 4:11.

1 'e Didache s'e-s so5e reco8er* n t'e poston of t'e local offcers; cf. > 1"

"μῖν γὰρ λειτουργοῦσιν καὶ αὐτοὶ τ#ν λειτουργίαν τ$ν προφ%τ$ν καὶ διδασκ&λ'ν .

?et t'e μ# ο(ν "περίδ%τε αὐτο)ς -'c' 55eatel* follo-s pro8es t'at t'ere

-ere stll t'ose -'o 'el t'e prop'et n t'e '3'est estee5, to t'e

spara3e5ent of t'e '+rc'@offcer. $n t'e Didache tself (> 1) sa*s of t'e

prop'ets: αὐτοὶ γ&ρ ε*σιν ο+ ,ρ-ιερεῖς "μ$ν.

organi9ed as t#ose of E!#esus, Sm&rna, and Pergamum, is sufficient evidence of t#e

#ig# #onour in *#ic# t#e C#ristian Pro!#et *as #eld in Asia at t#at time% T#e !ro!#ets

of t#e C#urc# #ave contributed but one boo2 to t#e canon of t#e Ne* Testament but it

is a monument of t#e great !osition *#ic# t#e& #ad attained before t#e end of t#e first

centur&%After t#e date of t#e A!ocal&!se t#e decline of t#e order in Asia must #ave been ra!idand general1% Of !reF+ontanistic !ro!#ets not named in t#e Ne* Testament onl& t*o names#ave reac#ed us:t#ose of Ammia of P#iladel!#ia and Guadratus >Eus% ! "! ;)B cf% 66B6@% Itis significant also t#at in t#e letters of Ignatius, *#o magnifies t#e office of t#e bis#o!, .t#e

!ro!#ets/ are invariabl& t#ose of t#e Old Testament canon > #agn! % 1, $hilad! ;% 1, ?% ), 1@,and t#oug# Pol&car! *as remembered in #is o*n C#urc# as an .a!ostolic and !ro!#eticteac#er/ >mart! $olyc! )<@, in #is letter to t#e P#ili!!ians #e associates t#e A!ostles *it# t#e old

!ro!#ets, and not, as St Paul #ad done, *it# t#ose of t#e Ne* Testament > $hil! <% 6 ο+εὐαγελισ&μενοι μ/ς ,πόστολοι καὶ ο+ προφῆται ο+ προκ%ρ)0αντες κτλ.@% T#e +ontanisticmovement testifies to a reaction in favour of t#e !ro!#ets, *#ic# *as at its strongest in Asia, bute3tended as far *est as -aul cf% Iren% 161, ;<% 6% ut t#e .ne* !ro!#ec&/ !roduced no

im!ortant literar& *or2, for t#e cat#olic7 E!istle of T#emison >Eus% ! "! ;)@ does not a!!earto #ave #ad a !ro!#etic c#aracter%

1% APOCALYPSES, 5E0ISH AN$ CH'ISTIAN)% If t#e boo2 *#ic# 5o#n addresses to t#e C#urc#es of Asia is a !ro!#ec&,7 a

$ivine message communicated b& a member of t#e !ro!#etic order, it is also ana!ocal&!se,7 a revelation of $ivine m&steries% T#e title 1ποκ&λυ2ις, or 1ποκ&λυ2ις3'&ννου, ma& #ave found a !lace at t#e end of an earl& co!& of t#e boo2, or on a label

attac#ed to t#e roll) in an& case it seems to #ave been familiar before t#e end of t#e

second centur&1% T#e !oint is not material, since t#e aut#or in t#e first *ords of #is boo2

describes it as an ,ποκ&λυ2ις 3%σοῦ 4ριστοῦ, a revelation made b& -od to 5esusC#rist, and b& C#rist t#roug# t#e ministr& of an angel to 5o#n for transmission to t#e

C#urc#es% T#e *ord a!ocal&!se7 does not a!!ear again in t#e boo2, but its !osition in

2 t 5a* 'a8e een +e to t'e conc+rrence of se8eral ca+ses, s+c' as

persec+ton, -'c' -o+l fall on t'e prop'ets -t' specal se8ert*; t'e

e5er3ence of t'e 5onarc'cal epscopate; a eca* of sprt+al po-er n t'e

prop'etc orer tself, an t'e see5n3l* not +nco55on occ+rrence of

2ευδοπροφῆται. ?et t'e at'olc '+rc' -as slo- to aanon 'er 'ol on t'e

3ft; cf. $pollnar+s ap. E+s. H. E. ":17 δεῖν γὰρ ε5ναι τὸ προφ%τικὸν -&ρισμα !ν

π&σ6 τ7 !κκλ%σί8 μ9-ρι τῆς τελείας παρουσίας : ,πόστολος ,0ιοῖ , an see Harnack,

T. u. . 2:1, p. 12.

&n t'ese see Aa'n, !orschungen 6:1; Harnack, Chronologie 1., p. 20 ff.

Harnack places ot' +ner Haran.

1 See art'a+sen, "riech. Palaeographie, p. "; 'o5pson, "ree# and $atin

Palaeography , p. "7 f.; Ben*on, Pal. of "ree# papyri , p. 22.

2 See cc. 9, 10.

t#e forefront of t#e !rologue doubtless suggested t#e ancient title, and ustifies our use

of it%1% T#e #istor& of t#e verb ,ποκαλ)πτειν and its derivative ,ποκ&λυ2ις is

sufficientl& discussed in t#e commentar&6% 'evelation7 is t#e converse of concealment8,

t#e !rocess of casting aside t#e veil t#at #ides a m&ster&% St Paul uses t#e noun inreference bot# to t#e gift of s!iritual vision and to its results t#e gift is a πνεῦμα,ποκαλ)2ε'ς;, and its e3ercise is an ,ποκ&λυ2ις<% T#e gift of revelation too2 its !lace

as an instrument of edification b& t#e side of t#e gift of !ro!#ec& it *as in fact a

!articular manifestation of t#e !ro!#etic S!irit, in *#ic# t#e s!irit of t#e !ro!#et

seemed to be carried u! into a #ig#er s!#ere, endo*ed for t#e time *it# ne* !o*ers of

vision, and enabled to #ear *ords *#ic# could not be re!roduced in t#e terms of #uman

t#oug#t, or could be re!roduced onl& t#roug# t#e medium of s&mbolical imager&)%

0#ile t#e !ro!#ets normall& dealt *it# #uman life in its relation to -od, reading and

inter!reting t#e t#oug#ts of men, and t#us convicting, e3#orting, or consoling t#em

according to t#eir several needs, #e *#o #ad an a!ocal&!se7 strove to e3!ress #is

!ersonal reali9ation of t#e unseen or of t#e distant future%

6% T#e a!ocal&!ses7 *#ic# in St Paul7s da& mig#t be #eard at times in t#e C#ristian

assemblies *ere un!remeditated utterances, flas#es of lig#t *#ic# suddenl& illumined

t#e consciousness of t#e men *#o s!o2e, and as suddenl& vanis#ed1% Of t#ese

revelations no trace remains, nor *ere t#e& ever, so far as *e 2no*, committed to

See p. ".

4 See e.3. Mt. 11:2" ;κρυ2ας ταῦτα ,πὸ σοφ$ν καὶ συνετ$ν< καὶ ,πεκ&λυ2ας αὐτὰ

ν%πίοις. o5. 16:2" κατὰ ,ποκ&λυ2ιν μυστ%ρίου -ρόνοις α*'νίοις σεσιγ%μ9νου.

Ep'. : κατὰ ,ποκ&λυ2ιν !γν'ρίσ=% μοι τὸ μυστ>ριον.

" Ep'. 1:17.

6 1 or. 14:6, 14:26, 2 or. 12:1 (-'ere ,ποκαλ)2εις are co+ple -t' ,πτασίαι),

7; t'e 8er s s5larl* +se n 1 or. 14:0.

1 2 or. 12:4 ρπ&γ% ε*ς τὸν παρ&δεισον καὶ ?κουσεν @ρρ%τα A>ματα. 's -as

'o-e8er no ornar* occason; cf. %. 7 τ7 "περBολ7 τ$ν ,ποκαλ)2ε'ν. 'e ant@

Montanst -rter n E+s. H. E. ":17 contens μ# δεῖν προφ>τ%ν !ν !κστ&σει λαλεῖν,

-'c' a3rees -t' St Pa+ls octrne: πνε)ματα προφ%τ$ν προφ>ταις "ποτ&σσεται.

S+c' an apocal*pse, 'o-e8er, as t'at of #o'n 5ples a state of Cecstas* at t'e

t5e -'en t occ+rre (cf. e.3. 1:10 ff., 4:1, an passi&), alt'o+3' t'e 5essa3e

5a* -ell 'a8e een -rtten after-ars.

2 ert+llan escres t'e re8elatons -'c' -ere 'ear n Montanst asse5les

at art'a3e n 's o-n a*; de ani&a 9 na5 +a sprtala c'ars5ata

a3nosc5+s, post oanne5 +o+e prop'eta5 5er+5+s conse+, est 'oe

soror ap+ nos re8elaton+5 c'ars5ata sortta, +as n ecclesa nter o5nca

*riting% T#e 'evelation of 5o#n is t#e onl& *ritten a!ocal&!se, as it is t#e onl& *ritten

!ro!#ec& of t#e A!ostolic age% Yet it *as not b& an& means t#e earliest literar& !roduct

of t#e a!ocal&!tic movement% A *ritten a!ocal&!se *as no novelt& in 5e*is# !reF

C#ristian literature t#ere are e3am!les of t#is class of *riting *it#in t#e canon of t#e

Old Testament, and besides t#ese, eig#t or nine e3tant a!ocal&!tic *or2s ma& beenumerated *#ic# are *#oll& or in !art of 5e*is# !rovenance% Of t#ese t#e greater

number *ere earlier t#an t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n a fe* *ere nearl& contem!orar& *it#

it%0it#in t#e canon of t#e Old Testament a!ocal&!tic !assages occur even in t#e

Pentateuc# >-en% );%, 8?%, Num% 16%, 18%@ and #istorical boo2s >) ings 11%@ in t#e Pro!#etst#e& form a considerable element, es!eciall& in Isaia# >Isa% )6% ff%, 18% ff%, <;% f%@, E9e2iel, 5oel,and 4ec#aria# E9e2iel7s !ro!#ec& in !articular is almost *#oll& of an a!ocal&!tic c#aracter )%ut it is in t#e oo2 of $aniel t#at t#e later conce!tion of t#e literar& a!ocal&!se is firstreali9ed% T#oug# rec2oned among t#e et#ubim of t#e Hebre* ible, a class in *#ic# it usuall&stands eig#t#, nint#, or tent# of eleven *ritings1, in t#e -ree2 Old Testament $aniel secured a

!lace among t#e Pro!#ets6

, doubtless because t#e second #alf of t#e boo2 >cc! B=)1%@ is of t#enature of an a!ocal&!tic !ro!#ec&8% 5udging b& its !lace in t#e Hebre* canon, and b& #istoricaland ot#er considerations, t#is boo2 seems to belong to t#e interval %C% )<=)<;, t#e &earsduring *#ic# t#e #and of Antioc#us E!i!#anes la& #eav& on t#e 5e*is# !eo!le% T#e *riter7s

!ur!ose is to strengt#en t#e religious section of t#e nation under t#is su!reme test of t#eir fait#and lo&alt&% He is carried bac2 in t#e S!irit to t#e da&s of t#e E3ile, and identifies #imself *it#$aniel, a 5e*is# ca!tive at ab&lon, *#o is re!resented as foreseeing in a series of great visionst#e course of events t#at culminated in t#e troubles of t#e +accabean age% Drom t#e stand!ointof t#e *riter all events later t#an t#e age of $aniel are e% hypothesi future but t#e boo2 is not*it#out actual !redictions t#e aut#or, *#o *rites *#ile t#e !ersecution is still going on,foresees t#e issue *it# a confidence *#ic# comes from t#e sense of a $ivine gift%

Ne3t in im!ortance to $aniel among 5e*is# a!ocal&!ses; is t#e oo2 of Enoc#<, a

com!osite *or2 of *#ic# t#e several !ortions are variousl& dated b& sc#olars% It must suffice#ere to "uote an eminent -erman and an eminent Englis# aut#orit&% Sc#Jrer B regards cc! )%=6<,and cc! B1%=)K;, as belonging to t#e time of 5o#n H&rcanus, and !laces t#e .Similitudes/ >cc!

sole5na per ecstasn n sprt+ patt+r; con8ersat+r c+5 an3els, al+ano

eta5 c+5 o5no, et 8et et a+t sacra5enta et +or+na5 cora nosct, <

etc. 'e pct+re 5a* e taken, &utatis &utandis, as escrpt8e of t'e

,ποκαλ)2εις -'c' roke t'e orer of 5ore pr5t8e con3re3atons at ornt' n

St Pa+ls t5e.

1 $. /. a8son, E'e#iel , ntro. p. 2".: t'ere are t'ree t'n3s n partc+lar

-'c' are c'aracterstc of t'e /ook: s*5olcal f3+res, s*5olcal actons, an

8sons.<

2 Introduction to the O. T. in "ree# , p. 200.

Ib. p. 201 ff.; cf. Mt. 24:2" ὸ A%=Cν διὰ Dανι#λ τοῦ προφ>του.

4 f. r8er, Daniel , ntro. p. 77.: ot' t'e s*5ols5 an t'e 8ele

prectons are c'aracterstc of a speces of lterat+re -'c' -as no- e3nnn3

to sprn3 +p, an -'c' s kno-n co55onl* * 5oern -rters as Apocalypticliterature.<

6B%=B)%@ at t#e earliest in t#e reign of Herod t#e -reat% According to C#arles, cc! 6%=?K, are+accabean >%C% )<<=)<)@, and cc! )%=6<% !reF+accabean, .at latest before )BK %C%),/ *#ile cc!

6B%=B), belong to %C% ?8=B?, or to %C% BK=<8% As t#e uncertaint& *#ic# attends t#e dating oft#e sections indicates, allusions to events or !ersons are rare in Enoc# t#e boo2 in all its !arts isvisionar& and esc#atological, dealing *it# angels and s!irits, *it# t#e secrets of Nature and t#em&steries of t#e unseen *orld and its re*ards and !unis#ments and less often and in a vagueand general *a& *it# t#e course of #uman #istor& and its great issues% T#e a!ocal&!tic imager&of Enoc# antici!ates t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n in not a fe* !articulars bot# boo2s, e%g%, 2no* oft#e Tree of life and t#e oo2 of life bot# re!resent #eavenl& beings as clot#ed in *#ite in bot#stars fall from #eaven, #orses *ade t#roug# rivers of blood t#e *inds and t#e *aters #ave t#eir

!residing s!irits a fier& ab&ss a*aits notorious sinners1%T#e oo2 of t#e Secrets of Enoc#6, anot#er survival of t#e !reFC#ristian Enoc#

literature, #as been recentl& given to t#e *orld in an Englis# translation b& Professor C#arles%According to its editor it belongs to t#e #alf centur& A%$% )=;K, but contains earlier fragments*#ic# #ave #ad a Hebre* original% In t#is attractive little boo2 Enoc# relates #is travels into t#eunseen *orld in t#e sevent# #eaven #e sees t#e vision of -od #e receives instructions from-od, and is t#en sent bac2 to t#e *orld for 6K da&s to teac# #is c#ildren, after *#ic# #e is

carried bac2 b& angels into t#e $ivine Presence% As in t#e oo2 of Enoc#, t#ere areantici!ations of t#e 5o#annine imager&% A great sea is above t#e clouds in t#e t#ird #eaven t#ereis a !aradise stoc2ed *it# fruitFtrees bearing all manner of ri!e fruits, and in t#e midst of it t#eTree of Life% Daces are seen s#ining li2e t#e sun, and e&es as lam!s of fire t#ere are angels set.over seasons and &ears over rivers and t#e sea over all t#e souls of men/ .si3F*ingedcreatures overs#ado* all t#e T#rone singing, Hol&, Hol&, Hol&/ t#e *orldF*ee2 is of sevent#ousand &ears Hades is a fortress *#ose 2e&s are committed to safe 2ee!ing%

T#e A!ocal&!se of aruc#8 is !robabl& later t#an t#e fall of 5erusalem;% Li2e t#e boo2of $aniel its aim is to console and build u! t#e 5e*is# !eo!le at a time of great de!ression% Dort#is !ur!ose t#e *riter identifies #imself *it# aruc#, t#e contem!orar& of 5eremia#, *#o isre!resented as foreseeing t#e coming troubles, and loo2ing be&ond t#em to t#eir issue% He findscomfort in t#e !ros!ect of t#e +essianic reign, and s!ea2s of its glories in terms >c! 1?%@ *#ic#

" 'e follo-n3 sketc' of t'e non@canoncal apocal*pses s ae for t'e sake

of reaers to -'o5 t's lterat+re, 5+c' of -'c' +ntl recent *ears 'as een

ffc+lt of access, 5a* e al5ost +nkno-n. =+rt'er partc+lars 5a* e fo+n n

Sc'Drer, "eschichte des ()d. *ol#es ., p. 1%1 ff. FE. . 11. ., p. "4 ff.G;

Ba+tsc', Die Apo#ryphen u. Pseudepigraphen des A. T.; Encyclopaedia

Biblica, art. $pocal*ptc !terat+re.<

6 E. 'arles (larenon Press, 1%9).

7 "eschichte ., p. 196 ff.

1 Boo# of Enoch, p. 2" ff. f. r 'arles artcles n Hastn3s Dictionary of the

Bible an Encycl. Biblica ($pocal*ptc !terat+re<).

2 'ese concences are note n t'e co55entar* as t'e* occ+r. &n t'e

+eston of #o'ns neteness to Enoc' see c. 1. n t's ntro+cton.

E. 'arles (larenon Press, 1%96).

4 E. 'arles ($. I . /lack, 1%96).

" So Sc'Drer, "eschichte ., p. 227; 'arles ( Apoc. Baruch, p. 7.) prefers to

sa* t'at t s a co5poste -ork -rtten n t'e latter 'alf of t'e frst cent+r*.<

stirred t#e ent#usiasm of C#ristian millenarians, and *ere even attributed to our Lord)% Heforesees also t#e fall of 'ome >c! 6?%@, and t#e rise of a ne* 5erusalem >c! 8%@% T#us t#eA!ocal&!se of aruc# a!!ro3imates to t#e nearl& contem!orar& C#ristian A!ocal&!se notmerel& in verbal coincidences and t#e use of similar imager&, but in some im!ortant lines oft#oug#t%

T#e Dourt# oo2 of Esdras1 contains >cc! 6%=)8%@ a 5e*is# a!ocal&!se *#ic# is no*generall& recogni9ed as a *or2 of t#e time of $omitian6, to *#ose reign t#e A!ocal&!se of St5o#n, according to Irenaeus, also belongs% T#e 5e*is# !ortion of 8 Esdras is mar2ed b& a

!essimism *#ic# contrasts strongl& *it# t#e #o!efulness of t#e older 5e*is# a!ocal&!ses, andof t#e contem!orar& C#ristian a!ocal&!se% T#e *riter, *#o !ersonates E9ra, arranges #is matterin seven visions t#e first t*o >6)=;1K, ;1)=<68@ deal *it# t#e general !roblem of evil t#et#ird vision ><6;=?1;@ de!icts t#e +essianic reign, t#e udgement, and t#e intermediate statet#e fourt# >?1<=)K<K@ re!resents t#e mourning of 4ion for t#e fallen cit&, and t#e building of ane* 5erusalem, *#ose glories, #o*ever, are not revealed in t#e fift# >)))=)16?@ 'ome,re!resented b& an eagle, receives its sentence from t#e +essia#, *#o a!!ears under t#e form ofa lion t#e si3t# >)6)=;@ s#e*s t#e +essia# rising from t#e sea to destro& His enemies andgat#er t#e scattered tribes of Israel t#e sevent# >)8)=8B@ #as to do *it# E9ra7s !ersonal

#istor&% Even t#is bare summar& is enoug# to reveal t#e strong contrasts *#ic#, amidst muc#t#at is similar, distinguis# t#e 5e*is# from t#e C#ristian a!ocal&!se%Ot#er 5e*is# boo2s, *#ic# eit#er in literar& form or in t#eir general !ur!ose are furt#er

removed from t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n, can onl& be mentioned #ere% Suc# are t#e &ook of

'ubilees8, an #aggadic commentar& on -enesis t#e (ssumption of #oses;, *#ic# toget#er *it#t#e oldest Enoc# *as used b& t#e C#ristian *riter of t#e E!istle of 5ude t#e #artyrdom of

Isaiah, incor!orated in t#e (scension of Isaiah >cc! 1%, 6%, ;%<@ t#e $salms of SolomonB, *rittenin t#e interests of t#e P#arisees bet*een A%$% BK and 8K t#e (pocalypses of (dam, "lijah, and

)ephaniah t#e Testament of (braham, Isaac, and 'acob, and t#e more im!ortant Testaments of

the Twelve $atriarchs, all of *#ic# #ave been more or less *or2ed over b& C#ristian #ands%+ore serviceable t#an an& of t#e above for illustrating St 5o#n7s A!ocal&!se are t#e Sib&llineOracles?% Of t#e 5e*is# Sib&llines 2 6?B=1? is assigned to t#e time of Ptolem& P#&scon >%C%

)8;=))B@, *#ile 2s 8% and ;% are said to belong severall& to t#e reigns of $omitian andHadrian% T#e !oints of contact bet*een t#is strange conglomerate of 5e*is# and C#ristianoracles and t#e A!ocal&!se #ave been noted in t#e commentar& as t#e& occur%

8%% T#e *#ole of t#is 5e*is# a!ocal&!tic literature, it *ill be seen, belongs to times*#en !ro!#ec& in t#e stricter sense *as believed to be in sus!ense% In no single instancedo t#e nonFcanonical a!ocal&!tists *rite in t#eir o*n names t#eir message is delivered

1 f. ren. ":. .

2 E. /ensl* an #a5es n Te+ts and ,tudies :2 (a5. Jn8erst* Press,

1%9").

=or t'e 3ro+ns of t's concl+son see Sc'Drer, "eschichte ., p. 241 ff., an

cf. Mr 'ackera*s art. ,econd Boo# of Esdras n Hastn3s D. B.

4 E. 'arles ($. I . /lack, 1902).

" E. 'arles (1%97).

6 E. 'arles (1900).

7 E. *le an #a5es (a5. Jn8erst* Press, 1%91).

% $n acco+nt of t'ese -orks -t' lo3rap'cal 5aterals s 38en n Enc.

Biblica, s.88. $pocal*ptc lterat+re, $pocr*p'a.

9 E. $. ac' (Kenna, 1%91), an effcken (!ep3, 1902).



under t#e assumed !ersonalit& of some one of t#e saintl& or ins!ired teac#ers of t#e !ast% +oreover, t#eir attitude differs from t#at of t#e Hebre* Pro!#ets% T#e older !ro!#ec& #ad been concerned !rimaril& *it# t#e moral and religious needs of t#enation it *as a call to re!entance and to fait# in -od% T#e !ro!#et of t#e canon #ad

been t#e aut#ori9ed inter!reter of t#e $ivine +ind to a t#eocratic !eo!le if #e #ad

foretold t#e future, it *as .t#e !rediction of dissatisfaction, t#e !rediction of #o!e, ofantici!ation, of a*a2ened t#oug#ts, of #uman !ossibilit& and $ivine nearness),/ rat#ert#an a formal announcement of coming events% To t#is rMle t#e a!ocal&!tists did not*#oll& succeed% 0it# t#e -ree2 con"uests a ne* order began *#ic# *as unfavourableto !ro!#ec& of t#e older t&!e% 'elief from t#e !ressure of #eat#en domination or fromt#e distasteful !resence of #eat#en surroundings *as #encefort# soug#t in efforts to

!ierce t#e veil of t#e future, and to discover be#ind it t#e coming trium!#s of t#erig#teous% T#e P#arisaic movement offered salvation to t#e 5e*is# race !artl& in t#e*a& of an e3act observance of t#e La*, !artl& b& o!ening *ider #o!es to t#ose *#oobe&ed, and !ainting in dar2er colours t#e doom of t#e transgressor and t#e earlier nonFcanonical a!ocal&!ses gave literar& e3!ression to t#ese ne* #o!es and fears% Anot#er

cause contributed to t#e gro*t# of a!ocal&!tic literature% 0it# t#e coming of t#e'omans and t#e subse"uent rise of t#e Herodian d&nast&, t#e !olitical outloo2 c#anged,and a fres# im!ulse *as given to t#e e3!ectation of a +essianic reign% In t#e firstcentur& t#e #abits of t#oug#t *#ic# !roduced a!ocal&!tic *riting *ere so firml& rootedin t#e 5e*is# mind t#at even t#e destruction of t#e Cit& and Tem!le did not at onceeradicate t#em unable an& longer to connect a glorious future *it# t#e Herodian

buildings, t#e *riters of t#e a!ocal&!ses of aruc# and E9ra loo2ed for a +essia# *#os#ould crus# t#e enemies of Israel, restore t#e nation, and reali9e t#e vision of an ideal5erusalem% $es!ondent as t#e *riter of t#e E9raFa!ocal&!se manifestl& is, #e does notformall& relin"uis# t#e national #o!e, t#oug# in #is case it is indefinitel& deferred%

;% T#e first C#ristian a!ocal&!se came on t#e crest of t#is long *ave of a!ocal&!tic

effort% Com!ositions more or less similar bot# in form and in substance to t#e *or2 of

St 5o#n #ad been in circulation among Palestinian and Ale3andrian 5e*s for t*o

centuries and a #alf before #e too2 u! #is !en to *rite t#e .'evelation of 5esus C#rist%/

It ma& be claimed for St Paul t#at #e created t#e E!istle, as *e find it in t#e Ne*

Testament) and t#e .memoirs of t#e A!ostles,/ *#ic# from 5ustin7s time #ave been

2no*n as .-os!els,/ #ave no e3act literar& !arallel in !reFC#ristian literature% T#is

cannot be said of t#e *riter of t#e Ne* Testament A!ocal&!se #e #ad models to follo*,

and to some e3tent #e follo*ed t#em% T#e a!ocal&!tic !ortions of E9e2iel, 4ec#aria#,

and $aniel are continuall& !resent to #is mind and t#oug# it is less certain t#at #e made

use of Enoc# or an& ot#er !ostFcanonical a!ocal&!se1, #e could scarcel& #ave beenignorant of t#eir e3istence and general c#aracter% ut *#ile it cannot be claimed t#at t#e

aut#or of t#e A!ocal&!se originated a t&!e of literature, #e is far from being a mere

imitator of !revious a!ocal&!tic *riting% T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n is in man& *a&s a

ne* de!arture% >)@ T#e 5e*is# a!ocal&!ses are *it#out e3ce!tion !seude!igra!#ic t#e

C#ristian a!ocal&!se bears t#e aut#or7s name6% T#is abandonment of a longFestablis#ed

1 a8son, O. T. Prophecy , p. 90.

1 See a5sa*, $etters to the ,e%en Churches, p. 24 f.

2 See c. 1.

&n t's pont see c. 1".

tradition is significant b& it 5o#n claims for #imself t#e !osition of a !ro!#et *#o,

conscious t#at #e dra*s #is ins!iration from C#rist or His angel and not at second #and,

#as no need to see2 s#elter under t#e name of a iblical saint% >1@ Ho* #ard it is to

determine t#e date and !rovenance of 5e*is# a!ocal&!ses is clear from t#e *ide

differences *#ic# divide t#e best sc#olars on t#ese !oints% T#e fictitious names under*#ic# t#e& !ose suggest dates *#ic# are no less fictitious, and an& evidence *#ic#

t#ese boo2s can be made to &ield as to t#e conditions under *#ic# t#e& *ere *ritten is

*rung from t#em, as it *ere, against t#e *ill of t#eir aut#ors% T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n,

on t#e contrar&, ma2es no secret of its origin and destination it is t#e *or2 of a

C#ristian undergoing e3ile in one of t#e islands of t#e Aegean and it is addressed to t#e

C#ristian congregations in seven of t#e c#ief cities of t#e adacent continent, under

circumstances *#ic# !racticall& determine its date% >6@ ut it is not onl& in regard to

!seudon&mit& and ot#er matters of literar& form t#at our A!ocal&!tist differs from #is

5e*is# !redecessors t#e cleavage goes dee!er% 0#atever vie* ma& be ta2en of #is

indebtedness to 5e*is# sources, t#ere can be no doubt t#at #e #as !roduced a boo2

*#ic#, ta2en as a *#ole, is !rofoundl& C#ristian, and *idel& removed from t#e field in

*#ic# 5e*is# a!ocal&!tic occu!ied itself% T#e narro* s!#ere of 5e*is# national #o!es

#as been e3c#anged for t#e life and aims of a societ& *#ose field is t#e *orld and

*#ose goal is t#e con"uest of t#e #uman race% T#e 5e*is# +essia#, an uncertain and

unreali9ed idea, #as given !lace to t#e #istorical, !ersonal C#rist, and t#e C#rist of t#e

C#ristian a!ocal&!se is alread& victorious, ascended, and glorified% T#us t#e fait# and

t#e #o!e of t#e C#urc# #ave diverted a!ocal&!tic t#oug#t into ne* c#annels and

!rovided it *it# ends *ort#& of its !ursuit% T#e tone of St 5o#n7s boo2 !resents a

contrast to t#e 5e*is# a!ocal&!ses *#ic# is not less mar2ed% It breat#es a religious s!irit*#ic# is not t#at of its !redecessors it is mar2ed *it# t#e sign of t#e Cross, t#e note of

!atient suffering, unabas#ed fait#, tender love of t#e bret#ren, #atred of evil, invincible

#o!e and, not*it#standing t#e strange forms *#ic# from time to time are seen to move

across t#e stage, t#e boo2 as a *#ole is !ervaded b& a sense of stern realit& and a

solemn !ur!ose *#ic# forbid t#e a!!roac# of levit&% T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n is

differentiated from t#e A!ocal&!se of aruc# or of E9ra ust as t#e oo2 of $aniel is

differentiated from t#e oo2 of Enoc#% Ho*ever t#e fact ma& be e3!lained, t#e t*o

canonical a!ocal&!ses !ossess t#e notes of insig#t and foresig#t *#ic# suggest

ins!iration t#e attentive reader becomes conscious of somet#ing in t#em bot# *#ic# is better t#an t#e unc#astened imaginings of t#e mere m&stic *#o conceives #imself to

!ossess a 2e& to t#e secrets of life% In t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n t#e !resence of t#e S!irit

of revelation is unmista2abl& felt, and t#e C#ristian student ma& be !ardoned if #e

recogni9es in t#is boo2 a fulfilment of t#e !romise of a Paraclete *#o shall declare …

the things that are to come%

<% If it *ere as2ed *it# *#at subects a C#ristian a!ocal&!tist, *riting to*ards t#e

close of t#e A!ostolic age, mig#t be e3!ected to occu!& #imself, it is not difficult to

conecture t#e ans*er% As t#e first centur& advanced, t*o to!ics filled t#e field of

C#ristian t#oug#t *#en it turned its ga9e on t#e unseen and t#e future% e#ind t#e veilof !#enomena t#e #uman life of 5esus C#rist *as believed to be ens#rined in t#e glor&

of -od% To reveal t#is #idden life, to re!resent to t#e imagination t#e s!lendour of t#e

$ivine Presence in *#ic# it e3ists, to translate into #uman *ords or s&mbols t#e

*ors#i! of Heaven, to e3#ibit t#e ascended C#rist in His relation to t#ese un2no*n

surroundings t#is *ould be t#e first business of t#e C#ristian seer% ut a second great

t#eme is inse!arable from it% 0it# t#e life of t#e glorified Lord t#e life of His od&, t#eC#urc#, *as identified in !rimitive C#ristian belief% In t#e last &ears of t#e first centur&

t#e C#urc#, *#ic# #ad begun #er course *it# t#e !romise of a ra!id success, *as

reeling under t#e blo*s dealt #er b& t#e *orld% T#e t*o em!ires, t#e ingdom of -od

and t#e 0orldF!o*er, *ere alread& at o!en *ar )% +en *ere as2ing *#at t#e end *ould

be *#ic# of t#e t*o forces *ould !revail% A C#ristian in t#ose da&s *#o *as conscious

of !ossessing t#e s!irit of revelation could not but endeavour to read t#e signs of t#e

times and, so far as it *as given #im, to disclose t#e course and outcome of t#e struggle

*#ic# #ad begun bet*een t#e Em!ire and t#e C#urc#%

On some suc# lines *e mig#t #ave soug#t to reconstruct t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n,

#ad onl& fragments of it survived, guided b& *#at *e 2ne* of t#e beliefs and #o!es of

t#e A!ostolic age and of t#e #istor& of t#e last t#irt& &ears of t#e first centur&% As a

matter of fact, t#ese are t#e lines on *#ic# t#e boo2 #as been *ritten% It is an a!ocal&!se

of t#e glor& of t#e e3alted C#rist it is also an a!ocal&!se of t#e sufferings and t#e

ultimate trium!# of t#e militant C#urc#%C#ristian a!ocal&!ses later t#an t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n *ere for t#e most !art eit#er

recensions of 5e*is# boo2s, or original *or2s issued under Old Testament names% In a fe*cases t#e& claim to be t#e *or2 of A!ostles or ot#er N%T% saints% -nosticism !roduced an

(nabaticon $auli), and t#e 'evelations of Ste!#en and T#omas, denounced as a!ocr&!#al7 int#e soFcalled $ecree of -elasius, *ere also !robabl& of -nostic origin% One a!ocal&!tic

!seude!igra!#on of t#e second centur&, t#e 1ποκ&λυφις E9τρου, seemed for a time about tofind a !lace *it#in t#e canon b& t#e side of t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n it is cou!led *it# t#e latterin t#e +uratorian Dragment >;KB) s""% .a!ocal&!ses etiam Io#anis et Petri tantum reci!imus1,"uam "uidam e3 nostris legi in ecclesia nolunt/@ it *as "uoted, a!!arentl& as a genuine *or2of St Peter, b& Clement of Ale3andria6 it is included in t#e earl& Claromontane list8% ut as time*ent on, t#e boo2 found its o*n level% Eusebius rec2ons it among t#e s!urious, or at least t#edoubtful boo2s > ! "! 61;, cf% ib! 61@ and t#oug# it retained its !o!ularit& and *as even readin some Eastern c#urc#es in t#e time of So9omen > ! "! B)?@, in t#e later lists of scri!tural

1 &n t's s+Lect see /p estcotts essa* on t'e '+rc' an t'e orl

(Epistles of ,t -ohn).

1 Epp'. haer. %:2.

2 Aa'n ("esch. d. Tlichen /anons, 2. p. 10" ff.) -o+l rea et Petr +na5

tant+5 recp5+s epst+la5; fert+r en5 altera +a5< etc. /+t net'er t'e

e5enaton nor t'e reason -'c' 'e 38es for t can e re3are as con8ncn3.

E+s. H. E. 6:14. 1; cf. ecl. proph. 41, 4% f.

4 Aa'n, "esch. 2. p. 1"9.

boo2s it is !laced among t#e antilegomena or t#e apocrypha;% Drom t#e large fragment< of t#ePetrine A!ocal&!se recovered in )?1 it is eas& to account for t#e difference of o!inion *#ic#seems to #ave e3isted about t#e boo2 from t#e first on t#e one #and it a!!ealed strongl& to t#euneducated imagination b& its attem!t to !ortra& t#e o&s of Paradise and t#e torments of-e#enna, *#ile u!on t#e ot#er its tone and !ur!ose *ere on a different level from t#ose of t#ecanonical A!ocal&!se%

T#e fourt# centur& #as given us an (pocalypse of $aul ), an attem!t to re!ort t#e @ρρ%ταA>ματα *#ic# St Paul #eard *#en #e *as caug#t u! into Paradise >1 Cor% )11 ff%@, *ellc#aracteri9ed b& Augustine as a *or2 t#e foll& of *#ic# is no less cons!icuous t#an its

!resum!tion1% Later still, but of more im!ortance to t#e student of t#e N%T% A!ocal&!se, is as!urious -ree2 (pocalypse of 'ohn6, first mentioned in a sc#olion of cent% 8% T#e aut#orsu!!oses St 5o#n to be, after t#e Ascension, alone on +t Tabor, *#ence #e is carried u! in a

brig#t cloud to t#e door of Heaven% Several of t#e features of t#e stor& are obviousl& borro*edfrom t#e canonical boo2 e%g% t#e o!ened #eaven > 1@, t#e boo2 *it# seven seals > 6@, t#esending of Enoc# and Elia# to e3!ose Antic#rist and be slain b& #im > @ t#e Lamb *it#seven e&es and seven #orns *#o brea2s t#e seven seals > )@% ut t#e s!urious A!ocal&!se isc#iefl& occu!ied *it# esc#atological s!eculations, grotes"ue descri!tions of Antic#rist > B@,

and ans*ers to curious "uestions connected *it# t#e resurrection of t#e bod&, t#e intermediatestate, t#e last t#ings, and t#e final udgement > ? ff%@%An interesting a!ocal&!se8 forms t#e !rologue of t#e C#urc# Order7 2no*n as

Testamentum Domini, !rinted b& Lagarde in #is *eliquiae … syriace, and edited b& 'a#mani in)?? and in an Englis# translation b& Coo!er and +aclean in )?K1 a Latin fragment *#ic# is.t#e literal e"uivalent of certain sections/ of t#is a!ocal&!se is given b& $r 5ames in Te%ts and

Studies, 16, !% );) ff% T#e same volume of Te%ts and Studies contains an (pocalypse of

Sedrach, and a late (pocalypse of the +irgin%A stud& of !ostFcanonical C#ristian a!ocal&!ses serves onl& to accentuate t#e uni"ue

im!ortance of t#e canonical boo2% Among a!ocal&!ses of C#ristian origin t#e N%T% A!ocal&!sealone stands in a real relation to t#e life of t#e age in *#ic# it *as *ritten, or attem!ts to revealt#e meaning and issues of t#e events *#ic# t#e *riter #ad *itnessed or *as able to foresee% T#e

N%T% A!ocal&!se alone deserves t#e name, or is in an& true sense a !ro!#ec&%76% CONTENTS AN$ PLAN OD THE APOCALYPSE OD 5OHN

" So t'e lst of St* /ooks an t'e Stc'o5etr* of Ncep'or+s (Aa'n, ib., pp.

292, 299 ff.).

6 f. r M. . #a5es, 0e%elation of Peter , p. "1 f.: a fra35ent of s+ffcent

len3t' to 38e +s a far ea of t'e contents of t'e -'ole $pocal*pse. $s a fact, t

oes contan so5et'n3 lke 140 o+t of t'e or3nal 00 lnes of -'c' t'e ook

consste.<

1 Ete * sc'enorf n Apocalypses Apocryphae (1%66), pp. 4O69; an earl*

!atn 8erson (*isio Pauli ) s prnte * r #a5es n Te+ts and ,tudies, 2:, pp.

11O42.

2 $+3. tr. in -oann. 9% +a occasone 8an +a5 $pocal*ps5 Pa+l, +a5

sana non recpt ecclesa, nesco ++s fa+ls plena5 st+ltss5a

praes+5ptone fner+nt.<

Ete * sc'enorf n Apocalypses Apocryphae (1%66), pp. 70O94.

4 &n t's see Harnack, Chron. 2., p. "14 ff.

)% In #is treatise Eερὶ !παγγελι$ν $ion&sius of Ale3andria >Q 1<;@ *rites as if t#e

A!ocal&!se *ere alread& divided into κεφ&λαια)% ut if #e refers to a formal

ca!itulation, no ot#er trace of it remains% 0#en !re!aring to comment u!on t#e boo2 in

t#e si3t# centur&, Andreas, Arc#bis#o! of Ca!!adocian Caesarea, devised a s&stem for

#is o*n use, *#ic# #e *ould scarcel& #ave done if t#ere #ad been one in e3istencedating from t#e t#ird centur&% Andreas7s met#od is conventional and arbitrar&, after t#efas#ion of #is age #e brea2s u! t#e A!ocal&!se into 18 longer sections >λόγοι@,

corres!onding *it# t#e number of t#e Elders in c! 8%, and subdivides eac# of t#ese intot#ree c#a!ters >κεφ&λαια@, an arrangement suggested, as #e sa&s, b& t#e t#reefold nature

of man1% His κεφ&λαια, #o*ever, re!resent fairl& *ell t#e natural subdivisions of t#e

boo2, and are !rinted belo* as e3#ibiting t#e earliest 2no*n anal&sis%Fεφ&λαια τῆς 3'&ννου τοῦ =εολόγου ,ποκαλ)φε'ς%

&. προοίμιον τῆς ,ποκαλ)2ε'ς< καὶ Gτι διH ,γγ9λου αὐτI δ9δοται >))=@% BJ.Kπτασία< !ν L τὸν 3%σοῦν !=ε&σατο !ν μ9σM λυ-νι$ν Nπτ& >)?=1K@% γJ. τὰ γεγραμμ9ναπρὸς τὸν τῆς Oφεσί'ν !κκλ%σίας @γγελον >1)=B@% δJ. τὰ δ%λ'=9ντα τI !ν τ7Pμυρναί'ν !κκλ%σί8 ,γγ9λM >1=))@% εJ. τὰ σ%μαν=9ντα τI τῆς Eεργαμ%ν$ν!κκλ%σίας ,γγ9λM >1)1=)B@% ϚJ. τὰ γεγραμμ9να τI τῆς Qυατείρ'ν !κκλ%σίας ,γγ9λM

>1)=1?@% RJ. τὰ ,πεσταλμ9να τI ,γγ9λM τῆς !ν P&ρδεσιν !κκλ%σίας >6)=<@% %J. τὰ γραφ9ντα πρὸς τὸν τῆς Sιλαδελφ9'ν !κκλ%σίας @γγελον >6B=)6@% =J. τὰ δ%λ'=9νταπρὸς τὸν τῆς Tαοδικ9'ν !κκλ%σίας @γγελον >6)8=11@% ιJ. περὶ τῆς :ρα=είσ%ς αὐτI=)ρας !ν τI οὐρανI καὶ τοῦ =ρόνου καὶ τ$ν κδJ πρεσBυτ9ρ'ν καὶ τ$ν N0ῆςδει-=9ντ'ν >8)=))@% ιαJ. περὶ τῆς BίBλου τῆς !σφραγισμ9ν%ς σφραγῖσιν Nπτὰ τῆς !ν τ7-ειρὶ τοῦ =εοῦ< Uν οὐδεὶς ,νοῖ0αι δ)ναται τῆς κτιστῆς φ)σε'ς >;)=;@% ιBJ. περὶ τοῦ

,ρνίου τοῦ τὰ Nπτὰ κ9ρατα ;-οντος< Gπ'ς τ#ν BίBλον ,ν9M0εν >;<=)8@% ιγJ. λ)σις τῆςπρVτ%ς σφραγῖδος< τ#ν ,ποστολικ#ν διδα-#ν σ%μαίνουσα ><), <1@% ιδJ. λ)σις τῆςδευτ9ρας σφραγῖδος< δ%λοῦσα τὸν τ$ν ,πίστ'ν κατὰ τ$ν πιστ$ν πόλεμον ><6, <8@%

ιεJ. λ)σις τῆς τρίτ%ς σφραγῖδος< δ%λοῦσα τ$ν μ# παγί'ς πεπιστευκότ'ν 4ριστI τ#ν;κπτ'σιν ><;, <<@% ιϚJ. λ)σις τῆς τετ&ρτ%ς σφραγῖδος< !μφαίνουσα τὰς !παγομ9ναςπαιδευτικὰς μ&στιγας τοῖς διH ,νυπομον%σίας ,ρν%σαμ9νοις τὸν κ)ριον ><B, <@% ιRJ.λ)σις τῆς π9μπτ%ς σφραγῖδος< τ#ν τ$ν ἁγί'ν 2υ-$ν σ%μαίνουσα πρὸς F)ριονκαταBό%σιν Wστε γεν9σ=αι συντ9λειαν ><?=))@% ι%J. λ)σις τῆς Xκτ%ς σφραγῖδος< τὰς !ντ7 συντελεί8 !παγομ9νας πλ%γὰς σ%μαίνουσα ><)1=)B@% ι=J. περὶ τ$ν σ'Rομ9ν'ν !κ

πλ%γῆς τ$ν τεσσ&ρ'ν ,γγ9λ'ν -ιλι&δ'ν ρμδJ >B)=@% κJ. περὶ τοῦ ,ναρι=μ>τουὄ-λου τ$ν !0 !=ν$ν 4ριστI συμBασιλευσ&ντ'ν >B?=)B@% κ&. λ)σις τῆς NBδόμ%ςσφραγῖδος< δ%λοῦσα ,γγελικὰς δυν&μεις προσ&γειν =εI YτὰςZ τ$ν ,γί'ν προσευ-ὰς'[ς =υμι&ματα >)=<@% κBJ. περὶ τ$ν Nπτὰ ,γγ9λ'ν< \ν τοῦ πρVτου σαλπίσαντος-&λαRα καὶ πῦρ καὶ α]μα !πὶ τῆς γῆς φ9ρεται >B@% κγJ. περὶ τοῦ δευτ9ρου ,γγ9λου< ο^

1 E+s. H.E. 7:2".1 (F=eltoe, p. 114), τινCς μCν ο(ν τ$ν πρὸ μ$ν _=9τ%σαν καὶ

,νεσκε)ασαν π&ντ% τὸ BιBλίον καὶ κα=H Xκαστον κεφ&λαιον διευ=)νοντες κτλ. f.

re3or*, prolegg., p. 141.

2

prolegg. in co&&., διελόντες τ#ν παροῦσαν πραγματείαν ε*ς λόγους κδJ καὶ οBJκεφ&λαια< διὰ τ#ν τριμερῆ τ$ν κδJ "πόστασιν σVματος καὶ 2υ-ῆς καὶ πνε)ματος.

σαλπίσαντος τ$ν !ν Yτ7Z =αλ&σσ6 !μ2)-'ν ,πVλεια γίνεται >, ?@% κδJ. : τρίτος@γγελος τὰ τ$ν ποταμ$ν πικραίνε' `δατα >)K, ))@% κεJ. : τ9ταρτος @γγελος τὸτρίτον τοῦ λιακοῦ καὶ σελ%νιακοῦ φ'τὸς σκοτίRει >)1, )6@% κϚJ. περί τοῦ π9μπτου,γγ9λου καὶ τ$ν !κ γῆς ,B)σσου ,νερ-ομ9ν'ν νο%τ$ν ,κρίδ'ν καὶ τοῦ ποικίλου τῆς

μορφῆς αὐτ$ν >?)=)1@% κRJ. περὶ τοῦ Xκτου ,γγ9λου καὶ τ$ν !πὶ τI aὐφρ&τ6λυομ9ν'ν ,γγ9λ'ν !πίλυσις >?)6=1)@% κ%J. περὶ ,γγ9λου περιBεBλ%μ9νου νεφ9λ%νκαὶ 5ριν καὶ τὸ κοινὸν τ9λος προμ%ν)οντος >)K)=?@% κ=J. Gπ'ς τὸ BιBλαρίδιον !κ-ειρὸς τοῦ ,γγ9λου : εὐαγγελιστ#ς εbλ%φεν >)K)K=))1@% λJ. περὶ cνd- καὶ eλίαδιελ9γ-ειν μελλόντ'ν τὸν ,ντί-ριστον >))6=)K@% λαJ. Gπ'ς ,ναιρε=9ντες "πὸ τοῦ,ντι-ρίστου ,ναστ>σονται< καὶ τος _πατ%μ9νους !κπλ>0ουσιν >))))=)8@% λBJ. περὶτῆς NBδόμ%ς σ&λπιγγος καὶ τ$ν "μνο)ντI τI =εI ἁγί'ν !πὶ τ7 μελλο)σ6 κρίσει >)));=)@% λγJ. περὶ τ$ν δι'γμ$ν τῆς !κκλ%σίας τ$ν προτ9ρ'ν καὶ τ$ν !πὶ τοῦ,ντι-ρίστου >)))?=)1<@% λδJ. περὶ τοῦ γενομ9νου πολ9μου μετα0 τ$ν ἁγί'ν,γγ9λ'ν καὶ τ$ν πον%ρ$ν δυν&με'ν καὶ τῆς καταπτVσε'ς τοῦ δρ&κοντος >)1B=)1@%

λεJ. Gπ'ς : δρ&κ'ν διVκ'ν τ#ν !κκλ%σίαν οὐ πα)εται >)1)6=)B@% λϚJ. περὶ τοῦ=%ρίου τοῦ ;-οντος κ9ρατα δ9κα καὶ κεφαλὰς Nπτ&< \ν μίαν fς !σφαγμ9ν%ν ;φ%

>)6)=)K@% λRJ. περὶ Nτ9ρου =%ρίου δ)ο κ9ρατα ;-οντος καὶ τI πρVτM τος ,ν=ρVπουςπροσ&γοντος >)6))=)B@% λ%J. περὶ τοῦ Kνόματος τοῦ =%ρίου >)6)@% λ=J. περὶ τ$ν ρμδJ -ιλι&δ'ν τ$ν σν YτIZ ,ρνίM NστVτ'ν !ν ὄρει PιVν >)8)=;@% μJ. περὶ ,γγ9λουπροαγορε)οντος τ#ν !γγ)τ%τα τῆς κρίσε'ς τῆς μελλο)σ%ς >)8<, )8B@% μαJ. περὶδευτ9ρου ,γγ9λου τ#ν πτ$σιν gαBυλ$νος κ%ρ)σσοντος >)8@% μBJ. περὶ τρίτου,γγ9λου ,σφαλιRομ9νου τὸν τοῦ κυρίου λαὸν μ# δ90ασ=αι τὸν ,ντί-ριστον >)8?=)6@%

μγh. Gτι : !ν τ7 νεφ9λ6 κα=>μενος τI δρεπ&νM συντελεῖ τὰ !κ τῆς γῆς Bλαστ&νοντα

>)8)8=)<@% μδJ. περὶ Nτ9ρου ,γγ9λου τρυγ$ντος τ#ν τῆς πικρίας @μπελον >)8)B=1K@%μεJ. περὶ τ$ν Nπτὰ ,γγ9λ'ν τ$ν !παγόντ'ν τοῖς ,ν=ρVποις τὰς πλ%γὰς πρὸ τῆςσυντελείας< καὶ περὶ τῆς "αλίν%ς =αλ&σσ%ς !ν L τος ἁγίους !=ε&σατο >);)=@% μϚJ.Gπ'ς τῆς πρVτ%ς φι&λ%ς !κ-υ=είσ%ς Xλκος κατὰ τ$ν ,ποστατ$ν γίνεται >)<), )<1@%

μRJ. πλ%γ# δευτ9ρα κατὰ τ$ν !ν =αλ&σσ6 !πιτιμ'μ9ν'ν >)<6@% μ%J. Gπ'ς διὰ τῆςτρίτ%ς ο+ ποταμοὶ ε*ς α]μα μετακιρν$νται >)<8=B@% μ=J. Gπ'ς διὰ τῆς τετ&ρτ%ςκαυματίRονται ο+ @ν=ρ'ποι >)<, )<?@% νJ. Gπ'ς διὰ τῆς π9μπτ%ς Bασιλεία τοῦ=%ρίου σκοτίRεται >)<)K, )<))@% ναJ. Gπ'ς διὰ τῆς Xκτ%ς :δὸς διὰ τοῦ aὐφρ&τουτοῖς ,πὸ ,νατολῆς λίου Bασιλεῦσιν ,νοίγεται >)<)1=)<@% νBJ. Gπ'ς διὰ τῆς NBδόμ%ς

-&λαRα καὶ σεισμὸς κατὰ τ$ν ,ν=ρVπ'ν γίνεται >)<)B=1)@% νγJ. περὶ τοῦ Nνὸς τ$νNπτὰ ,γγ9λ'ν δεικν)ντος τI εὐαγγελιστ7 τ#ν τῆς πόρν%ς πόλε'ς κα=αίρεσιν< καὶπερὶ τ$ν Nπτὰ κεφαλ$ν καὶ τ$ν δ9κα κερ&τ'ν >)B)=<@% νδJ. Gπ'ς : @γγελος τὸ:ρα=Cν αὐτI μυστ>ριον ρμ>νευσεν >)BB=)@% νεJ. περὶ Nτ9ρου ,γγ9λου τ#ν πτ$σινgαBυλ$νος δ%λοῦντος< καὶ οὐρανίου φ'νῆς τ#ν !κ τῆς πόλε'ς φυγ#ν !ντελλομ9ν%ς<καὶ τῆς ,ποBολῆς τ$ν τερπν$ν \ν τὸ πρὶν !κ9κτ%iνjτο >))=18@% νϚJ. περὶ τῆς τ$νἁγί'ν "μνMδίας καὶ τοῦ τριπλοῦ ἁλλ%λουkὰ Gπερ ;2αλλον !πὶ τ7 κα=αιρ9σειgαBυλ$νος >)?)=<@% νRJ. περὶ τοῦ μυστικοῦ γ&μου καὶ τοῦ δείπνου τοῦ ,ρνίου >)?B=

)K@% ν%J. π$ς τὸν -ριστὸν : εὐαγγελιστ#ς ;φιππον μετὰ δυν&με'ν ,γγελικ$ν!=ε&σατο σν φόBM >)?))=)?@% ν=J. περὶ τοῦ ,ντι-ρίστου καὶ τ$ν σν αὐτIBαλλομ9ν'ν ε*ς γ9ενναν >)?1K, )?1)@% 0J. Gπ'ς : σαταν/ς !δ9=% ,πὸ τῆς 4ριστοῦ

παρουσίας μ9-ρι τῆς συντελείας< καὶ περὶ τ$ν -ιλί'ν !τ$ν >1K)=6@% 0αJ. περὶ τ$ντοιμασμ9ν'ν =ρόν'ν τοῖς φυλ&0ασι τ#ν 4ριστοῦ :μολογίαν >1K8@% 0BJ. τι !στὶν πρVτ% ,ν&στασις< καὶ τίς : δε)τερος =&νατος >1K;, 1K<@% 0γJ. περὶ τοῦ ldγ καὶmαγVγ >1KB=)K@% 0δJ. περὶ τοῦ κα=%μ9νου !πὶ τοῦ =ρόνου< καὶ τῆς κοινῆς ,ναστ&σε'ς

καὶ κρίσε'ς >1K))=);@% 0εJ. περὶ καιν$ν οὐρανοῦ τε καὶ γῆς καὶ τῆς @ν' 3ερουσαλ>μ >1))=8@% 0ϚJ. περὶ \ν ε5πεν : !ν τI =ρόνM κα=>μενος καὶ :ρα=είς >1);=@% 0R. περὶτοῦ ,γγ9λου δεικν)ντος αὐτI τ#ν τ$ν ἁγί'ν πόλιν καὶ τὸ τα)τ%ς τεῖ-ος σν τοῖςπυλ$σι διαμετροῦντος >1)?=1B@% 0%J. περὶ τοῦ κα=αροῦ ποταμοῦ τοῦ ,πταν=9ντος !κτοῦ =ρόνου πορε)εσ=αι >11)=;@% 0=J. περὶ τοῦ ,0ιοπίστου τ$ν τε=εαμ9ν'ν τI,ποστόλM >11<@% οJ. Gτι =εὸς τ$ν προφ%τ$ν : -ριστὸς καὶ δεσπότ%ς τ$ν ἁπ&ντ'ν

>11B=?@% οαJ. Gπ'ς !κελε)=% μ# σφραγίσαι ,λλὰ κ%ρ)0αι τ#ν ,ποκ&λυ2ιν >11)K=)B@%

οBJ. Gτ'ς !κκλ%σία καὶ τὸ !ν αὐτ7 πνεῦμα προσκαλοῦνται τ#ν τοῦ -ριστοῦ ;νδο0ον!πιφ&νειαν< καὶ περὶ τῆς ,ρ/ς L "ποB&λλονται ο+ τ#ν BίBλον παρα-αρ&ττοντες fς@κυρον >11)=1)@%

T#e longer sections or λόγοι begin at )), 1, 6), 8), <), <B, B), B, )1, )K),

)))), )1B, )6)), )8<, )8)8, )<1, )<, )<)B, )), )?)), 1K8, 1K)), 1)?, 11%T#e& s#e* less discrimination t#an t#e division into κεφ&λαια, and it ma& be surmised

t#at t#e latter *as made first, and t#at t#e subse"uent grou!ing into λόγοι *as !urel&

mec#anical, based on t#e !rinci!le of tric#otom& announced b& its aut#or%1%% T#e Latin aut#orities !ursue an inde!endent course in t#e matter of ca!itulation%

T#e recapitulatio *#ic# follo*s t#e commentar& of Primasius) divides t#e commentar&into t*ent& #eads, corres!onding *it# A!oc% ))=611, 8)=)), ;)=<1, <6=)), <)1= )B, B)=), 1=?)1, ?)6=1), )K)=))1, ))6=)8, )));=)1)B, )6)=), )8)=)6,)8)8=)<1), )B)=), ))=)?)K, )?))=1K)K, 1K))=11)1, 11)6=);, 11)<=1):adistribution *#ic# s#e*s a genuine desire to understand t#e !lan of t#e boo2 1%+oreover, eac# of t#e boo2s of t#e commentar& is !receded b& a list of s#orter capitula,?< in all, *#ic# Haussleiter *it# muc# !robabilit& regards as due to a later #and6 as #e

!oints out, t#e number suggests a reference to t#e Elders and t#e RIα >?<R1838@, *#ic#is of a !iece *it# Andreas7s fanc& of connecting #is κεφ&λαια *it# t#e Elders and t#e#uman tric#otom& >B1R1836@% Haussleiter adds8 a division into 8 capitula from cod%at% 811) and cod% +onac% )BK >a +S% of Haimo7s commentar&@, and cod% +onac%<16K >a +S% of t#e ulgate@ t#e c#a!ters begin at )8, 1), 1, 1)1, 1), 6), 6B,6)8, 8), ;), ;<, ;)), <6, <?, <)1, B), B?, B)1, ), B, )1, ?)6, )K), ))),)))1, )1B, )1)1, )1)6, )6), )6)), )8), )8<, )8)6, );), )<), )<)1, )B), )BB,

1 Ha+ssleter, Die lateinische Apo#alypse der alten africanischen /irche, p. 179

ff.

2 Pr5as+s '5self t'+s eplans t'e p+rpose of 's co5pen+5: +t tot+s lr

a+ctortate ec+rsa sc o5ns seres re8 recapt+latone ter+5 e8ol8at+r

nsn+ata per partes, +t o5n+5 +s+e lror+5 tet+s +no s+55at5 loco

clareat efnt+s, c+5 et parttone5 recpt sn3+lor+5 et plent+ne5 8ef+r

otnere per tot+5.<

Ha+ssleter, pp. 1%4O19; see 's re5arks on pp. 19O4.

4 Ibid., p. 197 ff.

)), )1), )?), )?)), 1K), 1K)), 1)?, 11), 11)K% It *ill be observed t#atseventeen of t#ese sections start *#ere t#e modern c#a!ters do;% Ot#er s&stems ofca!itulation are found cod% Amiatinus and cod% Duldensis divide t#e A!ocal&!se into 1;c#a!ters, *#ile t#ere are +SS% *#ic# give 11, 16, 18, 8), and 86<%

6% In t#e !resent edition t#e -ree2 te3t is divided into 81 minor sections >))=6, )8=

, )?=1K, 1)=B, 1=)), 1)1=)B, 1)=1?, 6)=<, 6B=)1, 6)8=11, 8)=)), ;)=)8,<)=)B, B)=, B?=)B, )=)6, ?)=)1, ?)6=1), )K)=)), )))=)8, )));=)?, )1)=),

)6)=)K, )6))=), )8)=;, )8<=)6, )8)8=1K, );)=, )<)=1), )B)=<, )BB=),

))=18, )?)=)K, )?))=)<, )?)B=1), 1K)=<, 1KB=)K, 1K))=);, 1))=, 1)?=11;,

11<=1K, 111)@% T#e follo*ing table *ill s#e* t#e contents of t#e oo2 as t#us

arranged

)% Prologue%

1% T#e *riter7s greeting to t#e C#urc#es of Asia%

6% ision of t#e risen and ascended C#rist%

8F)K% +essages to t#e Angels of t#e Seven C#urc#es%))% ision of t#e T#rone in Heaven%

)1% T#e Sealed oo2 and t#e Lamb%

)6% O!ening of t#e first si3 Seals%

)8% Sealing of t#e )88,KKK from t#e Tribes of Israel%

);% Trium!# of t#e Innumerable +ultitude%

)<% O!ening of t#e sevent# Seal t#e #alf #our7s silence in Heaven t#e first four Trum!etF

blasts%

)B% T#e fift# Trum!etFblast, or first 0oe%

)% T#e si3t# Trum!etFblast, or second 0oe%)?% Pre!arations for t#e sevent# Trum!etFblast t#e vision of t#e Angel *it# t#e o!en

boo2let%

1K% Durt#er !re!arations measuring t#e Tem!le t#e testimon& of t#e T*o 0itnesses%

1)% T#e sevent# Trum!etFblast, or t#ird 0oe%

11% T#e 0oman *it# c#ild, and t#e -reat bloodFred $ragon%

16% T#e 0ild east from t#e Sea%

18% T#e 0ild east from t#e Eart#%

1;% ision of t#e )88,KKK on +ount 4ion%

1<% T#ree angelic !roclamations, and a oice from Heaven%

1B% ision of t#e Harvest and t#e intage of t#e Eart#%1% Pre!aration for t#e last Seven Plagues%

1?% Pouring out of t#e Seven o*ls%

6K% ision of ab&lon seated on t#e east%

6)% Inter!retation of t#e ision of ab&lon and t#e east%

61% $oom of ab&lon%

" 'e 5oern c'apters are practcall* t'ose of Step'en !an3ton ( 122%); see

8on Soen, Die ,chriften d. . T., p. 4%2. /+t n nearl* e8er* nstance t'e* -ere

antcpate n t'e κεφ&λαια of $nreas.

6 See re3or*, prolegg , 1., p. 161; Te+t#riti# , 2., p. %79 f.

66% Trium!# in Heaven t*o Hallelua# Psalms an angelic message%

68% ision of t#e Cro*ned 0arrior%

6;% Overt#ro* and end of t#e east and t#e Dalse Pro!#et%

6<% T#e T#ousand Years of Satan7s ca!tivit& and t#e +art&rs7 'eign%

6B% After t#e T#ousand Years release of Satan *ar of -og and +agog%6% ision of t#e -eneral 'esurrection and t#e Last 5udgement%

6?% ision of a Ne* Heaven and a Ne* Eart#%

8K% ision of t#e Ne* 5erusalem%

8)% E!ilogue Last *ords of t#e Angel, t#e Seer, and t#e Lord%

81% Dinal enediction%

8% T#e *#ole boo2 lies before us in t#is table of contents% It is found to consist of a

succession of scenes and visions *#ic# are so easil& distinguis#ed t#at at t#is stage no

serious difference of o!inion can arise% Our difficulties begin *#en *e attem!t to grou!

t#ese sections into larger masses of a!ocal&!tic matter, and b& a !rocess of s&nt#esis to

arrive at t#e !lan u!on *#ic# t#e aut#or #as constructed #is *or2% T#e former of t#ese

o!erations is relativel& sim!le% T#e first t*o sections and t#e last t*o form res!ectivel&

t#e introduction and t#e conclusion of t#e oo2 sections 6=)K, ))=)6, )<=) >1)@, 11=

18, 1=1?, 6K=66, 68=6;, 6<=6, 6?=8K also form co#erent grou!s, *#ile )8=);, )?=

1K, 1;=1B are e!isodes *#ic# can be seen to be in more or less definite relation *it#

t#eir surroundings% T#us our 81 sections are reduced to )8, *#ic# ma& be described as

follo*s

)% Prologue >))=@%

1% ision of C#rist among t#e C#urc#es, follo*ed b& messages to t#eir Angels >)?=611@%

6% ision of C#rist in Heaven, follo*ed b& t#e o!ening of t#e seven Seals of t#e sealedoo2 >8)=<)B, )@%

8% E!isode, after t#e si3t# Seal, of t#e )88,KKK from t#e Tribes of Israel, and t#e countless

multitude >B)=)B@%

;% T#e seven Trum!etFblasts >1=?1), )));=)?@%

<% E!isode, after t#e si3t# Trum!etFblast, of t#e Angel *it# t#e o!en boo2let, t#e measuring

of t#e Tem!le, and t#e T*o 0itnesses >)K)=)))8@%

B% T#e 0oman *it# c#ild, t#e $ragon and t#e T*o 0ild easts >)1)=)6)@%

% E!isode of t#e )88,KKK on +t 4ion, t#e angelic and celestial oices, and t#e Harvest and

intage of t#e *orld >)8)=1K@%?% Out!ouring of t#e seven o*ls, containing t#e seven last !lagues >);)=)<1)@%

)K% ision of ab&lon t#e -reat #er fall t#e trium!# of t#e Angels and t#e C#urc# >)B)=

)?)K@%

))% ision of t#e 'o&al 0arrior, and overt#ro* of t#e T*o easts >)?))=1)@%

)1% T#e )KKK &ears, follo*ed b& t#e overt#ro* of t#e $ragon and t#e End >1K)=);@%

)6% T#e Ne* 0orld, and t#e Ne* Cit& >1))=11;@%

)8% E!ilogue >11<=1)@%

;% As *e loo2 steadil& at t#is sc#eme and stud& its conne3ion, *e become conscious

of a great cleavage, *#ic# !racticall& divides t#e oo2 into t*o nearl& e"ual !arts >)?= )))8, )1)=11;@% In t#e first #alf t#e Ascended C#rist a!!ears in t*o ca!acities, as t#e

Head of t#e C#urc#, and t#e Controller of t#e $estinies of t#e 0orld% T#e antagonism

bet*een t#e t*o bodies comes into vie* t#e C#urc#es of Asia are alread& suffering

!ersecution and #ave more to suffer t#e 0orld is ri!e for udgements, *#ic# loom large

in t#e visions of t#e SealFo!enings and t#e Trum!etFblasts t#e end is dra*ing on t#e

victor& of rig#teousness and t#e final revelation of trut# are foreseen% T#e first #alf:itmig#t almost be called t#e first boo2:of t#e A!ocal&!se is com!lete in itself, and #ad

all our +SS% bro2en off at )))?, and no vestige of t#e last eleven c#a!ters survived, it is

conceivable t#at t#e loss mig#t never #ave been sus!ected% In )1) t#e aut#or ma2es a

fres# beginning, for *#ic# t#e reader #ad been !re!ared in )K))% T#e t#eme of t#e

second !ro!#ec& is t#e same on t#e *#ole as t#at of t#e first, but t#e subect is !ursued

into ne* regions of t#oug#t, and t#e leading c#aracters and s&mbolical figures are

almost *#oll& ne*% T#e C#urc#es of Asia vanis#), and t#eir !lace is ta2en b& t#e

C#urc# considered as a unit&, *#ic# is re!resented b& t#e 0oman *#o is t#e +ot#er ofC#rist and t#e Saints% It is *it# #er *orldFlong struggle *it# t#e κοσμοκρ&τορες τοῦσκότους το)του, t#e s!iritual forces *#ic# lie be#ind t#e antagonism of t#e 0orld, t#at

t#e second !art of t#e oo2 c#iefl& deals% T#ese forces are revealed under monstrous

forms, t#e -reat 'ed $ragon, t#e east from t#e Sea, t#e east from t#e Land, and t#e&

continue to o!erate until t#eir final overt#ro*% ut *e lose sig#t of t#em, e3ce!t in an

occasional reference, from c! )6% to c! )?% 0#ile t#e& are *or2ing be#ind t#e scene, t#e

a!ocal&!tic #istor& is occu!ied *it# mundane events:t#e udgements of t#e latter da&s

*#ic# are no* s&mboli9ed b& seven bo*ls full of t#e last !lagues t#e greatness and t#e

fall of t#e Ne* ab&lon, t#e east7s mistress and re!resentative% e&ond t#e fall of t#e

0orldFem!ire t#e Seer can see in dim outline long da&s of com!arative rest and trium!#

for t#e C#urc#, and after t#em a tem!orar& rela!se, follo*ed b& t#e final destruction oft#e surviving !o*ers of evil% T#is ma2es room for t#e manifestation of t#e C#urc# as

t#e ride of C#rist and Cit& of -od, and *it# a magnificent !icture of t#e Ne*

5erusalem, t#e antit#esis of ab&lon, t#e A!ocal&!se reac#es its end%

T#us in its briefest form our sc#eme of t#e boo2 *ill stand as follo*s

Prologue >))=@%

Part )% ision of C#rist in t#e midst of t#e C#urc#es >)?=611@%

ision of C#rist in Heaven >8)=;)8@%

Pre!arations for t#e End ><)=)))?@%

Part 1% ision of t#e +ot#er of C#rist and #er enemies >)1)=)6)@%Pre!arations for t#e End >)8)=1K);@%

ision of t#e ride of C#rist, arra&ed for #er #usband >1))=11;@%

E!ilogue >11<=1)@%

<% Arc#bis#o! enson relates t#at .in ans*er once to t#e "uestion, 0#at is t#e form

t#e oo2 !resents to &ou7 t#e re!l& of an intelligent and devout reader *as, It is

C#aos7)%/ If t#e above sc#eme is acce!ted, c#aos *ill give !lace to somet#ing li2e

cosmic order and !rogress% ut t#e order and !rogress of a!ocal&!tic *ritings must not

be udged b& t#e standards of ordinar& literature% An a!ocal&!se is neit#er a #istor& nor

1 Jntl -e reac' c. 22:16, -'ere t'e -rter re8erts to t'e eas of c. 1:1, 1:4 ff.

1 Apocalypse, p. 1.

a #omil&, t#oug# it ma& !arta2e of t#e c#aracter of eac# its met#ods are its o*n, and

t#e& must be learnt b& a s&m!at#etic stud& of t#e te3t%

T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n, in its literar& setting, is an enc&clical letter addressed to t#e

Seven C#urc#es of Asia1% If *e detac# t#e s#ort !rologue or !reface >))=6@, it begins in

t#e e!istolar& st&le familiar to readers of t#e letters of St Paul, and it ends, li2e t#ePauline letters, *it# a benediction6% ut t#is form is not maintained in t#e bod& of t#e

*or2 it is e3c#anged in c! )? for t#e a!ocal&!tic manner, *#ic# continues almost to

t#e end% T#e soFcalled Letters to t#e C#urc#es7 in cc! 16% are no e3ce!tion t#e& are in

fact messages, and not true letters, and t#e& form a se"uel to t#e vision of c! )%8

T#e A!ocal&!se !ro!er #as been re!resented as a quasiFdrama, divisible into acts

and scenes, and inters!ersed *it# interludes7 and c#oric songs)%7 A similar vie* is

advocated b& an American *riter 1, *#o, #o*ever, regards .t#e !ro!er action of t#e

A!ocal&!tic drama/ as beginning *it# c! 8% ut *#ile t#ere are !oints of resemblance

bet*een t#e -ree2 drama and t#e 5e*is#FC#ristian A!ocal&!se, t#e latter refuses to be

bound b& t#e la*s of t#e 0estern stage% T#e order of t#e A!ocal&!se is rat#er t#at of a

series of visions arranging t#emselves under t*o great actions, of *#ic# t#e 0or2 of t#e

Ascended C#rist and t#e $estinies of t#e C#ristian C#urc# are t#e res!ective subects%

As to t#e !rogress of t#e oo2, t#e t*o actions, from t#e nature of t#e case, are more or

less s&nc#ronous, bot# belonging to t#e interval bet*een t#e *riter7s o*n time and t#e

end but, *#ile covering t#e same ground, t#e& a!!roac# it from different !oints of

vie*% 0it#in eac# of t#e actions t#ere is orderl& movement, but t#is again is not tied to

c#ronological succession it is t#e movement of great s!iritual forces rat#er t#an of

#istorical !ersons and events%

B% It ma& be *ort# *#ile to e3amine some*#at more at lengt# t#e !rogress of t#eA!ocal&!tic visions in eac# !art of t#e oo2% >a@ T#e o!ening vision, *it# its messages

2 St Pa+ls Epstle Cπρὸς Oφεσίους s proal* an earler ea5ple of a crc+lar

letter -'c' startn3 -t' Ep'es+s 5ae t'e to+r of t'e $san '+rc'es: see

H., otes on ,elect 0eadings, p. 12 f., an Hort, Prolego&ena to 0o&ans

and Ephesians, p. %6 ff.

See notes ad loc.

4 'e for5+la τI ,γγ9λM ... γρ&2ον n&δε λ9γει s not epstolar* +t prop'etc; for

γρ&2ον cf. 1:11, 1:19, 14:1, 19:9, 21:". n&δε λ9γει anno+nces a prop'etc

5essa3e, as fre+entl* n t'e !QQ.

1 /enson, Apocalypse, pp. ", 7. 'e $rc's'op sa*s nee n 's preface (p.

67): 'e /ook s no ra5a. 'e $cton s carre on per !acta1 non *erba.< /+t

'e as: ?et t'e /ook s lke t'e relatn3 of a ra5a, a narrat8e of Scenes an

$cts -'c' 'a passe efore t'e e*e of t'e Seer.<

2 =. Pal5er, The Dra&a of the Apocalypse (N. ?., 'e Mac5llan o., 190), p.

" ff.

to t#e Asian C#urc#es, *#atever ma& be t#e teac#ing *#ic# it #olds for ot#er times and

C#urc#es, belongs, as to its !rimar& !ur!ose, e3clusivel& to t#e Seer7s o*n age% In t#e

second vision a *ider outloo2 begins if t#e brea2ing of t#e first four Seals discloses

onl& t#e conditions of contem!orar& societ&, t#e fift# antici!ates t#e coming age of

!ersecution, and t#e si3t# carries us to t#e verge of t#e end% T#e o!ening of t#e sevent#Seal is follo*ed after a brief !ause b& a vision of trum!etFbearing Angels, *#ic# *or2s

out into detail t#e revelations of t#e fift# and si3t# Seals, and brings us again to t#e end,

no* seen in t#e lig#t of a final trium!# for t#e ingdom of -od% T*o large e!isodes

*#ic# follo* seem to brea2 t#e movement of t#e !ro!#ec&, but in fact assist in its

develo!ment of t#ese t#e first >c! B%@ assures t#e C#urc#es of safeF2ee!ing in t#e

coming troubles and antici!ates t#e rest *#ic# *ill follo* t#em *#ile t#e second >c!

)K)=)))8@ !re!ares for t#e sevent# Trum!etFblast, as t#e first >c! B%@ #ad !re!ared for

t#e o!ening of t#e sevent# Seal%

>b@ T#e second action of t#e boo2 begins, li2e t#e first, *it# contem!orar& #istor&

>cc! )1%, )6%@% T#e C#urc# is seen struggling *it# Satan and #is agents, t#e 0orldF!o*er

and its s!iritual all&, after*ards described as t#e Dalse Pro!#et% Anot#er large e!isode

follo*s >c! )8%@, consisting of a series of secondar& visions), t#e !ur!ose of *#ic# is to

e3#ibit t#e safet& and !urit& of t#e ideal C#urc#, t#e udgements im!ending over #er

!ersecutors, and t#e im!ending end of all t#ings:a setFoff against t#e a!!arent trium!#

of evil, and a !re!aration for t#e great vision *#ic# is to follo*% T#en come t#e Seven

Last Plagues, a series corres!onding in t#is #alf of t#e boo2 *it# t#e seven Seals and

seven Trum!ets of t#e first #alf% ut t#e end is not &et t#e *orld #as its counterF

manifestation to ma2e, and t#e magnificence of its great Cit& is described, t#oug# onl&

to en#ance t#e terrors of its do*nfall% T#e fall of t#e e3isting 0orldF!o*er does not,#o*ever, e3#aust t#e resources of t#e Enem& long after it t#e !ro!#et foresees a

recrudescence of evil, and a final conflict bet*een C#rist and t#e forces of Satan, *#ic#

ends in t#e anni#ilation of Satan7s !o*er% So t#e last obstacle to t#e m&stic marriage of

t#e Lamb is removed, and *it# t#e glories of His ride, seen in t#e lig#t of t#e

consummation, t#e A!ocal&!se ends%

T#ere is order #ere, and t#ere is !rogress% Eac# !art of t#e oo2 fulfils its o*n

!ur!ose, and is com!lete *it#in its o*n s!#ere ta2en toget#er, t#e t*o !arts !resent a

revelation of t#e *#ole ordering of t#e *orld from t#e Ascension to t#e 'eturn% If more

t#an once, *#en t#e end is nearl& reac#ed, t#e *riter turns bac2 to t#e beginning, #edoes t#is in order to gat#er u! ne* vie*s of life *#ic# could not be embraced b& a

single vision% If #ere and t#ere t#e course of t#e !ro!#ec& is bro2en b& a b&F!la& *#ic#

seems to be irrelevant, it is because t#e e!isode !re!ares for t#e issue *#ic# is at #and%

T#e issue is !ost!oned for a time t#at *#en it comes its real significance ma& be more

clearl& seen%

It ma& be convenient to add an outline of t#e s&stems of division ado!ted b& some

of t#e c#ief modern *riters on t#e A!ocal&!se, >)@ in England and >1@ on t#e continent%

>)@ ALDO'$ ))=6, )8=611 8)=)), ;)=)8, <)=;, <=)))?, )1)=)6),

)8)=1K, );)=)<1), )B)=)18, )?)=11;, 11<=1)% LEE

))=611 8)=;)8, <)= 1 14:1 ε5δον καὶ *δο), 6 καὶ ε5δον, 14 καὶ ε5δον καὶ *δο).

), 1=)))?, )1)=)6), )8)=1K, );)=)<1), )B)=11; 11<=1)% SI+COU ))=6

)8=611 8)=;)8, <)=), 1=)))?, )1)=)8)6, )8)8=1K, );)=)<1), )B)=

)18, )?)=1), 1K)=<, 1KB=)K, 1K))=);, 1))=11? 11)K=1)% A N$E'SON SCOTT

))=, )?=1K, 1)=611, 8)=;)8, <)=), 1=)))?, )1)=)81K, );)=)<1), )B)=

)?)K, )?))=1K);, 1))=11;, 11<=)B, 11)=1)% +ODDATT ))= )?=611 8)= <)B >B)=), )@ 1=?1) >)K)=)))6, )))8=)?, )1)=)B, )6)=), )8)=;, )8<=

1K@ );)=)<1), )B)=1K)K 1K))=11;, 11<=1)%

>1@ EN-EL ))=6, )8=<, )B=, )?=1K, 1)=611 8)=;)8, ;);=<)B, B)=)B,

)=<, B=)1, )6=?1), )K)=)))?, )1)=)1, )1)6=)B, )6)=), )8% )=;, )8<=)6,

)8)8=1K, );)=)<1), )B)=), ))=)?), )?)?=1), 1K), 1K1, 1K6, 1K8=<, 1KB=

)K, 1K))=);, 1))=11; 11<=1)% $E 0ETTE ))=6, )8=, )?=1K, 1)=611 8)=)),

;)=)8, <)=, <?=)B, B)=, B?=)B, )=<, B=)1 >)6@, ?)=)) >)1@, ?)6=1), )K)=B,

)K=)), )))=)6 >)8@, )));=)? )1)=<, )1B=)1, )1)6=)B, )1)=)6)K, )6))=),

)8)=;, )8<=)6, )8)8=1K );)=)<), )<1=)), )<)1=)<, )<)B=1), )B)=), ))=

18, )?)=, )??, )?)K, )?))=)<, )?)B=1), 1K)=6, 1K8=<, 1KB=)K, 1K))=);, 1))=

11;, 11<=1)% E0AL$ ))=6, )8=, )?=1K 1)=61) 8), 81=)), ;)=)8, <)=, <?=

)), <)1=)B, B)=, B?=)B ), 1=<, B=)6, ?)=)1, ?)6=1), )K)=)), )))=)8

)));=)?, )1)=)B, )1)=)6)K, )6))=), )8)=;, )8<=)6, )8)8=1K );)=8, );;=

)<), )<1=?, )<)K, )<)), )<)1=1), )B)=), ))=18 )?)=)K, )?))=)<, )?)B=

1K<, 1KB=)K, 1K))=);, 1))=, 1)?=11;, 11<=?, 11)K=)B, 11)=1K, 111)%

HOLT4+ANN ))=6, )8=, )?=1K, 1)=611, 8)=;)8, <)=)B, B)=)B, )=;, <=

?1), )K)=)))8, )));=)?, )1)=)8;, )8<=1K, );)=)<), )<1=1), )B)=)?)K,

)?))=11;, 11<=1)% 4AHN ))=? ))K=611 8)=), 1=))), )))?=)81K, );)=

)<)B, )B)=)18, )?))=1), 1)?=11; 11)K=1)%It is more interesting to observe t#e met#ods of grou!ing ado!ted b& t#e several

aut#orities% +ost of t#e Englis# commentators brea2 u! t#e boo2, after t#e introduction

and conclusion #ave been removed, into t*o une"ual !arts >)8=611, 8)=11;@, a

modification of t#e sc#eme of engel, *#o divides t#e *#ole boo2 into >)@ introitus

>))=611@, >1@ ostensio >8)=11;@, >6@ conclusio >11<=1)@% In #is istorical ! T! +r

+offatt #as de!arted from t#is tradition, seeing in t#e A!ocal&!se four #e!tads >seven

letters, seven seals, seven trum!ets, seven vials@, follo*ed b& t*o visions, a vision of

doom and a vision of t#e end% Of t#e -ermans, $e 0ette ma2es t#e second !art of t#e

boo2 begin at )1), *#ile ol2mar !laces t#e brea2 at t#e end of c! ?% E*ald ado!ts asevenfold division >))=1K V 11)=1), 1=6%, 8=B%, =))8, )));=)81K, );=)%, )?)=

11;@ Holt9mann #as seventeen sections, !lacing in t#e rig#tF#and column B)=)B,

)K)=)))8, )1)=)8;, )B)=)?)K, 1))=11; *#ic# largel& coincide *it# t#e !ortions

of t#e boo2 *#ic# #ave been t#oug#t to be of 5e*is# origin *#ile 4a#n, *#o believes

in t#e unit& of t#e A!ocal&!se, is attracted b& t#e t#eor& t#at t#e bod& of t#e *or2 falls

into eig#t successive visions%

T#e division of t#e boo2 at t#e end of c! ))% into t*o nearl& e"ual sections, *#ic# is

suggested in t#is c#a!ter, recommended itself in t#e si3teent# centur& to t#e S!anis#

5esuit Alcasar, but in conne3ion *it# a *idel& different s&stem of inter!retation) to t#e

!resent *riter it #as occurred inde!endentl&, u!on a stud& of t#e facts%

8% ( NITY OD THE APOCALYPSEIn t#e attem!t *#ic# #as been made to establis# t#e e3istence of a definite !lan in

t#e A!ocal&!se it is assumed t#at t#e boo2 is a literar& unit&% T#is !oint, #o*ever, #as been and still is #otl& dis!uted b& sc#olars of t#e first ran2, and it demands a se!arate

and some*#at !rolonged e3amination%

)% T#e boo2 creates a prima facie im!ression t#at it !roceeds from one aut#or or

editor% T#e first and last c#a!ters claim to be *ritten b& t#e same !erson >)), )8, )?,

11@ and t#at t#e first t#ree c#a!ters and t#e last t*o or t#ree #ave come from t#e same

#and ma& be s#e*n b& sim!l& !lacing in !arallel columns t#e ideas and !#raseolog&

*#ic# t#e& #ave in common%))% 11<%

δεί0ας τοῖς δο)λοις αὐτοῦ o δεῖ γεν9σ=αι !ν τ&-ει%

δεῖ0αι τοῖς δο)λοις αὐτοῦ o δεῖ γεν9σ=αι !ν τ&-ει%

)6% 11B%μακ&ριος : ,ναγινVσκ'ν καὶ ο+,κο)οντες τος λόγους τῆςπροφ%τείας καὶ τ%ροῦντες κτλ.

μακ&ριος : τ%ρ$ν τος λόγους τῆς προφ%τείας τοῦ BιBλίουτο)του%

)6 11)K%: γὰρ καιρὸς !γγ)ς% : καιρὸς γὰρ !γγ)ς !στιν%

)% 1)<, 11)1%!γV ε*μι τὸ @λφα καὶ τὸ p% !γd τὸ @λφα καὶ τὸ p%

))B% 11)6%

!γV ε*μι : πρ$τος καὶ :;σ-ατος% : πρ$τος καὶ : ;σ-ατος%

1B% 11)B%τὸ πνεῦμα λ9γει% τὸ πνεῦμα καὶ ν)μφ% λ9γουσιν%

1B% 1)B%τI νικ$ντι δVσ' κτλ. >cf% 1)),1)B, 11<, 6;, 6)1, 61)@%

: νικ$ν κλ%ρονομ>σει ταῦτα%

1))% 1K<%οὐ μ# ,δικ%=7 !κ τοῦ =αν&τουτοῦ δευτ9ρου%

!πὶ το)τ'ν : δε)τερος =&νατος οὐκ ;-ει !0ουσίαν >cf% v! )8,1)@%

11% 11)<%

δVσ' αὐτI τὸν ,στ9ρα τὸνπρ'kνόν%

!γV ε*μι ... : ,στ#ρ ... : πρ'kνός%

6))% 11)1%;ρ-ομαι τα-)% *δο ;ρ-ομαι τα-)%

6)1% 1)1%τῆς καινῆς 3ερουσαλ#μ καταBαίνουσα !κ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ,πὸ τοῦ =εοῦ μου%

τ#ν πόλιν τ#ν ἁγίαν 3ερουσαλ#μ καιν#ν ε5δονκαταBαίνουσαν !κ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ,πὸ τοῦ =εοῦ%

1% Suc# coincidences leave no doubt t#at t#e same *riter #as been at *or2 in cc! )=

6%, 1K=11% ut t#oug# t#e& are most numerous in t#e beginning and end of t#e boo2,

1 See c. 1%.

t#ese traces of literar& unit& are not *anting else*#ere, as t#e follo*ing e3am!les *ill

s#e*%8)% ))%

δεί0' σοι o δεῖ γεν9σ=αι% δεῖ0αι ... o δεῖ γεν9σ=αι%81% ))K%

!γενόμ%ν !ν πνε)ματι% !γενόμ%ν !ν πνε)ματι%8<% );1%

fς =&λασσα "αλίν%% ε5δον fς =&λασσαν "αλίν%ν%

;;% 11)<% AίRα Dαυείδ% AίRα καὶ τὸ γ9νος Dαυείδ%

;)K% )<%!ποί%σας αὐτος τI =εI μ$νBασιλείαν καὶ +ερεῖς%

!ποί%σεν μ/ς Bασιλείαν< +ερεῖς τI =εI%

?)% 1K)% κλεὶς τοῦ φρ9στος τῆς

,B)σσου%

τ#ν κλεῖν τῆς ,B)σσου%

)K)% ))8 f%τὸ πρόσ'πον αὐτοῦ fς : qλιος<καὶ ο+ πόδες αὐτοῦ fς στ)λοιπυρός%

ο+ πόδες αὐτοῦ Gμοιοι -αλκολιB&νM fς !ν καμίνMπεπυρ'μ9ν%ς ... καὶ ὄ2ις αὐτοῦ fς : qλιος κτλ.

)))% 1));%!δό=% μοι κ&λαμος ... λ9γ'νrγειρε καὶ μ9τρ%σον τὸν ναόν%

ε5-εν μ9τρον κ&λαμον -ρυσοῦν sνα μετρ>σ6 τ#ν πόλιν ...

))B% )B%τὸ =%ρίον τὸ ,ναBαῖνον !κ τῆς,B)σσου%

μ9λλει ,ναBαίνειν !κ τῆς ,B)σσου%

)1?% 1K1%: δρακdν : μ9γας : ὄφις :,ρ-αῖος< : καλο)μενοςδι&Bολος καὶ : σαταν/ς%

: ὄφις : ,ρ-αῖος< Gς !στιν δι&Bολος καὶ : σαταν/ς%

)8)6% 1B etc%λ9γει τὸ πνεῦμα% τὸ πνεῦμα λ9γει%

)8)8% ))6%

Gμοιον υ+ὸν ,ν=ρVπου% Gμοιον υ+ὸν ,ν=ρVπου%

);<% ))6%περιεR'σμ9νοι περὶ τὰ στ>=%RVνας -ρυσ/ς%

περιεR'σμ9νον πρὸς τοῖς μαστοῖς RVν%ν -ρυσ/ν%

)<);% 66%

;ρ-ομαι fς κλ9πτ%ς% q0' fς κλ9πτ%ς%)B)% 1)?%

!λ&λ%σεν μετH !μοῦ λ9γ'νDεῦρο δεί0' σοι τὸ κρίμα τῆςπόρν%ς%

!λ&λ%σεν μετH !μοῦ λ9γ'ν Dεῦρο δεί0' σοι τ#ν ν)μφ%ν%

)?)1% ))8%ο+ Kφ=αλμοὶ αὐτοῦ φλὸ0 πυρός% ο+ Kφ=αλμοὶ αὐτοῦ fς φλὸ0 πυρός%

6% It is clear from t#ese instances, *#ic# mig#t be multi!lied, t#at t#e #and of t#e

man *#o *rote cc! )=6%, 1K=11%, #as been bus& t#roug#out t#e boo2% T#is in itself ma&

not mean more t#an t#at #e #as acted as editor of t#e *#ole% ut t#ere are ot#er

indications of unit&, running t#roug# large sections of t#e boo2, *#ic# carr& us someste!s furt#er% Certain s&mbolical figures rea!!ear at intervals in conte3ts *#ic# deal

*it# *idel& different subects% T#oug#, as *e #ave seen, t#e elevent# and t*elft#

c#a!ters are se!arated b& a mar2ed cleavage, t#e Lamb and t#e east a!!ear on bot#

sides of it t#e Lamb occurs in cc! %, <%, B%, )1%, )8%, );%, )B%, )?%, 1)%, 11%, i%e% !racticall&

t#roug#out t#e boo2 from c! ;% on*ards, and t#e east in c! ))% as *ell as in cc! )6%, )8%,

);%, )<%, )B%, )?%, 1K% T#e figure of Hades as a com!anion of $eat# occurs in cc! )%, <%,

1K% T#ere are certain unusual *ords and forms *#ic# are common to ever& !art of t#e

A!ocal&!se, or are found t#roug#out great sections or in !assages *#ic# are *idel&

se!arated e%g% @Bυσσος >cc! ?%, ))%, )B%, 1K%@, ,δικεῖν to #urt >1%, <%, B%, ?%, ))%, 11%@,Bασανισμός >?%, )8%, )%@, δι&δ%μα >)1%, )6%, )?%@, δρ&κ'ν >)1%, )6%, )<%, 1K%@,

εὐαγγελίRειν active >)K%, )8%@, =ρόνος >)%, 1%, 6%, 8%, ;%, <%, B%, %, ))%, )1%, )6%, )8%, )<%,

)?%, 1K%, 1)%, 11%@, καῦμα >B%, )<%@, κρ)σταλλος >8%, 11%@, μεγιστ&ν ><%, )%@,

μεσουρ&ν%μα >%, )8%, )?%@, μολ)νειν >6%, )8%@, ο*κουμ9ν% >6%, )1%, )<%@, παντοκρ&τ'ρ

>)%, 8%, ))%, );%, )<%, )?%, 1)%@, συνκοιν'νεῖν< tνός >)%, )%@, σφ&Rειν >;%, <%, )6%, )%@,

φαρμακία< φ&ρμακον< φαρμακός >?%, )%, 1)%, 11%@, φι&λ% >;%, );%, )<%, )B%, 1)%@,

-&ραγμα >)6%, )8%, )<%, )?%, 1K%@% Still more stri2ing as an indication of an underl&ing

unit& is t#e resum!tion in c! );% of t#e series of sevenfold visitations *#ic# began in c!

<% as t#ere *ere seven sealFo!enings and seven trum!etFblasts in t#e first #alf of t#e

oo2, so t#e second #as its seven bo*ls full of t#e seven last !lagues% T#e cumulative

force of t#is evidence is sufficient to create a strong !resum!tion t#at t#e *riter *#o

announces #is name in t#e !rologue #as been at *or2 t#roug#out t#e boo2% T#e im!ress

of #is !eculiar st&le is to be seen in ever& !art of it%

8% T#ese considerations #ave not deterred modern sc#olars from regarding t#e

A!ocal&!se as a com!osite *or2 and attem!ting in some cases to resolve it into its

sources%

Suggestions in t#is direction *ere #a9arded in t#e seventeent# centur& b& -rotius

>)<88@) and Hammond >)<;6@1, and earl& in t#e nineteent# centur& b& ogel >)))=)<@6

and lee2 >)11@8% 0ei9sWc2er >)1@; reo!ened t#e "uestion *it# a t#eor& t#at t#e

aut#or, alt#oug# #is #and ma& be seen t#roug#out, made free use of older material% In

t#e same &ear #is !u!il Xlter <

started a more ambitious t#eor&, according to *#ic#A!oc% )8=<, 8)=;)K, <)=)B, B)=, )=)6, ?)=1), )))8=)?, )8), )86, )8<, )8B,

)8)8=1K, ))=18, )?)=)K, ma2e u! t#e original A!ocal&!se, *#ic# Xlter *ould

assign to A%$% <1 cc! )K)=)))6, )8, )B)=) *ere added in A%$% <=BK, and t#e rest

of t#e boo2 *as contributed b& successive editors in t#e time of Traan and Hadrian

t#ree suc# later redactions are distinguis#ed, vi9% >)@ cc! )1)=)B, )?))=1) >1@ ;))=

)8, B?=)B, )1)), )6%, )8), )8;, )8?=)1, );=)<%, )B) a, )?1K f%, 1K), 1K1K, 1)?=

11;, 11<=)? >6@ ))=6, )B, ), )?=611, ;< b, )8)6, )<);, )?)K b, )?)6 b, 11B

a, 11)1, 11)6, 11)<, 11)B, 111K=1)% In )< a ne* vein *as struc2 b& a !u!il of

Harnac2, Eber#ard isc#er ), *#o set to *or2 on t#e #&!ot#esis t#at t#e A!ocal&!se of

5o#n is a C#ristian ada!tation of a 5e*is# original t#e s!ecificall& C#ristian !ortions of

t#e boo2 are )=6%, ;?=)8, B?=)B, )6? f%, )8)=;, ))1, ))6, );6, )<);, )B)8, )??

ff%, )?)6, 1K8=<, 1); b=, 11<=1), toget#er *it# a fe* *ords inter!olated in ?)),

)), )));, );6, )B<, 1K8, 1))8, 1)16% T#e &ear )< !roduced t#e t#eor& of

0e&land1, *#ic# assumed t*o 5e*is# sources, one > @ *ritten under Nero, and a

second > @ under Titus% To 0e&land attributes ))K, ))1=)B, ))?, 8=<%, B)=)B, =

?%, )))8=), )8)8=1K, );;, )<)B b=1K, )B=)%, )?)=<, 1)?=1B, 11)=)), 11)8 f%

to )K) = )))6,)1) = )K,)1)1 = ),)6,%)8< = )),);1 = 8,)<)6,)<)8,)<)<,)?)) =

1),1K,%1)) = to t#e C#ristian redactor #e leaves )=6%, ;<=)8, )))?, )1)), )1)B c,)8)=;, )8)1=)6, );), );<=, )<)=)B a, )<1), )?B=)K, )?)6 b, 11)1, 11)6,

11)<=1)% Ot#er t#eories based on t#e assum!tion of a 5e*is# source or sources are

t#ose of Holt9mann6, *#o assumes a 5e*is# -rundschrift of t#e age of Nero, in *#ic#

1 Annotationes ad .T.

2 Paraphrases and Annotations upon the .T.

Co&&entationes %ii de Apoc. Ioannis.

4 n t'e /erln Th. 2eitschrift , 2., p. 240 ff. /leek after-ars re8oke 's 8e-.

" n Th. $itteratur'eitung , 1%%2, p. 7% f.

6 n Die Entstehung der Apo#. (1%%2O"). KRlter 'as recentl* p+ls'e a recast

of 's t'eor* (Die Offenbarung -ohannis neu untersucht u. erl3utert , 1904), n

-'c' 'e stn3+s'es (1) an $pocal*pse of #o'n $.. 6", (2) an $pocal*pse of

ernt'+s, $.. 70, an () t'e -ork of a reactor of t'e t5e of raLan.

1 Te+te u. ntersuchungen, 2: (1%%6).

2 Th. Tydschrift , 1%%6, p. 4"4 ff.

"esch. d. *ol#es Israel 2:2, p. 6"% ff.

*as incor!orated an older 5e*is# a!ocal&!se *ritten under Caligula and Sabatier 8, *#o

regards t#e A!ocal&!se as a C#ristian boo2 embod&ing 5e*is# fragments >)))=)6, )1%,

)6%, )8)=1K, )B)==)?1, )?))=1K)K, 1)?=11;@% S!itta; distinguis#es t#ree sources

ans*ering to t#e t#ree series of sevenfold udgements:a Seal source, *#ic# is

C#ristian >c! A%$% <K@, a Trum!et and a ial source, *#ic# are 5e*is# t#e !resent formof t#e boo2 being ascribed to a C#ristian redactor% Erbes<, on t#e ot#er #and, believing

t#e boo2 to be entirel& of C#ristian origin, finds in it t#ree C#ristian sources belonging

res!ectivel& to t#e reigns of Caligula, Nero, and $omitian%

;% To t#e !resent *riter it a!!ears t#at most of t#e #&!ot#eses *#ic# e3ercised t#e

ingenuit& of -erman& during t#e ten &ears t#at follo*ed 0ei9sWc2er7s first

!ronouncement ignored t#e fundamental conditions of t#e !roblem% No t#eor& *it#

regard to t#e sources of t#e A!ocal&!se can be satisfactor& *#ic# overloo2s t#e internal

evidence of its essential unit& > )=6@% T#e boo2 #as clearl& !assed t#roug# t#e #ands

of an individual *#o #as left #is mar2 on ever& !art of it if #e #as used old materials

freel&, t#e& #ave been *or2ed u! into a form *#ic# is !ermeated b& #is o*n

!ersonalit&% T#is #as been so far recogni9ed b& more recent criticism t#at less drastic

met#ods are no* being used to account for t#e literar& !#enomena of t#e *or2%In )<, after t#e com!letion, of Xlter7s t#eor&, 0ei9sWc2er suggested t#at t#e

a!!arent lac2 of co#esion in certain !assages is due to t#e inter!olation of fragments *#ic# arenot from t#e aut#or7s !en, s!ecif&ing cc! )=, )1)=)K, )6%, )B%, *#ic# #e assigned to t#ereigns of Nero, es!asian, and $omitian% An entirel& ne* vie* *as !ro!ounded b& -un2el in#is e!oc#Fma2ing Sch.pfung und /haos >)?8@% rea2ing loose at once from t#e !revalent vie*of t#e A!ocal&!se as a mere inter!retation of local contem!orar& #istor&, and from t#e tendenc&to frame elaborate sc#emes for its division into sources,7 #e sa* in t#e boo2 t#e outcome of along course of a!ocal&!tic traditions *#ic# in some cases *ent bac2 to t#e CreationFm&t#s ofab&lonia% -un2el7s /haos *as follo*ed in t#e ne3t &ear b& ousset7s (ntichrist ), a boo2succeeded in )?< b& its aut#or7s im!ortant commentar& on t#e A!ocal&!se1% ousset, *#ilerecogni9ing t#e essential unit& of t#e A!ocal&!se, believes *it# 0ei9sWc2er t#at certainconte3ts in it are fragments of older *or2s, and *it# -un2el finds traces of a!ocal&!tictraditions in t#e *riter7s o*n *or2% Still more recentl& a contribution #as been made to t#esubect b& Professor 5o#annes 0eiss of +arburg6% According to #is vie*, t#e originalA!ocal&!se of 5o#n *as *ritten before BK, and included )8=<, )?=)?, 1%, 6%, 8%, ;%, <%, B%, ?%,)1B=)1, )6))=), )8)8=1K, 1K)=)K, 1K))=);, 1))=8, 116=; in its !resent form t#e boo2*as issued at t#e end of t#e reign of $omitian b& an editor *#o *as not t#e originalA!ocal&!tist%

<%% It is im!ossible to contem!late t#e flood of literature on t#e com!osition of t#e

A!ocal&!se *#ic# t#e last "uarter of a centur& #as called fort# *it#out as2ing t#e

4 $es origines litt4raires et la co&position de l5Apoc. (Pars, 1%%7).

" Die Offenbarung -ohannis (1%%4).

6 Die Off. -oh. (1%91).

1 Der Antichrist in der eberlieferung des -udenthu&s1 des .T. u. der alten

/irche (1%9").

2 Die Offenbarung -ohannis neu bearbeitet (1%96).

Die Offenbarung des -ohannis6 ein Beitrag 'ur $iteratur7 u. 0eligions7geschichte (1904).

"uestion *#et#er t#ere is an& solid ground for t#e assum!tion *#ic# underlies it all% It ista2en for granted b& some recent aut#orities) t#at t#e A!ocal&!se is a com!osite *or2%ut does t#is conviction rest on more t#an t#e reiterated assertion of *riters *#o #avefound in t#e anal&sis of t#e boo2 a fascinating field for intellectual e3ercise 0#en t#een"uirer investigates t#e grounds on *#ic# t#e #&!ot#esis of com!ilation rests, t#e& are

found to be suc# as t#e follo*ing >a@ t#e !resence of *ell defined brea2s in t#e t#readof t#e movement, as e%g% after 611, B)B, ?1), )))?, )6), )81K, )<1) >b@ t#etreatment of t#e same idea more t#an once under different !oints of vie* t#us t#e)88,KKK of B8 ff% rea!!ear under anot#er as!ect in )8) ff%, and t#e east of )6) in c! )B% t#e Ne* 5erusalem of 1)? does not altoget#er corres!ond to t#e Ne* 5erusalem of1)1 >c@ t#e re!resentation of t#e Last 5udgement at t*o *idel& se!arated stages in t#edevelo!ment of t#e boo2, i%e% in )8)8 ff%, and 1K)) ff% >d @ t#e different as!ects ofC#ristian t#oug#t revealed b& t#e descri!tions of C#rist in ))6 ff%, ;<, )8)8, and oft#e C#urc# in )1) ff%, )BB, 1)1 >e@ t#e different dates *#ic# seem to be !ostulated b&cc! ))) f%, )6), )B)K f% Suc# a list of seeming inconsistencies is formidable until it ista2en to !ieces and e3amined in detail% ut *#en t#is #as been done, it *ill be found

t#at t#e *eig#t of t#e obections is greatl& diminis#ed% T#e !#enomena *#ic# suggestdiversit& of aut#ors#i! admit for t#e most !art of anot#er e3!lanation t#e& ma& *ell bedue to t#e met#od of t#e aut#or or t#e necessities of #is !lan% Indeed t#e last #ead is t#eonl& one *#ic# demands serious consideration from t#ose *#o advocate t#e unit& of t#e

boo2% If c! ))) im!lies t#at t#e Tem!le at 5erusalem *as still standing, and )B)K t#ates!asian7s reign #ad not &et ended, *#ile t#e general tenor of t#e boo2 !oints to t#ereign of $omitian, it is clear t#at as far as t#ese !assages are concerned t#e A!ocal&!semust be admitted to contain fragments of an older *or2 but a reference to t#ecommentar& *ill s#e*, it is #o!ed, t#at even in t#ese conte3ts t#e inference is far from

being certain%

B% T#at t#e aut#or of t#e A!ocal&!se made free use of an& materials to *#ic# #e #ad

access and *#ic# *ere available for #is !ur!ose, is #ig#l& !robable% ut did #e transfer

large masses of earlier a!ocal&!tic *riting to #is o*n *or2, in suc# a manner as to

ma2e #is boo2 a com!ilation or to detract from its unit& 0as t#is #is met#od of

dealing *it# t#e *or2s of older a!ocal&!tists It so #a!!ens t#at *e are in a !osition to

give a definite ans*er to t#e second of t#ese "uestions% T#e *riter of t#e N% T%

A!ocal&!se #as made large use of t#e a!ocal&!tic !ortions of t#e Old Testament% He

refers to t#e oo2 of $aniel in some fort&Ffive !laces >A!oc% )), )B, ))6, ))8, ))B,

))?, )1K, 1)K, 1), 8), 8)K, ;)), B)8, ?1K, )K8 ff%, ))1, ))B, )))6, )));,

))), )16, )1B f%, )1)8, )6) f%, )6;, )6B, )6, )6);, )8)8, )<)), )<) f%, )B6,

)B;, )B, )B)1, )1, )1K, )?<, )?)1, 1K8, 1K)) f%, 1K);, 1)1B, 11; f%, 11)K@,and t#e oo2s of Isaia#, E9e2iel, and 4ec#aria# are used *it# almost e"ual fre"uenc&,

*#ile t#e ot#er Pro!#ets, t#e Psalter, and t#e Pentateuc# are often in vie*)% No boo2 in

t#e Ne* Testament is so t#oroug#l& stee!ed in t#e t#oug#t and imager& of t#e Hebre*

Scri!tures% Yet t#e *riter #as not once "uoted t#e Old Testament, and rarel& uses its

ipsissima verba% Seldom does #e borro* from it a scene or t#e suggestion of a vision

*it#out modif&ing t#e details, de!arting from #is original *it# t#e utmost freedom, or

1 E.3. * /o+sset n Encycl. Biblica 1:20": t see5s to e settle t'at t'e

$pocal*pse can no lon3er e re3are as a lterar* +nt*.<

1 See p. 14%.

combining features *#ic# #ave been broug#t toget#er from different conte3ts% T#is

met#od of using Old Testament materials runs t#roug# t#e *#ole of t#e A!ocal&!se,

and is c#aracteristic of t#e boo2% 0#et#er t#e *riter is indebted to nonFcanonical

a!ocal&!ses is less certain, but if #e is, #e #as follo*ed t#e same !rinci!le% T#ere is no

evidence t#at an& one of t#em #as served #im as a source7 coincidences bet*een t#e*or2 of 5o#n and t#e e3tant 5e*is# boo2s are nearl& limited to minor !oints connected

*it# t#e imager& and diction1% (nder t#e circumstances it is more t#an !recarious to

!ostulate sources of *#ic# not#ing is 2no*n%

Dor t#ese reasons it #as been assumed in t#is edition t#at t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n is

a literar& unit&% It ma& be added t#at, as t#e *or2 #as !rogressed, t#is assum!tion #as

gro*n into a conviction% Ever&*#ere t#e !resence of t#e same creative mind #as made

itself felt, and features *#ic# at first sig#t a!!eared to be foreign to t#e *riter7s !ur!ose

*ere found on nearer vie* to be necessar& to t#e develo!ment of #is !lan% It is

im!ossible to ustif& in t#is !lace an im!ression *#ic# de!ends u!on t#e e3amination of

t#e te3t, but in t#e commentar& t#e reader *ill find t#e details on *#ic# it rests, and #e

is as2ed to reserve #is udgement until #e #as com!leted #is stud& of t#e boo2 )%

;% $ESTINATION)% T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n !rofesses to be an enc&clical addressed to t#e C#ristian

societies in seven of t#e cities of Asia >A!oc% )8 3'&νν%ς ταῖς Nπτὰ !κκλ%σίαις ταῖς !ντ7 1σί8 ib! )) u Bλ9πεις γρ&2ον ε*ς BιBλίον καὶ π9μ2ον ταῖς Nπτὰ !κκλ%σίαις< ε*ςrφεσον καὶ ε*ς Pμ)ρναν καὶ ε*ς E9ργαμον καὶ ε*ς Qυ&τειραν καὶ ε*ς P&ρδεις καὶ ε*ςSιλαδελφίαν καὶ ε*ς Tαοδικίαν@%

1% At t#e end of t#e first centur& t#e !eninsula 2no*n as Asia +inor ) seems to #ave

embraced si3 !rovinces, Asia, it#&nia >including Pontus@, -alatia, Ca!!adocia, Cilicia,

L&cia >including Pam!#&lia@1% T#e Province of Asia #ad been created as far bac2 as t#e

&ear %C% )1?6 out of t#e domains be"ueat#ed to t#e Senate b& Attalus 6%, t#e last 2ing of

Pergamum% (ltimatel& it included +&sia, L&dia, and Caria, and t#e t#ree P#r&gian

dioeceses of Cib&ra, A!amea, and S&nnada, besides certain islands in t#e Aegean Sea

off t#e *estern coast8% T#us constituted, t#e !rovince *as bounded on t#e nort# b&

2 See cc. 2, 1.

1 t s not t'e ntenton of t'ese re5arks to en* t'at t'e $pocal*pse, as -e

'a8e rece8e t, 5a* e a ress+e * t'e -rter of t'e or3nal -ork n an

enlar3e or a5ene for5; s+c' a 8e- oes not 5ltate a3anst t'e essental

+nt* of t'e ook. &n t'e ot'er 'an t'e t'eor* propose * Prof. #. ess

(supra, p. 47) presents ffc+ltes -'c' to t'e present -rter see5 to e 3reater

t'an t'ose -'c' t seeks to re5o8e.

1 &n t'e 'stor* of t's ter5 see Hort, !irst Epistle of ,t Peter , p. 16".

2 =or t'e last t'ree see Hort, op. cit., p. 1"% f.

Mar+art, 08&. ,taats7*er9altung 1. p. 177.

4 &n t'ese see K. 'apot, $a pro%ince ro&aine proconsulaire d5Asie, p. %2 ff.

it#&nia, on t#e east b& -alatia, and on t#e sout# b& L&cia on t#e *est it *as *as#ed

b& t#e Aegean inland, it reac#ed a distance from t#e coast of about 6KK Englis# miles,

*#ile its greatest lengt# *as about 1<K;% In t#e region *#ic# falls under our

consideration four rivers, t#e Caicus, t#e Hermus, t#e Ca&ster, and t#e +aeander,

descended to t#e sea from t#e #ig#lands of t#e interior, and t#ree considerable ranges of#ills, Si!&lus, Tmolus, and +essogis, mounted u! to t#e #ig#lands from t#e coast%

6% In t#e -ree2 Old Testament Asia is mentioned onl& b& t#e *riters of t#e oo2s of

t#e +accabees, *#o use it to re!resent t#e dominions of t#e Seleucid d&nast& >) +acc%

<, )))6, )16?, )661 1 +acc% 66, )K18 6 +acc% 6)8 8 +acc% 61K@% ut in t#e

Ne* Testament, under t#e Em!ire, t#e case is different% Asia is named b& St Lu2e, St

Paul, St Peter, and St 5o#n >Acts 1?, <?, )<<, )?)K, )?11, )?1< f%, 1K8, 1K)<,

1K), 1)1B, 18), 1B1 'om% )<; ) Cor% )<)? 1 Cor% ) 1 Tim% )); ) Pet% ))

A!oc% )8@, and b& all in t#e sense familiar at t#e time% .Asia in t#e Ne* Testament,/

*rote $r Lig#tfoot in )<;, .is al*a&s Proconsular Asia/) and #is dictum #as not been

seriousl& s#a2en b& t#e researc#es of t#e last fort& &ears% In Acts 1? f%, indeed, P#r&gia

is distinguis#ed from Asia and lin2ed to Pam!#&lia but b& P#r&gia in t#at !lace is

!robabl& meant t#e nonFAsian region of P#r&gia, as in Acts )<<, )161% ut *#atever

ma& be t#e !ractice of St Lu2e or St Paul in reference to t#e use of t#e name Asia,7 it iscertain t#at t#e !rovince of Asia is contem!lated b& St Peter in ) Pet% )) >παρεπιδ>μοιςδιασπορ/ς Eόντου< lαλατίας< Fαππαδοκίας< 1σίας< καὶ gι=υνίας@, *#ere, as $r Hort

sa&s, .t#e five names coincide !recisel& *it# t#e five names t#at ma2e u! t#e titles of

t#e four !rovinces of t#e 'oman Em!ire into *#ic# Asia +inor, t#e sout#ern littoral

eventuall& e3ce!ted, *as divided in and after t#e reign of Tiberius and it *ould need

strong !ositive evidence to refute t#e conse"uent !resum!tion t#at t#e territor& denoted *as t#e territor& of t#ese four 'oman !rovinces6%/ In A!oc% )8 t#e inclusion of

0estern P#r&gia in Asia7 is im!lied b& t#e enumeration among Asian cities of

Laodicea on t#e L&cus, *#ic# belonged to t#e dioecesis /ibyratica%

8% If t#e A!ocal&!se *as directed to t#e C#urc#es of 'oman Asia, it *as natural t#at

it s#ould be sent in t#e first instance to t#e greater cities of t#e !rovince% Asia *as

remar2able for t#e number and *ealt# of its cities% Plin& > ! ! ;1?@ mentions nine

*#ic# *ere distinguis#ed b& being t#e centres of a conventus vi9% Adram&ttium,

Alabanda, A!amea, E!#esus, Laodicea on t#e L&cus, Pergamum, Sardis, Sm&rna,

S&nnada and to t#ese C&9icus, P#ilomelium, and Tralles s#ould be added)

% A long list

" 'e fronter s caref+ll* efne * 'apot, p. %".

1 "alatians, p. 19, n. 6. 'e pro8nce -as ass3ne to t'e Senate * $+3+st+s,

$.. 27, an -as fro5 t'at ate to t'e t5e of ocletan a5nstere * a

Procons+l (,ν=)πατος).

2 /lass (co55. on $cts, pp. "2, 176) contens t'at n t'ese passa3es

$saFestern $sa Mnor; +t see a5sa* n Hastn3s, D.B. :177.

!irst Epistle of ,t Peter , p. 1"7.

1 Mar+art, op. cit. p. 1%".

mig#t be made of less im!ortant but &et considerable to*ns, suc# as Colossae,

$or&laeum, Eumenia, Hiera!olis, +agnesia on t#e +aeander, +iletus, P#iladel!#ia,

Priene, T#&atira t#e total number of to*ns#i!s in t#e !rovince is stated b&

contem!orar& *riters to #ave been ;KK, or even )KKK1% .No !rovince,/ *rites Aristides

of Sm&rna in t#e second centur&, .#as so man& cities, nor are even t#e greatest cities ofot#er !rovinces com!arable for si9e to t#e cities of Asia6%/ et*een t#e larger to*ns

t#ere *as a 2een t#oug# friendl& rivalr&, as t#e local coins and inscri!tions testif&% IfE!#esus !roclaims #erself πρVτ% καὶ μεγίστ% μ%τρόπολις τῆς 1σίας8, Sm&rna, not to

be outdone b& #er neig#bour, claims to be bot# a μ%τρόπολις, and πρVτ% τῆς 1σίαςκ&λλει καὶ μεγ9=ει< καὶ λαμπροτ&τ%; *#ile Pergamum, t#e old ca!ital, is, li2e E!#esus

and Sm&rna, a πρVτ% μ%τρόπολις% T#e title μ%τρόπολις is also assumed b& C&9icus,

Laodicea on t#e L&cus, Sardis, S&nnada, and Tralles<% +agnesia on t#e +aeander,

t#oug# it cannot rise to t#is dignit&, is described on coins as t#e sevent# cit& of AsiaB%

;% In t#e lig#t of t#ese facts it is not at first sig#t eas& to e3!lain t#e !rinci!le on

*#ic# t#e A!ocal&!tic list of seven #as been formed% 0#& does it include t*o

com!arativel& small to*ns, T#&atira and P#iladel!#ia, *#ile Tralles and +agnesia,

Hiera!olis and Colossae, Ale3andria Troas and Adram&ttium, +iletus and

Halicarnassus, $or&laeum and S&nnada, are !assed b& Some at least of t#ese cities #ad

C#ristian communities before t#e end of t#e first centur& under Traan, Ignatius of

Antioc# addressed letters to C#urc#es at Tralles and +agnesia under Nero, St Paul

s!ent t#e first da& of t#e *ee2 *it# bret#ren at Troas), and recogni9ed a .C#urc# of t#e

Laodiceans/ and t#e !resence of C#ristians at Hiera!olis1%It is true t#at t#e first t#ree cities in St 5o#n7s list *ere b& common consent πρ$ται

τῆς 1σίας, and t#e& stand in t#e order *#ic# *ould naturall& be follo*ed, at least b& aresident at E!#esus% +oreover E!#esus, Sm&rna, and Pergamum *ere in direct

2 Mar+art, p. 1%2, #. ess, art. /leinasien n Hero3@Ha+ck, 10:"4.

$rstes of S5*rna 42. (F 2, e. Bel, p. 4) οvτε γὰρ πόλεις τοσα)τας οὐδεμία

@λλ% τ$ν πασ$ν παρ9-εται< οvτε δ# τ&ς γε μεγίστας τοια)τας; see also o. 17:",

an Seneca, Ep. 102, 21. f. Mo55sen, Pro%inces, 1. p. "4. $ccorn3 to

/eloc' (2ur Be%8l#erungsgeschichte des Alterthu&s, cte * osc'Rt

(Christian $ife, E. r., p. %2), ot' Ep'es+s an S5*rna 'a n t'e t5e of

$+3+st+s a pop+laton of 200,000, an Per3a5+5 n t'e 5le of t'e secon

cent+r* contane fro5 120,000 to 1%0,000 so+ls.

4 2992.

" 179, 20"; ttener3er, Orient. "r. inscriptiones select . 2. p. 1"9 f.

6 +33ero, Di'ionario epigrafico di Antichit: 0o&ane, 1. p. 71.

7 Mo55sen, Pro%inces, p. 29.

1 $cts 20:7 ff.

2 ol. 2:1, 4:1, 4:16.

communication *it# one anot#er b& t#e great road *#ic# t#e 'omans #ad constructed

s#ortl& after t#eir occu!ation of Asia% So far t#en bot# t#e selection of t#e names and

t#eir order are eas& to understand% ut *#& s#ould not t#e A!ocal&!tic messenger #ave

been sent on from Pergamum to C&9icus or to Troas *#& *as #is course at t#is !oint

diverted to t#e inland to*ns of T#&atira, Sardis and P#iladel!#ia, and broug#t to an endin t#e valle& of t#e L&cus T#e true ans*er is doubtless t#at *#ic# is given b& Professor

'amsa& .all t#e Seven Cities stand on t#e great circular road t#at bound toget#er t#e

most !o!ulous, *ealt#&, and influential !art of t#e Province, t#e *estFcentral region6%/

.T#e& *ere t#e best !oints on t#e circuit to serve as centres of communication *it#

seven districts Pergamum for t#e nort# T#&atira for an inland district on t#e nort#F

east and east Sardis for t#e *ide middle valle& of t#e Hermus P#iladel!#ia for (!!er

L&dia Laodicea for t#e L&cus alle& and for Central P#r&gia E!#esus for t#e

Ca&ster and lo*er +aeander alle&s and coasts Sm&rna for t#e lo*er Hermus alle&

and t#e Nort# Ionian coasts8%/ Planted at t#ese seven centres, t#e A!ocal&!se *ould

s!read t#roug# t#eir neig#bour#oods, and from t#ence to t#e rest of t#e !rovince% A

'oman road led from Pergamum to Adram&ttium and Troas, and anot#er direct to

C&9icus ot#er roads connected P#iladel!#ia *it# $or&laeum, and Laodicea *it#

A!amea and S&nnada, and *it# Cib&ra% Drom E!#esus a great road !assed t#roug#

+agnesia, Tralles and Laodicea, and crossing -alatia and Ca!!adocia ultimatel&

reac#ed t#e Eu!#rates) a branc# road entered S&ria t#roug# t#e Cilician -ates%7 T#us

t#e route !rescribed in t#e A!ocal&!se !rovided for t#e circulation of t#e boo2

t#roug#out t#e c#urc#es of t#e entire !rovince and be&ond it%

<% Some account of t#e cities to *#ic# t#e boo2 *as originall& sent is given in t#e

notes to cc! 1% 6%, and muc# more ma& be gat#ered from so accessible a boo2 asProfessor 'amsa&7s 0etters to the Seven /hurches1% Here it ma& suffice to !lace before

t#e student t#e general conditions of t#e life into *#ic# C#ristianit& entered *#en it

establis#ed itself in t#e cities of Asia%

$etters, p. 1%.

4 Ib. p. 191.

1 a5sa*, Hist. "eogr. of Asia Minor , p. 164 ff. See also M. 'apots c'apter

on t'e p+lc roas of $sa (p. "%O6%).

2 Pp. 210O40.

)% EPHES(S%δομιτιανος καισαρ

σεβαστος γερμανικος'% αρτεμις εφεσια>)@% At E!#esus b& custom t#e Proconsul landed at #is entr& into t#e Province6, and t#e

cit& *as regarded as t#e seat of t#e !rovincial government% ut it retained at least t#e forms ofmunici!al inde!endence, and its civic life *as full and man&Fsided% $uring t#e 'oman !eriodt#e !o!ulation *as divided into si3 tribes >φυλαί@, *#ic# *ere again divided into t#ousands>-ιλιαστ)ες@% Local affairs *ere in t#e #ands of t#ree assemblies, a council >Bουλ>@, *#ic# inA%$% )K8 consisted of 8;K members !robabl& elected in e"ual numbers from eac# of t#e tribes asenate > γερουσία@, *#ic# seems to #ave been c#arged *it# t#e finance of !ublic *ors#i! or

!er#a!s *it# munici!al finance in general, and t#e care of !ublic monuments and t#e !o!ularassembl& *#ic# bore t#e familiar name of ecclesia8% Eac# assembl& #ad its γραμματε)ς, and t#e

γραμματες τοῦ δ>μου !ossessed an aut#orit& *#ic# as *e learn from t#e Acts >)?1;@ couldma2e itself res!ected even b& an angr& mob%

In t#e life of E!#esus commerce occu!ied no less im!ortant a !lace t#an local !olitics%T#e silting u! of t#e #arbour #ad indeed begun to t#reaten t#e cit&7s command of t#e seas, butStrabo *as able to re!ort t#at in ever& ot#er res!ect it *as gro*ing in !ros!erit& da& b& da&,and t#at Asia *it#in t#e Taurus #ad no mar2et t#at could vie *it# it)% Doreign trade broug#t itinto communication *it# -reece, Eg&!t, and S!ain, and on t#e ot#er #and *it# t#e Eu!#ratesand t#e East% Among its local s!ecialities *ere marble, vermilion, oils and essences, and t#e#andicraft of *or2ers in gold, silver and co!!er 1% Its slaves fetc#ed fabulous !rices in t#e'oman mar2et6% Nor *ere t#e intellectual interests of t#e !lace less 2een or varied% In t#e firstcentur& t#e cit& of Heracleitus abounded *it# !ersons *#o follo*ed t#e !rofession of t#e

!#iloso!#er or t#e rhetor , and added to its re!utation as a seat of learning8% It *ill not be

forgotten t#at according to Eusebius;

E!#esus is t#e scene of 5ustin7s dialogue *it# Tr&!#o, and !robabl& also of #is initiation into t#e Stoic, Peri!atetic, and Platonist !#iloso!#ies<% Nor *as artneglected in E!#esus t#e cit& *as a famous sc#ool of scul!ture and arc#itecture t#e great

/er35ann, De Asia, p. 0.

4 =or t'e etals see Hcks, Ancient "ree# Inscriptions, . p. 6% ff.; 'apot, pp.

194O20.

1 Strao 14:24 δC πόλις τ7 πρὸς τὰ @λλα εὐκαιρί8 τ$ν τόπ'ν αv0εται κα=H Nκ&στ%ν

μ9ραν< !μπόριον ο(σα μ9γιστον τ$ν κατὰ τ#ν 1σίαν τ#ν !ντὸς τοῦ nα)ρου.

2 f. $cts 19:24, 2 5. 4:14.

See A55er5ann, Ephesos i& ersten christlichen -ahrhundert , p. "0 ff.

t#eatre remains to *itness to t#e !assion of its citi9ens for t#e dramaB% ut religion *as t#e !aramount !o*er at E!#esus, as !er#a!s in all t#e Asian cities% T#e *ors#i! of t#e E!#esianArtemis *as an in#eritance from !reFHellenic times, and !ossessed all t#e attractions *#ic#

bind a !eo!le to a traditional or locali9ed cult% T#e Artemision did not indeed dominate t#e cit&as t#e Part#enon dominated At#ens it la& in fact, as *as demonstrated b& +r 0ood7s discover&on t#e last da& of )<?, on t#e !lain outside t#e +agnesian gate of E!#esus% Nevert#eless it *ast#e c#ief glor& of t#e !lace, and life in E!#esus *as at ever& !oint broug#t into contact *it# t#egreat !residing deit& of t#e cit&:t#e Eρ'το=ρονία, as according to Pausanias >)K6% 6@ s#e*as locall& called% It *as b& t#e !riestl& college at t#e Artemision, 2no*n as t#e Essnes, t#att#e lot *as cast b& *#ic# a ne* citi9en *as admitted to #is tribe and t#ousand% In t#e E!#esiancalendar t#e mont# of t#e s!ring e"uino3 *as named after Artemis >: 1ρτεμισιVν@, and duringt#at mont# t#e cit& celebrated a &earl& festival in #onour of t#e goddess >τὰ 1ρτεμίσια@)% Ongreat festivals a sacred carriage > +ερὰ ,π>ν%@ carried t#e image of Artemis t#roug# t#e streetsof t#e cit&% T#e great tem!le em!lo&ed an arm& of officials it #ad its *ardens >νε'ποῖαι@, itsguards >φ)λακες@, its #iero!#ants and c#oirmen >=εολόγοι< "μνMδοί@, its cro*d of +ερόδουλοι,its !riests and !riestesses1% Private beneficence added to t#e s!lendours of t#e goddess a greatinscri!tion of t#e &ear A%$% )K8 records t#e munificent be"uest of a citi9en for t#e maintenance

of t#e *ors#i! of Artemis, .mar2ing,/ in t#e udgement of Canon Hic2s, .a reaction againstC#ristianit&,/ *#ic# from t#e first #ad been felt to be a serious rival of t#e E!#esian cult% It is*ort#& of remar2 t#at t#e *ors#i! of t#e Em!erors6 did not !resent itself to t#e !eo!le ofE!#esus in t#is lig#t, and *as even regarded as an all& of t#e local religion a statue of Augustus*as set u! in t#e !recinct of t#e Artemision8, and E!#esus *as !roud to be t#e νε'κόρος of t#eEm!eror as *ell as of #er o*n goddess Artemis;% Indeed, t#ere is abundance of evidence t#at int#e cities of Asia generall& t#e CaesarF*ors#i! *as a *elcome adunct to t#e *ors#i! of t#elocal deities<%

"% una disce omnes t#e surroundings of t#e C#urc# in E!#esus *ere more or lessre!eated in t#e ot#er Asian cities% ut eac# cit& #ad its s!ecial features, and somet#ingmust be added in reference to t#ese%

4 $pollon+s of *ana ap. P'lostrat. %it. Ap. %:7, %:% (cte * A55er5ann, p.

6"): rφεσος μεστ# φροντισμ&τ'ν φιλοσόφ'ν τε καὶ A%τορικ$ν "φH \ν πόλις *σ-)ει

σοφίαν !παινοῦσα.

" H.E. 4:2%.

6 Dial. 2 νε'στὶ !πιδ%μ>σαντι τ7 μετ9ρ8 πόλει συνετI ,νδρὶ καὶ προv-οντι !ν τοῖς

Eλατ'νικοῖς συνδι9τριBον. cero De nat. deoru&, 2 5entons a Perpatetc

sc'ool at Ep'es+s.

7 A55er5ann, p. 7.

1 Hcks, pp. %, 117 ff.

2 'e nscrptons 5enton also +εροκ>ρυκες< +εροσαλπιγκταί< σπονδοποιοί: cf. #.

Menaer, ;ua condicione Ephesii usi sunt , p. 10" f.

&n t's see c. 7.

4 Hcks, p. 7; a5sa*, $etters, p. 21.

" '+s νε'κόρ'ν δὶς (or τρὶς) καὶ τῆς 1ρτ9μιδος s fo+n on Ep'esan cons; see

/. K. Hea, "ree# coins of $ydia, p. 107.

6 See 'apot, p. 424 ff.

1% S+Y'NA%δομιτιανος και · σε ·γερμανικος δομιτια

σεβαστη% '% επι δημοστρατου στρατηγος

σηιος ζμυρν ·>1@% Sm&rna, t#e ne* cit& of t#e $iadoc#i, claimed, as *e #ave seen, a !rimac& of

beaut&B% A!!roac#ed b& a long gulf *#ic# o!ened into a noble #arbour, and cro*ned b& anacro!olis), its natural advantages *ere in some res!ects su!erior to t#ose of E!#esus% T#e cit&*as *ort#& of its surroundings its streets *ere straig#t and *ell !aved !ublic buildings *ere

numerous, including a librar&, an odeum, a stadium, a t#eatre, a tem!le of Homer >τὸwμ>ρειον@ *it# a !ortico attac#ed to it, and ot#er large t*oFstoried !orticoes1% T#e relations ofSm&rna *it# 'ome *ere e3cellent, and its lo&alt& received due recognition it *as an urbs

libera and t#e centre of a conventus, and from A%$% 1< t#e !roud !ossessor of an Augusteumerected in #onour of Tiberius, a !rivilege *#ic# E!#esus at t#e time coveted in vain6% If Sm&rnadid not claim, li2e E!#esus, a s!ecial cult, it could boast a number of tem!les, cons!icuousamong *#ic# *ere t#ose of t#e Si!&lene C&bele and t#e local 4eus% T#e !ublic games ofSm&rna8 *ere noted for t#eir magnificence, and it *as one of t#e cities *#ere !eriodical

7 See p. "; an $rstes of S5*rna, 41. (F 19. e. Bel): Pμ)ρνα τὸ τῆς 1σίας

@γαλμα< τῆς δC "μετ9ρας !γκαλλVπισμα γεμονίας. f. t'e !fe of Pol*carp *

Pon+s, -'ere t'e ctens are aresse as @νδρες ο+ τῆσδε τῆς περικαλλοῦς

πόλε'ς κ&τοικοι (!3'tfoot, Ignatius, . p. 462).

1 See t'e escrpton n $rstes, 1". (F 17. e. Bel).

2 Strao, 14:7 (646).

$ secon neocorate -as aL+3e to S5*rna +ner Haran an a t'r +ner

Sept. Se8er+s (Hea, "ree# Coins of Ionia, p. 26). f. 266 τοῖς !ν Pμ)ρν6

νεοῖς τ$ν PεBαστ$ν, 20" γJ νε'κόρος κατὰ τὰ δόγματα τῆς +ερ'τ&τ%ςσυνκλ>του, %6 ,ποτίσει μ%τρὶ =ε$ν Pιπυλ%ν7 δ%ν&ρια δισ-ίλια πεντακόσια.

festivals *ere #eld under t#e aut#orit& of t#e /ommune (siae in #onour of t#e Augusti;% Onsuc# occasions C#ristian citi9ens *ere doubtless !laced in a !osition of !eculiar !eril, but at noseason *ould t#e& be regarded *it# favourable e&es b& a !o!ulation immersed in business and

!leasure, devoted to t#e local cults, and !roud of its lo&alt& to 'ome and t#e Em!eror <%

6% PE'-A+(+%ασκληπιου ςxτηρος

8% PE'-A+(+%σεβαστοι επι πετρxνιου%

'% θεον σεβαστον περγαμηνοι ·>6@% Pergamum, t#e old ca!ital of t#e Attalids, still claimed an #egemon&, in rig#t of its

ancient glories

B

% T#e !lace !ossessed natural advantages *#ic# fitted it to sustain t#e c#aracterof leaders#i!% .e&ond all ot#er sites in Asia +inor it gives t#e traveller t#e im!ression of aro&al cit&, t#e #ome of aut#orit& t#e roc2& #ill on *#ic# it stands is so #uge, and dominates t#e

4 f. Pa+san. 6:14. 1.

" !3'tfoot, Ignatius, . p. 40".

6 'e cons s'e- t'at t's lo*alt* s+ffere no ecrease +ner o5tan; see

Hea, p. 27.

7 Strao, 1:4 (62) ;-ει δ9 τινα γεμονίαν πρὸς τος τόπους το)τους τὸ E9ργαμον<!πιφαν#ς πόλις καὶ πολν συνευτυ->σασα -ρόνον τοῖς 1τταλικοῖς Bασιλεῦσι.

broad !lain of t#e Caicus so !roudl& and boldl&%/ T#e !lain *as one of t#e ric#est in +&sia?,and su!!lied t#e mar2ets of t#e cit& t#e local trade in s2ins >διφ=9ραι@ !re!ared for t#e use of*riters *as so bris2 t#at t#e material received its name from Pergamum)K% ut t#e fame ofPergamum rested c#iefl& on its religious !reFeminence% A tetrad of local deities, 4eus Soter,At#ena Nice!#oros, $ion&sius at#egemon, As2le!ios Soter )), !resided over t#e cit& t#etem!le of At#ena almost cro*ned t#e acro!olis, and beneat# it, on t#e slo!e of t#e #ill andvisible from t#e agora, stood a great al fresco altar of t#e Pergamene 4eus% Still more celebrated*as t#e Pergamene cult of As2le!ios, to *#ose tem!le t#ere *as attac#ed a sc#ool of medicine*#ic# attracted sufferers from all "uarters% ut in 'oman times t#e cit& !rided itself above allu!on its devotion to t#e *ors#i! of t#e Em!erors% Drom t#e time of Augustus Pergamene coins

bear t#e inscri!tions θεον συγκλητον, θεαν ρxμην, θεον σεβαστον)% Inscri!tions !roclaim t#e dignit& of t#e cit& as t#e first in Asia to erect a tem!le to Augustus1 and as it *ast#e first, so it continued to be t#e c#ief Asian seat of t#e Em!erorFcult% In t#e time of Hadrian it*as alread& δὶς νε'κόρος, and an inscri!tion of t#e reign of Traan mentions t#e "μνMδοὶ =εοῦPεBαστοῦ καὶ =ε/ς yVμ%ς t#e local !riest of 4eus *as !roud to st&le #imself also !riest of t#edivine Augustus% In St 5o#n7s e&es t#is ne* cult *as t#e cro*ning sin of Pergamum t#e cit&*#ic# #ad introduced t#e *ors#i! of t#e Augusti into Asia *as t#e d*elling !lace, t#e ver&

t#rone of Satan, *#o reigned from its acro!olis and t#e C#urc# *#ic# resided in it must e3!ectto find itself in t#e forefront of t#e battle about to be foug#t bet*een C#rist and Antic#rist%

;% THYATI'A%θυατειρα% '% θυατειρηνxν%

% a5sa*, $etters, p. 2%1.

9 Strao l.c. σφόδρα εὐδαίμονα γῆν ... σ-εδὸν δ9 τι τ#ν ,ρίστ%ν τῆς mυσίας

10 Me&brana Perga&ena, Cparc'5ent; see art'a+sen, "r. Palaeographie, p.

9 f., or Ma+ne 'o5pson, Handboo# of "ree# and $atin Palaeography , p. "

f.

11 'e le3ens αθηνας νικηφορου, ασκληπιου ςxτηρος are fre+ent on

cons of Per3a5+5; see rot', "ree# Coins of Mysia, p. 12% ff.

1 rot', op. cit. p. 14 ff. E.3. "4% Bουλ# καὶ : δῆμος τ$ν πρVτ'ν

νε'κόρ'ν Eεργαμ%ν$ν.

2 Hero3@Ha+ck, 10. p. ""1. "69 : +ερες τοῦ PεBαστοῦ =εοῦ Fαίσαρος< : δCαὐτὸς ... +ερες τοῦ Dιός.

>8@% T#&atira .lies in an o!en, smiling vale, bordered b& gentl& slo!ing #ills,/ and.!ossesses no !ro!er acro!olis6%/ T#e contrast to Pergamum t#us suggested is maintained *#ent#e t*o cities are com!ared in ot#er !articulars% T#&atira #ad no #istor& reac#ing bac2 be&ondt#e Seleucids, *#o raised t#e obscure to*ns#i! into a +acedonian colon&% It *as distinguis#ed

b& no famous cult t#e T#&atiran coins and inscri!tions mention onl& t#e local #ero T&rimnus,or #is deified counter!art t#e T&rimnaean A!ollo, and an Artemis *#o bears t#e surnameoritene8%7 T#ere is no evidence t#at T#&atira *as as &et a νε'κόρος of t#e Augusti% Outsidet#e cit& a Sib&l of Eastern origin 2no*n as Sambet#e or Sambat#a #ad #er cell >τὸPαμBα=εῖον@; and it #as been suggested<, t#oug# *it# little !robabilit&, t#at t#is !erson is to beidentified *it# t#e !ro!#etess 5e9ebel of A!oc% 11K% ut t#e most outstanding feature inT#&atiran life *as !robabl& t#e institution of tradeFguildsB% In certain of t#e Asian cities t#eseguilds ma& #ave filled t#e !lace of t#e t#ousands7 into *#ic# t#e tribes7 *ere divided, andT#&atira is one of t#ese% At T#&atira t#ere *ere guilds of ba2ers, !otters, *or2ers in brass,tanners, leat#erFcutters , *or2ers in *ool and fla3, clot#iers, d&ers ) t#e *or2ers in *ool and t#ed&ers *ere !robabl& t#e most numerous, for t#e manufacture and d&eing of *oollen goods *asa L&dian s!ecialit&, in *#ic# T#&atira e3celled1% To t#ese guilds man& of t#e T#&atireneC#ristians *ould #ave belonged, and t#eir conne3ion *it# t#em *ould raise "uestions of muc#

difficult&% One of t#e inscri!tions records an #onour voted b& t#e guild of d&ers to t#e !riest oft#e ancestral #ero T&rimnus6 in suc# circumstances *#at course oug#t t#e C#ristian membersof t#e guild to follo* Suc# a !roblem mig#t seldom arise, and *#en it arose, t#e C#urc# mig#tagree u!on t#e ans*er but t#ere *as anot#er of fre"uent occurrence u!on *#ic# C#ristiansdiffered among t#emselves% Drom time to time t#e members of a guild !artoo2 toget#er of acommon meal *#ic# #ad a sacrificial c#aracter and moreover too often ended in revelr& andlicentiousness% At T#&atira, t#roug# circumstances *#ic# *ill a!!ear furt#er on, t#e "uestion*#et#er C#ristians mig#t or mig#t not ta2e !art in suc# guildFfeasts became acute, and t#eA!ocal&!tic message to T#&atira turns u!on it%

a5sa*, $etters, p. 1%.

4 /. K. Hea, "ree# Coins of $ydia, p. 294 τGυριμGνος, ib. p. 29" βορειτηνη.

" "09.

6 Sc'Drer , . p. 42%.

7 $t '*atra t'e* -ere kno-n as !ργασίαι; ot'er na5es -ere συμBιVσεις<

συνεργασίαι< συστ>ματα: see 'apot, p. 167.

% a5sa*, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, p. 10".

1 M. lerc, de rebus Thyatirenoru&, p. 92 (+ote * a5sa* l.c.). 'apot (p.

16% ff.) 38es a co5plete lst of t'e traes of $sa so far as t'e* are 5entone

n t'e nscrptons.

2 $cts 16:14 πορφυρόπ'λος πόλε'ς Qυατείρ'ν. f. 26, 924.

49 τὸν +ερ9α τοῦ προπ&τορος =εοῦ nυρίμνου ο+ Bαφεῖς.

<% SA'$IS%

σαρδις '% σαρδιανxννεxκορxν%

B% SA'$IS%δρουσος και%

γερμανικος καιPαρεP Zνεοι θεοι φιλαδελφοι%

'% γαιx αPινιxπxλλιxνι ανθυπατx%

0it#in *reat# of oa2 leavesκοινου αPιαP Z%

% SA'$IS%θεα ρxμη% '%σαρδιανxν · β νεxκορxν

>;@% Sardis, t#e ca!ital of t#e old L&dian 2ingdom, and in Persian times t#e seat of asatra!, retained under t#e 'omans t#e s#ado* of its ancient greatness8 commanding t#e greatalle& of t#e Hermus, and standing at a !oint to *#ic# roads converged from T#&atira, Sm&rnaand Laodicea and t#e L&cus, it could not sin2 into neglect% T#e to*n *as s#attered b& t#e greateart#"ua2e of A%$% )B, but *it# t#e liberal #el! of Tiberius it rose from its ruins% Its gratitude*as s#e*n in a s!ecial devotion to t#e Em!eror in A%$% 1< it contended *it# Pergamum,Sm&rna, and E!#esus for t#e !rivilege of erecting an Augusteum, and t#oug# it failed on t#atoccasion, eventuall& it could claim a second and even a t#ird neocorate% T#e c#ief local cult *ast#at of or[, but t#e name of t#e L&dian 4eus a!!ears also on t#e coins; $ion&sus, too, At#ena,

A!#rodite, and t#e local #eroes Tmolus and Hermus, *ere #onoured at Sardis% T#e C#urc# !er#a!s encountered in Sardis no s!ecial danger to #er !eace but t#e atmos!#ere of an old !agan cit&, #eav& *it# t#e immoral traditions of eig#t centuries, *as unfavourable to t#e gro*t#of #er s!iritual life%

4 Strao 1:4 (62") α+ δC P&ρδεις πόλις !στὶ μεγ&λ% ... "π9ρκειται δC τ$ν P&ρδε'ν :

nμ$λος ... "πόκειται δC τ7 πόλει τό τε Pαρδιαν$ν πεδίον ... καὶ τὸ τοῦ zρμου.

" Hea, p. 246 ff.; cf. p. 107.

?% PHILA$ELPHIA%'% φιλαδελφεxν

ερμιππος αρχιερευς

)K% PHILA$ELPHIA%δημος φιλαδελφεxν

νεxκ· '% καισμυρναιxν γ νεxκορxν

ομονοια%><@% P#iladel!#ia #as received a c#aracteristic treatment from is#o! Lig#tfoot<, to

*#ic# little need be added #ere% .A cit& full of eart#"ua2es/ is Strabo7s significant commentu!on it #e adds t#at in #is time t#e to*n #ad been largel& forsa2en b& its in#abitants, *#o livedon t#e ric# lands *#ic# surrounded itB% 0it# Sardis, at t#e time of t#e eart#"ua2e, P#iladel!#ia

!artoo2 of t#e bount& of t#e Em!eror, and *as dul& grateful t#oug# it did not ac"uire t#e

neocorate until t#e beginning of t#e t#ird centur&, its s!ecial lo&alt& *as s#e*n b& t#e titlesassumed on its coins under Caligula and Claudius it st&led itself Neocaesarea, and under t#eDlavian Em!erors Dlavia)% It is more im!ortant for our !ur!ose to notice t#e situation ofP#iladel!#ia in reference to Central Asia +inor% T#e cit& la& on t#e direct route from Sm&rna tot#e #ig#lands and !lateau of Central Asia +inor% T#us t#e C#urc# in P#iladel!#ia #ad unusualo!!ortunities of s!reading t#e -os!el in t#e interior, and s#e seems to #ave availed #erself oft#e o!en door 1%

6 ,t Ignatius, 2. pp. 27O241.

7 Strao 1:10 (62%).

1 Hea, pp. %":19" ff.

2 a5sa*, $etters1 c. 2%.

))% LAO$ICEA%νερxν καισαρ%

'% γαιου ποστομου%λαοδικεxν%

>B@% Laodicea #as been e3#austivel& described b& Professor 'amsa& in /ities and

&ishoprics of $hrygia6% T#e student of t#e A!ocal&!se *ill ta2e s!ecial note of t#e s!ecialitiesin *ool and in e&esalve !roduced in t#e neig#bour#ood of t#is cit&, to *#ic# reference seems to

be made in t#e message to Laodicea and of t#e !ros!erit& of t#e Laodicenes as a ban2ing andtrading communit&, and t#e singular s!irit of inde!endence indicated b& t#eir reection ofim!erial #el! after t#e eart#"ua2e of A%$% <K8% It is evident t#at t#e C#ristians of Laodicea s#aredt#e selfFsufficienc& of t#eir fello*Fto*nsmen, and carried it into t#e s!#ere of t#eir relations*it# -od and C#rist% T#e commercial !reFoccu!ations of t#e !lace saved t#em from

!ersecution, but at t#e cost, as at Sardis, of t#e life of t#e S!irit% Of t#is decline of t#e C#ristian

life in t#e C#urc#es of t#e L&cus valle& >for t#e message to Laodicea *as doubtless intendedalso for Hiera!olis and Colossae@, t#e neig#bour#ood &ielded a forcible illustration, *#ic# t#eA!ocal&!tist *as not slo* to use% T#e #ot s!rings of Hiera!olis, in t#eir course over t#e

!latform on *#ic# t#e cit& *as built, lose t#eir #eat, and t#e traveller *#o drin2s of t#e *aterfinds it intolerable to t#e !alate% So, St 5o#n teac#es, t#e C#rist *ill reect t#e lu2e*arm

!rofession of fait# from *#ic# t#e fire of love #as de!arted%

<% CH'ISTIANITY IN THE P'OINCE OD ASIA $('IN- THE DI'ST CENT('Y

)% T#e !ermanent interest of a!ocal&!tic literature consists largel& in its intimate

conne3ion *it# t#e needs and sufferings, t#e #o!es and fears, of t#e age and

communities *#ic# !roduced it% Drom $aniel on*ards t#e 5e*is# a!ocal&!ses reflect,*it# more or less distinctness, t#e conditions under *#ic# t#e& *ere *ritten, and t#e

e3!ectations *#ic# consoled or invigorated t#e 5e*s under S&rian, Hasmonaean,

Herodian, or 'oman rule, t#ro*ing sideFlig#ts, lurid but instructive, on contem!orar&

life and #istor&% T#e great C#ristian a!ocal&!se is no e3ce!tion to t#is rule% ut *#ereas

it is left to t#e critical student to elicit as #e can t#e age and circumstances of t#e 5e*is#

1. pp. 2O%.

4 f. !3'tfoot, Colossians, p. 44: n all ot'er cases of eart'+ake -'c'

act+s recors as 'appenn3 n t'ese $satc ctes 'e 5entons t'e fact of

t'er otann3 relef fro5 t'e Senate or t'e E5peror.<



a!ocal&!tists, t#e C#ristian *riter ma2es no secret of t#e conditions under *#ic# #e

*or2ed% T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n is clearl& a !roduct of Asian C#ristianit&, and t#e

!ur!ose of t#e boo2 cannot be understood *it#out an effort to reali9e t#e !osition of

C#ristianit& in t#e cities of Asia during t#e first centur& of our era%

1% Long before t#e C#ristian era t#e 5e*s #ad formed a considerable factor in t#e !o!ulation of t#e Asian cities)% T#ere *as a s&nagogue at E!#esus >Acts ))?@ and, it

ma& be assumed, in almost ever& one of t#e great to*ns% ut t#e 5e* *as t#e

unconscious or, if ever #e attained to a consciousness of t#e fact, t#e reluctant avant1

coureur of C#ristianit&% C#ristianit& *as doubtless discussed b& 5e*is# circles in t#e

cities of Asia as soon as t#e Asian 5e*s *#o #ad visited 5erusalem at t#e Passover or

Pentecost of A%$% 1? returned to t#eir #omes in t#e Province% Even if t#e narrative of

Acts 1% is not regarded as #istorical, it is clear t#at t#e stor& of t#e Crucifi3ion and t#e

'esurrection could not fail to #ave been re!eated ever&*#ere% T#e same stor& came a

little later across t#e sea from 'ome and Ale3andria), or b& t#e great tradeFroads from

S&rian Antioc# or it mig#t #ave been broug#t do*n to t#e sea coast b& men *#o #ad

#eard St Paul tell it in t#e s&nagogues of t#e !rovince of -alatia, at Pisidian Antioc# or

at Iconium, or of t#e L&caonian to*ns, L&stra and $erbe% Yet t#ere is no sign of an&

C#ristian movement in Asia before t#e arrival of St Paul at E!#esus1, and to E!#esus #is

!ersonal ministr& seems to #ave been nearl& limited%

6% De* t#ings are more !er!le3ing in conne3ion *it# t#e develo!ment of St Paul7s

evangelistic *or2 t#an t#e long dela& of its e3tension to Asia% At Antioc# in Pisidia in

t#e summer of 8 t#e A!ostle stood literall& at t#e !arting of t#e *a&s if #e #ad turned

to t#e *est, #e *ould #ave reac#ed t#e L&cus valle& and E!#esus instead of t#is #e

turned #is face east*ards, and #is destination *as t#e L&caonian to*ns% On t#e ne3toccasion a *est*ard mission *as in #is mind, !robabl& from t#e first, certainl& *#en at

$erbe or L&stra #e too2 Timot#& for #is !artner in a ne* *or2 6, and *it# #is t*o

colleagues *ent t#roug#7 t#e P#r&goF-alatic region78, i%e% t#e P#r&gian !art of -alatia,

*#ic# la& on t#e border of Asia% If #e did not cross t#e border, #e *ould #ave done so,

#ad not a #and *#ic# *as u!on #is s!irit #eld #im bac2% T#is m&sterious c#ec2 *as

re!eated *#en #e #ad got to t#e confines of +&sia, and *is#ed to enter t#e great

!rovince of it#&nia and Pontus;% ot# Asia and it#&nia *ere to become #ead"uarters

1 f. P'lo, leg. ad Cai. 3ουδαῖοι κα=H Nκ&στ%ν πόλιν ε*σὶ παμπλ>=εις 1σίας. In!lacc. 7 τὰς πλείστας καὶ εὐδαιμονεστ&τας τ$ν !ν ... 1σί8 ... !κν9μονται. &n t'e

#e-s n t'e $san tes see a5sa*, $etters to the ,e%en Churches, c. 12.,

an infra, p. %% f.

1 1 f. $cts 1%:1%, 1%:24 ff.

2 $cts 19:1. 'e ref pre8o+s 8st (1%:19 f.) scarcel* co+nts.

$cts 16:2 τοῦτον _=9λ%σεν : Eαῦλος σν αὐτI !0ελ=εῖν.

4

Ib. 6 διῆλ=ον δC τ#ν Sρυγίαν καὶ lαλατικ#ν -Vραν.

" Ib. 7 !λ=όντες δC κατὰ τ#ν mυσίαν !πείραRον ε*ς τ#ν gι=υνίαν πορευ=ῆναι.

of C#ristian influence<, but t#eir time *as not &et +acedonia and Ac#aia must receive

t#eir call first, and Asia must *ait a *#ile% T#e turn of E!#esus came in A%$% ;1=6,

*#en St Paul began a residence of more t#an t*o &ears in t#at cit&%

8% T#e A!ostle reac#ed E!#esus at t#e end of a !rogress t#roug# t#e .u!!er !arts),/

i%e% not b& t#e direct route from -alatia >Acts )16@ t#roug# t#e L&cus valle&, but overt#e #ig#er ground of t#e interior, !ossibl& b& *a& of P#iladel!#ia, Sardis, and Sm&rna,

or b& P#iladel!#ia, Sardis, T#&atira, Pergamum, and t#ence do*n t#e coast% T#e

!ur!ose of t#is d[tour *as a!!arentl& evangelistic1, and it creates a sus!icion t#at

E!#esus *as not t#e onl& or even t#e first C#urc# in Asia *#ic# received t#e -os!el

from St Paul7s o*n li!s% T#e out*or2s *ere carried before t#e citadel *as attac2ed in

an& case, t#e gradual a!!roac# to E!#esus is of a !iece *it# t#e !revious dela&s, and

em!#asi9es t#e great im!ortance of t#e cit& as a centre of C#ristian *or2% +ean*#ile, at

E!#esus itself forerunners #ad been at *or2:t#e Ale3andrian 5e*, A!ollonius orA!ollos6 a !art& of t*elve men or t#ereabouts >fσεὶ δVδεκα@, *#o #ad received 5o#n7s

ba!tism and t#e 'oman C#ristians A"uila and Priscilla, *#o #ad crossed *it# t#e

A!ostle from Corint# in t#e !revious s!ring% T#e A!ostle7s o*n *or2 began as usual in

t#e s&nagogue% ut as at Corint# >Acts )<, )??@, *#en #is !reac#ing *as resented b&

t#e 5e*is# residents, #e !arted com!an& *it# t#em, and t#encefort# #is teac#ing *as

carried on in one of t#e !#iloso!#ical sc#ools of t#e cit&8% T#is *ent on for t*o &ears, so

t#at E!#esus #ad unusual o!!ortunities of #earing a great C#ristian teac#er and t#oug#

St Paul #imself does not seem to #ave left t#e !lace, visitors from ot#er !arts of Asia

carried bac2 a re!ort of #is teac#ing to t#eir o*n to*ns, and t#e evangeli9ation of Asia,

begun during #is ourne& to E!#esus, *as at lengt# fairl& com!lete >Acts )?)K, )?1<@%

At E!#esus a C#urc# began to ta2e s#a!e during t#e biennium% $isci!les #ad gat#eredround t#e A!ostle before #e left t#e s&nagogue >)??@, and after t#e se!aration t#e

number gre*, and gave satisfactor& evidence of t#eir sincerit& >ib! ) ff%@ t#ere *ere to

be found men *#o #ad filled t#e office of Asiarc#, and &et *ere *ell dis!osed to*ards

t#e C#ristian cause or its leader >ib! 6)@% 0#en t#e cras# came in A%$% ;;, St Paul *as

6 f. 1 Pet. 1:1 -t' r Horts note ad loc., an $tonal Note on p. 1"7 f. $s to

/t'*na -e 'a8e t'e test5on* of t'e *o+n3er Pln* ( $.. 111): 5+lt en5

o5ns aetats, o5ns orns, +tr+s+e se+s eta5, 8ocant+r n perc+l+5.<

1 1 $cts 19:1 διελ=όντα τὰ ,ν'τερικὰ μ9ρ%.

2 o5pare t'e +se of δι9ρ-εσ=αι n %:40, 11:19, 14:24, etc.

&n t'e relaton of $pollos to 'rstan teac'n3 at t's t5e see #. H. $. Hart,

-. T. ,., &ct. 190".

4 'e estern tet sa*s t'at 'e sco+rse t'ere al* ,πὸ Wρας π9μπτ%ς X'ς

δεκ&τ%ς, fro5 11 a.5. to 4 p.5.; .e., as a5sa* (,t Paul , p. 271) ponts o+t, 'e

e3an after t'e +s+al -ork of t'e lect+re roo5 -as o8er.

able to feel t#at #is *or2 in E!#esus #ad been !racticall& accom!lis#ed, and t#at #e

mig#t go else*#ere *it#out danger to Asian C#ristianit& >)?1), 1K)@)%

;% In t#e s!ring of ;<, *#en St Paul landed at +iletus on #is *a& to #is last

Pentecost at 5erusalem, t#e C#urc# of E!#esus alread& #ad its college of elders1% In Asia

as in -alatia and L&caonia6

t#e A!ostle #ad instituted t#e !resb&terate alt#oug# t#eorder is mentioned onl& in conne3ion *it# E!#esus, it doubtless found a !lace in t#e

ot#er Asian C#urc#es8 *#ic# o*ed t#eir origin to St Paul% T*o !airs of letters, *#ic# if

t#e& are not t#e *or2 of St Paul, certainl& !roceed from #is sc#ool, su!!l& furt#er

materials for t#e #istor& of t#e C#urc#es of Asia during t#e &ears t#at follo*ed% >)@

/olossians, "phesians% T#e letter to Colossae deals c#iefl& *it# t#e conditions of t#e

C#urc# in t#at P#r&gian cit& and ot#er C#urc#es in t#e L&cus valle&% ut "phesians, as

is generall& recogni9ed, *as a circular letter intended for t#e cities of Asia generall&; :

a Pauline !recursor in t#is res!ect of St 5o#n7s A!ocal&!se:and it illumines t#e general

situation in Asia about A%$% <K% Drom t#is !oint of vie* it is interesting to note t#e

re!eated reference in t#is E!istle to a c#arismatic ministr& >E!#% 11K, 8)) f%@ t#e stress

laid on t#e reconciliation of t#e 5e* and -entile in C#rist >1)) ff%@ t#e conce!tion of

t#e ecclesia as an ideal unit& >8) ff%@ t#e conce!tion of t#e C#ristian life as bound u!

*it# t#e risen and ascended life of t#e Lord, and *or2ing itself out into a life of actual

!artici!ation in His glor& >1< ff%@:ideas *#ic# rea!!ear in t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n% >1@

), 1 Timothy% According to ) Timot#&, St Paul, after #is release from t#e 'oman

ca!tivit& of Acts 16K, visited E!#esus again% He found t#at t#e fears *#ic# #e #ad

e3!ressed in t#e address at +iletus *ere alread& reali9ed in !art% (n*#olesome

s!eculations, !robabl& of 5e*is# origin), occu!ied t#e attention of t#e E!#esian C#urc#,

to t#e neglect of !ractical C#ristianit&% Ot#er evils *ere rife in t#e C#ristian societ&,suc# as eagerness for office, unseeml& dis!utes in t#e C#urc# assemblies, gossi! and

slander if not *orse sins among t#e *omen, even t#ose *#o as *ido*s *ere !ensioners

and servants of t#e C#urc#% T#ere *ere C#ristians *#o attem!ted to ma2e a gain of

t#eir religion, and ot#ers of t#e *ealt#ier class *#o !rided t#emselves on t#eir *ealt#,

and needed to be urged to s#are it *it# t#eir !oorer bret#ren% T#e *#ole !icture is far

from #o!eful, and in t#e Second E!istle it becomes de!ressing% All Asia #ad turned

a*a& from its fat#er in t#e fait# >));@:an e3aggeration, it ma& be, but one *#ic#

suggests at least an antiFPauline movement in t#e c#urc#es of t#e !rovince t*o of t#e

ringleaders:P#&gellus and Hermogenes:are mentioned b& name a certainOnesi!#orus is *arml& commended, as if #e *ere almost a solitar& e3ce!tion to t#e

1 Hs epart+re -as per'aps sl3'tl* 'astene n conse+ence of t'e rot: +t

'e 'a not ntene to sta* e*on t'e Pentecost of "" (1 or. 16:%).

2 $cts 20:17 ff.; on 20:2%, see Hort, Ecclesia, p. 99 f.

f. 14:2.

4 f. 1 or. 16:19 α+ !κκλ%σίαι τῆς 1σίας.

" &n t's see estcott@Hort2, otes on select readings, p. 12 ff.

1 Hort, -udaistic Christianity , p. 11 ff.

general a!ostas&% St Paul des!atc#ed to E!#esus >8)1@ one of #is fe* remaining

friends, T&c#icus of Asia1, !er#a!s in t#e #o!e t#at a native of t#e !rovince mig#t

succeed in recalling Asia to its allegiance% So t#e curtain falls u!on t#e A!ostle7s

relations *it# t#e Asian C#urc#es%

<% It *as !robabl& after t#e deat# of St Paul t#at St Peter *rote #is circular letter tot#e C#urc#es of Asia +inor 6% T#e letter ma2es no s!ecial reference to t#e affairs of t#e

!rovince of Asia, but its account of t#e condition of C#ristians in Asia +inor must be

ta2en to a!!l& to !rovincial Asia, *#ic# *as one of t#e four !rovinces addressed8% In t#e

first !lace it is remar2able t#at *#ile St Paul #imself is not mentioned, t#e A!ostle of

t#e Circumcision not onl& associates #imself in t#is letter *it# t*o of St Paul7s

com!anions, Silvanus and +ar2 >8)1 f%@, but ma2es considerable use of St Paul7sE!istles, and among t#em of t#e enc&clical Eρὸς Oφεσίους% T#e fact #as been used as

an indication of date, but it ma& serve also to s#e* t#e delicate care *it# *#ic# St Peter

endeavours to maintain t#e continuit& of C#ristian teac#ing in c#urc#es *#ic# #ad been

to some e3tent estranged from t#eir founder, and *it#out suc# an intimation mig#t #ave

been led to regard Peter in t#e lig#t of a rival to *#om t#e& *ere invited to transfer t#eir

allegiance% ut for our !ur!ose it is more im!ortant to ta2e note of t#e relations *#ic#

e3isted at t#e time bet*een t#e C#ristian communities and t#eir !agan neig#bours%

C#ristians *ere s!o2en against as evilFdoers >1)1@ t#eir reasons *ere demanded *it# a

rudeness *#ic# called for t#e e3ercise of mee2ness >6);@ t#ere *as al*a&s a c#ance

t#at an& one of t#em mig#t be called to suffer as a C#ristian alread& t#e& #ad been tried

b& fire, and *ere learning to bear t#eir s#are in t#e sufferings of C#rist >8)1 ff%@% Yet

t#e !ersecution *as as &et unofficial% T#e A!ostle !resses on t#e C#urc#es t#e dut& of

absolute lo&alt& to t#e Em!eror and t#e Proconsul >1)6 ff%@% 'ome, indeed, is alread&ab&lon7 >;)6@, but Nero, if #e is still living, e3ercises a !o*er *#ic# is of -od, and

*#ile -od is alone to be feared, t#e Em!eror must be #eld in #onour >1)B@% T#e

troubles of t#e Asian C#ristians came as &et from t#eir neig#bours rat#er t#an from t#e

State t#eir refusal to s#are in t#e revelries and im!urities of #eat#enism broug#t u!on

t#em t#e ill*ill and abuse and, as far as t#e civil !o*er !ermitted, t#e maltreatment of

relatives or fello*citi9ens >86 ff%@% T#e trial fell *it# es!ecial *eig#t u!on C#ristian

slaves, *#o #ad no !rotection against t#e cruelt& of !agan masters, and *#o formed a

large !ro!ortion of t#e earl& C#ristian societies%

B% In t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n t#e field is narro*ed again to Proconsular Asia% T#eo!ening c#a!ters of t#e boo2 ta2e t#e reader on tour t#roug# a great !art of t#e

Province #e accom!anies t#e bearer of t#e A!ocal&!tic circular from E!#esus to

Sm&rna, and t#ence !asses inland to +&sian Pergamum, L&dian T#&atira, Sardis, and

P#iladel!#ia, and P#r&gian Laodicea% Eac# of t#e seven cities #ad its C#ristian societ&,

2 $cts 20:4 1σιανοὶ δC n)-ικος καὶ nρόφιμος. f. Ep'. 6:21.

See ,t Mar# 2, p. 22.

4 Not 'o-e8er t'e frst pro8nce to rece8e t'e letter, -'c', to L+3e fro5 t'e

orer of t'e na5es, entere $sa Mnor * -a* of t'e E+ne, possl* at

Snope; cf. Hort, !irst Ep. of ,t Peter , pp. 17, 176 ff.

and in some cases at least t#is societ& *as associated *it# neig#bouring c#urc#es to

*#ic# it *ould transmit t#e A!ocal&!se or a co!&% T#us Pergamum *as *it#in eas&

reac# of Adram&ttium and Troas >Acts 1K; ff%, 1 Cor% 1)1@, Laodicea of Hiera!olis

and Colossae >Col% 1), 8)6@, and E!#esus itself of +iletus, +agnesia and Tralles so

t#at t#e route indicated secured t#e distribution of St 5o#n7s enc&clical among all t#eC#ristian brot#er#oods in Asia)%

St 5o#n, li2e St Peter, ma2es no mention of St Paul% T#e founder of t#e Asian

C#urc#es seems to #ave disa!!eared altoget#er from t#eir field of sig#t% If *e are to

believe a considerable sc#ool of modern critics, t#e A!ocal&!se not onl& ignores St

Paul, but bitterl& and re!eatedl& attac2s t#ose *#o still claimed to follo* #is teac#ing%

In t#e o!inion of t#ese sc#olars t#e Nicolaitans of c% 1% are t#e Pauline C#ristians of t#e

age of St 5o#n1% It is !ossible t#at t#is remar2able t#eor& #olds an element of trut#% T#e

advocates of la3it& ma& #ave s#eltered t#emselves under t#e great aut#orit& of St Paul,

"uoting detac#ed sentences from #is e!istles6 in su!!ort of t#eir tenets t#e& ma& #ave

re!resented t#e rMle of t#e A!ostle of t#e (ncircumcision as t#at of a deliverer of

-entile C#ristendom from t#e &o2e *#ic# t#e older A!ostles and t#e mot#er C#urc#

#ad soug#t to im!ose b& t#e decree of A%$% 8? it is even barel& !ossible t#at be#ind t#e

enigmatic name *#ic# t#e& bore t#ere ma& lie some reference to t#e s!iritual victories

*on b& t#e man *#om t#e& claimed as t#e aut#or of t#eir !olic&% Against !seudoF

Paulinists suc# as t#ese 5o#n ta2es #is stand, as St Paul #imself *ould certainl& #ave

done but against Paul8 or #is teac#ing t#ere is not a *ord% No doubt it is strange t#at so

great a figure as t#at of St Paul s#ould #ave been forgotten or ecli!sed in t#e countr&

*#ic# #ad been t#e earliest and !rinci!al scene of #is evangelistic *or2% ut account

must be ta2en of several circumstances% +ore t#an a generation #ad !assed a*a& since#is residence at E!#esus, and t#e ot#er Asian cities #ad never seen #im in t#e fles#), or

#ad 2no*n #im onl& as an itinerant evangelist1% T#e ra!id movements of life *#ic#

!la&ed over t#e surface of Ionian civili9ation in t#e &ears bet*een t#e beginning of

Nero7s reign and t#e end of $omitian7s t#e transit over Asia of man& of t#e greater

lig#ts7 of t#e C#urc# on t#eir *a& from Palestine *est*ards, and t#e settlement of

some of t#em in t#e !rovince6 t#e !resence in Asia of men *#o #ad 2no*n t#e Lord in

1 1 See ao8e, c. ".

2 See t'e co55entar* on c. 2:1.

E.3. 1 or. 10:19 τί ο(ν φ%μί{ Gτι ε*δ'λό=υτόν τί !στιν< . 2 π&ντα ;0εστιν. t.

1:1" π&ντα κα=αρὰ τοῖς κα=αροῖς. 'at t'e $postles -ors -ere -reste after

t's 5anner -e kno- fro5 o5. :%; cf. 2 Pet. :16.

4 &n t'e sl3't sa to e ntene n 21:14, see co55. ad loc.

1 f. ol. 2:1.

2 See p. 64.

Pol*crates ap. E+s. H.E. :1 καὶ γὰρ καὶ κατὰ τ#ν 1σίαν μεγ&λα στοι-εῖακεκοίμ%ται< ... Sίλιππον τ$ν δVδεκα ,ποστόλ'ν uς κεκοίμ%ται !ν |εραπόλει καὶ δ)ο

t#e da&s of His fles# or #ad conversed *it# t#ose *#o 2ne* Him8 :t#ese t#ings all

tended to *i!e out t#e memor& of St Paul from t#e minds of t#e Asian C#ristians% 5o#n#imself as t#e !πιστ>=ιος, *#et#er *e regard #im as t#e A!ostle or t#e Elder, ma& *ell

#ave e3cited t#roug#out t#e !rovince a sentiment of veneration suc# as #ad never been

felt for t#e ;κτρ'μα;

of t#e A!ostolic bod&% It is not sur!rising t#at St 5o#n is seen tofill and more t#an fill t#e !lace once occu!ied b& St Paul, or t#at so fe* traces are left of

t#e great A!ostle7s *or2 in t#e C#urc#es of Asia *#en t#e& emerge to sig#t again at t#e

end of t#e first centur&%

% T#at C#ristianit& in Asia *as, in t#e time of t#e A!ocal&!tist, a force *it# *#ic#

!aganism #ad to rec2on is evident from t#e ne* attitude *#ic# its enemies *ere

beginning to assume to*ards it:a !oint to *#ic# *e s#all !resentl& recur% In t#e larger

cities t#e C#ristians !robabl& formed an a!!reciable fraction of t#e !o!ulation Ignatius,

some fifteen or t*ent& &ears after t#e date of t#e A!ocal&!se, can s!ea2 of t#eπολυπλ>=εια of t#e E!#esian C#urc#<% Asia +inor *as destined to become t#e

strong#old of C#ristianit&, and in no ot#er !rovince of t#e Em!ire *as t#e fait# so

*idel& disseminated or re!resented b& so man& societies) as in t#e !rovince of Asia%

Nevert#eless, Asian C#ristianit&, as re!resented b& St 5o#n in t#e A!ocal&!se, does not

create a *#oll& satisfactor& im!ression% T#e C#urc#es !ass before us, and eac# is

se!aratel& revie*ed, *it# var&ing udgements% If good *or2 is being done at E!#esus, it

is not t#e *or2 of t#e first da&s >18 f%@% At Pergamum and T#&atira t#ere is muc# to be

commended, but also somet#ing to be censured in eac# of t#ese C#urc#es t#ere is a

Nicolaitan7 circle, and at T#&atira its ends are !romoted b& a local !ro!#etess *#o is

tolerated b& t#e C#urc# >1);, 11K@% At Sardis C#ristianit& is in danger of becoming an

em!t& !rofession >6)@ at Laodicea, t#e selfFsatisfaction of commercial !ros!erit& iseating out t#e #eart of C#ristian #umilit& and love >6); ff%@% Onl& Sm&rna and

P#iladel!#ia deserve unmi3ed !raise, and in eac# case it #as been earned under t#e

disci!line of suffering >1? ff%, 6)K@% Onl& at P#iladel!#ia do *e seem to #ear of

!rogress before t#is C#urc# an o!en door #ad been set in t#e great tradeFroute *#ic#

connected t#e to*n *it# t#e #ig#lands of P#r&gia, and some attem!t #ad !er#a!s been

made to ta2e advantage of it for missionar& *or2 1%

=υγατ9ρες αὐτοῦ γεγ%ρακυῖαι παρ=9νοι καὶ Nτ9ρα αὐτοῦ =υγατ#ρ Cν ἁγίM πνε)ματι

πολιτευσαμ9ν% !ν Oφ9σM ,ναπα)εται} ;τι δC καὶ 3'&νν%ς ...

4 Ib. :9.

" 1 or. 1":%.

6 3n. Eph. 1:, cf. !3'tfoots note ad loc.

1 f. $. Harnack, Die Mission u. Ausbreitung d. Christentu&s, p. 461:

Blenasen st as c'rstlc'e !an κατH !0ο->ν n 8orkonstantnsc'er Aet

3e-esen<; . p. 4%4: e Pro8n $sen st e c'rstlc'e Ha+ptpro8n n

Blenasen 3e-oren.< (E. r., pp. 26, 64.)

2 See a5sa*, $etters, p. 404 f.

Yet as a *#ole t#e Asian C#urc# as seen in t#e A!ocal&!se is still #olding its o*n

t#e notes of fait#, love, service, !erseverance are to be found ever&*#ere e3ce!t at

Laodicea, and to Laodicea itself a locus poenitentiae is still afforded% T#e Nicolaitan

!art& #as not as &et made great !rogress at E!#esus its !ractices are regarded b& t#e

great bod& of t#e C#urc# *it# detestation >1< μισεῖς τὰ ;ργα τ$ν ~ικολαkτ$ν@ atPergamum it seems to be a small minorit& >1); ;-εις καὶ σ κρατοῦντας κτλ.@ at

T#&atira t#e Nicolaitan !ro!#etess is merel& suffered >11K ,φεῖς@% As for 5udaism, t#e

!urit& of t#e fait# *as no longer in danger from t#at cause t#e o!en and bitter

antagonism of t#e S&nagogue #ad o!ened t#e e&es of t#e C#ristians, and *or2ed for t#e

good of t#e C#urc#%

?% T#e Nicolaitan minorit& calls for se!arate consideration% As re!resented b& t#e

A!ocal&!tist, t#e !art&:for it *as still !er#a!s a !art& rat#er t#an a sect:taug#tC#ristians >τος !μος δο)λους@ to commit fornication and to eat food offered in

sacrifice to idols >1)8, 11K@ it did t#e *or2 of alaam, *#ose counsels broug#t on

Israel t#e disaster of aalF!eor t#e !ro!#etess *#o !us#ed its claims at T#&atira *as a

second 5e9ebel, !ressing u!on t#e !eo!le of -od t#e immoralities of a #eat#en societ&%

It ma& be assumed t#at t#e Nicolaitans t#emselves disclaimed an& immoral obect%

T#eir !ur!ose, it #as been !leaded, *as .to effect a reasonable com!romise *it# t#e

establis#ed usages of -raecoF'oman societ&/ t#e& taug#t t#at C#ristians oug#t to

remain members of t#e !agan clubs), and t#at t#e& mig#t do so *it#out dislo&alt& to

t#eir fait#% Suc# a course involved not#ing *orse t#an t#e abandonment of an obsolete

decree% T#e 5erusalem decree #ad been issued at t#e first beginning of -entile

C#ristianit& it #ad been circulated b& St Paul in Pam!#&lia and L&caonia >Acts )<8@,

and doubtless #ad reac#ed E!#esus% ut St Paul #imself #ad !ermitted at Corint# somemodification of t#e ban against ε*δ'λό=υτα, recogni9ing t#e libert& of C#ristians to

!arta2e *it#out "uestion of meat *#ic# *as sold in t#e mar2ets or set before t#em at a

friend7s table, *#ile #e insisted t#at c#arit& to *ea2er bret#ren s#ould !reclude t#emfrom eating an ε*δ'λό=υτον *#ic# #ad been declared to be suc# or from ta2ing !art in

a ban"uet #eld in a !agan tem!le >) Cor% )K, )K1; ff%@% It ma& be !resumed t#at a

similar com!romise #ad been reac#ed at E!#esus, and t#roug#out t#e Pauline C#urc#es%

ut t#e minorit& *as dissatisfied% T#e e3isting rule e3cluded members of t#e C#urc#

not onl& from t#e !ublic festivals *#ic# *ere t#e !ride of t#e Ionian cities1, but from t#e

!rivate clubs *#ic# connected t#eir common meals *it# sacrificial rites, and met in buildings dedicated to a !agan deit&% T#ose *#o desired to !artici!ate in gat#erings of

t#e latter 2ind mig#t #ave #ad muc# to urge in t#eir defence it *as onl& b& suc# *ise

concessions t#at C#ristianit& could #o!e to leaven t#e life of t#ese -ree2 cities to stand

aloof from all social reunions *as to incur sus!icion and disli2e, and suc# conduct

*ould end in a general u!rising against t#e C#urc#, !er#a!s in its su!!ression

t#roug#out Asia% T#ese arguments mig#t #ave been used b& t#e !art& *it# more or less

of sincerit&, but t#e& did not succeed in deceiving t#e Seer of t#e A!ocal&!se% He sa* in

t#e Nicolaitan !ro!osals not t#e mere abandonment of a !rimitive C#urc# order, not

1 a5sa*, $etters, pp. 299, " ff., 46.

2 =or t'e Ep'esan fest8als see Hcks, Ephesus, p. 79 f.

onl& t#e ado!tion of a *ea2 concordat *it# t#e !agan societ& b& *#ic# t#e C#urc# *as

environed, but an indirect attac2 u!on t#e sanctities of t#e C#ristian life% T#e 5erusalemconference #ad in its decree broug#t into u3ta!osition t#e eating of ε*δ'λό=υτα and

indulgence in se3ual im!urit&) >Acts );1K, );1B@, and 5o#n #ad not lived in a -ree2

cit& *it#out becoming a*are t#at t#e t*o t#ings *ere in fact closel& bound u! toget#er%Pagan festivities *ere too often occasions of immoralities from *#ic# -entile converts

#ad been rescued *it# t#e greatest difficult&% If *ords meant an&t#ing to t#e *riter of

t#e A!ocal&!se, #e regarded t#e "uestion raised b& t#e Nicolaitans as vital, and t#e

danger as imminent% Drom !artici!ation in a !agan guildFfeast to licentiousness *as but

a ste! &et t#e guilds *ere bound u! *it# t#e life of t#e cities, and to re!udiate t#em *as

a serious matter for C#ristians *#o *ere engaged in t#e local trades1% 0#en even

C#ristian !ro!#ec&, in t#e !erson of t#e T#&atiran 5e9ebel, *as advocating Nicolaitan

!rinci!les, it *as time for t#e !ro!#et of t#e A!ocal&!se to s!ea2 *it# no uncertain

voice and #is *ords >111 f%@ are not more severe t#an t#e occasion demanded%

)K% T#e Nicolaitan controvers& raises t#e *#ole "uestion of t#e relation of

C#ristianit& in Asia to Paganism at t#e moment *#en St 5o#n *rote% In no !art of t#e

Em!ire *as !aganism more strenuous or resourceful, and in none, so far as *e can

udge, *as t#e conflict bet*een t#e old religion and t#e ne* so nearl& broug#t to a #ead%

At E!#esus in ;8=; t#e cr& *as alread& raised of C#rist or Artemis, and t#e cit& of t#e

Artemision #ad been las#ed to a fine fur& b& t#e !ros!ect of t#eir great goddess, t#e

*ors#i! of Asia and t#e Em!ire, being abandoned at t#e bidding of a 5e*% 0#at

Artemis *as to E!#esus, suc# *as As2le!ios to Pergamum indeed, eac# of t#e cities

#ad its local cult of one or more deities, Hellenic in name, but more or less Asiatic in

origin and c#aracter% T#ese cults *ere intimatel& connected *it# t#e interests of t#elocal tradesmen and arti9ans), as *ell as of t#e munici!alities and of t#ose in aut#orit&

an&one *#o attac2ed t#e religion of an Asian cit& broug#t u!on #imself t#e ill*ill of t#e

*#ole !o!ulation% T#e 5e*s from t#e time of t#e Seleucids #ad been free to follo* t#eir

o*n fait# and even to ma2e !rosel&tes *#ere t#e& could, and it ma& #ave been t#eir

!olic& to !reserve t#e status quo, b& s#utting t#eir e&es to muc# t#at t#eir consciences

disa!!roved% ut t#e ne* religion *as content *it# not#ing less t#an an active crusadeagainst idolatr&1 if St Paul and #is friends *ere not +ερόσυλοι, t#e& *ere scarcel& free,

as t#e grammateus of E!#esus maintained, from t#e c#arge of s!ea2ing ill of t#e local

deit& *#atever Ale3ander t#e 5e* ma& #ave #ad to sa& in #is defence >Acts )?6@, t#e

1 Eορνεῦσαι< πορνεία ($poc. 2:14, 2:20 f.) cannot e nterprete ot'er-se

-t'o+t on3 8olence to t'e plan 5eann3 of t'e -ors, nor can t'e lan3+a3e

+se n 2:6, 2:2 e L+stfe f t'e Ncolatan s+rrener -as 5erel* a -ell@5eant

atte5pt to l8e at peace -t' pa3an ne3'o+rs.

2 &n t's pont see a5sa*, $etters, p. "2. He s speakn3 of '*atra, -'ere

#eeel< -as at -ork.

1 f. $cts 19:2, 19:2", 19:27.

2 See estcott, Epp. of ,t -ohn, p. 264, an cf. $cts 19:26.

C#ristian A!ostle could scarcel& #ave urged t#is !lea% 0#at #a!!ened at E!#esus in St

Paul7s time must #ave #a!!ened, mutatis mutandis, in all Asian cities *#ere

C#ristianit& gained an entrance% Ever&*#ere in Asia it found itself o!!osed to a

religious s&stem *#ic# *as dee!l& rooted in t#e affections and su!!orted b& t#e

interests of t#e citi9ens, and *#ic# entered into ever& de!artment of social andcommercial life% Sooner or later an o!en conflict *as inevitable% 0#en t#e A!ocal&!se

*as *ritten t#e conflict #ad begun all along t#e line%

B% A NTICH'IST IN THE P'OINCE OD ASIA $('IN- THE DI'ST CENT('Y

)% T#e conflict *#ic# in t#e da&s of t#e A!ocal&!tist la& before t#e C#ristians of

Asia *as more t#an an encounter *it# t#e !reudices or t#e interests of t#eir fello*F

to*nsmen, due to an attem!t to substitute a ne* religion for a longFestablis#ed cult%

T*o em!ires) *ere about to meet in mortal combat t#e ingdom of -od re!resented

b& t#e C#urc#, t#e 0orldF!o*er re!resented b& 'ome% As t#e struggle revealed itself tot#e e&es of t#e Seer, it *as a *ar of t#e C#rist *it# t#e Antic#rist%

0it#in t#e limits of t#e Ne* Testament, t#e *ord Antic#rist7 occurs onl& in t#eE!istles of St 5o#n cf% ) 5o% 1) κα=dς _κο)σατε Gτι 1ντί-ριστος ;ρ-εται< καὶ νῦν ,ντί-ριστοιπολλοὶ γεγόνασιν ib! 11 ο^τός !στιν : ,ντί-ριστος< : ,ρνο)μενος τὸν πατ9ρα καὶ τὸν υ+όν86 τοῦτο sc! π/ν πνεῦμα u μ# :μολογεῖ τὸν 3%σοῦν !στὶν τὸ τοῦ ,ντι-ρίστου< u ,κ%κόστεGτι ;ρ-εται< καὶ νῦν !ν τI κόσμM !στὶν ?δ% 1 5o% B ο^τος sc! : μ# :μολογ$ν 3%σοῦν 4ριστὸν!ρ-όμενον !ν σαρκί !στὶν : πλ&νος καὶ : ,ντί-ριστος% Here t#e e3!ected coming of Antic#ristis re!resented as finding a fulfilment in t#e docetic vie*s of t#e !erson of C#rist *#ic# *ere

!revalent in St 5o#n7s time, and ) 5o% 86 is accordingl& "uoted against t#e docetic sc#ools oft#e second centur& b& Pol&car! > $hil! B@ and Irenaeus >6)<% 6<, 6@% Irenaeus, #o*ever, uses

t#e name Antic#rist7 in conne3ion *it# esc#atological s!eculations based on 1 T#ess% 1% >Iren%6B% ), ;1;% )@ and on t#e A!ocal&!se >Iren% ;1<% ) ff%@, and from Irenaeus t#is use of t#e *orddescended to Hi!!ol&tus, *#ose tract Eερὶ τοῦ σ'τῆρος μ$ν 3%σοῦ 4ριστοῦ καὶ περὶ τοῦ,ντι-ρίστου is in our #ands%

1%% It is remar2able t#at a *ord so .c#aracteristic of t#e Sc#ool of St 5o#n)/ does nota!!ear in t#e A!ocal&!se, *#ere it mig#t #ave served t#e *riter7s !ur!ose in more t#anone !assage% T#at t#e conce!tion of a !ersonal Antic#rist e3isted among t#e C#ristiansof Asia in t#e first centur& is certain from ) 5o#n 1)% $oubtless t#e& #ad #eard7 itfrom t#e !ro!#ets, and t#e !ro!#ets #ad in#erited t#e idea if not t#e *ord from t#eS&nagogue% 0#et#er t#e germ of t#e idea is to be found *it# -un2el in t#e ab&lonianm&t# of +ardu2 and Ti\mat, or in $aniel7s !resentation of Antioc#us E!i!#anes1,

5e*is# a!ocal&!ses of t#e first centur& s#e* t#at t#e +essianic #o!e of t#e time restedon a dar2 bac2ground of forebodings aroused b& t#e e3!ectation of an antiF+essia#6% Acorres!onding develo!ment of t#e doctrine of Antic#rist is to be found in C#ristiancircles during t#e A!ostolic age%

T#e locus classicus in t#e E!istles is 1 T#ess% 16 ff% Here t#e final antagonist of t#eC#rist is described as : @ν=ρ'πος τῆς ,νομίας or : @νομος< : ,ντικείμενος καὶ "περαιρόμενος

1 'e epresson s orro-e fro5 /p estcotts 3reat Essa* n Epp. of ,t

-ohn, p. 2"0 ff.

1 estcott, Epp. of ,t -ohn, p. 70.

2 f. an. 11:6.

f. Apoc. Baruch ". ff. Asc. of Isaiah 4, 4 Esr. " ff.

!πὶ π&ντα λεγόμενον =εὸν • σ9Bασμα8% His παρουσία stands in strong contrast *it# t#at of t#eC#rist it is κατH !ν9ργειαν τοῦ σαταν/, not τοῦ =εοῦ it is !ν π&σ6 δυν&μει καὶ σ%μείοις καὶτ9ρασι 2ε)δους, not of trut#% ut #is doom is sure t#e C#rist *ill !revail t#e La*less One7 isdestined to !eris# >: υ+ὸς τῆς ,π'λείας@ at t#e Coming of t#e Lord >uν : κ)ριος 3%σοῦς ,νελεῖτI πνε)ματι τοῦ στόματος αὐτοῦ; καὶ καταργ>σει τ7 !πιφανεί8 τῆς παρουσίας αὐτοῦ@% T#e

revelation of t#is !erson >for suc# #e certainl& seems to be@ is dela&ed b& some restraining force>τὸ κατ9-ον< : κατ9-'ν@, t#e nature of *#ic# #ad a!!arentl& been e3!lained b& t#e A!ostle*#en #e *as at T#essalonica >τὸ κατ9-ον οbδατε@, t#oug# for some good reason #e is un*illingto commit it to *riting% +ean*#ile, t#e !rinci!le of ,νομία is alread& at *or2%

Assuming t#at 1 T#ess% is a genuine *or2 of St Paul, it is one of #is earlier E!istles, andma& be !laced in t#e last &ears of Claudius >8=8?, Harnac2 ;6, 4a#n@% w κατ9-'ν is !er#a!st#e reigning Em!eror, and τὸ κατ9-ον #is !olic&% As for t#e @νομος, t#e conce!tion is based

!artl& on t#e O%T%, and !artl& it is suggested b& t#e memor& of t#e late Em!eror -aius, and #ismad attem!t to set u! a statue of #imself in t#e Tem!le at 5erusalem% 0#en Claudius *as gone,a ne* Em!eror mig#t return to Caligula7s foll& or sur!ass it, and !rove #imself a ver&Antic#rist% ut t#ere is not#ing in t#e A!ostle7s *ords *#ic# com!els t#e belief t#at Nero *asin #is t#oug#ts, or even t#at #e consciousl& connected t#e Antic#rist *it# a future Em!eror% All

t#at #e definitel& foretells is t#e advent of a great antic#ristian !o*er after t#e removal of t#ee3isting bar, and before t#e second Advent of t#e Lord%

An earlier C#ristian a!ocal&!se, based on t#e teac#ing of C#rist and no* embodied int#e S&no!tic -os!els >+c% )6%R+t% 18%RLc% 1)%@, ma& #ave been alread& in circulation *#en 1T#ess% *as *ritten% It s!ea2s of t#e Abomination of $esolation7 .standing >Nστ%κότα@ *#ere #eoug#t not/ >+c%@ or .standing >Nστός@ in a #ol& !lace/ >+t%@)% St Lu2e substitutes for t#is t#e

!ara!#rase, .0#en &e see 5erusalem com!assed *it# armies, t#en 2no* t#at #er desolation is at#and,/ i%e%, *riting after t#e fall of t#e cit&, #e inter!rets t#e !ro!#ec& as fulfilled in t#einvestment of 5erusalem b& Titus% ut *#atever ma& be intended b& t#e Bδ9λυγμα τῆς!ρ%μVσε'ς, it is difficult to overloo2 t#e general resemblance bet*een St +ar27s Nστ%κόταGπου οὐ δεῖ€!ν τόπM ἁγίM >+t%@, and St Paul7s Wστε αὐτὸν ε*ς τὸν ναὸν τοῦ =εοῦ κα=ίσαι% T#e

Bδ9λυγμα #ad been almost reali9ed under Caligula, and t#e A!ostle loo2ed for*ard to its fullreali9ation, !er#a!s in t#e near future to St Lu2e, *#o outlived St Paul, t#e da& seemed to #avecome *#en t#e cit& *as invested b& t#e 'oman general%

6%% In t#e A!ocal&!se anot#er stage is reac#ed% Assuming t#at t#e boo2 in its !resentform belongs, as Irenaeus states, to t#e end of $omitian7s reign, t#e follies of Caligula,t#e atrocities of Nero, and t#e victor& of Titus1 belong to t#e !ast a "uarter of a centur&se!arates t#e fall of 5erusalem from t#e vision of Patmos% Ne* develo!ments call forne* conce!tions of t#e antic#ristian !o*er, and to St 5o#n, guided b& #is recollectionsof t#e oo2 of $aniel, it assumes t#e form of a 0ild east% T*o 0ild easts arementioned in c! )6%, but t#e second does not retain t#e name #e rea!!ears in a laterc#a!ter as t#e Dalse Pro!#et from c! )6)) t#e first 0ild east, *#ose !ro!#et #e is,

receives t#e title τὸ =%ρίον to t#e e3clusion of #is subordinate, and if *e ma& use a*ord *#ic# t#e *riter of t#e A!ocal&!se !er#a!s intentionall& la&s aside, t#is first 0ildeast is t#e Antic#rist of St 5o#n7s vision% To #im belongs t#e m&stic number <<< it is#e *#o li2e St Paul7s @νομος) is *ors#i!!ed b& t#e *orld, and sets #is mar2 on #is

4 f. an. l.c.

" f. sa. 11:4, a passa3e -'c' t'e ar3+5 apples to $r5ll+s.

1 Mt. as, τὸ A%=Cν διὰ Dανι#λ τοῦ προφ>του. f. an. 9:27, 11:24, 12:11.

2 /ot' Bδ9λυγμα an !ρ%μοῦν, occ+r n t'e $pocal*pse, +t n reference not to

#er+sale5 +t to /a*lon (17:4 f., 1%:16, 1%:19).

1 /ot' escrptons rest +lt5atel* on anel 7:%, 11:6.

*ors#i!!ers it is on #im t#at t#e ne* ab&lon re!oses it is #e *#o is at last sei9ed andcast *it# #is !ro!#et into t#e la2e of fire% In one im!ortant !articular, #o*ever, St 5o#n#as made an advance u!on St Paul% T#e A!ocal&!tic east vanis#es before t#e final

parousia a long interval a!!ears to intervene bet*een #is disa!!earance and t#e end,during *#ic# t#e forces of evil muster round Satan #imself, *#o is t#us t#e ultimate

antagonist of C#rist and of t#e C#urc#%8% 0#o or *#at is t#e east of t#e A!ocal&!se Sometimes #e seems to be regarded

as !ersonal >e%g% )B, )B))@ at ot#er times *e a!!ear to be dealing *it# an im!ersonal

abstraction >)6) ff%, )B6, )BB f%@% T#e same !#enomenon #as been observed in t#e

S&no!tic a!ocal&!se and in St Paul7s !ro!#ec& of t#e +an of Sin, and t#e obvious

e3!lanation is t#at in eac# case t#e *riter means to re!resent a !rinci!le *#ic# finds its

illustration and *or2s itself out in individuals% If t#e line of inter!retation ado!ted in t#e

!resent commentar& be acce!ted, t#e A!ocal&!se refers in terms *#ic# are necessaril&

obscure to Nero and $omitian as successive embodiments of t#e east t#e east itself

is !ro!erl& t#e #ostile 0orldF!o*er *#ic# *as identified *it# t#e 'oman Em!ire, and !ersonified in t#e first t*o !ersecuting Em!erors%

.T*o Em!ires, t*o social organi9ations, designed to embrace t#e *#ole *orld,

started toget#er in t#e first centur&% In !rinci!le, in mode of action, in sanctions, in

sco!e, in #istor& t#e& offer an absolute contrast% T#e #istor& of t#e 'oman Em!ire is

from t#e first t#e #istor& of a decline and fall t#e #istor& of t#e C#ristian Em!ire is

from t#e first t#e #istor& of a victorious !rogress1%/ T#e antit#esis *#ic# is set fort# in

t#ese elo"uent *ords ma& not #ave been observed at first it does not a!!ear in our

Lord7s attitude to*ards t#e 'oman rule in 5udaea, or in t#e teac#ing of St Paul u!on t#e

dut& of C#ristians to*ards civil rulers, or even in St Paul7s !ro!#ec&, *#ere t#e Em!ire

and t#e Em!eror are vie*ed in t#e lig#t of a !rotecting rat#er t#an a #ostile force% StPeter7s E!istle is !robabl& later t#an t#e outbrea2 of t#e Neronian !ersecution, but it

reinforces St Paul7s a!!eal for lo&alt&% T#ere *as obviousl& no ground for t#e c#arge of

dislo&alt& *#ic# t#e 5e*s broug#t against our Lord before Pilate >5o% )?)1@, and

against Paul and Silas before t#e T#essalonian !olitarc#s >Acts )B; ff%@% It *as not on

t#e side of t#e C#urc# t#at t#e "uarrel began) in all !robabilit& it *ould never #ave

begun #ad not 'ome !rovo2ed it b& aggressive measures *#ic# t#e C#urc# could not

but resent%

;% Nero o!ened #ostilities in <8, initiating a !olic& of !ersecution *#ic# *as not

formall& abandoned during t#e rest of t#e centur&% T#e circumstances are t#us described b& Tacitus1 and Suetonius

Tac% (nn! );88 non o!e #umana, non largitionibus !rinci!is aut deum !lacamentisdecedebat infamia, "uirt iussum incendium crederetur, ergo abolendo rumori Nero subdidit reos,et "uaesitissimis !oenis affecit "uos !er flagitia invisos vulgus C#ristianos a!!ellabat% igitur

2 estcott, Epp. of ,t -ohn, p. 2".

1 Ho- lttle spose t'e '+rc' -as to 5ake ffc+ltes on 'er part 5a* e

3at'ere (e.3.) fro5 St !+kes reaness to +se t'e ttle PεBαστός ($cts 2":21,

2":2").

2 &n t'e tr+st-ort'ness of act+s see !3'tfoot, Ignatius, 1. pp. 9 f., 72".

!rimum corre!ti "ui fatebantur 6, deinde indicio eorum multitudo ingens, #and !erinde incrimine incendii "uam odio #umani generis coniuncti >corr! convicti@ sunt% et !ereuntibus additaludibria, ut ferarum tergis contecti laniatu canum interirent, aut crucibus affi3i, ant flammandi,at"ue ubi defecisset dies in usum nocturni luminis urerentur% #ortos suos ei s!ectaculo Neroobtulerat et circense ludicrum edebat, #abitu aurigae !ermi3tus !lebi vel curriculo insistens%unde "uam"uam adversus sontes et novissima e3em!la meritos miseratio oriebatur, tam"uamnon utilitate !ublica sed in saevitiam unius absumerentur%/ Suet% ero )< .multa sub eo etanimadversa severe et coercita afflicti su!!liciis C#ristiani, genus #ominum su!erstitionisnovae ac maleficae%/

It is evident t#at Tacitus, *#o certainl& #olds no brief for t#e C#ristian fait#,re!resents Nero as t#e real aut#or of t#e outrage% It too2 t#e form of a !olice measure, asSuetonius sa&s, but in t#e first instance it *as sim!l& a device for screening #is o*ninfam&% C#ristians alread& #ad a bad name *it# t#e 'oman !o!ulace, but no attac2*ould #ave been made u!on t#eir lives #ad not Nero sacrificed t#em to save #imself%0#en #e !roceeded to offer t#e use of t#e atican -ardens for t#e e3ecutions and tomi3 *it# t#e s!ectators, even t#e 'oman mob recogni9ed t#e brutalit& >saevitiam@ of #isconduct%

Et'er t'er 'rstan =at' or t'er 3+lt as ncenares.

NE'O%Drom a bust in t#e ritis# +useum%

<% Even if Nero #ad desired to abandon t#e !olic& of !ersecution, it *ould #ave been

difficult for #im to do so% T#e *ords of Suetonius suggest t#at not*it#standing t#e

reaction broug#t about b& t#e Em!eror7s callousness, re!ressive measures continued in

force% Severus Sul!icius, *#o *rote in t#e fourt# centur&, ma& be confusing later times

*it# t#ose of Nero *#en #e *rites >chron! 11?@ in reference to t#e latter .!ost etiam

datis legibus religio vetabatur, !alam"ue edictis !ro!ositis C#ristianum esse non

licebat),/ but #e is certainl& rig#t in adding *it# regard to t#e atrocities of <8, .#oc

initio in C#ristianos saeviri coe!tum/ and, as Lig#tfoot !oints out, *#en once

!ersecution #ad begun t#e 'oman 5e*s, *it# Po!!aea Sabina at t#eir bac2, *ould

scarcel& #ave been content to let it cease altoget#er% T#e mart&rdoms of St Peter and StPaul are connected *it# Nero b& Tertullian > scorp! );@ and Origen >ap! Eus% ! "! 6)@,

and t#ose A!ostles *ere but t#e leaders of a great arm& of mart&rs1% T#e #orrors of t#at

first onslaug#t on t#e 'oman C#ristians must #ave made a lasting im!ression on t#e

C#urc#es t#roug#out t#e Em!ire and t#e man *#o #ad e3#austed ever& form of cruelt&

in #is sudden attac2 u!on an innocent communit& and #ad revelled in t#e agonies of #is

victims ma& *ell #ave become among C#ristians ever&*#ere t#e s&mbol of brute force

trium!#ing over rig#teousness and trut#, of t#e 0orldF!o*er standing in direct

antit#esis to t#e ingdom of -od:in a *ord, of Antic#rist, or to use St 5o#n7s image,

of t#e east%

B% So strong *as t#e im!ression made b& t#e !ersonalit& of Nero u!on t#e 'oman

*orld t#at after #is violent deat# in < t#ere *ere man& *#o believed or !rofessed to

believe t#at #e *as still alive% 0#ile some of #is friends &ear after &ear stre*ed #is

tomb *it# t#e flo*ers of s!ring and summer, ot#ers issued edicts in #is name and

!rofessed t#at #e *ould s#ortl& return to t#e confusion of #is enemies)% +ore t#an one

!retender claimed to be a Nero returned from #is *anderings, or even restored to life1%

T#ere *ere t#ose *#o *#is!ered t#at t#e great Em!eror *as #iding in Part#ia, and

*ould some da& cross t#e borders at t#e #ead of a Part#ian #ost% T#e C#ristian !ro!#et

*ould not, of course, give credit to t#ese stories, but t#e& served to su!!l& some of t#e

features of #is s&mbolism% T#e east is re!resented as simulating t#e 'esurrection and'eturn of t#e C#rist #is deadl& *ound #as been #ealed >)66@ #e is coming again6%

Nero is doubl& an Antic#rist t#e #istorical Nero !ersecuted t#e C#urc#, t#e Nero of

!o!ular m&t# caricatured8 t#e fait#% T#e legend, indeed, *as not *it#out a counter!art

1 So a5sa*, Church in the 0o&an E&pire, p. 244; +t see !3'tfoot, Ignatius,

1. p. 10 f.; Sana*, n E+p. 4. 7., p. 40%.

2 f. le5. 1 or. 6 πολ πλῆ=ος !κλεκτ$ν οsτινες πολλαῖς α*κίαις καὶ Bασ&νοις διὰ

Rῆλος πα=όντες "πόδειγμα κ&λλιστον !γ9νοντο "μῖν.

1 S+et. ero "7, cf. !3'tfoot, Cle&ent , 2. p. "11.

2 f. enan, $5Ant4christ , pp. 17 ff., "1 ff.

$poc. 17:% π&ρεσται. f. 2 'ess. 2:9 ο^ !στὶν παρουσία κατH !ν9ργειαν τοῦ

σαταν/.

4 'e ὰντί-ριστος s not a 5ere ,ντίδικος or ,ντικείμενος, +t an a8ersar* -'o

consco+sl* or not s5+lates t'e c'aracter of t'e 'rst. o5pare ,ντίκαισαρ

(representat8e of t'e E5peror), a -or -'c' passe nto $ra5ac (al5an,

=8rterbuch, s.8.).

of #istorical fact% 0#en t#e A!ocal&!se *as *ritten, Nero #ad in trut# returned in t#e

!erson of $omitian >)B))@%

% T#e brief reigns of -alba, Ot#o, and itellius are of no interest to t#e student of

t#e struggle bet*een t#e Em!ire and t#e C#urc# and ma& be left out of #is rec2oning, as

St 5o#n leaves t#em out in A!oc% )B)K, *#ere es!asian follo*s immediatel& after Nero% 0it# es!asian t#e Dlavian #ouse; enters on a s!ell of !o*er *#ic# lasted for

more t#an a "uarter of a centur&% Its !olic&, in t#e belief of Professor 'amsa&, *as

strongl& antiFC#ristian% Attention is called to a !assage in Severus Sul!icius, !robabl&

derived from t#e lost istories of Tacitus<, in *#ic# t#e c#ronicler describing a council

of *ar #eld after t#e fall of 5erusalem sa&s >16K@ .alii et Titus i!se evertendum in

!rimis tem!lum censebant "uo !lenius 5udaeorum et C#ristianorum religio tollatur

C#ristianos e3 5udaeis e3titisse radice sublata stir!em facile !erituram%/ T#is, if

trust*ort#&, assigns a reason for a Dlavian !olic& adverse to t#e C#urc#, and t#e #int

dro!s b& Hilar& >c! (rian! 6@ t#at es!asian *as among t#e Im!erial !ersecutors ma2es

in t#e same direction)% ut neit#er statement carries us far% It is onl& *#en *e reac# t#e

t#ird and last of t#e Dlavian Em!erors t#at t#ere is indubitable evidence of a revival on a

large scale of Nero7s attitude to*ards t#e C#ristians%

Lig#tfoot #as collected a catena of !assages *#ic# ustif& t#e belief t#at $omitian

*as t#e second great !ersecutor 1% One reference to #is !ersecuting !olic& iscontem!orar& Clement of 'ome s!ea2s of τὰς α*φνιδίους καὶ !παλλ>λους γενομ9ναςμῖν συμφορὰς καὶ περιπτVσεις :*ords *#ic#, as Lig#tfoot s#e*s, accuratel& describe

t#e ca!ricious and reiterated attac2s *#ic# distinguis#ed t#is Em!eror7s !olic& in

reference to t#e C#urc#6% It is !er#a!s due to t#e feline stealt#iness and ra!idit& *it#

*#ic# $omitian dealt #is blo*s t#at so fe* details remain% T#e names of t*o of #isvictims at 'ome are !reserved, and t#e facts are significant% T% Dlavius Clemens, a

cousin of t#e Em!eror, #ad but ust "uitted t#e consuls#i!, in *#ic# #e #ad been

$omitian7s colleague, *#en #e *as arrested and !ut to deat# *#ile #is *ife $omitilla,

$omitian7s niece, *as banis#ed to one of t#e islands off t#e coast of Cam!ania:Pontia

or Pandataria:*#ere !olitical !risoners *ere detained% Suetonius8 contents #imself

*it# sa&ing t#at Dlavius Clemens, *#om #e designates contemptissimae inertice, *as

!ut to deat# repente, e% tenuissima suspicione, but from $io Cassius; *e learn t#at t#ec#arge broug#t against bot# #usband and *ife *as one of at#eism7 >,=εότ%τος@ #e

" Kespasan 69O79, t+s 79O%1, o5tan %1O96.

6 a5sa*, Church in the 0. E&pire, pp. 2", 2"6. f. !3'tfoot, Ignatius, 1. p.

1".

1 $s to oLectons to t's state5ent of Hlar* fo+ne on t'e slence of Melto

(E+s. H.E. 4:26) an a co+nter@state5ent of ert+llan ( Apol. ") see !3'tfoot,

op. cit. p. 16.

2 ,t Cle&ent , 1. p. 104.

Op. cit. 1. p. 7 f.

4 Do&itianus, 1".

adds "φH ς καὶ @λλοι !ς τὰ τ$ν 3ουδαί'ν ;=% !0οκ9λλοντες πολλοὶ κατεδικ&σ=%σαν<καὶ ο+ μCν ,π9=ανον% Putting t#e data toget#er, it is natural to infer t#at Dl% Clemens and

#is *ife suffered for t#eir C#ristian fait#, and t#at t#e& *ere b& no means t#e onl&

victims of $omitian7s #ostilit& to 5e*is#7 *a&s<% ut t#is attac2 on t#e members of t#e

'oman C#urc#, *#ic# seems to #ave been limited to a fe* leaders of 'oman societ&,does not full& e3!lain t#e !osition *#ic# $omitian #olds in C#ristian tradition among

Im!erial !ersecutors of t#e fait#% It is not onl& from 'ome t#at t#e evidence comes, but

from Sardis, *#ose bis#o! +elito *rites to t#e Em!eror Antoninus >Eus% ! "! 81<@μόνοι π&ντ'ν ,ναπεισ=9ντες "πό τιν'ν Bασκ&ν'ν ,ν=ρVπ'ν τὸν κα=H μ/ς !νδιαBολ7 καταστῆσαι λόγον _=9λ%σαν ~9ρ'ν καὶ Dομετιανός@% Nero7s !ersecution of

t#e 'oman C#urc# *as notorious, but *as +elito li2el& to #ave cou!led $omitian *it#

#im as a !ersecutor if t#e latter Em!eror7s actions #ad been limited to a fe* arrests and

e3ecutions at 'ome near t#e end of #is reign Is it not !robable t#at t#e Asian C#urc#es

felt #is #and, !er#a!s some &ears earlier And do not t#e *ords suggest a cause for

$omitian7s antic#ristian !olic& in Asia *#ic# is entirel& in accord *it# t#e conditions

described in t#e A!ocal&!se

?% It is 2no*n t#at $omitian *ent be&ond #is !redecessor in asserting #is o*n

divinit& .cum !rocuratorum suorum nomine formalem dictaret e!istulam sic coe!it

Dominus et Deus noster hoc fieri iubet )%/ T#e #istor& of t#is e3traordinar& claim is

instructive, and must be given #ere as briefl& as ma& be for fuller details reference ma&

be made to -% oissier, 0a religion romaine >Paris, )?KK@, )% !!% )K?=)< -% 0isso*a,

*eligion u! 2ultus der *.mer >+unic#, )?K1@, !!% B)=B, 1K=1? % C#a!ot, op! cit!,

!% 8)? ff%

" Hist. 0o&. 67:14. 1 s. 'e -'ole passa3e 5a* e seen n Pre+sc'en,

Analecta p. 1 f.

6 $ll #e-s 5+st 'a8e een se8erel* tre * Kespasans orer t'at t'e 'alf

s'ekel pa*ale to t'e s+pport of t'e e5ple at #er+sale5 s'o+l e stll

collecte an apple to t'e +se of t'e aptolne #+pter. 's orer n t'e

'ans of o5tan eca5e a pretet for 'ars' 5eas+res en3 recte a3anst

rec+sant #e-s. (S+et. Do&. 2; see !3'tfoot Ignatius 1. p. 12.) /+t t co+l not

affect t'e E5perors relat8es or ot'er non@#e-s' 'rstans; a3anst t'ese t'e

c'ar3e -as one of Cat'es5 s5pl*, .e. of reLectn3 t'e rel3on of o5e.

1 S+et. Do&itian. 1.



$O+ITIAN%Drom a Statue in +unic#>after $r% 5% 5% ernoulli@%

As earl& as t#e second centur& before C#rist a com!limentar& cult of t#e genius of

'ome or t#e dea *oma #ad begun in t#e !rovinces t#ere *as a templum urbis *omae atSm&rna in %C% )?; a B'μὸς τῆς yVμ%ς occurs in )K; a !riest of 'ome is mentioned

b& name in a com!act bet*een Sardis and E!#esus about %C% ?1% A ne* develo!ment

of t#is cult s!rang u! *it# t#e rise of t#e Em!ire, *#en t#e maest& of 'ome too2 a

concrete form in t#e !erson of t#e princeps% After t#e a!ot#eosis of 5ulius Caesar >1?2 ac. ann. 4:"6. See sso-a, 0eligion u. /ultus der 08&er , p. 2%1 ff.

%C%@ a tem!le of Dea *oma and Divus 'ulius *as erected at E!#esus)% Augustus #ad no

need to *ait for an a!ot#eosis during #is lifetime tem!les *ere erected under t#ededication =ε/ς yVμ%ς καὶ PεBαστοῦ Fαίσαρος1% 0#en t#e Pergamenes *is#ed to build

one in #onour of Tiberius, t#e e3am!le of Augustus *as "uoted >Tac% ann! 86B .cum

divus Augustus sibi at"ue urbi 'omae tem!lum a!ud Pergamum sisti non !ro#ibuisset/@% ot# Augustus and Tiberius 2e!t t#e ne* cult *it#in limits at 'ome no

tem!le *as dedicated to eit#er Em!eror *it#in #is lifetime Tiberius allo*ed onl& one

Augusteum to be erected in #is #onour *it#in t#e !rovince of Asia, and refused to

!ermit S!ain to follo* t#e e3am!le of t#e Asian cities% -aius, *#o succeeded #im, *as

a man of anot#er and a *ea2er t&!e e!ile!tic, often on t#e verge of insanit&, inca!able

of selfFcontrol, #e #ad in earl& life imbibed from Herod Agri!!a6 a vicious taste for

Oriental magnificence% T#e !recedent s!aringl& allo*ed b& #is !redecessors offered t#is

!rince a *elcome o!!ortunit& of selfFaggrandisement as a god #e could surround

#imself *it# more t#an ro&al dis!la&8% -aius carried #is !retensions to a !oint at *#ic#

t#e& became at once ridiculous and dangerous #e removed t#e #eads of famous statues

and substituted #is o*n #e attem!ted to erect a statue of #imself in t#e Hol& of #olies at

5erusalem% T#e Ale3andrian 5e*s *ere forced to admit t#e Em!eror7s image into t#eir

s&nagogues, and if t#e C#urc# did not suffer, it *as !robabl& because s#e #ad as &et no

buildings set a!art for *ors#i!, and *as not sufficientl& !o*erful to attract attention%

T#e .furious Caligula,/ as -ibbon rig#tl& designates #im, mig#t #ave gone to even

greater lengt#s, #ad not #is reign been cut s#ort b& assassination >8)@% Claudius, if no

better t#an -aius, *as saner, and during #is reign t#ere *as no fres# attem!t to force t#e

Em!erorF*ors#i! on t#e 5e*s, unless indeed somet#ing of t#is 2ind, in *#ic# t#e

'oman C#ristians *ere also involved, is suggested b& t#e *ellF2no*n *ords ofSuetonius; .Iudaeos im!ulsore C#resto assidue tumultuantes 'oma e3!ulit%/ It is not

clear *#& t#e 'oman 5e*s or 5e*is# C#ristians s#ould #ave given trouble on an& ot#er

ground% Yet if t#e Im!erial cult *ent on under Claudius, t#ere is no evidence t#at it *as

encouraged b& #im% 0e read of a tem!le erected in #onour of Claudius at

Camelodunum in ritain, *#ic# *as regarded as indicating t#at t#e 'omans #ad come

to sta& and to rule)% After deat# Claudius received #is a!ot#eosis1 amidst s#outs of

ridicule *#ic# are voiced in t#e (potheosis of Seneca% Nero, on t#e ot#er #and, mig#t

easil& #ave made good a claim of t#is 2ind% No Em!eror on t#e *#ole made so dee! an

1 o ass+s, "1:20.

2 ttener3er, Or. "r. inscr. select. 2. p. 11.

sso-a, p. 2%4; estcott, Epp. of ,t -ohn, p. 274.

4 S+et. C. Caligula 22, a5ont+s et prncp+5 et re3+5 se ecesssse

fast3+5, 8na5 e eo 5aestate5 asserete s coept.<

" Di%us Claudius, 2".

1 ac. ann. 14:1, +as ar aeternae o5natons aspceat+r.<

2 S+et. D. Claudius, 4" n n+5er+5 eor+5 relat+s.< f. ttener3er, Or. "r.inscr. 2. p. 97, : =εὸς Fλα)διος.

im!ression, a circumstance due to t#e dramatic !o*er and consciousness of somet#ing

a!!roac#ing to genius *#ic# remained *it# #im to t#e last qualis artife% pereo3 Guiteearl& in #is life in an Eg&!tian inscri!tion #e is called : ,γα=ὸς δαίμ'ν τῆς ο*κουμ9ν%ς%

ut #e *as not tem!ted li2e #is !redecessors to imagine #imself divine, !referring to

gain credit for brilliant endo*ments of a #uman t&!e% He s#ran2 from t#e title of Divus and t#e erection of tem!les in #is #onour, because t#e& seemed to forebode t#e

a!!roac# of deat#, and Nero loved life better t#an a s#ado*& immortalit&6% No suc#

feelings #eld bac2 $omitian from !ressing #is claims to $ivine #onours% He found a

gloom& and !er#a!s a c&nical !leasure in t#e s#outs *#ic# greeted #is arrival at t#e

am!#it#eatre *it# $omitia domino et dominae feliciter 8% (nable to rouse ent#usiasm or

admiration, #e could insist on being regarded as a god;%

)K% T#e !rovince of Asia acce!ted *it# acclamation t#e ne* cult of 'ome and t#e

Em!eror% Dor more t#an 1KK &ears 'ome #ad been mistress in Asia, and on t#e *#ole

s#e #ad contributed to t#e !ros!erit& of #er great !rovince but t#e !rovincials #ad

suffered from t#e e3tortions of greed& officials, and from t#e da&s of Augustus t#e

principatus #ad been #ailed b& t#e Asian to*ns as t#eir salvation)% Inscri!tion after

inscri!tion testifies to t#e lo&alt& of t#e cities to*ards t#e Em!ire% At E!#esus, at

Sm&rna, at Pergamum, and indeed t#roug#out t#e !rovince t#e C#urc# *as confronted

b& an im!erialism *#ic# *as !o!ular and !atriotic, and bore t#e c#aracter of a religion% No*#ere *as t#e Caesarcult more !o!ular t#an in Asia1% T#e Augusteum >PεBαστεῖον@,

or Tem!le of 'ome6 and t#e Augusti, #ad long ta2en its !lace among t#e !ublic

buildings of t#e greater cities% Augustus, as *e #ave seen, refused $ivine #onours at

'ome, but !ermitted a tem!le to be dedicated to dea *oma and #imself at Pergamum%

T#e ot#er Asian cities follo*ed t#e !recedent set b& t#e old ca!ital% In A%$% 1< t#e& vied*it# eac# ot#er for t#e #onour of building a tem!le to Tiberius, *#en Sm&rna gained

t#e coveted distinction over t#e #ead of E!#esus, on t#e ground t#at t#e latter alread&

ac. ann. 1":74, na5 e+5 'onor prncp non ante 'aet+r +a5 a3ere nter

'o5nes esert.<

4 S+et. Do&itian. 1.

" f. t'e for5 of oat' +ote * sso-a, p. 71: per o8e5 et 8o5 $+3+st+5

et 3en+5 5perators aesars o5tan $+3+st eos+e penates.<

1 a5sa*, $etters, p. 114 f.; 'apot, $a pro%ince 0o&aine proconsulaire d5

Asie, p. 62 ff. f. an nscrpton of Halcarnass+s cte * A55er5an, Ephesos,

p. "2 f., -'c' escres &cta8an as εὐεργ9τ%ν τ$ν ,ν=ρVπ'ν γ9νους< uς

μεγίστας !λπίδας οὐκ !πλ>ρ'σε μόνον ,λλὰ καὶ "περ9Bαλλεν< ,σφαλ#ς μCν γὰρ γῆ

καὶ =&λασσα< πόλεις δC ,ν=οῦσιν !ν ε*ρ>ν6 καὶ :μονοί8 καὶ εὐετ%ρί8.

2 Mo55sen, Pro%inces (E. r.), p. 4".

n $sa t'e c+lt of o5e -as oler t'an t'e pro8nce tself; a te5ple -as

rase to o5e at S5*rna n /.. 19 (ac. Ann. 4:"6).

!ossessed t#e Artemision8% E!#esus, not to be outdone b& #er neig#bour, erected anAugusteum, !robabl& to Claudius, and t#us ac"uired t#e title of νε'κόρος; of t#e

Im!erial *ors#i!% T#ese local tem!les *ere not of merel& local interest t#eir affairs*ere managed b& t#e !rovincial league 2no*n as t#e /ommune (siae >τὸ κοινὸν τῆς

1σίας@, *#ose !resident *as st&led Asiarc#, and !er#a!s also ,ρ-ιερες τοῦ κοινοῦ τῆς1σίας<% It belonged to t#e Asiarc# to direct t#e *ors#i! of t#e Augusti t#roug#out t#e

!rovince, and to !reside at games *#ic# *ere #eld "uin"uenniall& in t#e cities *#ere

Augustea #ad been erectedB% Suc# festivals are 2no*n to #ave been celebrated from

time to time at five of t#e seven cities addressed in t#e A!ocal&!se, namel&, at E!#esus,

Sm&rna, Pergamum, Sardis, and P#iladel!#ia)%

A s&stem suc# as t#is, it is obvious, su!!lied mac#iner& *#ic# could at an& time be

used against t#e C#urc# *it# fatal facilit&% To refuse *ors#i! to Artemis or As2le!ios

*as to decline a local cult to refuse it to t#e statue of t#e Em!eror at a time *#en t#e

*#ole cit& *as ta2ing !art in festivities organi9ed b& t#e /ommune, *as to e3!ose

oneself to t#e c#arge of dislo&alt& bot# to t#e !rovincial aut#orities and to t#e Em!eror%

Our onl& *onder is t#at t#is c#arge #ad not been laid against t#e C#ristians of Asia in

t#e time of Claudius or of Nero1 !er#a!s t#ere is a trace of suc# an antiFC#ristian

movement in t#e reference to t#e da&s *#en Anti!as suffered at Pergamum6, t#e earliest

centre of t#e CaesarF*ors#i!, but of an& general !ersecution under Nero t#ere is no

evidence8% Yet it is eas& to understand t#at *#en $omitian7s desire for $ivine #onours

4 ac. ann. 4:"".

" M. 'apot (p. 4"0) 38es a +sef+l lst of t'e to-ns of $sa -'c' possesse

t'e neocorate, -t' t'e re3ns or ates -'en t -as rece8e.

6 &n t'ese ttles see !3'tfoot, Ignatius, . p. 404 ff.; 'apot, pp. 4"4O4%2;

Pa+l*@sso-a, s. 88.

7 Eac' of t'e ctes 'a ts local '3' prest of t'e $+3+stan c+lt, -'o see5s

also to 'a8e 'a t'e st*le of C$sarc', t'o+3' 'e -as s+pre5e onl* n t'e local

$+3+ste+5. See !3'tfoot, p. 41"; Hcks, p. %7.

1 E8en t'e calenar s'e-e traces of t'e ne- c+lt. Tsar a son 5os, son Lo+r

co55e $p'rote; lTpo+e e sa 8en+e a+ 5one na+3+ra lannTe. e sont

es co55ence5ents + prT@parent le 8ra c+lte< ('apot, p. 94).

2 's see5s to follo- not onl* fro5 t'e slence of St !+ke, +t fro5 St Pa+ls

frens'p -t' $sarc's.

t s s3nfcant t'at -'le $ntpas -as 5art*re at Per3a5+5, t -as at

S5*rna, t'e secon centre of t'e $+3+stan c+lt, t'at tro+le -as 55nent

-'en St #o'n -rote (2:10).

4 r Hort nee -rtes (!irst Ep. of ,t Peter , p. 2): t s onl* lkel* t'at -'at

-as e3+n at o5e n conneon -t' t'e fre sprea t'ro+3' t'e pro8nces tll t

became 2no*n in Asia, t#e 9ealous !rovincials *ould resent more 2eenl& t#an before

t#e abstention of C#ristian citi9ens from t#e games instituted in #onour of t#e Augusti,

and t#e situation *ould become t#reatening% It is ust t#is !osition of affairs *#ic# t#e

A!ocal&!se re!resents t#e east of *#om C#ristians s!o2e *it# bated breat# as

number <<<7 #ad returned alread& t#e mar2ets *ere closed against bu&ers and sellers*#o did not bear #is mar2 >)6)B@, and t#ere *ere rumours in t#e air of an a!!roac#ing

massacre >ib! );@% Dor t#is t#e A!ocal&!se is, it is true, our onl& aut#orit&, and its

*itness is given in an enigmatic form *#ic# cannot al*a&s be inter!reted *it#

certaint& but t#e main features of its stor& are !lain enoug#, and t#e& accord *it# *#at

is 2no*n of life in Asia during t#e first centur&, and of $omitian7s general !olic&%

))% 0it# t#e east from t#e sea, t#e #ostile 0orldF!o*er re!resented b& Nero and

$omitian, St 5o#n associates a east from t#e land, a !o*er no less #ostile to t#e

C#urc#, *#ic# #as its origin and #ome in Asia itself% T#is second east allies itself *it#

t#e first, es!eciall& in t#e matter of t#e *ors#i! of t#e Augusti indeed t#e first east is

re!resented as leaving t#e affairs of t#e Em!erorFcult entirel& in t#e #ands of t#e

second% T#e east from t#e land *or2s miracles) in su!!ort of t#e ne* cult, calling

do*n fire from #eaven, and causing t#e statues of t#e Em!eror to s!ea2 >)6)6, )6);@

#e is t#e false !ro!#et7 of t#e Im!erial religion, and im!oses on t#e credulit& of t#e

!o!ulace, *#om #e sets against t#e C#ristian recusants >ib! )1, )8 ff%, )B, )?1K@% & t#e

second east Professor 'amsa&1 understands .t#e Province of Asia in its double as!ect

of civil and religious administration, t#e Proconsul and t#e Commune/ in t#is

commentar& t#e east from t#e land is identified *it# t#e Dalse Pro!#et, and regarded

as t#e religious !o*er re!resented b& t#e Asiarc# and t#e !riest#ood of t#e Asian

tem!les of t#e Augusti *#ile in t#e σ%μεῖα *#ic# #e *or2s *e recogni9e t#e use of t#emagical arts for *#ic# Asia and E!#esus in !articular *ere notorious% T#e magicformulae 2no*n as Oφ9σια γρ&μματα6 #ad a *orld*ide re!utation, and one of t#e

earliest con"uests *#ic# t#e -os!el ac#ieved at E!#esus *as t#e destruction of costl& boo2s *#ic# contained t#em8% It is note*ort#& t#at φαρμακία is named immediatel&

c+l5nate n t'e state of t'n3s 5ple n t'e $pocal*pse.< 'e $pocal*pse

pro8es t'e estence of persec+tons n $sa Mnor, an 5ples t'at t'e* -ere

on a -e scale.< /+t t'ere s not'n3 to s'e- t'at t'e 5art*rs 5entone n t'e

$pocal*pse, $ntpas ecepte, -ere $satcs; t'e s+ffern3s of t'e o5an

'rstans 5a* 'a8e een n t'e -rters 5n.

1 f. 2 'ess. 2:9 f.

2 $etters, p. 97.

f. le5. $l. stro&. ":%. > 46 τὰ Oφ9σια καλο)μενα γρ&μματα !ν πολλοῖς δ#

πολυ=ρ)λ%τα ὄντα. Pl+tarc' sy&p. 7:". 4 ο+ μ&γοι τος δαιμονιRομ9νους κελε)ουσι

τὰ Oφ9σια γρ&μματα πρὸς α"τος καταλ9γειν καὶ Kνομ&Rειν. See Sc'Drer, esc'.

. p. 296 f.

4 $cts 19:19 f.

after ε*δ'λολατρεία in t#e E!istle to t#e -alatians >;1K@;, *#ile t#e A!ocal&!se >1),

cf% 11);@ !laces φαρμακοί, t#e !rofessors of magic, bet*een πόρνοι and

ε*δ'λολ&τραι%

C#ristianit&, it is evident, set its face against magic from t#e first !aganism, on t#e

ot#er #and, #ad no serious "uarrel *it# it t#e cultivated 'oman gentlemen *#oadministered t#e !rovinces of t#e Em!ire did not al*a&s scorn t#e attentions of t#e

!rofessional magus) even Em!erors *ere credited *it# dabbling in t#eir secrets1% InLucian7s sarcastic s2etc# 1λ90ανδρος • ‚ευδόμαντις, *e see one of t#ese conurors on

tour, and t#oug# St 5o#n7s 2ευδοπροφ>τ%ς is !robabl& not an individual, but a class or

s&stem, it ma& be assumed t#at suc# travelling mounteban2s *ere used to negotiate t#e*onders described in A!oc% )6%6 At E!#esus t#ere *ere fourteen =εσμMδοί8 attac#ed to

t#e tem!le of t#e Augusti, *#o are su!!osed b& Canon Hic2s to corres!ond *it# t#e"μνMδοί or c#oirmen of t#e Artemision t#eir official name admits of t#is e3!lanation,

but it ma& also mean oracleFc#anters,7:a name under *#ic# dealers in magic mig#t

*ell #ave been concealed% ut #o*ever t#is ma& #ave been, it is obvious t#at t#e

C#urc# *as #ard !ressed in Asia b& t#e magicFmongers, and it is eas& to imagine t#e

effect of t#eir l&ing *onders on an e3citable !o!ulation alread& !redis!osed to t#e

Im!erial cult and im!atient of C#ristianit&% Not#ing *as needed to lig#t t#e fires of

!ersecution but a *ord from t#e Em!eror or t#e Proconsul, and *#en t#e& *ere 2indled,

it *ould be long, as t#e Pro!#et of t#e A!ocal&!se foresa*, before t#e !eace of t#e

C#urc# *as restored in Asia or in t#e 'oman *orld%

)1% One more force *#ic# made against t#e ingdom of C#rist in Asia must be

mentioned #ere% T#e 5e*s of Asia +inor #ad been numerous from t#e da&s *#en

Antioc#us 6 sent 1KKK families of t#e eastern $is!ersion to settle in L&dia and P#r&gia;%In Cicero7s time tribute *ent to t#e Tem!le at 5erusalem from 5e*s in Adram&ttium,

Pergamum, Laodicea, and A!amea, and t#ere is evidence from ot#er "uarters t#at in t#e

first centur& t#ere *ere 5e*s resident also at Sm&rna, +agnesia, Tralles, Sardis, and

T#&atira<% In t#e &ear of t#e Crucifi3ion *ors#i!!ers came to 5erusalem at t#e feast of

" See !3'tfoots note, an cf. 3n. Eph. 19, Philad. ".

1 $cts 1:6 ff.

2 Orac. ,ibyll. . "2ff. ;σσετH @να0 πολιόκρανος ;-'ν π9λας οvνομα πόντου(Haran) ... καὶ μαγικ$ν ,δ)τ'ν μυστ>ρια π&ντα με=90ει.

$pollon+s of *ana, to -'o5 Prof. a5sa* refers ($etters, p. 102), -as a

stron3 opponent of t'e pre8alent L+33ler*; see ll, 0o&an ,ociety , p. 400.

4 Inscr. 4%1. 7 ( $.. 104): =εσμMδοῖς ναοῦ τ$ν PεBαστ$ν !ν Oφ9σM κοινοῦ τῆς

1σίας.

" #osep'. Ant. 12. f.; cf. P'lo in !lacc. 7. See p. 62, note 1.

6 Sc'Drer, "eschichte, . p. 11 f.; art. Diaspora n Hastn3s, D. B. ":9 ff.

'apot, p. 1%2 ff.

Pentecost from Ca!!adocia, Pontus, Asia, P#r&gia, and Pam!#&lia)% At Salamis in

C&!rus, at Antioc# in Pisidia, at Iconium, at E!#esus, St Paul found s&nagogues, and in

t#ese s&nagogues #e began #is *or2% ut t#e Asiatic 5e*s did not assimilate t#e ne*

teac#ing its !o!ularit& *it# -entiles and !rosel&tes aroused t#eir sus!icion and, as t#e

*riter of t#e Acts suggests, t#eir ealous&1

% In t#e A!ocal&!se t#e breac# bet*een t#eS&nagogue and t#e C#urc# is seen to be com!lete t#e c#urc#es of Sm&rna and

P#iladel!#ia #ave to bear t#e blas!#emies of t#ose *#o .affirm t#emselves to be 5e*s

and are not,/ a s&nagogue *#ic# is not -od7s but .Satan7s6%/ T#e 5e*s *ere !rotected

b& s!ecial !rivilege from molestation in t#e e3ercise of t#eir fait#8% (nder Caligula

indeed t#e& #ad suffered severel& for t#eir o!!osition to t#e CaesarFcult;, but t#e

!ersecution ended *it# t#e deat# of t#e Em!eror under $omitian no attem!t *as made

to enforce a *ors#i! *#ic# neit#er com!ulsion nor !ersuasion *ould #ave broug#t

t#em to acce!t% Nevert#eless, t#e& #ad no scru!le in turning t#e attention of t#e

!o!ulace and t#e aut#orities to t#e resistance *#ic# t#e less favoured C#ristians offered

to t#e Im!erial religion% At t#e mart&rdom of Pol&car! it *as noticed t#at t#e 5e*s of

Sm&rna not onl& made common cause *it# t#e #eat#en but outdid t#em in efforts to

!re!are fuel for t#e sta2e, and t#e #artyrdom notes t#at t#is *as t#eir *ont<% YetPol&car! *as condemned for refusing to s*ear b& t#e genius >τ)-%@ of Caesar B, an act

*#ic# t#e 5e*s s#ould #ave been able to a!!reciate% T#is *as in t#e &ear )<;, but t#e

attitude of t#e Asian 5e* to*ards C#ristianit& #ad been determined at least sevent&

&ears before% T#e S&nagogue of Satan !la&ed t#e rMle of t#e great Adversar& it not onl&

reected C#rist, but did its best b& slander and delation and, *#en t#e o!!ortunit& *as

afforded, b& coo!eration *it# t#e !agan mob, to bring about t#e destruction of t#e

Asian C#urc#%

% P('POSE OD THE APOCALYPSE)% T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n is t#e letter of an e3iled !ro!#et to t#e C#ristian

congregations to *#ic# #e #as ministered% He *rites under t#e conviction t#at #e #as a

message for t#em from t#e Su!reme Pro!#et and Pastor of t#e C#urc#, and #is !rimar&

!ur!ose is to deliver t#is message% It #as come to #im in t#e *a& of revelation, and

under t#e form of a succession of visions, and #e delivers it as it *as given #is letter

consists entirel& of visions and revelations of the 0ord , *#ic# #e #as been not onl&

1 $cts 2:9.

2 $cts 1:4" !πλ>σ=%σαν R>λου. f. 1 'ess. 2:16.

$poc. 2:9, :9.

4 &n t'e pr8le3es possesse * t'e #e-s n $sa see 'apot, p. 1%2 f.

" Sc'Drer, 1:11. p. 91, 2:11. p. 266 ff., 2. . p. 49 ff.

6 Polyc. &art. 1 μ&λιστα 3ουδαί'ν προ=)μ'ς< fς ;=ος αὐτοῖς< ε*ς ταῦτα

"πουργο)ντ'ν. f. > 12 ἅπαν τὸ πλῆ=ος !=ν$ν τε καὶ 3ουδαί'ν.

7 . 9 f.; cf. !3'tfoots note, an estcott, Epp. of ,t -ohn, p. 279.

!ermitted but commanded to transmit)% ut, as t#e st&le !roclaims aloud, it is not, li2e

some of t#e later a!ocal&!ses, a literar& effort, a!!ealing to readers generall& *it#out

regard to s!ecial circumstances% It is a genuine outcome of t#e time, *ritten *it# a vie*

to t#e s!ecial needs of a !articular grou! of C#ristian societies it !ortra&s t#e life of

t#ose societies, and ministers to t#eir s!iritual necessities% In form it is an e!istle,containing an a!ocal&!tic !ro!#ec& in s!irit and inner !ur!ose, it is a !astoral%

1% Eac# of t#e C#urc#es of Asia #ad difficulties !eculiar to itself, and t#ese

!roblems are treated first% T#e first t#ree c#a!ters, *#ic# #ave seemed to some critics to

#ave no real co#erence *it# t#e rest of t#e boo2, are in fact occu!ied *it# t#is

!reliminar& tas2% T#e glorified Head of C#ristendom is revealed as visiting t#e

C#urc#es, and ta2ing note of t#eir several conditions and t#e soFcalled letters to t#e

C#urc#es7 record t#e results of His ins!ection% Not#ing in t#e boo2 is more remar2able

t#an t#e !recision *it# *#ic# t#ese se!arate messages differentiate bet*een C#urc# and

C#urc#, as t#e searc#lig#t of t#e S!irit) is turned u!on eac# in succession% Onl& t*o of

t#e C#urc#es esca!e re!roof t#e strenuous commercial life and t#e material !ros!erit&

of t#e Asian cities #ave #ad t#eir natural effect u!on t#e C#ristian minorities, *#ic#

*ere in t#e sig#t of t#e is#o! of souls suffering from t#is cause even more severel&

t#an from t#e slanders of t#e 5e*s or t#e menaces of t#e #eat#en% At E!#esus t#e

standard of C#ristian life, t#oug# still #ig#, #ad been sensibl& lo*ered at Laodicea t#e

C#urc# *as lu2e*arm and su!ercilious, at Sardis it *as s!irituall& dead% And not onl&

is t#e s!iritual condition of eac# societ& diagnosed, but t#e circumstances are carefull&

distinguis#ed% At Sm&rna and P#iladel!#ia t#e 5e*s are s!eciall& #ostile at Pergamum

and T#&atira trouble #as been caused b& t#e Nicolaitans% At ever& turn t#e messages to

t#e C#urc#es s#e* local 2no*ledge some of t#e allusions *#ic# #ave not &et receiveda satisfactor& e3!lanation *ill doubtless &ield t#eir secret to a fuller 2no*ledge of t#e

#istor& and anti"uities of Asia% T#e business of t#e !ro!#et is *it# t#e !articular C#urc#

to *#ic# for t#e moment attention is called, and *#ic# *ould recogni9e at once t#e

force of #is *ords% It is enoug# for t#e general reader if #e gras!s t#e s!iritual lesson

*#ic# is to be found in t#ese messages b& ever&one *#o #as an ear to #ear it%

6% After c! 6% t#e se!arate interests of t#e C#urc#es !ass out of sig#t% T#e visions

*#ic# follo* o!en *ider fields of vie* t#at embrace t#e *#ole C#urc# and t#e *#ole

of #uman #istor&, reac#ing to t#e consummation and t#e Coming of t#e Lord% ut t#e

Asian C#urc#es are not forgotten, even if t#e& are not mentioned again till near t#e end>11)<, 111)@% T#eir s!iritual dangers are !robabl& in vie* t#roug#out t#e boo2, but

es!eciall& in !assages *#ere t#e vices of #eat#enism are condemned and t#e fait#ful are

*arned against !artici!ation in t#em1, or reminded of t#eir obligation to 2ee!

t#emselves !ure6% And t#e *#ole series of visions *#ic# begins *it# c! 8% is in effect an

ans*er to t#e forebodings b& *#ic# t#e fait#ful in Asia *ere #arassed in vie* of t#e

1 &n t'e one ecepton (10:4) see t'e note ad loc .

1 $poc. 2:7, 2:11, 2:17, 2:29, :6, :1, :22.

2 $s e.3. n 9:20 f., 1%:9 f., 20:%, 22:11, 22:1".

$s n 7:14, 14:4 f., 16:1", 22:14.

gat#ering forces of Antic#rist% T#e C#urc#es of Asia 2ne* t#emselves to be on t#e

brin2 of an encounter *it# t#e greatest !o*er t#e *orld #ad seen% T#e subect of cc! 8:

11% is t#e course and issue of t#e struggle, and t#e !ur!ose of t#ese c#a!ters is to

strengt#en fait# and 2indle #o!e in t#e #earts of t#e fait#ful% In t#e lig#t of t#e

revelation vouc#safed to #im t#e !ro!#et 5o#n sees clearl& t#at an age of !ersecution is beginning, and t#at it *ill affect not onl& t#e C#urc#es of Asia, but t#e C#urc#

t#roug#out t#e 'oman *orld% Ho* long it *ill last #e does not sa& in t#e earlier visions

it seems to run on to t#e consummation, but in t#e later great reac#es of time are seen to

intervene bet*een t#e end of t#e !agan !o*er and t#e end of t#e e3isting order% T#e

lig#t gro*s as t#e Seer loo2s, and t#e issue becomes more and more distinct ab&lon

falls, t#e east and t#e Dalse Pro!#et receive t#eir doom, Satan #imself is finall&

consigned to destruction, and t#e Cit& of -od descends from #eaven, ideali9ed and

glorious, as becomes t#e ride of t#e glorified C#rist% T#e final outcome of t#e struggle

bet*een t#e C#urc# and t#e 0orld, t#e C#rist and t#e Antic#rist, is !ost!oned to t#e

last t*o c#a!ters, but t#ere are antici!ations of it all along t#e course of t#e boo2 in t#e

!romises *it# *#ic# eac# of t#e seven messages to t#e C#urc#es ends in t#e vision of

t#e innumerable multitude before t#e T#rone of -od in t#e vision of t#e )88,KKK

virginFsouls u!on +ount 4ion% T#e *#ole boo2 is a Sursum corda, inviting t#e

C#urc#es to see2 strengt# in t#e fait# of a trium!#ant and returning C#rist% In vain t#e

Ancient Enem& stirs u! trouble in vain t#e east from t#e sea sets u! #is image, and

t#e east from t#e land com!els men under !ain of outla*r& or deat# to *ors#i! it% T#e

seal of the living -od secures t#ose *#o refuse the mark of the &east t#e mart&rs are

con"uerors, and s#all not be hurt of the Second Death t#eir names are in the &ook of

0ife! &lessed are the dead which die in the 0ord from henceforth, t#e& rest from their

labours, for their works follow with them after t#e fall of t#eir great enem& t#e& lived

and reigned with /hrist a thousand years t#e& s#all enter through the gates into the

/ity4 the 0ord -od shall give them light4 they shall reign for ever and ever %

8% Of t#e immediate effect of t#e A!ocal&!se u!on t#e Asian C#urc#es *e cannot

udge certainl& t#e& *eat#ered t#e storm, for in t#e ne3t C#ristian *riting *#ic# comes

to us from Asia, t#e Letters of Ignatius, t#e& are re!resented as large and flouris#ing

communities% T#e storm itself !assed *it#in t*o or t#ree &ears after t#e date *#ic#

Irenaeus assigns to t#e A!ocal&!se $omitian *as assassinated Se!t% ), ?<, and t#e

accession of Nerva !robabl& gave !eace to t#e Asian C#urc#es% Traan, *#o succeededin t#e 5anuar& of ?, seems to #ave ta2en no active measures before A%$% ))1, *#en #is

attention *as directed b& t#e &ounger Plin& to t#e e3traordinar& !rogress of C#ristianit&

in it#&nia% Per#a!s it ma& be safel& inferred t#at in t#e interval bet*een ?< and ))1

t#e danger t#reatened b& t#e CaesarF*ors#i! ceased to be !ressing, and for t#e moment

t#e need of comfort suc# as t#e A!ocal&!se offered *as less 2eenl& felt% ut *#at St

5o#n #ad *ritten in t#e S!irit for t#e times of $omitian and t#e C#urc#es of Asia

remained as a #eritage for all suffering C#urc#es t#roug#out t#e Em!ire% An earl&

e3am!le of t#e #el!fulness of t#e boo2 to C#ristians under !ersecution #as survived in

t#e E!istle of t#e C#urc#es of ienne and L&ons, *ritten in )BB to t#eir bret#ren in Asiaand P#r&gia, *#ic# bears man& signs of t#e use of t#e A!ocal&!se b& t#e C#ristian

societies of Sout# -aul during t#e troubles in t#e reign of +arcus Aurelius% It "uotes or

alludes to A!oc% );, 6)8, )88, 11)))% It is im!ossible to doubt t#at t#e roll *#ic#

contained St 5o#n7s great letter to t#e !arent C#urc#es in Asia *as often in t#e #ands of

t#e daug#ter C#urc#es in -aul, and !er#a!s accom!anied t#e confessors to t#e !risons

*#ere t#e& a*aited t#e mart&r7s cro*n%;% T#ere is some reason for believing t#at t#e *riter of t#e A!ocal&!se, before #is

*or2 *as ended, reali9ed t#at t#e boo2 mig#t find a larger field of service t#an t#e

C#urc#es of Asia or even t#e C#urc#es of t#e Em!ire could offer% In t#e earl& c#a!ters

it is clear t#at St 5o#n *rites *it# a vie* to #is message being read aloud in t#e local

C#urc# assemblies blessed is he that readeth and they that hear the words of this

prophecy4 he that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the /hurches)%

e&ond t#e transmission of t#e letter for reading in neig#bouring C#urc#es, t#e !ro!#et

contem!lates no circulation of #is boo2 #is message is to t#e C#urc#es of Asia, and #e

is content to be t#e means of conve&ing it to t#em% ut *#en #e reac#es t#e end a

!resentiment seems to enter #is mind t#at t#e boo2 *ill live I testify unto every man

that heareth the words of the prophecy of this book, If any man shall add unto them,

-od shall add unto him the plagues which are written in this book4 and if any man shall

take away … -od shall take away his part from the tree of life 1% T#e !rimar& destination

of t#e A!ocal&!se is still 2e!t in vie* it is to t#e #earer rat#er t#an t#e reader t#at t#e

A!ocal&!tist ma2es #is final a!!eal% Yet t#e a!!eal seems to im!l& an e3!ectation t#at

t#e boo2 *ill be co!ied and circulated for *ider reading% T#e *ords are based on t*o

!assages in $euteronom&, and t#e& !racticall& !lace t#e A!ocal&!se on a level *it# t#e

Tora# and antici!ate for it a !lace among t#e Scri!tures of t#e C#urc#% St 5o#n 2ne*

#imself to be a !ro!#et, and #is *riting to be a !ro!#ec& t#at #e *as commanded toconsign #is visions to a boo2 *as an assurance to #im t#at t#eir !ur!ose *ould not be

fulfilled in one generation or in t*o% He sees t#e boo2 going do*n to !osterit&, and li2e

t#e $euteronomist #e endeavours to guard it against inter!olation and e3cision% As #e

*rites t#e last *ords u!on t#e !a!&rus roll t#at lies u!on #is 2nee, t#e conviction da*ns

u!on #im t#at t#e *evelation of 'esus /hrist *as given for t#e *arning and comfort of

t#e *#ole C#urc# to t#e end of time%

?% $ATE)% Earl& C#ristian tradition is !racticall& unanimous in assigning t#e A!ocal&!se to

t#e last &ears of $omitian%T#e follo*ing are t#e c#ief aut#orities% Iren% ;6K% 6 ap! Eus% ! "! 6), 8 ε* γὰρ ;δει

,ναφανδὸν τI νῦν καιρI κ%ρ)ττεσ=αι τοvνομα αὐτοῦ sc! τοῦ ,ντι-ρίστου, διH !κείνου ƒν!ρρ9=% τοῦ καὶ τ#ν 1ποκ&λυ2ιν N'ρακότος} οὐδC γὰρ πρὸ πολλοῦ -ρόνου !'ρ&=%< ,λλὰσ-εδὸν !πὶ τῆς μετ9ρας γενε/ς< πρὸς τI τ9λει τῆς Dομετιανοῦ ,ρ-ῆς) Clem% Ale3% quis dives

1 E+s. H. E. ":1. 10, ":"7; 2. .

1 $poc. 1:, 2:7 etc.

2 $poc. 22:1% f.

1 $ccorn3 to on*s+s /arsal, Hppol*t+s follo-e renae+s n ass3nn3

t'e $pocal*pse to t'e re3n of o5tan (-*nn, n Her&athena, 7:17).

81 τοῦ τυρ&ννου τελευτ>σαντος ,πὸ τῆς E&τμου τῆς ν>σου μετῆλ=εν !πὶ τ#ν rφεσον%Origen, in #t! tom% )<< : δC y'μαί'ν Bασιλε)ς< fς παρ&δοσις διδ&σκει< κατεδίκασε τὸν3'&νν%ν μαρτυροῦντα διὰ τὸ„ν τῆς ,λ%=είας λόγον ε*ς E&τμον τ#ν νῆσον1% ictorinus in

(poc! >)K))@ .#oc dicit !ro!terea "uod "uando #aec Ioannes vidit, erat in insula Patmos, inmetallum damnatus a $omitiano Caesare% ibi ergo vidit A!ocal&!sin% et cum iam senior !utaret

se !er !assionem acce!turum rece!tionem, interfecto $omitiano, omnia iudicio eius soluta sunt%et Ioannes, de metallo dimissus, sic !ostea tradidit #anc eandem "uam acce!erat a $eoA!ocal&!sin/ ib! in )B)K .intellegi o!ortet tem!us "uo scri!ta A!ocal&!sis edita est, "uoniamtunc erst Caesar $omitianus unus e3stat sub "uo scri!ta est A!ocal&!sis, $omitianusscilicet%/ Euseb% ! "! 6) !ν το)τM sc! in t#e time of $omitian κατ9-ει λόγος τὸν,πόστολον ἅμα καὶ εὐαγγελιστ#ν 3'&νν%ν ;τι τI BίM !κδιατρίBοντα τῆς ε*ς τὸν =εῖον λόγονXνεκεν μαρτυρίας E&τμον ο*κεῖν καταδικασ=ῆναι τ#ν νῆσον ib! 1K τότε δ# ο(ν on t#eaccession of Nerva καὶ τὸν ,πόστολον 3'&νν%ν ,πὸ τῆς κατὰ τ#ν νῆσον φυγῆς τ#ν !πὶ τῆςOφ9σου διατριB#ν ,πειλ%φ9ναι : τ$ν παρH μῖν ,ρ-αί'ν παραδίδ'σι λόγος ib! 16 3'&νν%ςτὰς αὐτό=ι διεῖπεν !κκλ%σίας< ,πὸ τῆς κατὰ τ#ν νῆσον μετὰ τ#ν Dομετιανοῦ τελευτ#ν!πανελ=dν φυγῆς% Hieron% de virr! illustr! ? ."uarto decimo anno secundam !ost Neronem

!ersecutionem movente $omitiano in Patmon insulam relegatus scri!sit A!ocal&!sin

interfecto antera $omitiano et actis eius ob nimiam crudelitatem a senatu rescissis sub Nerva !rinci!e redit E!#esum%/

1%% According to ot#er ancient but not earl& aut#orities t#e boo2 *as *ritten underClaudius, Nero, or Traan%

T#us t#e title !refi3ed to bot# t#e S&riac versions of t#e A!ocal&!se assigns t#e

banis#ment of St 5o#n to t#e reign of Nero > ܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝ @)% E!i!#anius !laces bot# t#e e3ile and t#e return under Claudius >haer! ;))1 μετὰ τ#ν αὐτοῦ ,πὸτῆς E&τμου !π&νοδον τ#ν !πὶ Fλαυδίου γενομ9ν%ν Fαίσαρος ib! 61 αὐτοῦ δC προφ%τε)σαντος!ν -ρόνοις Fλαυδίου Fαίσαρος ,ν'τ&τ' Gτε ε*ς τ#ν E&τμον νῆσον "πῆρ0εν κτλ.@% T#eSynopsis de vita et morte prophetarum attributed to $orot#eus goes to t#e o!!osite e3treme,

!lacing t#e e3ile in t#e time of Traan "πὸ δC nραkανοῦ Bασιλ9'ς !0'ρίσ=% !ν τ7 ν>σM

E&τμM ... μετὰ δC τ#ν τελευτ#ν nραkανοῦ !π&νεισιν ,πὸ τῆς ν>σου, adding #o*ever ε*σὶ δC ο…λ9γουσιν μ# !πὶ nραkανοῦ αὐτὸν !0ορισ=ῆναι !ν E&τμM< ,λλὰ !πὶ Dομετιανοῦ% Similarl&T#eo!#&lact on +t% 1K11 3'&νν%ν δC nραkανὸς κατεδίκασε μαρτυροῦντα τI λόγM τῆς,λ%=είας >com!are t#e e3tract from Origen in )@% T#e reference to Traan #as !er#a!s beensuggested b& Iren% 111% ; παρ9μεινε γὰρ αὐτοῖς Y: 3'&νν%ςZ μ9-ρι τ$ν nραkανοῦ -ρόν'ν%

6%% T#e general situation !resu!!osed b& t#e boo2 is consistent, as *e #ave seen,*it# t#e earl& tradition *#ic# re!resents it as a *or2 of t#e last &ears of $omitian% T#eevidence ma& be briefl& summari9ed #ere% >a@ T#e condition of t#e Asian C#urc#es, asit is described in cc! 1%, 6%, is t#at of a !eriod considerabl& later t#an t#e deat# of Nero%T#eir inner life #as undergone man& c#anges since St Paul7s ministr& at E!#esus, and

2 t -ll e seen t'at t'e $leanran test5on* s not eplct; t'e E5peror -'o

ans'e #o'n s not na5e et'er * le5ent or &r3en. /+t n t'e asence of

e8ence to t'e contrar* t'e* 5a* e pres+5e to 'a8e follo-e t'e traton of

So+t' a+l an $sa Mnor.

1 So 'eop'*lact, praef. in Ioann., +t speakn3 of t'e fo+rt' ospel: u καὶ

συν9γρα2εν !ν E&τμM τ7 ν>σM !0όριστος διατελ$ν μετὰ τριακονταδ)ο ;τ% τῆς τοῦ

-ριστοῦ ,ναλ>2ε'ς. ert+llan (scorp. 1") oes not efntel* sa* t'at t'e ele to

Pat5os took place +ner Nero, t'o+3' 'e s crete * #ero5e (ad%. -o%in.1:26) -t' on3 so, an 's -ors a5t of t'at constr+cton.

even since t#e *riting of t#e E!istles to t#e E!#esians and Colossians1 and t#e t*oE!istles to Timot#&% $eterioration #as set in at E!#esus, and at Sardis and Laodiceafait# is d&ing or dead% T#e Nicolaitan !art&, of *#ic# t#ere is no certain trace in t#eE!istles of St Paul, is no* *idel& distributed and firml& rooted% T#e e3ternal relationsof t#e C#urc#es s#e* a similar advance% In !ast da&s Pergamum #ad *itnessed a single

mart&rdom no* a storm of !ersecution *as about to brea2 on t#e C#urc#es, and t#efait#ful mig#t e3!ect to suffer im!risonment and deat#% >b@ T#e !revalence of t#eIm!erial cult, and t#e !ressure *#ic# *as being !ut u!on recusant C#ristians b& t#eAsiarc#s, are suggestive of t#e time of $omitian rat#er t#an of Nero or es!asian)%Later t#an $omitian7s reign t#is !recise situation could not #ave arisen Nerva did notmaintain t#e aggressive !olic& of $omitian1, and *#en Traan7s rescri!t began to do its*or2, t#e !ett& !ersecution described in A!oc% )6% *ould give !lace to formalindictment before t#e Proconsul% T#us t#e deat# of $omitian >Se!t% ), ?<@ is ourterminus ad quem a terminus a quo is su!!lied b& t#e date of #is accession >Se!t% )6,)@, but t#e su!erior limit ma& *it# great !robabilit& be !us#ed for*ard to A%$% ?K oreven furt#er, since $omitian7s ealous insistence on #is claims to $ivine #onours and

#is encouragement of t#e delatores belong to t#e later &ears of #is reign%8% T#ere are ot#er indications of date *#ic# are more definite, and !oint in t#e same

direction% >a@ It is im!ossible to doubt t#at t#e legend of ero redivivus is in full vie* of

t#e A!ocal&!tist in more t#an one !assage >)66, )6)1, )6)8, )B@%Arc#bis#o! enson, indeed, see2s to im!ale t#ose *#o #old t#is t#eor& on t#e #orns of

a dilemma6% If St 5o#n referred to t#e legend, eit#er #e believed it or #e did not% If #e believed it,.#e believed not onl& *#at *as not true, but *#at decentl&Finformed and reasonable #eat#en

2 !3'tfoot, nee, ass+5n3 t'e earler ate of t'e $pocal*pse -rtes

(Colossians, p. 41): t'e 5essa3e co55+ncate * St #o'n to !aocea

prolon3s t'e note -'c' -as str+ck * St Pa+l n t'e letter to olossae. $n

nter8al of a 8er* fe- *ears 'as not 5aterall* altere t'e c'aracter of t'ese

'+rc'es. &8o+sl* t'e sa5e te5per pre8als, t'e sa5e errors are rfe, t'e

sa5e correcton 5+st e s+pple.< /+t t'e ea5ples -'c' 'e 38es (pp. 41O

44) s'e- onl* t'at t'e sa5e 3eneral tenences -ere at -ork n t'e !*c+s

8alle*, as -'en St Pa+l -rote, an t's 53't -ell 'a8e een so e8en after an

nter8al of 5ore t'an 0 *ears.

1 r Hort (1 Peter, p. 2) 5antans t'at n $sa Mnor, t'e specal 'o5e of t'e

E5peror@-ors'p, -e 'a8e no r3't to ass+5e t'at t -as onl* +ner an

E5peror lke o5tan t'at 'rstans -ere lkel* to 'a8e t force +pon

t'e5.< 's no o+t s tr+e, +t t'e proalt* re5ans t'at t'e 3reat o+treak

of persec+ton, -'c' -as 55nent -'en t'e $pocal*pse -as -rtten, elon3s

to t'e later rat'er t'an to t'e earler epoc'; see c. 7. of t's ntro+cton.

2 f. o ass+s, 6%:1 μίσει δC Dομετιανοῦ α+ ε*κόνες αὐτοῦ ... συνε-'νε)=%σαν ...

καὶ : ~ερο)ας το)ς τε κρινομ9νους !πH ,σεBεί8 ,φῆκε< καὶ τος φυγόντας κατ>γαγεν.

See also E+s. H. E. :20.

never believed%/ If #e did not believe it, #e *as guilt& of a grave !olitical offence in using for#is o*n ends a stor& *#ic# *as .#ostile to t#e !eace of t#e district *#ere it e3isted,/ andmoreover *as aimed against t#e reigning Em!eror% T#e second alternative #as been assumed int#e follo*ing commentar&, but t#e inference *#ic# $r enson dra*s is not admitted% No one*#o a!!reciates t#e greatness of our aut#or *ill su!!ose t#at #e gave credit to t#e *ild legends*#ic# *ere afloat about Nero7s return% ut t#e conditions of a!ocal&!tic *riting did not

!reclude #im from *or2ing mere legend into #is s&mbolism, nor *as t#ere an& a!!reciabledanger in t#e use of t#is legend in a boo2 addressed to C#ristians onl&% T#e reference to t#ereigning Em!eror *as not li2el& to be intelligible to an& nonFC#ristian into *#ose #ands t#e

boo2 mig#t fall, and to C#ristians it suggested not#ing *#ic# *as not alread& notorious%In Asia t#e stor& of Nero7s recover& *as common tal2 as earl& as A%$% <? >Tac% hist!

1 .Ac#aia at"ue Asia falso e3territae velut Nero adventaret vario su!er e3itu eiusrumore, eo"ue !luribus vivere eum fingentibus credentibus"ue/@ but !retenderscontinued to arise, and even under Traan t#e belief t#at #e *as &et living *as stillgeneral >$io C#r&sostom, or! 1)%, καὶ νῦν ;τι π&ντες !πι=υμοῦσι R7ν< ο+ δC πλεῖστοι καὶοbονται)@% >b@ In cc! )6%, )B% $omitian is described in terms as !lain as t#e circumstancesallo*ed% Nero is dead, but the stroke of his death is healed >)66, )6)1@% He is the

&east :#e im!ersonates t#e brutal strengt# of t#e !ersecuting 0orldF!o*er, and #ewas, and is not, and is about to ascend out of the (byss >)B@% Nero #imself *as t#efift# Em!eror, and #e #as fallen but t#e east *#ic# was and is not rea!!ears in aneig#t# Em!eror, *#o is of the seven, inasmuc# as #e recalls to men7s minds t#e fift#,and !la&s #is !art over again, till #e too goeth into perdition >)B)) f%@1%

;% Not*it#standing t#e e3ternal and internal evidence *#ic# su!!orts t#e

$omitianic date, t#e great Cambridge t#eologians of t#e last centur& *ere unanimous in

regarding t#e A!ocal&!se as a *or2 of t#e reign of Nero, or of t#e &ears *#ic#

immediatel& follo*ed #is deat#% is#o! Lig#tfoot seems to #ave acce!ted .t#e vie*

*#ic# assigns it to t#e close of Nero7s reign or t#ereabouts)%/ is#o! 0estcott !laced it

.before t#e destruction of 5erusalem1%/ $r Hort in #is !ost#umous commentar& on )

Peter 6 *rites .t#ere are strong reasons for !lacing t#e A!ocal&!se not long after

Nero7s deat#%/ Suc# a t#reefold cord of sc#olarl& o!inion is not "uic2l& bro2en, and t#e

reasons on *#ic# it *as founded deserve t#e most careful consideration% In t#e !artition

of t#e Ne* Testament bet*een t#e t#ree, t#e A!ocal&!se, un#a!!il&, *as .not finall&

assigned8,/ and t#eir !ublis#ed *ritings contain but incidental references to t#e "uestion

of its date% Drom t#ese it *ould a!!ear t#at t#e& *ere guided in t#eir udgement on t#is

Apocalypse, p. 17 f.

1 Nero -as orn n $.. 7, so t'at, 'a 'e l8e tll $.. 100, 'e -o+l 'a8e

een not 5ore t'an 6.

2 See t'e co55entar* ad locos. t 5a* e ae t'at St #o'n appears to refer

(16:12) to t'e rea of a Part'an n8ason, -'c' -as connecte -t' t'e

epectaton of Neros ret+rn: cf. ac. hist. 1:2; Orac. ,ibyll. 4:17ff.

1 Biblical Essays, p. "2; cf. ,upernatural 0eligion, p. 12.

2 ,t -ohn, ntr. p. %7.

P. 2; cf. H+lsean !ect+res, p. 140 f., -udaistic Christianity , p. 160.

4 See /p estcotts prefator* note to r Horts 1 Peter (p. 7).

!oint !artl& b& t#e relation *#ic# t#e& believed t#e oo2 to occu!& *it# reference to

t#e Dall of 5erusalem, !artl& b& t#e contrast *#ic# it !resents to t#e Dourt# -os!el% T#us

$r Hort *rites .T#e da& of t#e Lord *#ic# t#e *riter to t#e Hebre*s sa* dra*ing nig#

#ad alread& begun to brea2 in blood and fire, *#en St 5o#n sent #is A!ocal&!se to t#e

-entile C#urc#es of Asia;

%/ And $r Lig#tfoot .It mar2s t#e close of *#at *e ma& callt#e ebraic !eriod of St 5o#n7s life, i!e! t#e !eriod *#ic# #e #ad s!ent c#iefl& in t#e

East and among AramaicFs!ea2ing !eo!les<%/ ut !er#a!s t#e fullest treatment of t#e

subect is to be found in $r 0estcott7s introduction to t#e -os!el of St 5o#n .Of t#e

t*o boo2s >#e sa&s@ t#e A!ocal&!se is t#e earlier% It is less develo!ed bot# in t#oug#t

and st&le% T#e crisis of t#e Dall of 5erusalem e3!lains t#e relation of t#e A!ocal&!se

to t#e -os!el% In t#e A!ocal&!se t#at coming7 of C#rist *as e3!ected, and !ainted in

figures in t#e -os!el t#e coming7 is inter!retedB%/

It is clear t#at t#ese arguments for !lacing t#e A!ocal&!se under Nero or es!asian

rest on more t#an one !resu!!osition% T#e unit& of t#e oo2 is assumed, and it is #eld to

be t#e *or2 of t#e aut#or of t#e Dourt# -os!el% ut t#e latter #&!ot#esis is o!en, and

!er#a!s *ill al*a&s be o!en to doubt and t#e former cannot be !ressed so far as to

e3clude t#e !ossibilit& t#at t#e e3tant boo2 is a second edition of an earlier *or2, or t#at

it incor!orates earlier materials, and eit#er #&!ot#esis *ould sufficientl& account for t#e

fe* indications of a Neronic or es!asianic date *#ic# #ave been found in it)% 0#en it

is added t#at t#e great sc#olars *#o #ave been named dealt *it# t#e "uestion

incidentall& and not in conne3ion *it# a s!ecial stud& of t#e A!ocal&!se, it seems

!ermissible to attac# less im!ortance to t#eir udgement on t#is !oint t#an on ot#ers to

*#ic# t#eir attention #ad been more directl& turned%

<% 0it# all due deference, t#erefore, to t#e great aut#orit& of 0estcott, Lig#tfoot,and Hort, and of t#e foreign sc#olars1 *#o #ave su!!orted an earlier date, ad#esion #as

been given in t#is edition to t#e vie* t#at t#e A!ocal&!se, at least in its !resent form,

belongs, as Irenaeus believed, to t#e reign of $omitian and to t#e last &ears of t#at reign

>?K=?<@% T#is date a!!ears to be consistent *it# t#e general c#aracter and !ur!ose of t#e

boo2% T#e A!ocal&!se as a *#ole !resu!!oses a !eriod *#en in Asia at least t#e C#urc#

*as com!elled to c#oose bet*een C#rist and Caesar% And t#e !ro!#et foresees t#at t#is

" -ud. Christianity , p. 160.

6 ,upernatural 0eligion, p. 12. r !3'tfoot appears to e n 3eneral

a3ree5ent 'ere -t' 's anta3onst, -'o place t'e $pocal*pse ao+t $.. 6%,

69.<

7 ,t -ohn, p. %6. f.

1 E.3. t'e cr*ptc representaton of Neros na5e n 1:1%, an t'e apparent

reference to Kespasan as t'e re3nn3 E5peror n c. 17:10.

2 E.3. /a+r, Hl3enfel, /e*sc'la3, -'o ass3n t'e ook to t'e re3n of Nero,

an ess, +sterek, an Mo55sen, -'o place t +ner Kespasan; see .

$nerson Scott, 0e%elation, p. 4%, note 1.

is no local or !assing storm, but one *#ic# *ill s!read over t#e *#ole Em!ire, and run a

long course, ending onl& *it# t#e fall of !aganism and of 'ome% T#e Coming of t#e

Lord is no longer connected *it# t#e Dall of 5erusalem, *#ic# is vie*ed as an event of

!ast #istor&6% A ne* 5erusalem #as ta2en t#e !lace of t#e old cit& of -od, and t#e

A!ocal&!tist can alread& see its ideal glories revealed% ut for t#e moment ab&lon is int#e foreground of t#e !icture, and ab&lon must fall before t#e end, and after ab&lon

t#e east and t#e Dalse Pro!#et% Even t#e trium!# t#at follo*s on t#eir destruction is

not final, for t#e $ragon remains to be overcome% So t#e Coming is !ost!onedindefinitel&, t#oug# t#e old *atc#*ord, 3δο τα- ;ρ-ομαι, still rings in our ears% T#e

*#ole stand!oint is t#at of t#e closing &ears of t#e first centur&, *#en t#e C#urc# 2ne*

#erself to be entering u!on a struggle of *#ic# s#e could not foresee t#e end, alt#oug#

of t#e victorious issue s#e entertained no doubt%

)K% CI'C(LATION AN$ ' ECEPTION IN THE CH('CH

)% Assuming t#at t#e A!ocal&!se *as addressed b& a !erson of influence oraut#orit& to seven of t#e leading C#urc#es of Asia bet*een t#e &ears ?K and ?<, it is

reasonable to su!!ose t#at it *as co!ied and circulated to some e3tent before t#e

beginning of t#e second centur&% As t#e enc&clical *as broug#t round b& t#e aut#or7s

messenger, eac# of t#e C#urc#es addressed *ould transcribe it for its o*n use, and send

a co!& to t#e C#urc#es in t#e immediate neig#bour#ood), and t#ese in t#eir turn *ould

re!eat t#e !rocess% 0it#in a fe* &ears t#e circulation of suc# a document *ould

overste! t#e limits of t#e !rovince, *#et#er t#roug# t#e s!ontaneous action of t#e Asian

societies1, or in ans*er to t#e a!!eal of foreign C#urc#es6, or t#roug# t#e agenc& of

individual C#ristians u!on t#eir travels% In one or all of t#ese *a&s t#e great C#ristian

a!ocal&!se *ould #ave !assed from C#urc# to C#urc# and from !rovince to !rovince,

and *#erever it *ent it could not fail to e3cite t#e interest of C#ristian readers%

1% T#us it is not incredible t#at Ignatius >))K=))B8@ ma& s#e* some 2no*ledge of

t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n in more t#an one of #is letters to t#e Asian C#urc#es > "ph! );%6sνα pμεν αὐτοῦ ναοί< καὶ αὐτὸς !ν μεῖν =εός, A!oc% 1)6 P#ilad% <), στ%λαί ε*σιν

&n c. 11:1 ff. see t'e co55entar* ad l.

1 f. ol. 4:16 Gταν ,ναγν'σ=7 παρH "μῖν !πιστολ>< ποι>σατε sνα καὶ !ν τ7

Tαοδικ9'ν !κκλ%σί8 ,ναγν'σ=7< καὶ τ#ν !κ Tαοδικίας sνα καὶ "μεῖς ,ναγν$τε. &n

t'e 5et'o of trans5sson see a5sa*, $etters to the ,e%en Churches1 cc. 2.,

.

2 See Mart. Polyc. 20 καὶ τοῖς !π9κεινα ,δελφοῖς τ#ν !πιστολ#ν διαπ9μ2ασ=ε.

Pol*c. Phil. 1 τὰς !πιστολὰς 3γνατιόου τὰς πεμφ=είσας μῖν παρH αὐτοῦ< καὶ @λλας

Gσας εb-ομεν παρH μῖν< !π9μ2αμεν "μῖν κα=dς !νετείλασ=ε.

4 &n le5. . Cor. 4. , see .T. in the Apostolic !athers, p. "%. !3'tfoot,

-'o place t'e $pocal*pse +ner Nero or Kespasan, -as nclne to see n

le5. l.c. a reference to $poc. 22:12; see 's note ad l.

καὶ τ&φοι νεκρ$ν< !φH ο]ς γ9γραπται μόνον Kνόματα ,ν=ρVπ'ν A!oc% 6)1@, t#oug#

t#e coincidences are not suc# as to ustif& a definite conclusion% In t#e E!istle of

arnabas), again, t#ere are one or t*o !assages *#ic# ma& allude to St 5o#n7s *or2>arn% <% )6 λ9γει δC F)ριος 3δο ποι$ τὰ ;σ-ατα fς τὰ πρ$τα A!oc% 1)6 ib! 1)6

!γγς : κ)ριος καὶ : μισ=ὸς αὐτοῦ A!oc% 11)K f%@ but t#e balance of !robabilit& is ineac# instance against t#e reference1% T#ere is #o*ever abundant evidence t#at t#e

A!ocal&!se *as in circulation during t#e second #alf of t#e second centur&, not onl& in

Asia, but in t#e 0est%>)@ Eusebius does not mention t#e A!ocal&!se among N%T% boo2s 2no*n to Pa!ias

> !"! 66?@, unless t#is is im!lied in #is attribution of Pa!ias7s c#iliasm to a misunderstandingof certain statements made b& A!ostolic aut#orit&6% ut against t#e silence of Eusebius *e #aveto set t#e e3!ress statement of Andreas, *#o in t#e !rologue to #is commentar& *rites περὶμ9ντοι τοῦ =εοπνε)στου τῆς BίBλου περιττὸν μ%κ)νειν τὸν λόγον γο)με=α< τ$ν μακαρί'νlρ%γορίου φ%μὶ τοῦ =εολόγου καὶ Fυρίλλου< προσ9τι τε καὶ τ$ν ,ρ-αιοτ9ρ'ν Eαπίου<a*ρ%ναίου< mε=οδίου< καὶ 3ππολ)του προσμαρτυρο)ντ'ν τὸ ,0ιόπιστον% Andreas, moreover,

"uotes a remar2 of Pa!ias u!on A!oc% )1B ff% Pa!ias, it *ill be remembered, *as according toIrenaeus >;66@ an ,κουστ#ς 3'&ννου and an ,ρ-αῖος ,ν>ρ, *#ose floruit is li2el& to be nearerto t#e beginning t#an to t#e middle of t#e centur&8% >1@ About A%$% )K Irenaeus 2ne* of co!iesof t#e A!ocal&!se alread& ancient,7 and of *itness borne to t#e te3t of t#e boo2 b& !ersons*#o #ad seen t#e *riter >;6KREus% !"! ;@;, and *#o, if not Pa!ias and Pol&car!, !resumabl&

belonged to t#eir generation<% >6@ 5ustin, *#o lived at E!#esusB before #e *ent to 'ome, s!ea2sof t#e A!ocal&!se as a recogni9ed C#ristian boo2, and identifies its aut#or *it# t#e A!ostle5o#n apol! )1 ὄφις καλεῖται καὶ σαταν/ς καὶ δι&Bλος< fς !κ τ$ν μετ9ρ'ν συγγραμμ&τ'ν!ρευν>σαντες μα=εῖν δ)νασ=ε dial! ) παρH μῖν ,ν>ρ τις † ὄνομα 3'&νν%ς< ε]ς τ$ν,ποστόλ'ν τοῦ -ριστοῦ< !ν ,ποκαλ)2ει γενομ9ν6 αὐτI< -ίλια ;τ% ποι>σειν !ν 3ερουσαλ#μτος τI μετ9ρM -ριστI πιστε)σαντας προεφ>τευσε)% >8@ Eusebius > !"! 81<@ mentionsamong t#e *or2s of +elito, is#o! of Sardis > c! )<;@, τὰ περὶ τοῦ διαBόλου καὶ τῆς1ποκαλ)2ε'ς 3'&ννου1% T#e *or2, *#atever its nature ma& #ave been, #as !eris#ed6, but t#etitle s#e*s t#at t#e A!ocal&!se *as acce!ted at t#is time in one of t#e C#urc#es to *#ic# it *as

1 $.. 10O1 (Harnack).

2 See . T. in the Apostolic !athers, p. 16 f.

o καὶ γοῦμαι τὰς ,ποστολικὰς παρεκδε0&μενον δι%γ>σεις "πολαBεῖν< τὰ !ν

"ποδείγμασι πρὸς αὐτ$ν μυστικ$ς ε*ρ%μ9να μ# συνε'ρακότα. f. !3'tfoot,

,upernatural 0eligion, p. 214, note 4.

4 See Sana*, Criticis& of the !ourth "ospel , p. 2"0 f.; !3'tfoot, ,. 0. p. 1"0:

-e 5a* sa* t'at Papas -as proal* orn ao+t $.. 60O70.<

" 'e -ors -ll e fo+n on p. 172 (note to $poc. 1:1%).

6 !3'tfoot, ,. 0. p. 21%.

7 Harnack places t'e Ep'esan resence of #+stn c. $.. 1".

% f. $poc. 12:9, 20:2.

1 'e all+son to $poc. 21. n atans λόγος πρὸς zλλ%νας to -'c' reference s

5ae * estcott (Canon, p. 20), s too osc+re to e +se for t'e p+rpose of

t's c'apter.

originall& sent:a C#urc#, moreover, *#ic# #ad little cause to !ride itself u!on t#e c#aracter itreceives from t#e A!ocal&!tist% In t#e *rec2 of t#e +ontanistic8 and antiF+ontanistic literature*#ic# !er!le3ed t#e C#urc#es of Asia at t#is time, *e #ave !robabl& lost man& similarreferences to t#e boo2 but *e 2no*, on t#e aut#orit& of Eusebius > !"! ;)@, t#at it *as"uoted b& t#e antiF+ontanist A!ollonius >κ9-ρ%ται δC καὶ μαρτυρίαις ,πὸ τῆς 3'&ννου1ποκαλ)2ε'ς@;% Later, but before t#e end of t#e centur&, T#eo!#ilus, is#o! of Antioc#, citest#e A!ocal&!se against t#e teac#ing of Hermogenes >Eus% !"! 818 @λλο Yσ)γγραμμα τοῦQεοφίλουZ πρὸς τ#ν αsρεσιν Oρμογ9νους τ#ν !πιγραφ#ν ;-ει< !ν † !κ τῆς 1ποκαλ)2ε'ς3'&ννου κ9-ρ%ται μαρτυρίαις@ in Asia +inor and in 0estern S&ria t#e boo2 #ad clearl&

become a court of a!!eal to *#ic# C#ristians of o!!osite sc#ools could submit t#eir differences%>;@ In Sout# -aul about t#e same time t#e A!ocal&!se *as #eld in e"ual regard% T#e E!istle oft#e C#urc#es of ienne and L&ons, addressed in )BB to t#e region from *#ic# t#e boo2emanated<, cites or refers to it some five timesB, and one of t#e "uotations is introduced b& t#e

N%T% formula for t#e citation of canonical Scri!ture >sνα γραφ# πλ%ρ'=7@% 0it# Irenaeus,is#o! of L&ons, a fe* &ears later, "uotations from t#e A!ocal&!se are fre"uent, and t#e& areusuall& introduced b& t#e *ords .5o#n >or .5o#n t#e disci!le of t#e Lord/@ sa&s in t#eA!ocal&!se/ >Iren% 8)8% ), 8)B% <, 8)% <, 81K% )), 81)% 6 ;1<% ), ;1% 1, ;68% 1, ;6;% )@

once *e #ave .t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n/ >)1<% 6@, and once .t#e A!ocal&!se,/ *it#out t#eaut#or7s name >;1K% 1@% Suc# is t#e aut#orit& of t#e boo2 t#at *#en it is silent on a !ointIrenaeus !ermits #imself to *rite >;6K% )@, .dignum non est !raeconari a S!iritu sancto%/ ><@ At'ome, t#ere is some reason to t#in2, t#e A!ocal&!se *as 2no*n even before t#e coming of5ustin% T#e Shepherd of Hermas t*ice >+is! 11% B, 86% )@ uses t#e remar2able !#rase =λί2ις μεγ&λ%, *#ic# occurs in A!oc% B)8 moreover, it is #ardl& too bold to sa& *it# is#o!

2 -o separate ooks, accorn3 to #ero5e (de %irr. illustr. 9 e aolo lr+5

+n+5, e $pocal*ps oanns lr+5 +n+5<).

&n t'e co55entar* of t'e pse+oMelto see Harnack, "esch. d. altchr.

$itteratur , 1:2"4, an t'e c'apter of t's ntro+cton on $pocal*ptc

co55entares (c. 17).

4 =or so5e nstances of a Montanstc +se of t'e $pocal*pse see Aa'n, "esch.

d. Tlichen /anons, 1. p. 20" f.

" 'ere s a possle all+son to $poc. 22:1% f. n t'e anon*5o+s ant@

Montanstc -rtn3 +ote * E+se+s n H.E. ":16. 'e sa5e 8erses 5a* e

n t'e 5n of on*s+s of ornt', -'en 'e -rtes ( ap. E+s. H.E. 4:2): o νCν

!0αιροῦντες< o δC προστι=9ντες. ο]ς τὸ οὐαὶ κεῖται.6 E+s. H.E. ":1 τοῖς κατὰ τ#ν 1σίαν καὶ Sρυγίαν ... ,δελφοῖς.

7 'e passa3es to -'c' reference s 5ae are $poc. 14:4 (,κολου=$ν τI

,ρνίM Gπου ƒν "π&γ6), 12:1, 14:4 (τ7 πρα=9νM μ%τρί), 19:9 (fς ε*ς νυμφικὸν

δεῖπνον κεκλ%μ9νοι), 22:11 (: @νομος ,νομ%σ&τ' ;τι< καὶ : δίκαιος δικαι'=>τ' ;τι).

% See Aa'n, "esch. d. Tlichen /anons, 1:202, note 2. U+otatons fro5 t'e

fo+rt' ospel are s5larl* anno+nce, -t' t'e s+stt+ton of in E%angelio for

in Apocalypsi , cf. ren. 1:6. ", :21. 2, 4:2". 1, ":1%. 2. &n t'e ttle scple of

t'e !or< see c. 1". of t's ntro+cton.

0estcott t#at .t#e s&mbolism of t#e A!ocal&!se rea!!ears in t#e Shepherd )%/ Certainl& t#ere isa mar2ed affinit& bet*een t#e t*o boo2s, *#ic# s#e*s itself in t#e use of similar imager& in

bot# t#e C#urc# is a *oman, and #er adversar& a *ild beast in bot# *e read of t#e oo2 ofLife, and of con"uerors distinguis#ed b& t#eir *#ite robes and !alms and cro*ns if t#eA!ocal&!se describes t#e Ne* 5erusalem as l&ing fourFs"uare *it#in *alls on *#ose foundationstones are t#e names of t#e A!ostolic college, t#e Shepherd describes a to*er *#ic# is in

building, t#e brig#t s"uared stones of *#ic# are t#e A!ostles and ot#er teac#ers of t#e C#urc#1% T#at t#ese coincidences are not !urel& accidental is rendered !robable b& t#e circumstance t#att#e +uratorian fragment on t#e Canon, *#ic# refers to t#e Shepherd as *ritten .nu!errimetem!oribus nostris in urbe 'oma, / seems to intimate t#at t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n *asuniversall& recogni9ed at 'ome, in contrast to t#e A!ocal&!se of Peter *#ic# some refused toac2no*ledge >.A!ocal&!ses etiam Io#annis et Petri tantum reci!imus, "uam sc! A!ocal&!sim Petri "uidam e3 nostris legi in ecclesia nolunt6/@% >B@ At Cart#age, t#e daug#terof 'ome, t#e 5o#annine A!ocal&!se *as 2no*n and acce!ted at t#e end of t#e second centur&or in t#e earl& &ears of t#e t#ird% Tertullian "uotes from eig#teen out of t#e t*ent&Ft*o c#a!tersof t#e boo2 8, and cites it as Scri!ture >de res! carn! 1B .#abemus etiam vestimentorum inscri!turis mentionem ad s!em carnis allegori9are, "uia et A!ocal&!sis Io#annis i sunt , ait, qui

vestimenta sua non coinquinaverunt /@ it is t#e *or2 of t#e A!ostle 5o#n > #arc! 6)8, 618@, t#einstrumentum Ioannis >ib! 6@, and !art and !arcel of t#e instrumentum; apostolicum > pud! )1s""%@<% T#e Acts of Per!etua and Delicitas abound in imager& *#ic# is modelled on t#at of t#eA!ocal&!se >e%g% 8 .circumstantes candidati milia multa/ )1 .introeuntes vestierunt stolascandidas, et introivimus, et audivimus vocem unitam dicentem Agios agios agios sinecessatione et vidimus in eodem loco sedentem "uasi #ominem canum et in de3tra et insinistra seniores "uattuor et introeuntes cum admiratione stetimus ante t#ronum%/ As in t#ecase of t#e Shepherd , t#ere is no direct "uotation #ere, but t#e influence of t#e A!ocal&!se isscarcel& doubtful% >@ At Ale3andria about t#e same time t#e A!ocal&!se *as 2no*n, andrecogni9ed as t#e *or2 of St 5o#n% Clement, *#o cites it several times > paed! )% < 6<, 1% )K )K, )1 ))? strom, 6) )K<, <)6 ))<@ *it# t#e formula Wς φ%σιν !ν τ7 ,ποκαλ)2ει3'&νν%ς, )< )8)@, regards it as Scri!ture > paed! 1)1 ))? τὸ συμBολικὸν τ$ν γραφ$ν@, and

t#e *or2 of an A!ostle >quis dives 81@)%

1 Canon, p. 201, note 2. f. !arner, =or#s, 2. p. 69: t s 8er* proale t'at

Her5as 'a rea t'e ook of St #o'ns e8elaton an 5tate t.<

2 *is. 2:4, :", 4:2; ,i&. %:2.

'at t'e Apocalypsis -ohannis s entcal -t' o+r ook s clear * -'at

precees: et o'annes en5 n $pocal*ps, lcet septe5 eccless scrat, ta5en

o5n+s ct<Van earl* an nterestn3 apprecaton of t'e -er p+rpose of t'e

ook.

4 'e +otatons are 5ost n+5ero+s n 's Montanstc ooks, +t t'e* occ+r

also n t'e earler -orks, e.3. orat. , ", paen. %.

" f. apol. 1% nstr+5ent+5 ltterat+rae<; ib. 21 +aeor+5 nstr+5enta<; res.

carn. 40 nstr+5enta 8na.< f. Aa'n, "esch. 1. p. 107 ff.

6 Aa'n, "esch. 1. p. 204.

1 f t'e -udiciu& Petri , prnte * Hl3enfel n .T. e+tra canon. recept., 5a* e

re3are as an E3*ptan -rtn3 of t'e secon cent+r*, ts -tness 5+st e

ae 'ere: > 2 εbκοσι γὰρ καὶ τ9σσαρ9ς ε*σιν πρεσB)τεροι< δVδεκα !κ δε0ι$ν καὶ

6%% Drom t*o "uarters in t#e second centur& t#ere comes a !rotest against t#e generalacce!tance of t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n% >a@ .A!ocal&!sin eius +arcion res!uit1,/ as *elearn from Tertullian >adv! #arc! 8;@ and on +arcion7s !rinci!les it *ould #ave beenim!ossible to acce!t a boo2 so saturated *it# t#e t#oug#t and imager& of t#e OldTestament% 0#et#er #e reected at t#e same time t#e attribution of t#e boo2 to t#e

A!ostle 5o#n *#ic# is alread& to be found in 5ustin, t#ere is not sufficient evidence tos#e* in an& case it formed no !art of #is apostolicum #e did not recogni9e 5o#n as a*riter of canonical Scri!ture6% >b@ Dar more significant is t#e attitude of t#e soFcalledAlogi% Irenaeus >6))% ?@, after referring to +arcion7s attitude to*ard t#e -os!els, sa&s.alii vero, ut donum S!iritus frustrentur "uod in novissimis tem!oribus secundum

!lacitum Patris effusum est in #umanum genus, illam s!eciem non admittunt "uae estsecundum Ioannis evangelium in "ua !aracletum se missurum dominus !romisit, sedsimul et evangelium et !ro!#eticum re!ellunt S!iritum%/ E!i!#anius re!resents anameless !art& *#ic# #e calls t#e Alogi as reecting bot# t#e -os!el and t#eA!ocal&!se >haer! ;)6 τί φ&σκουσι τοίνυν ο+ ‡λογοι : τα)τ%ν γὰρ αὐτοῖς τί=%μι τ#ν!π'νυμίαν ... οvτε τὸ τοῦ 3'&ννου εὐαγγ9λιον δ9-ονται οvτε τ#ν αὐτοῦ

1ποκ&λυ2ιν ... λ9γουσι γὰρ μ# ε5ναι αὐτὰ 3'&ννου ,λλὰ F%ρίν=ου< καὶ οὐκ @0ια αὐτ&φασιν ε5ναι !ν !κκλ%σί8)@% Against t#e genuineness of t#e A!ocal&!se t#e& urged >)@t#at t#e s&mbolism of t#e boo2 *as unedif&ing >ib! 61 τί με< φ%σίν< ˆφελεῖ 1ποκ&λυ2ις 3'&ννου< λ9γουσ& μοι περὶ !πτὰ ,γγ9λ'ν καὶ !πτὰ σαλπίγγ'ν{@, and >1@t#at it contained errors in matters of fact >ib! 66 ε5πε π&λιν lρ&2ον τI ,γγ9λM τῆς!κκλ%σίας τI !ν Qυατείροις< καὶ οὐκ ;νι !κεῖ !κκλ%σία 4ριστιαν$ν !ν Qυατείρ6} π$ςο(ν ;γραφε τ7 μ# οvσ6{1@% It is not im!robable t#at E!i!#anius *as indebted for t#isinformation to a lost *or2 of Hi!!ol&tus6, and t#at *e #ave #ere a nearl&contem!oraneous account of t#e first im!ugners of t#e A!ocal&!se% If t#e& are identical,as seems li2el&, *it# t#e !art& mentioned b& Irenaeus, t#e& ma& #ave been originall& an

δVδεκα !0 εὐ'ν)μ'νVa reference to $poc. 4:4.

2 $ccorn3 to Pse+o@ert. ad%. o&n. haer. 6 'e -as precee 'ere *

eron: eron $cta apostolor+5 et $pocal*ps5 +as falsa rect.<

ert. op. cit. :14 oanne5 a3nt+5 non 8s.< So5e of t'e nostc sects kne-

an +se t'e $pocal*pse, as t'e Marcosan ‰x καὶ 1 (ren. 1:14. 6, 1:1". 1) an

#+stn t'e nostcs aeon C$5en (Hpp. phil. ":26) s+33est; see estcott,

Canon, pp. 2%4, 11. Aa'n ("esch. 1:761) 3oes so far as to sa*: -en3stens

fDr e Kalentnaner es &rents +n nsesonere fDr Marc+s n Blenasen e

$pokal*pse en /+c' 8on nc't 3ern3ere5 $nse'n als e E88. -ar.<

1 'e !atn -rters on t'e 'ereses cop* Epp'an+s, or repeat -'at t'er

preecessors 'a 3leane fro5 '5; see P'lastr. 60, $+3. 0, Praeest. 0,

s. 26, Pa+l. 7, Honor. 41.

2 &n t's sn3+lar state5ent an Epp'an+ss eplanaton see Stanton,

"ospels as historical docu&ents, p. 209.

'e πρὸς ἁπ&σας τὰς α+ρ9σεις, or possl* t'e "πCρ τοῦ κατὰ 3'&ννου εὐαγγελίουκαὶ ,ποκαλ)2ε'ς, or ot' of t'ese -orks. See r Stantons note (p. 200).

Asiatic sc#ool of e3treme antiF+ontanists *#o felt t#at bot# t#e -os!el and t#eA!ocal&!se of 5o#n savoured too strongl& of t#e !rinci!les of t#e Ne* Pro!#ec& toallo* of t#eir attribution to t#e A!ostle 5o#n% T#e assignment of t#e Dourt# -os!el toCerint#us is absurd enoug#, as E!i!#anius !oints out >op! cit! 8 π$ς γὰρ ;σται F%ρίν=ουτὰ κατὰ F%ρίν=ου λ9γοντα{@ but t#e ision of t#e T#ousand Years in A!oc% 1K% lent

some colour to t#e suggestion t#at t#e A!ocal&!se *as t#e *or2 of t#at #eretic% Possibl&t#e idea of Cerint#ian aut#ors#i! *as first broac#ed in reference to t#e 'evelation, andafter*ards e3tended to t#e -os!el8%

8% Li2e ot#er Asiatic !arties, t#e antiF+ontanistic o!!onents of St 5o#n7s *ritings

made t#eir *a& to 'ome% At all events t#e controvers&, so far as t#e A!ocal&!se is

concerned, finds its centre in 'ome at t#e beginning of t#e t#ird centur&% Eusebius

"uotes from -aius, a 'oman c#urc#man, *#o lived in t#e da&s of is#o! 4e!#&rinus

>1K1=1)?@ and *rote against t#e +ontanist is#o! Proclus), a statement t#at Cerint#us

forged a!ocal&!ses7 in t#e name of a great A!ostle7Eus% !"! 61 ,λλὰ καὶ F>ριν=ος : διH ,ποκαλ)2ε'ν 'ufinus per revelationes

quasdam fς "πὸ ,ποστόλου μεγ&λου γεγραμμ9ν'ν τερατολογίας μῖν fς διH ,γγ9λ'ν αὐτIδεδειγμ9νας 2ευδόμενος !πεισ&γειν< λ9γ'ν μετὰ τ#ν ,ν&στασιν !πίγειον ε5ναι τὸ Bασίλειοντοῦ -ριστοῦ, καὶ π&λιν !πι=υμίαις καὶ δοναῖς !ν 3ερουσαλ#μ τ#ν σ&ρκα πολιτευομ9ν%νδουλε)ειν. καὶ !-=ρὸς "π&ρ-'ν ταῖς γραφαῖς τοῦ =εοῦ ,ρι=μὸν -ιλινταετίας !ν γ&μM Nορτῆς< =9λ'ν πλανŠν λ9γει γίνεσ=αι%

T#e *ords in bold letters come ver& near to t#e terms of our A!ocal&!se, but until) it *as com!etent for sc#olars to su!!ose t#at -aius referred to a boo2 or boo2s*ritten b& Cerint#us in *#ic# #e imitated or travestied t#e *or2 of St 5o#n1% In t#at &ear$r -*&nn, of $ublin, !ublis#ed in t#e ermathena ><% !% 6?B ff%@ five S&riac sc#oliafrom $ion&sius arsalibi on t#e A!ocal&!se, consisting of e3tracts from .t#e #eretic-aius/ in *#ic# -aius comments on t#e A!ocal&!se in terms *#ic# s#e* t#at #e did

not admit t#e aut#orit& of t#e boo2% -aius, t#erefore, *as more or less in s&m!at#& *it#t#e Alogi, and it is not im!robable t#at, in #is 9eal against +ontanism, #e ado!ted t#eCerint#ian attribution% In an& case it is to -aius and #is sc#ool6 rat#er t#an to t#eEastern Alogi7 t#at $ion&sius of Ale3andria refers *#en #e *rites fift& &ears after

Eus% !"! B1; τινCς μCν ο(ν τ$ν πρὸ μ$ν =9τ%σαν καὶ ,νεσκε)ασαν 'ufinus, a

canone scripturarum abiciendum putarunt π&ντ% τὸ BιBλίον< κα=H Xκαστον κεφ&λαιονδιευ=)νοντες @γν'στόν τε καὶ ,συλλόγιστον ,ποφαίνοντες< 2ε)δεσ=αί τε τ#ν !πιγραφ>ν.3'&ννου γὰρ οὐκ ε5ναι λ9γουσιν< ,λλH οὐδC ,ποκ&λυ2ιν ε5ναι< τ#ν σφοδρI καὶ πα-εῖκεκαλυμμ9ν%ν τI τῆς ,γνοίας παραπετ&σματι} καὶ οὐ- Gπ'ς τ$ν ,ποστόλ'ν τινὰ ,λλH οὐδHGλ'ς τ$ν ἁγί'ν • τ$ν ,πὸ τῆς !κκλ%σίας το)του γεγον9ναι ποι%τ#ν τοῦ συγγρ&μματος<F>ριν=ον δ9 ... τοῦτο γὰρ ε5ναι τῆς διδασκαλίας αὐτοῦ τὸ δόγμα< !πίγειον ;σεσ=αι τ#ν τοῦ

4 r Sana* (Criticis& of the !ourth "ospel , p. 61) calls t'e attr+ton of t'e

=o+rt' ospel to ernt'+s a pece of s'eer ra8ao,< an s+c' nee t -as,

f t'e $lo3 e3an -t' t'e ospel; +t t'e ot'er co+rse see5s 5ore nat+ral.

1 E+s. H.E. 2:2", 6:20; cf. !3'tfoot, ,t Cle&ent , 2. p. 77 ff.

2 See estcott, Canon6, p. 27%, note 2: 5a* epress 5* ece elef t'at

a+s s not speakn3 of t'e $pocal*pse of St #o'n.<

t -ll e oser8e t'at on*s+s n escrn3 t'e 'lastc 8e-s of

ernt'+s +ses lan3+a3e -'c' co5es 8er* near to t'at of a+s.

-ριστοῦ Bασιλείαν< καὶ \ν αὐτὸς ˆρ9γετο φιλοσVματος ‹ν καὶ π&νυ σαρκικός< !ν το)τοιςKνειροπολεῖν ;σεσ=αι ... γ&μοις καὶ ... Nορταῖς%

;%% Neit#er t#e Alogi7 of Asia +inor nor t#e !art& of -aius at 'ome !roveddangerous to t#e general acce!tance of t#e A!ocal&!se% At 'ome -aius *as ans*ered

b& Hi!!ol&tus% On t#e bac2 of t#e c#air *#ic# #olds t#e seated figure of t#e is#o! of

Portus, a list of #is *or2s is graved, and among t#em is one entitled υπερ του καταιωαννην ευαγγελιου και αποκαλυψεως)% T#e cou!ling of t#e Dourt# -os!eland t#e A!ocal&!se suggests t#at t#is boo2 *as directed against t#e Alogi,7 !robabl&t#e 'oman Alogi7 re!resented b& -aius1% T#e same boo2 ma& be intended b& t#e eads

against -aius, *#ic# Ebedesu attributes to Hi!!ol&tus6, and from *#ic# $r -*&nn7sfragments #ave been dra*n% In #is e3tant *or2s and fragments Hi!!ol&tus re!eatedl&asserts #is belief in t#e 5o#annine aut#ors#i! of t#e A!ocal&!se >e!g! Lagarde, !% 8ο`τ'ς γὰρ 3'&νν%ς ε5πεν Œ ‹ν καὶ : ν καὶ : !ρ-όμενος !% );? : ,νοίγ'ν καὶ οὐδείςκλείει< fς 3'&νν%ς λ9γει@, and #e identifies 5o#n t#e disci!le of t#e Lord *it# t#eA!ostle >ib! !% )B λ9γε μοι< μακ&ριε 3'&νν%< ,πόστολε καὶ μα=%τὰ τοῦ κυρίου< τί ε5δεςκαὶ ?κουσας περὶ gαBυλ$νος@% $uring t#e remainder of t#e first #alf of t#e t#ird

centur& *e #ear no more of t#e counterFmovement% At Cart#age C&!rian uses t#eA!ocal&!se freel&, bot# in t#e Testimonia8 and in #is treatises and letters at Ale3andriaOrigen entertains no doubt as to t#e aut#enticit& of t#e boo2 >e%g% in Ioann! t% ))8φ%σὶν ο(ν !ν τ7 1ποκαλ)2ει : τοῦ ŽεBεδαίου 3'&νν%ς ap! Eus% <1; τί δεῖ περὶ τοῦ,ναπεσόντος !πὶ τὸ στῆ=ος λ9γειν τοῦ 3%σοῦ 3'&ννου< uς εὐαγγ9λιον νκαταλ9λοιπεν ... ;γρα2ε δC καὶ τ#ν 1ποκ&λυ2ιν@% Circumstances led, #o*ever, to t#ereo!ening of t#e "uestion b& Origen7s !u!il and successor, $ion&sius, during t#e &ears*#en t#e latter *as is#o! of Ale3andria >18B=1<;@% T#e facts are given in t#e largefragments of a treatise b& $ion&sius Eερὶ !παγγελι$ν !reserved b& Eusebius ! "! B18f%;

It a!!ears t#at on t#e occasion of a visit to Arsinoe, *#ere C#iliasm #ad long disturbedt#e !eace of t#e C#urc#, $ion&sius found #imself confronted b& an rλεγ-ος περὶ,λλ%γοριστ$ν, *ritten b& Ne!os, an Eg&!tian is#o!, in *#ic#, according to Eusebius, Ne!ostaug#t t#at t#e !romises made in t#e Hol& Scri!tures to t#e saints *ill be fulfilled in a 5e*is#sense >3ουδαkκVτερον@, and #eld t#at t#ere *ill be a millennium of bodil& eno&ment on t#iseart#%7 A t#ree da&s7 conference follo*ed *#ic# broug#t t#e Arsenoites bac2 to a #ealt#iervie*% ut t#e incident led t#e critical mind of $ion&sius to e3amine afres# for #imself t#e

1 !3'tfoot, ,t Cle&ent , 2. pp. 94, 420.

2 r Stanton, 'o-e8er ("ospels as historical docu&ents, p. 20 ff.), after

sc+ssn3 t'e attt+e of a+s to-ars t'e =o+rt' ospel, co5es to t'e

concl+son t'at t'ere s at present no s+ffcent e8ence to s'e- t'at 'e

reLecte t.

f. $sse5an, bibl. orient. . p. 1" ܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝ

ܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝܝ

4 t s +ote 27 t5es n t'e Testi&onia alone.

" 'e fra35ents are ete * r =eltoe n $etters and other re&ains ofDionysius of Ale+andria, pp. 106O12".

grounds on *#ic# t#e A!ocal&!se *as #eld to be t#e *or2 of t#e A!ostle 5o#n, and t#e resultsof #is en"uir& are given in t#e t#ird, fourt#, and fift# of t#e fragments of #is ans*er to Ne!os%

$ion&sius refuses to follo* t#e !art& *#o ascribed t#e A!ocal&!se to Cerint#us) Hecannot venture to reect a boo2 *#ic# is #eld in #ig# esteem b& so man& members of t#e C#urc#>!γd δC ,=ετῆσαι οὐκ ƒν τολμ>σαιμι τὸ BιBλίον< πολλ$ν αὐτὸ διὰ σπουδῆς !-όντ'ν,δελφ$ν@ *it# t#e modest& of t#e true sc#olar #e is read& to attribute t#e difficulties *#ic# it

!resents to t#e limitations of #is o*n understanding >ε* μ# συνί%μι< ,λλH "πονο$ γε νοῦν τινὰBα=)τερον !γκεῖσ=αι τοῖς A>μασιν@% ut *#ile #e does not !resume to c#allenge t#e ins!irationof t#e A!ocal&!se or its claim to be t#e *or2 of a 5o#n, #e declines to acce!t it as t#e *or2 oft#e A!ostle, to *#om #e attributes t#e fourt# -os!el and .t#e Cat#olic E!istle/ >i%e% ) 5o#n@% Heis led to t#is conclusion b& com!aring >)@ t#e c#aracter of t#e *riter of t#e A!ocal&!se *it# t#atof t#e *riter of t#e -os!el, >1@ t#e t#oug#t and st&le of t#e *ritings, and >6@ t#eir linguisticdifferences >τεκμαίρομαι γὰρ ;κ τε τοῦ ?=ους Nκατ9ρ'ν καὶ τοῦ τ$ν λόγ'ν εbδους καὶ τῆς τοῦBιBλίου διε0αγ'γῆς@1% 5o#n t#e Evangelist abstains from mentioning #is o*n name, but 5o#nt#e A!ocal&!tist names #imself more t#an once at t#e ver& outset of #is boo2, and again neart#e end% $oubtless t#ere *ere man& *#o bore t#e name of 5o#n in t#e earl& C#ristiancommunities *e read, for instance, of .5o#n *#ose surname *as +ar2,/ and t#ere ma& #ave

been a second 5o#n in Asia, since at E!#esus, *e are told, t#ere *ere t*o tombs said to be5o#n7s >δ)ο φασὶν !ν Oφ9σM γεν9σ=αι μν>ματα< καὶ Nκ&τερον 3'&ννου λ9γεσ=αι@% Again,*#ile t#e -os!el and E!istle of 5o#n s#e* mar2s of agreement *#ic# suggest a commonaut#ors#i!, t#e A!ocal&!se differs *idel& from bot# in its ideas and in its *a& of e3!ressingt#em *e miss in it >e%g%@ t#e fre"uent references to life,7 lig#t,7 trut#,7 grace,7 and love7*#ic# are c#aracteristic of t#e A!ostle, and find ourselves in a totall& different region oft#oug#t >,λλοιοτ&τ% δC καὶ 09ν% παρὰ ταῦτα ,ποκ&λυ2ις< μ>τε !φαπτομ9ν% μ>τε γειτνι$σατο)τ'ν μ%δ9νι< σ-εδὸν fς ε*πεῖν μ%δC συλλαB#ν πρὸς αὐτὰ κοιν#ν ;-ουσα@% Lastl&, t#elinguistic eccentricities of t#e A!ocal&!se bar t#e *a& against an acce!tance of t#e boo2 as t#e*or2 of t#e Evangelist% T#e -os!el and first E!istle are *ritten in correct and flo*ing -ree2,and t#ere is not a barbarism, a solecism, or a !rovincialism in t#em *#ereas t#e -ree2 of t#eA!ocal&!se is inaccurate, disfigured b& unusual or foreign *ords, and even at times solecistic> γλ$σσαν οὐκ ,κριB$ς Nλλ%νίRουσαν αὐτοῦ Bλ9π'< ,λλH *διVμασί τε BαρBαρικοῖς -ρVμενον<καί που καὶ σολοικίRοντα@%

<%% T#is criticism, not t#e less trenc#ant because carefull& guarded against t#eim!utation of levit& or irreverence), and !roceeding from so distinguis#ed a is#o! as$ion&sius t#e -reat1,7 could not fail to carr& *eig#t in Eg&!t and in t#e -ree2Fs!ea2ing East, s#a2ing t#e fait# of man& in t#e a!ostolical aut#ors#i! of t#eA!ocal&!se, and t#erefore in its canonical aut#orit&% In t#e fourt# centur& Eusebius isunable to s!ea2 !ositivel& as to its canonicit& > !"! 61; τῆς δC 1ποκαλ)2ε'ς !φHNκ&τερον ;τι νῦν παρὰ πολλοῖς περι9λκεται δό0α% Ib! 1; !πὶ το)τοις t#e canonical

boo2s τακτ9ον< εb γε φανεί%< τ#ν 1ποκ&λυ2ιν 3'&ννου ... qν τινες< fς ;φ%ν<

,=ετοῦσιν< Xτεροι δC !γκρίνουσι τοῖς :μολογουμ9νοις@% C&ril of 5erusalem, a fe* &earslater, not onl& omits t#e A!ocal&!se from #is list of canonical boo2s, but seemsdefinitel& to e3clude it from !rivate as *ell as !ublic use >/atech! 86) τὰ δC λοιπὰπ&ντα !ν δευτ9ρM κείσ=' καὶ Gσα μCν !ν !κκλ%σίαις μ# ,ναγινVσκεται< ταῦτα μ%δC

1 See ao8e, p. 106 f.

2 See r =eltoes note ad l.

1 =ra35ent ", e.3. ens: οὐδ9 γὰρ !πισκVπτ'ν< μ> τις νομίσ6< ταῦτα ε5πον< ,λλὰ

μόνον τ#ν ,νομοιότ%τα διευ=)ν'ν τ$ν γραφ$ν. $s r estcott ponts o+t, Canon,

p. 69, note 4, on*s+s +ote t'e $pocal*pse -t' respect: E+s. H.E. 7:10.<

2 f. =eltoe, p. 11.

κατὰ σαυτὸν ,ναγίν'σιε@% It is more remar2able t#at Asia +inor s#ould #ave ignoredt#e boo2 even in formal canons it finds no !lace in t#e Laodicean list of 6<6, or in t#atof -regor& of Na9ian9us *#ile Am!#iloc#ius of Iconium e3!ressl& sa&s τ#ν δH1ποκ&λυ2ιν τ#ν 3'&ννου π&λιν ] τινCς μCν !γκρίνουσιν< ο+ πλείους δ9 γε ] νό=ονλ9γουσι% In Eastern S&ria t#e A!ocal&!se *as eit#er still un2no*n or it *as ignored it

formed no !art of t#e Pes#itta Ne* Testament6% 5unilius, *#o re!resents t#e iblicalcriticism of t#e sc#ool of Nisibis in t#e si3t# centur&, is silent about t#e boo2 Ebedesu,a Nestorian is#o! in t#e first &ear of t#e fourteent# centur&, still !asses it over *it#outnotice in #is list of Ne* Testament boo2s% 0estern S&ria, as re!resented b& t#e Sc#oolof Antioc#, loo2ed *it# little favour on t#e most m&stical of earl& C#ristian *ritings%

Neit#er T#eodore, C#r&sostom, or T#eodoret is 2no*n to #ave "uoted t#e A!ocal&!se)%Constantino!le in#erited t#e traditions of Antioc# in t#is res!ect as in ot#ers, and t#eA!ocal&!se is omitted altoget#er in t#e Synopsis scripturae sacrae *#ic# is foundamong t#e *or2 of C#r&sostom, nor #as it an& !lace in t#e catalogue of .t#e Si3t&

boo2s/ or in eit#er of its su!!lementar& lists% As late as t#e beginning of t#e nint#centur& Nice!#orus !laces it among t#e antilegomena *it# t#e A!ocal&!se of Peter% It issignificant of t#e slo* !rogress made b& t#e circulation or acce!tance of t#e boo2 ineastern lands t#at no -ree2 commentar& seems to #ave been *ritten u!on it before t#efift# or si3t# centur&1% Several causes ma& #ave concurred to cause t#is dela&% T#erema& #ave been in some minds a lingering dread of +ontanism, and in man& ot#ers adoubt as to t#e ins!iration or t#e a!ostolical aut#orit& of t#e A!ocal&!tist% +oreover,t#e A!ocal&!se ma& #ave been 2no*n in t#e East onl& to a fe*% Drom t#e first !er#a!st#e boo2 *ent *est rat#er t#an east traders from Sm&rna and E!#esus carried it to Ital&

-*nn, Apocalypse, pp. 1, 10 f.; cf. Aa'n, "esch. 1. p. 74 f.

1 S+as, nee, re5arks: δ9-εται δC : 4ρυσόστομος ... τ#ν 1ποκ&λυ2ιν. f t's s

tr+e,< r estcott -rtes, not -t'o+t a to+c' of '+5o+r, t s a sn3+lar proof of

t'e nconcl+s8eness of t'e cas+al e8ence of +otaton< (Canon, p. 442, note

).

2 t s to e note, also, t'at reek MSS. of t'e $pocal*pse, +ncal or c+rs8e,

are relat8el* fe-; t'at "πο=9σεις to t's ook are rare (8on Soen, Die ,chriften

d. . T., p. 60); an t'at no reek MS. s'e-s a stc'o5etr* (sc'enorf,

2:1044), t'o+3' t'e stc' -ere co+nteVaccorn3 to Ncep'or+s t'e* -ere

1400, accorn3 to t'e laro5ontane lst, 1200, an accorn3 to Mo55sens

lst, 1%00; see Aa'n, "esch. 2. p. 97. 'e $pocal*pse 'ols t'e last place n

nearl* all reek MSS. of t'e N..; t'e eceptons -ll e fo+n n re3or*,

prolegg. p. 16. n t'e !atn lsts an t'e MSS. of t'e K+l3ate ot'er

arran3e5ents are less rare, e.3. t'e laro5ontane lst places $poc. after t'e

at'olc Epstles +t efore t'e $cts, -'le n t'e Mo55sen lst an t'e Cecree

of elas+s t fns a place efore t'e at'olc Epstles; see Aa'n, "esch. 2. p.

%, or Pre+sc'en, Analecta, pp. 19O149.

and -aul, to Nort# Africa and Eg&!t fe* co!ies seem to #ave !enetrated to Antioc#,and fe*er or none to Edessa and Nisibis%

B% In t#e 0est, on t#e contrar&, t#e A!ocal&!se, *#ic# #ad *on acce!tance in t#e

second centur&, #eld its o*n not*it#standing t#e strictures of -aius at 'ome, and t#e

reection of its a!ostolic aut#ors#i! b& $ion&sius at Ale3andria% Ale3andria soon

returned to its allegiance in #is Destal E!istles > "p! 6?@, At#anasius ends #is list of t#ecanon *it# t#e *ords καὶ π&λιν 3'&ννου 1ποκ&λυ2ις, adding ταῦτα π%γαὶ τοῦσ'τ%ρίου ... μ%δεὶς το)τοις !πιBαλλ9τ' μ%δC το)τ'ν ,φαιρείσ=' τι% In t#e !seudoF

At#anasian S&no!sis t#e A!ocal&!se forms t#e eig#t# and last boo2 of t#e Ne*

Testament, and later Ale3andrian *riters acce!t it *it#out #esitation)% T#e Latin 0est

*as from t#e time of -aius !racticall& unanimous in its favour 1% It *as t#ere t#at t#e

boo2 found its earliest inter!reters, ictorinus of Pettau, T&conius, Primasins% It ta2es

its !lace in all 0estern lists of t#e canonical Scri!tures in +ommsen7s canon, in t#ose

of Code3 Claromontanus and t#e Cart#aginian Council of 6?B, in t#e $ecree of

-elasius%7 T#e aut#orit& of t#e great Latin fat#ers confirmed t#e general verdict of t#eC#urc# Ambrose, 5erome, 'ufinus, Augustine, Innocent, acce!ted t#e A!ocal&!se as

t#e *or2 of t#e A!ostle 5o#n%

T#e Eastern C#urc# #as long follo*ed t#e e3am!le of t#e 0est% Alt#oug# t#e

Guinise3tine Council endorsed *it#out remar2 t#e Laodicean Canon *#ic# omits t#e

A!ocal&!se, t#e commentaries of Oecumenius, Andreas, and Aret#as must #ave gone

far to secure a favourable #earing for t#e boo2% Even t#e S&rian C#urc# in t#e sevent#

centur& !ossessed t*o versions, one connected *it# t#e *or2 of T#omas of Har2el,

emanating !er#a!s from Ale3andria, and anot#er of a P#ilo3enian t&!e6%

No boo2 in t#e Ne* Testament *it# so good a record *as so long in gaining generalacce!tance% T#e reasons for t#is are *ell summari9ed in a sc#olion to one of t#e +SS% oft#e A!ocal&!se8 • διὰ τὸ μερικ$ς μ# !κτί=εσ=αι αὐτ>ν< • διὰ τὸ ,σαφCς αὐτῆς καὶδυσ9φικτον καὶ Kλίγοις διαλαμBανόμενον καὶ νοο)μενον< @λλ'ς τε ο5μαι διὰ τὸ μ%δCσυμφ9ρον ε5ναι τοῖς πολλοῖς τὰ !ν αὐτ7 !ρευνŠν μ%δC λυσιτελ9ς % T#e 2e& to t#e

inter!retation disa!!eared *it# t#e generation to *#ic# t#e boo2 *as addressed, !er#a!s

even *it# t#e relief *#ic# t#e Asian C#urc#es e3!erienced u!on t#e deat# of $omitian,

and a!art from an& clue to its immediate reference, it *as little else but a ma9e of

ine3!licable m&steries% .A!ocal&!sis Ioannis,/ e3claims 5erome, .tot #abet sacramenta

"uot verba

)

%/ It *as not ever&one *#o *as able to meet t#e situation *it# t#e !atient

1 &n t'e optc canon see p. 191.

2 'ere s an apparent ecepton n t'e liber ecclesiasticoru& dog&atu&

attr+te to enna+s (> 6 ert res+rrecto 5ort+or+5 'o5n+5, se +na et n

se5el; non pr5a +stor+5 et sec+na peccator+5, +t fa+lat so5nator<). /+t

t'e a+t'or s proal* an Eastern; see Mr. . H. +rner n -.T.,. 7:2", p. %%.

See p. 190.

4 o. 24.

1 Ad Paulin., ep. ":%.

modest& of t#e great $ion&sius, and in t#e circumstances *e can onl& recogni9e *it#

t#an2fulness t#e Providence *#ic# #as !reserved for us a treasure of *#ic# t#e full

value is even no* scarcel& reali9ed%

))% OCA(LA'Y, -'A++A' , AN$ STYLE

)% A com!lete vocabular& of t#e A!ocal&!se *ill be found at t#e end of t#is volume%Here it *ill suffice to !oint out some of t#e results *#ic# ma& be gleaned from it%

T#e A!ocal&!se contains ?)6 distinct *ords, or, e3cluding t#e names of !ersons and

!laces, B)% Of t#ese B) *ords, )K are not used else*#ere in t#e Ne* Testament, and

? are used else*#ere in t#e Ne* Testament but once, or b& but one ot#er *riter% It ma&

be useful to t#e reader to #ave t#ese relativel& uncommon *ords !laced before #im in

se!arate lists%>a@% 0ords in t#e A!ocal&!se *#ic# occur in no ot#er N%T% *riting)%1BαδδVν, ,κμ&Rειν< @κρατος< ἁλλ%λου‘&< @λφα< ,μ9=υστος< @μ'μον,

1πολλ)'ν< ’π mαγεδVν, @2ιν=ος< Bασανισμός< B&τρα-οςρυλλος, BιBλαρίδιον,

Bότρυς< B)σσινος< δι&δ%μα< διαυγ>ς< διπλοῦν >verb@, διαμυρίας< δρ&κ'ν< δ'δ9κατος<Oλλ%νικός< !μεῖν< !νδVμ%σις< N0ακόσιοι< Rεστός< R%λε)ειν, .μί'ρον, =ειVδ%ς< =)‘νον<bασπις< +ππικός< 5ρις, ατ&=εμα, κατασφραγίRειν, ατ>γ'ρ, καῦμα< κεραμικός<κερανν)ναι< κ9ρας< κι=αρMδός< κινν&μ'μον< κλ9μμα< κολλο)ριον< κρι=><κρυσταλλίRειν< κρ)σταλλος< κυκλό=εν< λιBαν'τός< λιπαρός< μ&ρμαρος< μασ/σ=αι<μεσουρ&ν%μα< μ9τ'πον< μ%ρός< μουσικός< μυκ/σ=αι< μ)λινος< νεφρός, ~ι ολα‘τ%ς,ὄλυν=ος< KπVρα< “Gρμ%μα< ὄρνεον< οὐρ&< π&ρδαλις< πελεκίRειν< π9μπτος< π9τεσ=αι<πλ>σσειν< ποδ>ρ%ς, ποταμοφόρ%τος , πρ'ιενός π)ρινος< πυρρός< Aαίνειν< A9δ%<Aυπαίνεσ=αι< σαλπιστ>ς< σ&πφειρος< σ&ρδιον< σαροδόνυ0< σεμίδαλις σίδ%ρος< σιρικός<σμ&ραγδος< στρῆνος< ταλαντιαῖος< τετρ&γ'νος< τιμιότ%ς< τό0ον< τοπ&Rιον< τρί-ινος<"&κιν=ος< "ακίν=ινος< "&λινος< `αλος< φαρμακός< φι&λ%< -&λαRα< -αλκ%δVν,

-αλ ολίBανος, -λιαρός< -οῖνι0< -ρυσόλι=ος< -ρυσόπρασος< -ρυσοῦν%>b@% 0ords in t#e A!ocal&!se used else*#ere in t#e N%T% but once, or b& one ot#er*riter )%

”δειν >Pe col@, ,δίκ%μα >La@, α*-μαλ'σία >Pe@, ,πο-'ρίRεσ=αι >La@, ἅρμα >La@,,ρνίον >5ev@, ,σ-%μοσ)ν% >Pr @, αὐλ%τ>ς >+t@, Bδελ)σσεσ=αι >Pr @, Bορρ/ς >Lev@, γλυκ)ς >5ac@, γόμος >La@, γυμνότ%ς >Pr cor @, δίστομος >H@, δρ9πανον >+c@, OBρα‘στι >5ev@,ε*δ'λολ&τρῆς >Pcor e@, !κκεντεῖν >5ev@, !λYεZεινός >Pcor @, Nλίσσειν >H@, Xλκος >Lev@, ;μπορος >+t@, ;μφοBος >Lev, a@, Nνδ9κατος >+t@, ;ριον >H@, =αῦμα >Pcor @, =εῖον >Lev@, =εραπεία >Lev@, =υμίαμα >Lev@, =Vρα0 >Pe t#@, sππος >5ac@, κ&μινος >+t@, καπνός >La@,κατοικ%τ>ριον >Pe@, κι=&ρα >Pcor @, κι=αρίRειν >Pcor @, κυBερν>τ%ς >La@, κυκλε)ειν >5ev@,κυριακός >Pcor @, λευκαίνειν >+c@, λ%νός >+t@, λίBανος >+t@, λίμν% >Lev@, λίνον >+t@,μαστός >Lev@, μεγιστ&ν >+c@, μῆκος >Pe@, μολ)νειν >Pcor @, να)τ%ς >La@, νῆσος >La@,0)λινος >Ptim@, :μοί'μα >Pr !#!@, K0)ς >Pr @, Gρασις >La@, :σ&κις >Pcor @, ὄφελον >Pcor g@, ὄ2ις >5ev@, παντοκρ&τ'ρ >Pcor @, πατεῖν >Lc@, π9ν=ος >5ac@, πικραίνειν >Pcol@, πλ&τος >Pe@,πλ)νειν >Lev@, πνευματικ$ς >Pcor @, πολεμεῖν >5ac@, πόνος >Pcol@, πορφ)ρεος >5oev@,προφῆτις >Lev@, πτ'-εία >Pcor @, π)ρ'σις >Pet@, Aομφαία >Lev@, Aυπαρός >5ac@, σιγ> >La@,σιδ>ρεος >La@, σκ%νοῦν >5oev@, σκορπίος >Lev@, σκοτοῦσ=αι >Pe@, συνκοιν'νεῖν >Pe !#!@,

1 ors to -'c' a a33er s prefe occ+r n t'e reek &. .; t'ose prnte n

t'ck t*pe appear to e ἅπα0 λεγόμενα.

1 'e letters n rackets -'c' follo- t'e -ors n t's lst ncate t'e ot'er N.

. -rter an -ork n -'c' t'e -ors are fo+n; e.3. !aFSt !+ke n $cts, Pr St

Pa+l n o5ans, #e8 St #o'n n t'e ospel, #ep St #o'n n t'e Epstles.

συνκοιν'νός >Pr cor !#!@, σφ&Rειν >5oe!@, ταλαίπ'ρος >Pr @, τ9-ν% >La@, τρυγŠν >Lev@,φαρμακία >Pg@, φοῖνι0 >5ev@, φ'στ>ρ >P !#!@, -αλινός >5ac@, -&ραγμα >La@, -ίλιοι >Pet@,-ιVν >+t@, -λ'ρός >+c@, -οῦς >+c@, 2ευδ>ς >La@, 2%φίRειν >Lev@, 2ῆφος >La@, 2υ-ρός >+t@, δ> >Pe col@, ˆδίνειν >Pg@%

1%% An e3amination of t#ese tables leads to some interesting facts% 'elativel& to its

lengt# t#e A!ocal&!se #as an unusual number of *ords !eculiar to itself% 0#ile t#eSecond -os!el s#e*s K suc# *ords in 1KKK stichi, t#e A!ocal&!se #as more t#an )KKin )8KK1 one in eig#t of its *ords is used b& no ot#er N%T% *riter, *#ereas in St +ar2t#e ratio is about one in si3teen6% ut it is to be remembered t#at *#ereas t#e sim!lenarrative of t#e Evangelist demands for t#e most !art onl& t#e commonest *ords ofdail& life, t#e A!ocal&!tist deals *it# a great variet& of subects, some of *#ic# call fora liberal use of s!ecial terms% T#us, e%g%, t#e enumeration of articles of merc#andi9e inA!oc% )))=)6 is res!onsible for t*elve of t#e *ords !eculiar to t#is boo2, and t#e listof !recious stones in c! 1))? f% for ten more% +ost of t#e A!ocal&!tic *ords *#ic# arenot found or are found but rarel& in ot#er N% T% *ritings belong to t#e language ofcommon or commercial life, *#ic# *ould be familiar to one *#o #ad been for man&

&ears resident in E!#esus% Durt#er, it *ill be observed t#at t*oFt#irds of t#e *ords in t#efirst list >B1^)K@, and nearl& elevenFt*elft#s in t#e second >?^?@, #ad been !reviousl&used in t#e -ree2 Old Testament% In t#e second list, t#e student *ill find it *ort# #is*#ile to notice t#e distribution of t#e *ords amongst ot#er N% T% *riters% St Paul, it *ill

be seen, #as 66, St Lu2e 6K, St +att#e* ?, St 5o#n , St 5ames <, St +ar2 ;, t#e aut#orof Hebre*s 6, and St Peter 1% T#e great !re!onderance of Pauline and Lucan *ords isremar2able, but !er#a!s it is sufficientl& e3!lained b& t#e circumstance t#at bot# St Pauland St Lu2e *rote under conditions not altoget#er unli2e t#ose of t#e aut#or of t#eA!ocal&!se% T#eir lives, li2e #is, #ad been largel& s!ent among -ree2Fs!ea2ing

!eo!les, and in intercourse *it# -ree2Fs!ea2ing C#urc#es%T#e true ἅπα0 λεγόμενα of t#e A!ocal&!se are fe*% Some are nameFforms

>1BαδδVν< 1πολλ)'ν< ’ρ mαγεδVν< ~ικολα‘τ%ς@, *#ic# are !er#a!s in ever& case due

to t#e *riter% Ot#ers >BιBλαρίδιον< ποταμοφόρ%τος< -αλκολίBανος@ are !robabl& *ords

current in Asia, alt#oug# #it#erto t#e& #ave not been detected in an& ot#er -ree2*riting% Fατ>γ'ρ and κατ&=εμα seem to be of 5e*is#F-ree2 origin μί'ρον is eit#er a

sli!, or an alternative form of μιVριον% T#e +SS% of t#e A!ocal&!se s#e* a

considerable number of ort#ogra!#ical !eculiarities, c#iefl& affecting t#e terminationsof nouns and verbs, suc# as -ρυσ/ν >))6@, -ρυσ9'ν >1)@, κεκοπίακες >16@, π9πτ'κες

>1;@, Bα=9α >118@, ε5-αν >?@, ,πῆλ=α >)K?@, π9π'καν >)6@, ;Bαλαν >))?@,

γ9γοναν >1)<@, and some of t#ese are so *ell su!!orted t#at t#e& claim a !lace in t#e

te3t% ut t#ere are com!arativel& fe* le3ical eccentricities, and if *e are reminded b&an occasional transliteration t#at t#e aut#or *as a 5e* b& birt# and education, it is clear

t#at #e #ad lived long enoug# in t#e -ree2 cities of Asia to #ave read& to #is #and all

t#e -ree2 *ords t#at #e needed for t#e !ur!ose of #is boo2% T#e -ree2 vocabular& of

t#e A!ocal&!se does not suggest t#at t#e *riter *as cri!!led b& a *ant of a!!ro!riate

*ords% His store is am!le for #is needs, and it seems to #ave been c#osen *it# care%

2 'e n+5er of stichi s 38en n eac' case accorn3 to t'e stc'o5etr* of

Ncep'or+s.

See ,t Mar# 2, p. 47.

6% 0#en *e !ass from vocabular& to grammar, t#e case is different% $ion&sius, as

*e #ave seen, *it# t#e acumen of an Ale3andrian sc#olar, *as struc2 b& t#e man&

de!artures from t#e rules of s&nta3 *#ic# mar2 t#e A!ocal&!se, and c#arges its aut#or

*it# *riting incorrect -ree2 and even occasional solecisms% His criticism is

courageous, but not unust% Dortunatel& no s&stematic attem!t *as made in Eg&!t orelse*#ere to bring t#e boo2 u! to t#e standard of literar& ort#odo3&, and in t#e best

+SS% it #as come do*n to us *it# man& at least of t#e *riter7s grammatical !eculiarities

untouc#ed%

Not#ing li2e a grammar of t#e A!ocal&!se) can be attem!ted #ere, but some of t#e

more stri2ing features of its !eculiar st&le are collected belo*%>)@% T#e solecisms7 of t#e boo2 consist largel& of various forms of anacoluthon,

s#e*ing a singular indifference to t#e la*s of concord% T#e& ma& be roug#l& classed as follo*s%>a@ Nominatives are !laced in a!!osition to ot#er cases ); ,πὸ 3%σοῦ 4ριστοῦ< : μ&ρτυς :πιστός% 11K τ#ν γυναῖκα 3εR&Bελ< λ9γουσα Nαυτ#ν προφῆτιν% 6)1 τῆς καινῆς 3ερουσαλ>μ< καταBαίνουσα !κ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ% ? ,π9=ανεν τὸ τρίτον τ$ν κτισμ&τ'ν τ$ν !ν τ7 =αλ&σσ6<τὰ ;-οντα 2υ-&ς% Ot#er e3am!les ma& be found in )8)1, )<)8, 1K1, 1)))% >b@ T#e !artici!leλ9γ'ν :occasionall& ;-'ν :follo*s irregularl& after t#e announcement of a fres# voice or

persona dramatis 8) φ'ν# ... fς σ&λπιγγος ... λ9γ'ν% ?)6 ?κουσα φ'ν#ν μίαν ... λ9γοντα%))); !γ9νοντο φ'ναὶ μεγ&λαι ... λ9γοντες% )8< ε5δον @λλον @γγελον πετόμενον ... ;-οντα ...λ9γ'ν% Ib! )8 ε5δον καὶ *δο νεφ9λ% λευκ>< καὶ !πὶ τ#ν νεφ9λ%ν κα=>μενον ... ;-'ν% >c@ T#econstruction is bro2en b& a !arent#etic clause, after *#ic# t#e sentence ma& or ma& not returnto its original course ); f% τI ,γαπ$ντι μ/ς καὶ λ)σαντι ... καὶ !ποί%σεν ... αὐτI δό0α% )K)f% ε5δον @λλον @γγελον *σ-υρὸν καταBαίνοντα ... καὶ τὸ πρόσ'πον αὐτοῦ fς : qλιος καὶ ο+πόδες αὐτοῦ fς στ)λοι πυρός< καὶ ;-'ν ... >d @ T#e grammar is disturbed b& t#e otiose additionof a !ersonal !ronoun or an adverb of !lace after a relative or !artici!ial clause 1B τI νικ$ντι >or, as in v! 1<, : νικ$ν@ δVσ' αὐτI ... 6)1 : νικ$ν< ποι>σ' αὐτόν ... <8 τI κα=%μ9νM ...

!δό=% αὐτI λαBεῖν τ#ν ε*ρ>ν%ν !κ τῆς γῆς ... καὶ !δό=% αὐτI μ&-αιρα% )1< uπου ;-ει !κεῖ %)6 ο^ οὐ γ9γραπται τὸ ὄνομα αὐτοῦ% >e@ -enders, numbers, or cases are at fault B? ε5δον<καὶ *δο ὄ-λος πολς ... Nστ$τες ... περιBεBλ%μ9νους% ? τὸ τρίτον τ$ν πλοί'ν διεφ=&ρ%σαν%))8 ο^τοί ε*σιν α+ δ)ο !λαῖαι καὶ α+ δ)ο λυ-νίαι α+ ... Nστ$τες% )1; ;τεκεν υ+όν< @ρσεν% )8)? τ#ν λ%νὸν τοῦ =υμοῦ τοῦ =εοῦ τὸν μ9γαν% )B6 =%ρίον ... γ9μοντα ... ;-ονYταZ% 1))8 τὸτεῖ-ος ... ;-'ν%

>1@% esides solecisms7 t#e A!ocal&!se #as, to borro* anot#er term from $ion&sius, alarge number of idiotisms%7 T#e idios&ncras& of t#e *riter s#e*s itself sometimes in a startling

!#rase suc# as )8 ,πὸ : ‹ν καὶ : ν καὶ : !ρ-όμενος, or ) !γV ε*μι τὸ @λφα καὶ τὸ p, or ?)1and )))8 οὐαὶ μία< δευτ9ρα< τρίτ% sometimes in grammatical !eculiarities, some of*#ic# fre"uentl& recur, suc# as t#e follo*ing >a@ $ifferent tenses and moods are oined b& a

co!ula *it#out an& clear reason for t#e c#ange 11 f% !πείρασας ... ;-εις ... !B&στασας ...

1 'e s+Lect 'as een treate 5ore or less f+ll* * KR3el (Co&&., p. " ff.),

ner (E+eg. ,tudien, 1. p. 144 ff.), E-al (prol. to o55. > 6), Ht3 (>ber

-ohannes Marcus, p. 6" ff.), !Dcke, *ersuch einer %ollst3ndigen Einleitung , 1. p.

44% ff., /o+sset (ntr. to o55. p. 1% ff.), an n En3lan * S. a8son ( Intr.

to . T. . p. ""2 ff.), $rc'. !ee (ntr. to o55. p. 4"4 ff.). $ -ohannine

"ra&&ar 'as een recentl* p+ls'e * r E. $. $ott as a se+el to 's

-ohannine *ocabulary (190"), +t t eals -t' t'e ospel onl*. $ t'oro+3'

5ono3rap' on t'e 3ra55ar of t'e $pocal*pse s stll to e esre.

κακοπίακες% 66 εbλ%φας καὶ ?κουσας% Ib! ? ποι>σ' αὐτος sνα q0ουσιν καὶ προσκυν>σουσιν ...καὶ γν$σιν% ;B f% λ=εν καὶ εbλ%φεν ... καὶ Gτε ;λαBεν% B)6 f% ,πεκρί=% ... καὶ εbρ%κα ... καὶε5πεν% ; εbλ%φεν ... καὶ !γ9μισεν ... καὶ ;Bαλεν% ?; !δό=% αὐτοῖς sνα μ# ,ποκτείν'σιναὐτο)ς< ,λλH sνα Bασανισ=>σονται% 1)18 ff% περιπατ>σουσιν ... φ9ρουσιν ... οὐ μ#κλεισ=$σιν ... οbσουσιν ... οὐ μ# ε*σ9λ=6% >b@ Adectives and verbs are made to govern cases

ot#er t#an t#ose re"uired b& usage ))6, )8)8 Gμοιον υ+ὸν ,ν=ρVπου% 1)8 !δίδασκεν τIgαλ&κ% )6 οὐαὶ τος κατοικοῦντας !πὶ τῆς γῆς% )1)1 οὐαὶ τ#ν γῆν καὶ τ#ν =&λασσαν% )?; α*νεῖτε τI =εI μ$ν% >c@ Ot#er unusual constructions abound, suc# as 8? f% Gταν δVσουσιν ...πεσοῦνται% 8 ,ν9B% : καπνὸς ... ταῖς προσευ-αῖς ?8 !ρρ9=% αὐταῖς sνα μ# ,δικ>σουσιν% ))6 δVσ' ... καὶ προφ%τε)σουσιν% Ib! ; εb τις =ελ>σ6% )1B !γ9νετο πόλεμος ... : mι-α#λ καὶ ο+@γγελοι αὐτοῦ τοῦ πολεμῆσαι% )1K ;κρινεν : =εὸς τὸ κρίμα "μ$ν !0 αὐτῆς% 11)8 μακ&ριος ... sνα ;σται ... καὶ ... ε*σ9λ='σιν%

+an& attem!ts #ave been made to minimi9e t#e grammatical irregularities of t#eA!ocal&!se% In t#e most recent of t#ese, a c#a!ter of Arc#bis#o! enson7s (pocalypse *#ic# bears t#e c#aracteristic #eading .A -rammar of (ngrammar ),/ t#e instances areclassified *it# t#e vie* of s#e*ing t#at in most of t#em t#e A!ocal&!tist #ad a definite

reason for #is de!arture from usage% 0#atever ma& be t#oug#t of t#e e3!lanations*#ic# are offered in #is defence, it is evident t#at #e #as not erred in all cases t#roug#ignorance1, and it is !ossible t#at #e #as not done so in an& instance% His eccentricitiesof s&nta3 are !robabl& due to more t#an one cause some to t#e #abit *#ic# #e ma&#ave retained from earl& &ears of t#in2ing in a Semitic language) some to t#e desire of

1 Essa* ". p. 11 ff.

2 E.3. f 'e 'as t-ce per5tte '5self to -rte Gμοιον υ+όν, n e3'teen ot'er

passa3es Gμοιος 3o8erns t'e at8e.

1 'e present -rter, -'le -elco5n3 all t'e l3't t'at can e t'ro-n on t'e

8oca+lar* an s*nta of t'e N. . * a st+* of t'e raeco@E3*ptan pap*r,

an n partc+lar t'e researc'es of Professor ess5ann, Professor '+5, an

r #. H. Mo+lton, eprecates t'e n+cton -'c', as t see5s to '5, s en3

so5e-'at 'astl* ase +pon t'e5, t'at t'e reek of t'e N. . 'as een +t

sl3'tl* nfl+ence * t'e fa5lart* of t'e -rters -t' Here- an $ra5ac.

E8en t'e reek of t'e $pocal*pse,< r Mo+lton -rtes ("ra&&ar of . T.

"ree# , prole33, p. % f.), oes not see5 to o-e an* of ts l+ners to

CHeras5s $part fro5 places -'ere 'e t'e a+t'orG 5a* e efntel*

translatn3 a Se5tc oc+5ent, t'ere s no reason to ele8e t'at 's 3ra55ar

-o+l 'a8e een 5aterall* fferent 'a 'e een a nat8e of &*r'*nc'+s,

ass+5n3 t'e etent of reek e+caton t'e sa5e.< /+t t'e facts see5 at

present ns+ffcent to -arrant t's concl+son. t s precaro+s to co5pare a

lterar* oc+5ent -t' a collecton of personal an +sness letters, acco+nts,

an ot'er ep'e5eral -rtn3s; slps n -or@for5aton or n s*nta -'c' are to

e epecte n t'e latter, are p'eno5enal n t'e for5er, an f t'e* fn a place

t'ere, can onl* e attr+te to lfelon3 'ats of t'o+3't. Moreo8er, t re5ans to

giving movement and vivid realit& to #is visions, *#ic# leads #im to re!ort t#em aftert#e manner of s#ortF#and notes, otted do*n at t#e time some to t#e circumstances in*#ic# t#e boo2 *as *ritten% ut from *#atever cause or concurrence of causes, itcannot be denied t#at t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n stands alone among -ree2 literar&*ritings in its disregard of t#e ordinar& rules of s&nta3, and t#e success *it# *#ic#

s&nta3 is set aside *it#out loss of !ers!icuit& or even of literar& !o*er% T#e boo2 seemso!enl& and deliberatel& to def& t#e grammarian, and &et, even as literature, it is in itso*n field unsur!assed% No udge *#o com!ared it *it# an& ot#er -ree2 a!ocal&!tic*or2 *ould #esitate to give t#e !alm to t#e canonical A!ocal&!se%

8% A!art from solecisms and ot#er idios&ncrasies, t#e st&le of t#e A!ocal&!se is

distinguis#ed b& a number of c#aracteristic !#rases and turns of e3!ression *#ic# give

it individualit&%Some of t#ese recur *it# slig#t variations t#roug#out t#e boo2% T#us )1 !μαρτ)ρ%σεν

τὸν λόγον τοῦ =εοῦ καὶ τ#ν μαρτυρίαν 3%σοῦ 4ριστοῦ starts a note *#ic# is #eard again ib! ?διὰ τὸν λόγον τοῦ =εοῦ καὶ τ#ν μαρτυρίαν 3%σοῦ, <? διὰ τὸν λόγον τοῦ =εοῦ καὶ διὰ τ#νμαρτυρίαν Uν ε5-ον, 1K8 διὰ τ#ν μαρτυρίαν 3%σοῦ καὶ διὰ τὸν λόγον τοῦ =εοῦ% T#e readermeets again and again t#e !#rase ο+ κατοικοῦντες !πὶ τ#ν γῆν or !πὶ τῆς γῆς, or τ#ν γῆν >6)K,<)K, )6, )))K, )6, )6)1, )6)8, )B1, )B@, t#e combination πιστὸς καὶ ,λ%=ινός >6)8,)?)), 1);, 11<@, t#e refrain : ;-'ν ο(ς ,κουσ&τ' >1B, 1)), 1)B, 11?, 6<, 6)6, 611, and*it# a slig#t difference, )6?@% mετὰ ταῦτα ε5δον< καὶ *δο)< : κα=>μενος !πὶ τὸν =ρόνον iτοῦ=ρόνου< τI =ρόνMj@ are ot#er e3am!les% Durt#er, t#e *riter #as a #abit of re!eating t#e article ora governing clause before ever& member of a series *#en t#e same subect or class of subects isin vie*, e%g% ?1K τὰ εbδ'λα τὰ -ρυσ/ καὶ τὰ ,ργυρ/ καὶ τὰ -αλκ/ καὶ τὰ λί=ινα καὶ τὰ 0)λινα%);1 τος νικ$ντας !κ τοῦ =%ρίου καὶ !κ τῆς ε*κόνος αὐτοῦ καὶ !κ τοῦ ,ρι=μοῦ τοῦ ,νόματοςαὐτοῦ% )<)6 !κ τοῦ στόματος τοῦ δρ&κοντος καὶ !κ τοῦ στόματος τοῦ =%ρίου καὶ !κ τοῦστόματος τοῦ 2ευδοπροφ>του% )B< με=)ουσαν !κ τοῦ αsματος τ$ν ἁγί'ν καὶ !κ τοῦ αsματοςτ$ν μαρτ)ρ'ν 3%σοῦ% T#ere are man& minor singularities, suc# as t#e fre"uent use of t#e

instrumental dative !receded b& !ν, e%g% !ν Aομφαί8 >1)<@, !ν A&BδM >11B, )1;, )?);@, !νφ'ν7 >;1, )8B@, !ν ταῖς κι=&ραις >)81@, !ν πυρί >)<, )B)<@ t#e nearl& constant omission oft#e article before !ro!er names, not e3cluding 3%σοῦς t#e em!lo&ment of ε]ς as almoste"uivalent to an indefinite article >)6 Nνὸς ,ετοῦ, )1) ε]ς @γγελος@ t#e !eculiar use of \δε in suc# clauses as )6)K, )6) >)8)1@ \δ9 !στιν "πομον>< \δε σοφία !στιν, )B? \δε :νοῦς : ;-'ν σοφίαν t#e recurrence of t#e formula !δό=% αὐτI iαὐτοῖςj follo*ed b& a noun, aninfinitive, or a subunctive *it# sνα t#e !artialit& s#e*n for t#e !erfect tense, es!eciall& in t#ecase of εbλ%φα >11B, 66, ;B, ;, )))B@ and εbρ%κα >B)8, )?6@ t#e man& beatitudesinters!ersed among t#e visions >)6, )8)6, )<);, )??, 1K<, 11B, 11)8@% Lastl&, aconsiderable number of ordinar& *ords occur *it# remar2able fre"uenc&, catc#ing t#e e&eagain and again as t#e boo2 is turned a fe* ma& be s!ecified #ere @γγελος< ἅγιος< α]μα<

,κο)ειν< ,μ>ν< ,νοίγειν< ,πο=ν>σκειν< ,στ>ρ >never @στρον@, B&λλειν< Bασιλε)ς< BιBλίον<Bλ9πειν< Bροντ>< γῆ< γρ&φειν< δεικν)ειν< δό0α< δ)ναμις< ;=νος< !κκλ%σία< !νVπιον< !0ουσία<;ργον< Nτοιμ&Rειν< εὐφραίνεσ=αι< R'>< qλιος< =&λασσα< =&νατος< =ρόνος< =υσιαστ>ριον< *δεῖν<*δο)< κα=ῆσ=αι< καταBαίνειν< κεφαλ>< κρ&Rειν< κρίνειν< λαμB&νειν< λευκός< λόγος< μ9γας<ναός< νεκρός< νικŠν< ο*κουμ9ν%< Gμοιος< ὄνομα< οὐρανός< Kφ=αλμός< παντοκρ&τ'ρ< π9μπειν<περιB&λλεσ=αι< πίπτειν< πλανŠν< πλ%γ>< πόλις< προσκυνεῖν< πρόσ'πον< προφ>τ%ς and itscognates, πῦρ< Aομφαία< σ%μεῖον< στ9φανος< στόμα< σφ&Rειν< σφραγίς< τελεῖσ=αι< `δ'ρ<"πομον>< φοBεῖσ=αι< φ'ν>< -είρ< -ρ)σεος< δ>% T#is list *ill be found a suggestive one inmost cases t#e subect of t#e boo2 or t#e circumstances of t#e aut#or sufficientl& account for t#e

e consere 'o- far t'e +as@Se5tc collo+als5s of t'e pap*r are

t'e5sel8es +e to t'e nfl+ence of t'e lar3e reek@speakn3 #e-s' pop+laton

of t'e elta.

more or less fre"uent recurrence of t#e *ords in some t#e reason lies dee!er% ut #o*ever t#eirre!etition ma& be e3!lained, it goes far to im!art to t#e A!ocal&!se t#e colouring *#ic# mar2sits st&le%

;%% It is of interest to com!are t#e vocabular&, grammar, and st&le of t#e A!ocal&!se*it# t#ose of ot#er Ne* Testament *ritings traditionall& assigned to St 5o#n, and

es!eciall& *it# t#ose of t#e Dourt# -os!el% >)@ ocabular&% Of t#e ?)6 *ords used int#e A!ocal&!se 8)< are found also in t#e -os!el, but t#e *ords common to bot# boo2sare eit#er of t#e most ordinar& t&!e, or are s#ared b& ot#er N% T% *riters% T#e eig#t*ords ,ρνίον< OBραkστί< !κκεντεῖν< κυκλε)ειν< ὄ2ις< πορφ)ρεος< σκ%νοῦν< φοῖνι0,*#ic# occur onl& in t#ese t*o boo2s, do not su!!l& a sufficient basis for induction%1ρνίον, used 1? times in t#e A!ocal&!se, is used but once in t#e -os!el, and t#en *it#a different reference t#e form κυκλε)ειν in 5o% )K18 and A!oc% 1K? is found in t#e-os!el onl& in Cod% ὄ2ις< πορφ)ρεος, and φοῖνι0 are fairl& *ell establis#ed in t#e-ree2 of t#e O% T% on t#e ot#er #and, OBραkστί is some*#at mar2edl& 5o#annine,occurring five times in t#e -os!el, *#ic# uses also y'μαkστί and cλλ%νιστί{ σκ%νοῦν is strongl& c#aracteristic of t#e teac#ing of t#e fourt# -os!el, t#oug# it occurs t#ere but

once), and t#e use of !0εκ9ντ%σαν for ! "#$ %!& in 4ec#% )1)K, bot# in 5o% )?6B andA!oc% )B, is certainl& note*ort#& and !robabl& more t#an a coincidence1% If *e e3tendour e3amination to *ords *#ic#, t#oug# not e3clusivel& used in t#ese boo2s, are

!rominent in t#em or in one of t#em, t#e evidence is similarl& divided% On t#e one #andt#ere are not a fe* !oints in *#ic# t#e diction of t#e A!ocal&!se differs notabl& fromt#at of t#e -os!el t#e conunctions ,λλ&< γ&ρ< ο(ν, *#ic# continuall& meet t#e readerof t#e -os!el, are com!arativel& rare in t#e A!ocal&!se6 !νVπιον, a c#aracteristic

!re!osition in t#e A!ocal&!se, occurs but once in t#e -os!el t#e Evangelist invariabl&*rites 3εροσόλυμα, t#e A!ocal&!tist 3ερουσαλ>μ8 t#e one c#ooses ,μνὸς *#en #e iss!ea2ing of t#e Lamb of -od, t#e ot#er ,ρνίον to t#e one t#e Eternal Son is sim!l& :

λόγος, to t#e ot#er t#e glorified C#rist is : λόγος τοῦ =εοῦ% T#e A!ocal&!tist uses t#eS&no!tic and Pauline terms εὐαγγ9λιον< εὐαγγελίRειν< κ%ρ)σσειν< κλ%ρονομεῖν<μετανοεῖν< μυστ>ριον< ο*κουμ9ν%< συνκοιν'νεῖν, from *#ic# t#e Evangelist seems torefrain *#ile on t#e ot#er #and, as $ion&sius long ago !ointed out, of man& of t#e 2e&F*ords of t#e -os!el #e s#e*s no 2no*ledge% On t#e ot#er #and t#e t*o boo2s #ave incommon a fair number of c#aracteristic *ords and !#rases, suc# as ,λ%=ινός< !0ουσία<

1 St Pa+l 'as !πισκ%νοῦν n a s5lar sense (2 or. 12:9).

2 See p. 1"0.

1λλ& occ+rs 101 t5es n #e8

, 1 t5es n $poc.; γ&ρ 6" t5es n #e8

, 16 n

$poc. –(ν -'c' s t'e fa8o+rte 5ark of transton n t'e ospel s +se +t 6

t5es n t'e $pocal*pse, an onl* n cc. 1O. /+t ο(ν s -'oll* asent fro5 t'e

frst Epstle of St #o'n, an γ&ρ occ+rs t'ere +t t'rce (estcott, Epistles of ,t

-ohn, p. 40.).

4 'e ecl+s8el* local +se of t'e na5e n t'e ospel oes not alto3et'er

acco+nt for t's fference. 3ερουσαλ>μ s +se freel* n speakn3 of t'e localt*

* St !+ke an St Pa+l; -t' Mt., Mc., #e8, on t'e ot'er 'an, t'e +se of

3εροσόλυμα s 'at+al, t'o+3' Mt. once -rtes 3ερουσαλ>μ (2:7).

μαρτυρεῖν< νικŠν< :δ%γεῖν< ο5δα< σ%μαίνειν< τ%ρεῖν iλόγον< !ντολ>νj< "π&γειν% It is stillmore significant, t#at bot# attac# a s!ecial meaning to certain *ords bot# use 3ουδαῖος of t#e 5e* considered as #ostile to C#rist or t#e C#urc#, and in bot# suc# *ords as R'><=&νατος< δι2Šν< πεινŠν< ν)μφ%< δό0α, bear more or less e3clusivel& a s!iritual sense:aremar2 *#ic# a!!lies also to several of t#e *ords mentioned above >e%g% νικŠν<

:δ%γεῖν@%>1@ T#us on t#e "uestion of t#e literar& affinit& of t#e Dourt# -os!el and t#e

A!ocal&!se t#e vocabular& s!ea2s *it# an uncertain sound, t#oug# t#e balance of t#e

evidence is !er#a!s in favour of some suc# relations#i! bet*een t#e t*o *ritings% T#is

!robabilit& is increased *#en *e com!are t#em from t#e !oint of vie* of t#eir

grammatical tendencies% 0#ile t#e solecistic anacolut#a of t#e A!ocal&!se #ave no

!arallel on an& large scale in t#e -os!el, t#ere is a considerable number of unusual

constructions *#ic# are common to t#e t*o boo2s% Some ma& be mentioned #ere% >a@T#e !artitive !κ *it# its de!endent noun or !ronoun is used in bot# as t#e obect or

subect of a verb e%g% 5o% )<)B ε5παν ο(ν !κ τ$ν μα=%τ$ν αὐτοῦ A!oc% 1)K μ9λλειBαλεῖν !0 "μ$ν, 6? διδ$ !κ τῆς συναγ'γῆς, ))? Bλ9πουσιν !κ τ$ν λα$ν% >b@ ot#

boo2s !lace μετ& after λαλεῖν >5o% 81B bis, ?6B A!oc% ))1, 8), )K, )B), 1)?,

1));@, and περιπατεῖν >5o% <<< A!oc% 68@, and !κ after σ—Rειν or τ%ρεῖν >5o% )11B

σ$σόν με !κ τῆς Wρας τ&υτ%ς, A!oc% 6)K σε τ%ρ>σ' !κ τῆς Wρας τοῦ πειρασμοῦ@% >c@

ot# use sνα in an unusual sense >5o% ;< _γαλλι&σατο sνα bδ6, ?1 τίς qμαρτεν ... sνατυφλὸς γενν%=7 ))); -αίρ' ... sνα πιστε)σ%τε A!oc% )8)6, 11)8@%

>6@ Coming to t#e st&le of t#e boo2s, a com!arison *ill lead to results ver& similar

to t#ose *#ic# *ere obtained b& e3amining t#eir vocabularies% T#e general effect of t#e

st&le of t#e -os!el is as far as !ossible from t#e effect *#ic# t#e A!ocal&!se !roduceson t#e mind of t#e reader .it is free from solecisms, because it avoids all idiomatic

e3!ressions)%/ T#e boo2 flo*s along smoot#l& from t#e !rologue to t#e end t#ere is no

startling !#rase, no defiance of s&nta3 if it is obviousl& t#e *or2 of one *#o *as more

familiar *it# t#e construction of t#e Semitic t#an of t#e -ree2 sentence1, &et t#e aut#or

seldom or never offends against definite la*s% In t#ese res!ects #e not onl& differs from

t#e A!ocal&!tist, but stands at t#e o!!osite !ole to t#e eccentricities, t#e roug#nesses,

t#e audacities, of t#e latter% Yet it is also true t#at #e #as man& !oints of resemblance

*it# t#e *riter of t#e A!ocal&!se, bot# in regard to sentenceFformation and to t#e

!#rasing of #is t#oug#ts% As to t#e former, t#e follo*ing !oints #ave been noticed

amongst ot#ers% >)@ ot# t#e Evangelist and t#e A!ocal&!tist fall in !laces into !arallelisms cf% 5o% )8 f% u γ9γονεν !ν αὐτI R'# ν, ] καὶ R'# ν τὸ φ$ς τ$ν,ν=ρVπ'ν} ]] καὶ τὸ φ$ς !ν τ7 σκοτί8 φαίνει, ] καὶ σκοτία αὐτὸ οὐ κατ9λαBεν% A!oc%

1)16 πόλις οὐ -ρείαν ;-ει τοῦ λίου ] οὐδC τῆς σελ>ν%ς< sνα φαίν'σιν αὐτ7} ]] γὰρδό0α τοῦ =εοῦ !φVτισεν αὐτ>ν, ] καὶ : λ)-νος αὐτῆς τὸ ,ρνίον% >1@ ot# are !artial to

t#e form of antit#esis *#ic# !resents first t#e !ositive and t#en t#e negative side of astatement or direction e%g% 5o% )6 π&ντα διH αὐτοῦ !γ9νετο< καὶ -'ρὶς αὐτοῦ !γ9νετοοὐδC Xν% )K)1 f% : μισ='τὸς καὶ οὐκ ‹ν ποιμ>ν ... μισ='τός !στιν καὶ οὐ μ9λει αὐτI

1 estcott, ,t -ohn, p. 1.

2 f. Sana*, Authorship and Historical Character of the !ourth "ospel , p. 2% f.

περὶ τ$ν προB&τ'ν A!oc% 66 q0' fς κλ9πτ%ς< καὶ οὐ μ# γνIς ποίαν Wραν q0' ib! )<

-λιαρὸς ε5< καὶ οvτε Rεστὸς οvτε 2υ-ρός% )K8 σφρ&γισον o !λ&λ%σαν α+ Nπτὰ Bρονταί<καὶ μ# αὐτὰ γρ&2%ς% >6@ ot# re!eat t#e article for t#e sa2e of em!#asis 5o% )? τὸ φ$ςτὸ ,λ%=ινόν, <61 τὸν @ρτον ... τὸν ,λ%=ινόν, );) @μπελος ,λ%=ιν>, )K)) :

ποιμ#ν : καλός A!oc% ); : μ&ρτυς : πιστός, 1)) τοῦ =αν&του τοῦ δευτ9ρου, ib! )1τ#ν Aομφαίαν τ#ν δίστομον τ#ν K0εῖαν, ))K πόλις μεγ&λ% ... *σ-υρ&, 1))K τ#νπόλιν τ#ν ἁγίαν% >8@ ot# add !arent#etic e3!lanations for t#e sa2e of circumstantial

fulness cf% 5o% <11 f%, ))) ff%, ))6 f% A!oc% )1? >)?1@, )8)) >)?1K@, 1K)8 >1)@%>;@ Similar or identical !#rases occur in bot#, e%g% ποιεῖν ,λ>=ειαν >5o% 61)@, ποιεῖν2εῦδος >A!oc% 11);@ ποιεῖν σ%μεῖον >5o% 1)), 116, 8;8, etc%, A!oc% )6)6 f%, )?1K@

μ9ρος ;-ειν >5o% )6, A!oc% 1K<@ ὄνομα αὐτI >5o% )<, 6), ))K, A!oc% <, ?))@%

Even more remar2able are t#e follo*ing coincidences of language 5o% ))8 : λόγος ...!σκ>ν'σεν !ν μῖν, A!oc% B); : κα=>μενος !πὶ τὸν =ρόνον σκ%νVσει !πH αὐτο)ς 5o%

8< κεκοπιακdς !κ τῆς :δοιπορίας, A!oc% 16 οὐ κεκοπίακες 5o% B6B !&ν τις δι2Š!ρ-9σ=' πρὸς μC καὶ πιν9τ', A!oc% 11)B : δι2$ν !ρ-9σ=' 5o% )K) τα)τ%ν τ#ν!ντολ#ν ;λαBον παρὰ τοῦ πατρός μου, A!oc% 11 fς κ,γd εbλ%φα παρ„ τοῦ πατρόςμου 5o% )<)1 οὐ δ)νασ=ε Bαστ&Rειν, A!oc% 11 οὐ δ)ν6 Bαστ&σαι 5o% 1K)1, A!oc%

68 !ν λευκοῖς% T#e bearing of t#is evidence on t#e "uestion of aut#ors#i! *ill be

discussed in a later c#a!ter ) mean*#ile *e ma& observe t#at it creates a strong

!resum!tion of affinit& bet*een t#e Dourt# -os!el and t#e A!ocal&!se, not*it#standing

t#eir great diversit& bot# in language and in t#oug#t%

)1% SY+OLIS+)% T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n s#ares *it# ot#er a!ocal&!tic *ritings a !artialit& for

s&mbolical imager& and t#e s&mbolical use of numbers% Teac#ing b& t#e use of s&mbols

is found in ever& !art of t#e Old Testament, but it becomes es!eciall& noticeable in t#e

later !ro!#ecies, and in t#e boo2 of $aniel% T#e visions of *#ic# t#ese boo2s largel&

consist !resent a succession of strange and sometimes *eird or even monstrous s#a!es,

designed to suggest ideas t#at could not be e3!ressed in *ords, or !ersons or forces t#at

t#e *riter !referred to leave unnamed% T#is #abit *as ado!ted b& t#e nonFcanonical

a!ocal&!tists, from Enoc# on*ards, and it receives illustration in ever& !age of St

5o#n7s boo2%

1% T#e imager& of t#e A!ocal&!se la&s under contribution all t#e de!artments of

nature and life% T#e animal 2ingdom lends its RIα and its =%ρία :#orses *#ite, red, blac2 and !ale, t#e lamb and t#e calf, t#e lion, t#e leo!ard and t#e bear, t#e locust, t#e

scor!ion and t#e frog, t#e eagle and t#e vulture, t#e birds of t#e air and t#e fis#es of t#e

sea t#e vegetable 2ingdom, its trees and #erbs and grass% Eart#, sea, and s2& bring t#eir

tribute% Agricultural o!erations suc# as #arvest and vintage, t#e life and trade of great

cities, t#e marc# and clas# of great armies, are all de!icted on its canvas% A sea of glass

is s!read before t#e T#rone in Heaven a river flo*s t#roug# t#e Hol& Cit&% T#e s2&

&ields its stars, no* s#ining in t#e firmament, no* falling to t#e eart#, no* forming a

cluster in t#e #and of t#e C#rist, or a coronet on t#e #ead of t#e +ot#er of C#rist and

C#ristendom% Across t#e #eavens t#ere s*ee!s from time to time a more t#an tro!ical1 c. 1".



storm of t#under, lig#tning, and #ail, follo*ed b& eart#"ua2e% Human life su!!lies an

abundance of imager&% 0e see t#e mot#er and #er c#ild, t#e #arlot and #er lovers, t#e bride arra&ed for #er #usband% Cro*ned #eads *ear t#e στ9φανος or t#e δι&δ%μα

*arriors carr& t#e t*oFedged s*ord t#e s#e!#erd a!!ears *it# #is ironFti!!ed staff, t#e

rea!er *it# #is sic2le, t#e #erald *it# #is trum!et, t#e builder *it# #is measuring rod,t#e #olida&F2ee!er *it# flute and #ar!, t#e reveller *it# golden cu!, t#e 2ing *it# #is

roll, *ritten *it#in and on t#e bac2 *it# t#e secrets of State and sealed% Digures move

across t#e stage attired in t#e long girdled robe of 2ingl& or !riestl& dignit&, or in t#e

s#ining *#ite of byssus t*o are dressed in sac2clot# one *ears !ur!le and scarlet, and

is dec2ed *it# gold and !recious stones and !earls%

6% >a@ A large !ro!ortion of t#is imager& is dra*n, as a !revious section *ill #ave

s#e*n, from t#e Old Testament% Places, !ersons, and obects *#ic# occur in t#e

#istorical boo2s rea!!ear in t#e A!ocal&!se as s&mbols of facts in t#e life of t#e C#urc#

or of t#e ne* *orld to *#ic# t#e C#urc# !oints and *#ic# lies be#ind t#e visible order%

Damiliar !laceFnames meet us #ere and t#ere:t#e Eu!#rates, Eg&!t, Sodom, t#e Hill of

+egiddo, ab&lon, 5erusalem% T#e sevenFbranc#ed candlestic2 of t#e Tabernaclesuggests t#e golden λυ-νίαι *#ic# re!resent t#e C#urc#es of Asia alaam finds #is

analogue in t#e Nicolaitans, and 5e9ebel in a T#&atiran !ro!#etess% T#e ne* Israel is

confronted b& a ne* ab&lon, and t#e ride of C#rist is a ne* 5erusalem% T#e Elders

round t#e T#rone ans*er to t#e elders of Israel t#e T*o 0itnesses e3ercise !o*ers

*#ic# remind t#e reader of t#e miracles of +oses and Elia#% Tabernacle and Tem!le,

altar and censer and ar2, recall t#e religious glories of ancient Israel% A #ol& !lace not

made *it# #ands is seen in t#e #eavenl& !laces t#e manna laid u! before -od finds its

counter!art in t#e future life of t#e victorious C#ristian% >b@ In ot#er instances t#e N%T%A!ocal&!se ado!ts in !art or in *#ole t#e s&mbolism of t#e O%T% *riters, as *#en it

s!ea2s of t#e Tree of Life, t#e oo2 of Life, t#e 0ater of Life or t#e meta!#ors of t#e

O%T% become t#e s&mbols of t#e ne* !ro!#ec&, as *#en our Lord is designated t#e

Lamb and t#e Lion of t#e Tribe of 5uda#, or t#e 'oot of $avid or again, a *#ole

s&stem of O%T% s&mbolism is more or less full& !ressed into t#e service of t#e boo2, as

in t#e case of t#e Hig# Priest7s breast!late, and of E9e2iel7s sc#eme of a restored

5erusalem%

8% T#e A!ocal&!tist, #o*ever, does not limit #imself to O%T% imager&, but #as muc#

t#at is #is o*n, or t#at belongs to t#e common stoc2 of t#e later a!ocal&!tic% T#e0oman *it# C#ild #as no !arallel in t#e O%T%, and in s!ite of -un2el7s efforts to find

t#e genesis of t#is fine conce!tion in ab&lonian fol2lore, it ma& be confidentl&

regarded as essentiall& a creation of t#e *riter7s o*n mind, under t#e influence of t#e

S!irit of C#rist% T#e descri!tion of t#e Harlot ab&lon, seated on t#e scarlet east, #as

!oints of contact *it# !assages in t#e Hebre* Pro!#ets but as a *#ole it is ne* and

original% A li2e verdict ma& be !assed u!on t#e t#ree great sevenfold visions, t#e Seal

O!enings, t#e Trum!et lasts, and t#e Out!ouring of t#e o*ls t#eir !artial

indebtedness to t#e Old Testament does not ta2e from t#e fres#ness and vigour of St

5o#n7s s&mbolism% T#e idea of a millennium *as in t#e air *#en St 5o#n *rote, but no

*riter #ad used it as t#e s&mbol of a s!iritual trium!#, or *or2ed it into a sc#eme of t#e

$ivine ordering of #istor&%

;% +uc# of t#e imager& of t#e A!ocal&!se is doubtless not s&mbolism, but merel&

designed to #eig#ten t#e colouring of t#e great !icture, and to add vividness and

movement to its scenes% Suc# secondar& details, li2e man& of t#e minor features in t#eParables of our Lord, must not be !ressed into t#e service of a s!iritual inter!retation, or

indeed of an& s!ecific inter!retation *#atever, t#eir !ur!ose being sim!l& to contribute

to t#e general effect of t#e conte3t *#ere t#e& occur% T#ese nonFs&mbolical images are

sometimes ta2en from t#e life of t#e times, as *#en t#e *riter recounts t#e im!orts t#at

found t#eir *a& to t#e ne* ab&lon, man& of *#ic# #e ma& #imself #ave seen s#i!!ed

off to Ostia from t#e !ort of E!#esus or t#e& belong to t#e common stoc2 of t#e

esc#atological language of a!ocal&!tic *riting >e%g% <)1 ff%@ or t#e& are due to t#e

ins!ired imagination of t#e A!ocal&!tist #imself, forming !art of t#e !icture *#ic# is

!resent to #is mind as #e *rites%

<% ut t#ere is also muc# *#ic# is directl& s&mbolical% In not a fe* cases t#e *riter

sto!s to inter!ret t#e s&mbol >e%g% in cc! )1K, 8;, ;<, )1?, )B? f%, )B)1, )B);@% In

ot#ers t#e s&mbolical meaning is onl& #alf veiled t#us it is im!ossible to mista2e t#e

im!ort of t#e standing Digure in ))6 ff%, or of t#e seated Digure in c! 81, or of t#e

Lamb, or t#e Lamb7s 0ife% T#ere remain, #o*ever, a certain number of s&mbolic forms

as to *#ic# t#ere is room for diversit& of udgement even among inter!reters *#o

follo* t#e same general met#od of inter!retation% T#us in c! <1 t#e rider on t#e *#ite

#orse is b& some commentators identified *it# t#e $ivine 'ider of c! )?)), *#ile

ot#ers regard t#e former as s&mboli9ing eit#er t#e 'oman or t#e Part#ian con"ueror% In

c! B% t#e )88,KKK are b& some understood to re!resent, li2e t#e countless multitude, t#e*#ole bod& of t#e C#urc#, t#oug# under a different as!ect or at anot#er stage of its

#istor&, *#ereas ot#ers ta2e t#e t*o visions to set fort# res!ectivel& t#e 5e*is# and

-entile C#ristians, or t#e 5e*is# C#urc# and t#e C#ristian C#urc#% In c! ))

inter!reters are divided as to t#e meaning of t#e great cit&7 in )B)1 t#ere is

considerable difference of o!inion as to t#e identit& of t#e .ten 2ings%/ +an& ot#er suc#

ambiguities !er!le3 t#e student of t#e A!ocal&!se, and t#oug# #e ma& be able to arrive

at conclusions *it# regard to t#em *#ic# satisf& #is o*n udgement, it is im!ossible to

offer suc# convincing reasons for t#em as *ill com!el assent% ut t#e uncertaint& *#ic#

t#us besets a!ocal&!tic inter!retation does not seriousl& detract from t#e general valueof t#e boo2% Nor can it be laid to t#e c#arge of t#e aut#or t#at #e is unnecessaril&

obscure% It is of t#e nature of a!ocal&!tic literature to be involved in some measure of

obscurit& and t#is is not t#e least valuable of its c#aracteristics, for it affords sco!e fort#e e3ercise of t#e C#ristian udgement \δε σοφία !στίν} \δε : νοῦς : ;-'ν σοφίαν

>)6), )B?@% In t#e elasticit& of s&mbolical language t#e A!ocal&!se #as its c#ief

advantage over t#e more e3act and didactic, but less ins!iring and suggestive st&le of

ordinar& !ro!#ec&%

B% No reader of our A!ocal&!se can #ave failed to notice t#e fre"uent recurrence of

numbers *#ic# a!!ear to carr& *it# t#em a certain s&mbolical meaning

)

%1 &n t'e s*5ols5 of n+5ers see *con+s reg. " (e. /+rktt).

T#e follo*ing are t#e numbers t#at are met *it# in t#e boo2 1, 6, 6 _ 8, ;, <, B, )K,

)1, 18, 81, )88, <<< >or according to anot#er reading, <)<@, )KKK, )1<K, )<KK, BKKK,

)1KKK, )88,KKK, )KK,KKK,KKK, 1KK,KKK,KKK% T#e !redominant number is seven, *#ic#

occurs fift&Ffour times% T#e boo2 is addressed to seven C#urc#es re!resented b& seven

lam!stands, *#ile t#eir angels7 are seven stars% T#ere are seven S!irits of -od,s&mboli9ed b& seven lam!s% T#e oo2 in t#e Hand of -od is sealed *it# seven seals

t#e Lamb before t#e T#rone #as seven e&es and seven #orns% Seven angels blo* seven

trum!etFblasts seven ot#er angels !our out t#e contents of seven bo*ls full of t#e seven

last !lagues% Seven t#unders utter voices *#ic# t#e Seer is bidden not to *rite% Seven

t#ousand are 2illed in t#e great eart#"ua2e *#ic# follo*s t#e ascension of t#e T*o

0itnesses% T#e $ragon #as seven #eads, and u!on t#em seven diadems t#e 0ild east

from t#e Sea #as seven #eads on *#ic# are .names of blas!#em&/ t#e Scarlet east on

*#ic# ab&lon sits #as li2e*ise seven #eads, variousl& inter!reted b& t#e *riter as

seven mountains, or seven 2ings% Ne3t in fre"uenc& to t#e #e!tad is t#e dodecad% T#e

ne* Israel, li2e its !redecessor, consists of t*elve tribes t#e +ot#er of C#rist is

cro*ned *it# t*elve stars t#e ne* 5erusalem #as t*elve !ortals, and t#e *all t#at

girdles it rests on t*elve foundation stones on *#ic# are engraved t#e names of t#e

t*elve A!ostles t#e Tree of Life in t#e ne* Paradise bears t*elve manner of fruits,

after t#e number of t#e mont#s% +ulti!les of t*elve, also, are common% Eac# of t#e

tribes of t#e ne* Israel contains )1,KKK, ma2ing a total of )88,KKK and )88,KKK is also

t#e number of t#e virgin souls *#ic# in t#e second !art of t#e boo2 are seen

surrounding t#e Lamb on +ount 4ion% T#e Elders round t#e T#rone are t*ent&Ffour,

and t#e& are seated on as man& subordinate t#rones% Eac# side of t#e Hol& Cit& is

)1,KKK stades in lengt#, and t#e *all *#ic# surrounds it is )88 cubits in #eig#t%Ten is anot#er favourite number% T#e time of !ressure *#ic# is coming on t#e

C#urc#es of Asia *ill last ten da&s% ot# t#e $ragon and t#e first of t#e t*o 0ild

easts #ave ten #orns and so #as t#e Scarlet east, *#ose #orns are inter!reted as .ten

2ings%/ As a multi!le ten enters into most of t#e #ig#er numbers in t#e boo2% 5our ,again, occurs fre"uentl&% T#e RIα are four four angels stand at t#e four corners of t#e

eart#, c#arged *it# t#e control of t#e four *inds of #eaven four angels are bound at t#e

Eu!#rates, until t#e moment comes for t#e e3ecution of t#eir *or2 of slaug#ter% T#e

Hol& Cit& lies fourFs"uare, and forms a !erfect cube% Three is some*#at less !rominent,

but t#e last t#ree Trum!ets constitute a triad of .0oes,/ and under t#e earlier Trum!etsa t#ird !art of ever&t#ing *#ic# #as been attac2ed is smitten >B=)1 c!% ?);, )18@%

T#e .great cit&/ is rent b& an eart#"ua2e into t#ree !arts eac# side of t#e s"uare *#ic#

forms t#e ne* 5erusalem is entered b& t#ree !ortals% T#ere are ot#er numbers *#ic# areused s&mbolicall& but once% T#e *ings of t#e RIα are si% t#ere are five mont#s during

*#ic# t#e *orld is tortured b& t#e locusts of t#e Ab&ss t#e 0itnesses *#o are slain and

rise again and ascend to #eaven are two%

% T#e recurrence of some of t#ese numbers, notabl& of seven), t*elve, ten and four,

can scarcel& be accidental% T#e *riter7s !artialit& for t#em is due in some measure to #is

1 r $ott ponts o+t ("ra&&ar , > 2624) t'at t'e =o+rt' ospel s per5eate

str+ct+rall* -t' t'e ea< of se8enfolness.

Semitic #abits of t#oug#t% To t#e Hebre* mind seven denotes com!letion, as *e gat#er

from countless !assages of t#e Old Testament1% An a!ocal&!tist *ould find a s!ecial

attraction in a number *#ic# #ad alread& !la&ed a great !art in 5e*is# a!ocal&!ses from

$aniel on*ards% It *ould fall in *it# t#is tendenc& of #is o*n mind if, as #as been

t#oug#t, t#e most !rominent of t#e C#urc#es of Asia *ere as a matter of fact seven innumber, so t#at as t#e !#rase α+ Nπτὰ !κκλ%σίαι α+ !ν τ7 1σί8 >)8@ suggests, t#e& *ere

!robabl& 2no*n as t#e Seven C#urc#es in Asia even before t#e& *ere so addressed b&

St 5o#n)% ut in an& case t#e selection of Seven C#urc#es as t#e reci!ients of t#e

A!ocal&!se stri2es a 2e&note *#ic# rings t#roug# t#e earlier c#a!ters, and determines

t#e number of t#e lam!stands, t#e AngelFstars, t#e S!irits of -od, and t#e E&es of t#e

Lamb% In t#e second !art of t#e boo2 t#e seven #eads of t#e $ragon and t#e 0ild east

are !er#a!s suggested b& t#e seven #ills of 'ome and t#e seven Augusti *#o !receded

$omitian% ut t#oug# local circumstances c#imed in *it# t#e traditional use of t#is

number, its O%T% associations doubtless dre* t#e *riter to it, and it is used in conformit&

*it# O%T% !ractice% Eac# series of seven is com!lete in itself, and eac# suggests t#e

!erfection *#ic# belongs to t#e $ivine, or t#at *#ic# is claimed b& t#e Antic#rist%

Of ot#er numbers *#ic# a!!ear to be s&mbolicall& used in t#e A!ocal&!se three and

four occur in conne3ion *it# memorable incidents or conte3ts of t#e Old Testament

>-en% )1, E3 16)8, $eut% 88), $an% <)K -en% 1)K, E9% );, $an% B1, @% Three

seems to denote limited !luralit& four , as t#e number of t#e *inds and t#e "uarters of

t#e s2&, is a fitting s&mbol for t#e visible creation% Ten, also, #as a recognised meaning

as t#e round number, it is suggestive at once of indefiniteness and of magnitude in a

t#ousand bot# t#ese features are magnified, and a t#ousand &ears t#us re!resents a great

!eriod of time stretc#ing over man& generations, but of un2no*n lengt#% T#euncertaint& *#ic# results from suc# a use of numbers *ould be fatal to t#e value of a

#istorical document, but it is admirabl& ada!ted to t#e !ur!ose of an a!ocal&!se, *#ere

t#e veil is lifted onl& so far as to disclose t#e dim outline of great issues%

?% T*o of t#e A!ocal&!tic numbers call for se!arate treatment% >a@ T#ree and a #alf

da&s are given as t#e interval bet*een t#e deat# and resurrection of t#e T*o 0itnesses

>))?, ))))@% T#is !eriod corres!onds *it# t#e .time, times and a #alf/ of c! )1)8,

*#ic# is ta2en over from $an% B1;, )1B% In $aniel t#is e3!ression !robabl& re!resents

t#e t#ree and a #alf &ears during *#ic# 5erusalem *as in t#e #ands of t#e S&rian

o!!ressor, and t#e A!ocal&!se accordingl& uses it or its e"uivalents >81 mont#s, )1<Kda&s@ to signif& t#e age of !ersecution, *#atever its duration mig#t be% Ot#er

e3!lanations are less !robable% -un2el t#in2s of t#e 6_ mont#s *#ic# intervened

bet*een t#e *inter solstice and t#e ab&lonian festival of +ardu2 )% Ot#ers, again,

identif&ing t#e time, times, and a #alf of $an% B1; *it# t#e #alfF*ee2 > '()*+$! !-& .$ @

2 'e 3eness of t'e ea s -ell state * P'lo legg. alleg. 1. 4 -αίρει δC φ)σις

NBοδομ&δι} πλανῆτ9ς τε γὰρ Nπτὰ γεγόνασιν ... καὶ @ρκτος Nπτὰ @στροις

συμπλ%ροῦται ... καὶ τροπαὶ δC σελ>ν%ς NBδομ&σι γίνονται.

1 So a5sa*, $etters to the ,e%en Churches, p. 17%. /+t t's s per'aps to

+l too 5+c' +pon t'e artcle.

of $an% ?1B, regard t#e A!ocal&!tic 6_ in t#e lig#t of a bro2en seven,7 a s&mbol of

t#e interru!tion of t#e $ivine order b& t#e malice of Satan and evil men%

>b@ If t#e number <<< in A!oc% )6) is to be regarded as a s&mbol, t#ere is

verisimilitude in $r riggs7 suggestion t#at a number *#ic# in ever& digit falls s#ort b&

one of t#e com!leteness and !erfection of t#e m&stic seven, fitl& re!resents t#e failureof Antic#rist to reac# t#e goal to *#ic# #e as!ires% ut >)@ t#is conce!tion mig#t #ave

been conve&ed *it# e"ual effect b& <<, or <<<< >1@ it leaves t#e alternative reading

><)<@ *#oll& une3!lained and >6@ from t#e time of Iren`us tradition #as fi3ed onanot#er and a more natural e3!lanation% T#e number, *#et#er *e read -0σJ, or *it#

some contem!oraries of Irenaeus -ισJ, is !robabl& a cr&!togram, and not a true s&mbol%

It is !ossible t#at t#e Number of t#e east #olds its secret still% Alt#oug# t#e c#allenge :;-'ν νοῦν 2%φισ&τ' τὸν ,ρι=μόν #as been acce!ted b& t#e sc#olars of man&

generations, no solution #it#erto offered commands general assent%

)K% In t#is c#a!ter a Semitic origin #as been claimed for t#e s&mbolism of t#e

A!ocal&!se% T#e force of local circumstances is not, indeed, to be overloo2ed% In t#e

*ords of Professor 0% +% 'amsa&1, .suc# ideas and s&mbolic forms *ere in t#e

atmos!#ere and in t#e minds of men at t#e time and t#e ideas *it# *#ic# #e St 5o#n

*as familiar moulded t#e imager& of #is visions, unconsciousl& to #imself%/ ut a!art

from influences of t#is 2ind, it must not be forgotten t#at it *as necessar& to !rovide t#e

C#urc# *it# a ma2eF*eig#t against t#e !o*er *#ic# #eat#enism e3erted over t#e Asian

cities t#roug# its abundant use of s&mbolism in literature and in art% In art C#ristianit&

could as &et do not#ing to counteract t#is #ostile force% T#e A!ostolic age *as

necessaril& o!!osed to t#e Art of t#e time), *#ic# *as !agan to t#e core t#e C#urc# of

t#e first centur& #ad not eit#er t#e !o*er or t#e desire to emulate t#e s!lendours of t#e#eat#en tem!les% S#e could not erect statues to t#e -lorified C#rist, or stam! His image

and su!erscri!tion on t#e currenc&, or institute !ublic festivals in His #onour% ut if s#e

mig#t not avail #erself as &et of t#e #el! of Art, t#ere *as abundant !recedent in t#e

Hebre* Scri!tures for t#e literar& re!resentation of t#e unseen *orld% It *as !ermissible

to assist t#e fait# of t#e suffering C#urc#es b& s&mbolical visions of t#e maest& of t#eir

$ivine Lord, no* *al2ing in t#eir midst, no* standing before t#e celestial T#rone, no*

riding fort# to victor& *it# t#e armies of Heaven under His command% It *as not less

!ermissible to !aint in glo*ing colours t#e moral glor& of t#e C#ristian Societ&, and #er

magnificent destin&, or to !lace in contrast *it# t#em t#e abominable vices, t#e !altr&dis!la&, and t#e certain doom of 'ome% Yet in t#is legitimate a!!eal to t#e C#ristian

imagination t#e A!ocal&!tist is careful to avoid re!resentations *#ic# could be !laced

before t#e e&e b& t#e !ainter7s art% No scene in t#e great C#ristian A!ocal&!se can be

successfull& re!roduced u!on canvas .t#e imager& is s&mbolic and not !ictorial1%/

1 ,ch8pfung u. Chaos, p. 09 ff.

2 $etters to the ,e%en Churches, p. "9.

1 estcott, Epp. of ,t -ohn, p. 9 ($pp. on t'e relaton of 'rstant* to $rt).

2 estcott, op. cit. p. ".

)6% (SE OD THE OL$ TESTA+ENT AN$ OTHE' LITE'AT('E

)% T#e A!ocal&!tist7s use of t#e Old Testament is b& no means limited to its

s&mbolical imager& and numbers its t#oug#ts and its ver& *ords a!!ear in ever& !art of

#is boo2% It is true t#at t#e A!ocal&!se is mar2ed b& an entire absence of t#e formal"uotations *#ic# are to be found in ot#er !arts of t#e Ne* Testament) t#e nature of t#e

*or2 !recluded t#e aut#or from a direct a!!eal to #is source% Yet no *riter of t#e

A!ostolic age ma2es larger use of #is !redecessors% Drom t#e list of ."uotations from

t#e Old Testament/ *it# *#ic# t#e a!!endi3 to 0estcott and Hort7s second volume

ends, it a!!ears t#at of t#e 8K8 verses of t#e A!ocal&!se t#ere are 1B *#ic# contain

references to t#e 5e*is# Scri!tures% T#e follo*ing table is not e3#austive, but it *ill

suffice to s#e* t#e e3tent of St 5o#n7s debt to t#e Old Testament, and #is met#od of

using it%

APOCALYPSE% -'EE E'SIONS OD THE OL$ TESTA+ENT1

%)) >8), 11<@ o δεῖ γεν9σ=αι% $an% 11 o δεῖ γεν9σ=αι%)8 >), 8, )))B, )<;@ : ˜ν% E3% 6)8 : ˜ν%

);a >1)6, 6)8@ : μόρτυς :πιστός%

Ps% % >?%@ 6 : μ&ρτυς !ν οὐρανI πιστός%

); b : πρ'τότοκος τ$ν νεκρ$νκαὶ : @ρ-'ν τ$ν Bασιλ9'ν τῆς

γῆς%

Ps% % >?%@ 1 κ,γd πρ'τότοκον =>σομαι αὐτόν< "2%λὸνπαρὰ τοῖς Bασιλεῦσιν τῆς γῆς iσJ ,νVτατον τ$ν Bασιλ9'ντῆς γῆςj%

);c λ)σαντι μ/ς !κ τ$νἁμαρτι$ν μ$ν%

Isa% 8K1 λ9λυταιαὐτῆς ἁμαρτία%

)< >;)K, 1K<@ !ποί%σεν μ/ςBασιλείαν< +ερεῖς τI =εI% E3% )?< "μεῖς δC ;σεσ=9 μοι Bασίλειον +ερ&τευμα > /'01.* 23425 65 78 7$ @7% Cf% Isa% 8)< "μεῖς δC +ερεῖς Fυρίου κλ%=>σεσ=ε%

)Ba ;ρ-εται μετὰ τ$ν νε=ελ$ν% $an% B)6 !πὶ i=J μετὰj τ$ν νε=ελ$ν ... ?ρ-ετο i=J!ρ-όμενοςj%

)B b ὄ2εται αὐτὸν π/ς Kφ=αλμὸςκαὶ οsτινες αὐτὸν !0εκ9ντ%σαν<καὶ κό2ονται !πH αὐτὸν π/σαι α+φυλαὶ τῆς γῆς%

4ec#% )1)K ff% !πιBλ92ονται πρὸς μC ,ν=J \νκατ'ρ->σαντο i=J ε*ς uν !0εκ9ντ%σανj< καὶ κό2ονται !πHαὐτὸν ... καὶ κό2εται γῆ κατὰ φυλὰς φυλ&ς ... π/σαι α+"πολελιμμ9ναι φυλαί%

) : παντοκρ&τ'ρ% Am% 8)6 : παντοκρ&τ'ρ%

))6 >)8)8@ Gμοιον υ+ὸν,ν=ρVπου%

$an% B)6 fς υ+ὸς ,ν=ρVπου% Cf% $an% )K)< =J fς :μοί'σιςυ+οῦ ,ν=ρVπου% E9% )1< :μοί'μα fς ε5δος ,ν=ρVπου 1

:μοί'μα ,νδρός%))6 b !νδεδυμ9νον ποδ>ρ% καὶπεριεR'σμ9νον πρὸς τοῖς μαστοῖςR'νῆν -ρυσ/ν%

E9% ?)) : !νδεδυκdς τὸν ποδ>ρ% καὶ !R'σμ9νος τ7 RVν6τ#ν Kσφν αὐτοῦ% Cf% $an% )K; !νδεδυμ9νος B)σσινα καὶτ#ν Kσφν περιεR'σμ9νος BυσσίνM%

))8 α+ τρί-ες λευκαὶ fς ;ριονλευκόν< fς -ιVν), καὶ ο+Kφ=αλμοὶ αὐτοῦ fς φλὸ0 πυρός >cf% 1), )?)1@%

$an% B? τὸ τρί-'μα τῆς κεφαλῆς αὐτοῦ fσεὶ ;ριον λευκὸνκα=αρόν i=J =ρὶ0 τ. κ. α. fσεὶ ;ριον κα=αρόνj) )K< ο+Kφ=αλμοὶ αὐτοῦ fσεὶ λαμπ&δες πυρός%

1 See Introduction to the O. T. in "ree# , p. %1 ff.

2 οJF!QQ., αJF$+la, =JF'eooton, σJFS*55ac'+s, ο+ F ο+ λοιποί. 'ere t'e

8erson s not specfe t s t'at of t'e !QQ.

)); >)81, )?<@ φ'ν# αὐτοῦfς φ'ν# "δ&τ'ν πολλ$ν%

E9% )18 fς φ'ν#ν `δατος πολλοῦ 861 fς φ'ν#

διπλασιαRόντ'ν >: OBρ. καὶ : P)ρος< "δ&τ'νR+%T% /97$ @πολλ$ν% Cf% $an% )K< φ'ν# λαλι/ς αὐτοῦ fσεὶ φ'ν#=ορ)Bου i=J ὄ-λουj%

))<a >1)1@ !κ τοῦ στόματος

αὐτοῦ Aομφαία δίστομος K0εῖα%

Isa% 8?1 ;=%κεν τὸ στόμα μου fς μ&-αιραν K0εῖαν%

))cf% )K)@ fς : qλιος φαίνει!ν τ7 δυν&μει αὐτοῦ%

5ud% ;6) >@ fς ;0οδος λίου !ν δυν&μει αὐτοῦ%

))Ba ;πεσα πρὸς τος πόδαςαὐτοῦ< καὶ ;=%κεν ... λ9γ'ν m#φοBοῦ%

$an% )K?, )K)1 ?μ%ν πεπτ'κdς ... καὶ *δο -εῖραπροσ>γαγ9 μοι ... καὶ ε5πεν πρὸς μ9 m# φοBοῦ%

))B b >1, 11)6@ !γV ε*μι :πρ$τος καὶ : ;σ-ατος%

Isa% 88< !γd πρ$τος καὶ !γd μετὰ ταῦτα > :3 ")* $8)1

!γV ε*μι πρ$τος καὶ !γV ε*μι ε*ς τὸν α*$να >:3 ")* $ ο+λοιποί< ;σ-ατος@%

)) ><, 1K)6 f%@ τοῦ =αν&του

καὶ τοῦ ™δου%

Hos% )6)8 !κ -ειρὸς ™δου A)σομαι καὶ !κ =αν&του

λυτρVσομαι αὐτο)ς} τοῦ δίκ% σου< =&νατε{ ποῦ τὸ κ9ντρονσου< ™δ%4

))? o μ9λλει γίνεσ=αι μετὰταῦτα%

Isa% 8< o μ9λλει γίνεσ=αι%

)1K τὸ μυστ>ριον% $an% 11? ,νακαλ)πτ'ν μυστ>ρια !δ>λ'σ9 σοι o δεῖ γεν9σ=αι%

1B >111, 11)8, 11)?@ !κ τοῦ0)λου τῆς R'ῆς< G !στιν !ν τIπαραδείσM τοῦ =εοῦ%

-en% 1? τὸ 0)λον τῆς R'ῆς !ν μ9σM τI παραδείσM >cf% 611 f%, E9% 6)@%

1)K ;-%τε =λί2ιν μερ$ν δ9κα% $an% )% >)1@, ))8 !πείρασεν αὐτος μ9ρας δ9κα%

1)8 !δίδασκεν ... φαγεῖνε*δ'λό=υτα καὶ πορνεῦσαι >cf%11K@%

Num% 1;) f% !BεB%λV=% : λαὸς !κπορνεῦσαι ... καὶ ;φαγεν :λαὸς τ$ν =υσι$ν αὐτ$ν cf% 6))< τοῖς υ+οῖς 3σρα>λ%

1)Ba δVσ' αὐτI τοῦ μ&ννα% Ps% BB% >B%@ 18 ;Bρε0εν αὐτοῖς μ&ννα φαγεῖν< καὶ @ρτοναὐρανοῦ ;δ'κεν αὐτοῖς%

1)B b >6)1@ ὄνομα καινόν% Isa% 811 τὸ ὄνομα τὸ καινόν >cf% 8;);@%

11K τ#ν γυναῖκα 3εR&Bελ% 6 'egn% 1K% >1)%@ 1; 3εR&Bελ γυν# αὐτοῦ%

116a !γV ε*μι : !ραυν$ννεφρος καὶ καρδίας%

5er% )B)K !γd F)ριος !τ&R'ν καρδίας καὶ δοκιμ&R'ννεφρο)ς >cf% ))1K%, 1K)1 Ps% B)K, 1;% >1<%@ 1@%

116 b >11)1@ δVσ' "μῖν Nκ&στMκατὰ τὰ ;ργα "μ$ν%

Ps% <)% ><1%@ )6 ,ποδVσεις Nκ&στM κατὰ τὰ ;ργα αὐτοῦ%

11< >)1;, )?);@ δVσ' αὐτI!0ουσίαν !πὶ τ$ν !=ν$ν< καὶποιμανεῖ αὐτος !ν A&BδMσιδ%ρŠ< fς τὰ σκε)% τὰ κεραμικὰσυντρίBεται%

Ps% 1 f% δVσ' σοι ;=ν% τ#ν κλ%ρονομίαν σου} ποιμανεῖςαὐτος !ν A&BδM σιδ%ρŠ< fς σκεῦος κεραμ9'ς συντρί2ειςαὐτο)ς%

6; >)6, )B, 1K)1, 1K);,1)1B@ οὐ μ# !0αλεί2' τὸ ὄνομααὐτοῦ !κ τῆς BίBλου τῆς R'ῆς%

E3% 6161 f% !0&λει2όν με !κ τῆς BίBλου σου ς ;γρα2ας Isa%86 ο+ γραφ9ντες ε*ς R'>ν >cf% Ps% )6% >)6?%@ )<, +al% 6)<,$an% )1)@%

6B : ;-'ν τ#ν κλεῖν Dαυείδ< :,νοίγ'ν καὶ οὐδεὶς κλείσει< καὶ

Isa% 1111 >@ δVσ' τ#ν δό0αν i& =J κλεῖδαj Dαυεὶδ αὐτI<καὶ @ρ0ει καὶ οὐκ ;σται : ,ντιλ9γ'ν iαJ =J ,νοί0ει καὶ οὐκ ;.

1 /ot' !QQ. an '. 'a8e fσεὶ -ιόνα i-ιVνj L+st efore, n reference to t'e

clot'n3.

κλείει καὶ οὐδεὶς ,νοί0ει% : ,ποκλεί'νj< καὶ κλείσει καὶ οὐκ ;σται : ,νοίγ'ν%

6?a q0ουσιν καὶπροσκυν>σουσιν !νVπιον τ$νποδ$ν σου%

Isa% 8;)8 διαB>σονται πρὸς σC καὶ προσκυν>σουσίν σοι >cf%8?16, <K)8@%

6? b !γd _γ&π%σ& σε% Isa% 868 !γV σε _γ&π%σα%

6)1a τὸ ὄνομα τῆς πόλε'ς% E9% 86; τὸ ὄνομα τῆς πόλε'ς%6)8 b ,ρ-# τῆς κτίσε'ς τοῦ=εοῦ%

Prov% 11 F)ριος ;κτισ9ν με ,ρ-#ν :δ$ν αὐτοῦ ε*ς τὰ ;ργααὐτοῦ%

6)B λ9γεις Gτι Eλο)σιός ε*μι καὶπεπλο)τ%κα%

Hos% )1 ε5πεν Oφραίμ Eλ#ν πεπλο)τ%κα >cf% 4ec#% )1;@%

6)? !γd Gσους !ὰν φιλ$ !λ9γ-'καὶ παιδε)'%

Prov% 6)1 uν γὰρ ,γαπŠ F)ριος !λ9γ-ει > A, παιδε)ει@,μαστιγοῖ iο+ λοιποί< !λ9γ-ειj δC π&ντα υ+ὸν uν παραδ9-εται%

61K *δο Xστ%κα !πὶ τ#ν =)ρανκαὶ κρο)'} !&ν τις ... ,νοί06 τ#ν=)ραν ...

Cant% ;1 κρο)ει !πὶ τ#ν =)ραν ‡νοι0όν μοι%

8) φ'ν# ... fς σ&λπιγγος% E3% )?)< φ'ν# τῆς σ&λπιγγος%81 *δο =ρόνος ;κειτο !ν τIοὐρανI καὶ !πὶ τὸν =ρόνονκα=>μενος%

6 'egn% 11)? ε5δον =εὸν 3σρα#λ κα=>μενον !πὶ =ρόνοναὐτοῦ >cf% Isa% <), Ps% 8<% >8B%@ ?@%

86 5ρις κυκλό=εν τοῦ =ρόνου% E9% )1 fς Gρασις τό0ου ... ο`τ'ς ... κυκλό=εν%

8; >cf% ;, )));, )))?, )<)@!κ τοῦ =ρόνου !κπορε)ονται,στραπαὶ καὶ φ'ναὶ καὶ Bρονταί%

E3% )?)< !γίνοντο φ'ναὶ καὶ ,στραπαί% E9% ))6 !κ τοῦπυρὸς !0επορε)ετο ,στραπ>%

8<a >cf% );1@ =&λασσα ... :μοίακρυστ&λλM%

E9% )11 :μοί'μα ... fσεὶ στερ9'μα< fς Gρασις κρυστ&λλου%

8cf% @%

E9% ); !ν τI μ9σM fς :μοί'μα τεσσ&ρ'ν R—'ν, ib! ) ο+

ν$τοι αὐτ$ν πλ>ρεις Kφ=αλμ$ν κυκλό=εν τοῖς τ9σσαρσιν%

8B Gμοιον λ9οντι ... μόσ-M ... τὸπρόσ'πον fς ,ν=ρVπου ...Gμοιον ,ετI%

E9% ))K πρόσ'πον ,ν=ρVπου ... λ9οντος ... μόσ-ου ... ,ετοῦ >cf% )K)8, αJ=J@%

8a ν κα=H Xν αὐτ$ν ;-'ν ,νὰπτ9ρυγας X0%

Isa% <1 0 πτ9ρυγες τI !νὶ καὶ 0 πτ9ρυγες τI Nνί%

8 b λ9γοντες šγιος ἅγιος ἅγιοςF)ριος : =εὸς : παντοκρ&τ'ρ%

ib! 6 ;λεγον šγιος ἅγιος ἅγιος F)ριος σαBαV=%

8)K τI R$ντι ε*ς τος α*$ναςτ$ν α*Vν'ν%

$an% 86) >68@ =J τI R$ντι ε*ς τὸν α*$να >cf% <1< >1B@,)1B@%

;) !πὶ τ#ν δε0ιὰν ... BιBλίον γεγραμμ9νον ;σ'=εν καὶὄπισ=εν< κατεσ=ραγισμ9νον%

E9% 1? f% -είρ ... καὶ !ν αὐτ7 κεφαλὶς BιBλίου ... !ν αὐτ7 γεγραμμ9να ν τὰ ;μπροσ=εν καὶ τὰ Kπίσ'% Isa% 1?)) fς ο+λόγοι τοῦ BιBλίου τοῦ !σφραγισμ9νου ... οὐ δ)ναμαι,ναγν$ναι< !σφρ&γισται γ&ρ%

;; >11)<@ : λ9'ν : !κ τῆςφυλῆς 3ο)δα< AίRα Dαυείδ%

-en% 8?? σκ)μνος λ9οντος< 3ο)δα ... fς λ9'ν% Isa% ))),)))K !0ελε)σεται A&Bδος !κ τῆς AίR%ς 3εσσαί ... ;σται !ν τ7μ9ρ8 !κείν6 AίRα τοῦ 3εσσαί >cf% 5er% 16;, 4ec#% 6,<)1@%

;<a >)1, )6@ ,ρνίον ... fς!σφαγμ9νον%

E3% )1; f% ,πὸ τ$ν ,ρν$ν λ>μ2εσ=ε ... καὶ σφ&0ουσιν αὐτό >cf% Lev% ))K f%@% Isa% ;6B fς πρόBατον !πὶ σφαγ#ν ?-=%<καὶ fς ,μνός ... 5er% )))? !γd δC fς ,ρνίον iαJ σJ fς ,μνόςj

@κακον ,γόμενον τοῦ =)εσ=αι iαJ σJ ε*ς σφαγ>νj%;< b Kφ=αλμος Nπτὰ ... ε*ς 4ec#% 8)K Nπτὰ ο^τοι Kφ=αλμοί ε*σιν ο+ !πιBλ9ποντες !πὶ

π/σαν τ#ν γῆν% π/σαν τ#ν γῆν%

; >6 b@ =υμιαμ&τ'ν αs ε*σιν α+προσευ-αί%

Ps% )8K% >)8)%@ 1 προσευ-% μου fς =υμίαμα%

;? >)86@ ”δουσιν Iδ#ν καιν>ν% Ps% )86% >)88%@ ? δ#ν καιν#ν ”σομαί σοι%;)) μυρι&δες μυρι&δ'ν καὶ

-ιλι&δες -ιλι&δ'ν%

$an% B)K -ίλιαι -ιλι&δες ... καὶ μ)ριαι μυρι&δες%

<1 ff% sππος λευκός ... πυρρός ...μ9λας ... -λ'ρός%

4ec#% ) sπποι πυρροὶ καὶ 2αροὶ καὶ ποικίλοι καὶ λευκοί% <1ff% sπποι πυρροί ... μ9λανες ... λευκοί ... ποικίλοι 2αροί%

< ,ποκτεῖναι !ν Aομφαί8 ... !νλιμI ... !ν =αν&τM ... "πὸ τ$ν=%ρί'ν%

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Isa% 8?1< πίονται ... τὸ α]μα αὐτ$ν%

)))?%@ )6B δίκαιος ε5< F)ριε} ακὶ αὐ=#ς κρίσις σου%

)<)K !γ9νετο Bασιλεία αὐτοῦ!σκοτ'μ9ν%%

E3% )K1) γεν%=>τ' σκότος !πὶ γῆν *γ)πτον%

)<)1 !0%ρ&ν=% τὸ `δ'ρ αὐτοῦ% Isa% 881B τος ποταμο)ς σου 0%ραν$% 5er% 1B% >;K@ 6 >Heb%He3%@%

)<)6 fς B&τρα-οι% E3% 6 >B1@ !-ερε)0εται : ποταμὸς Bατρ&-ους%

)<)< ε*ς τὸν τόπον τὸνκαλο)μενον OBραkστὶ ’ρmαγεδVν%

4ec#% )1)) !ν πεδίM !κκοπτομ9νου >v!l! mαγεδδVν@%

)<) ο]ος οὐκ !γ9νετο ,φH ο^@ν=ρ'πος !γ9νετο !πὶ τῆς γῆς%

$an% )1) οsα οὐκ !γεν>=% ,φH ο^ !γεν>=%σαν >=J γεγ9ν%ται;=νος !ν τ7 γ7 >v!l! !πὶ τῆς γῆς@@%

)B) τῆς κα=%μ9ν%ς !πὶ "δ&τ'νπολλ$ν%

5er% 1% >;)@ )6 κατασκ%νοῦντας >tνοῦσα G@ !φH ̀ δασιπολλοῖς%

)B1 με=H ς !πόρνευσαν ο+Bασιλεῖς τῆς γῆς< καὶ!με=)σ=%σαν ... !κ τοῦ οbνου τῆςπορνείας αὐτῆς%

Isa% 16)B ;σται !μπόριον >.4& 08 >&@ π&σαις ταῖς Bασιλείαιςτῆς ο*κουμ9ν%ς% 5er% 1% >;)@ B με=)σκον π/σαν τ#ν γῆν%

)B)8 >)?)<@ κ)ριος κυρί'ν!στὶν καὶ Bασιλες Bασιλ9'ν%

$eut% )K)B =εὸς τ$ν =ε$ν καὶ κ)ριος τ$ν κυρί'ν% $an%18B =εὸς τ$ν =ε$ν καὶ κ)ριος τ$ν Bασιλ9'ν >cf% 868@%

)1 κατοικ%τ>ριον δαιμονί'νκτλ.

Isa% )61) f% ,ναπα)σονται !κεῖ σειρῆνες< καὶ δαιμόνια !κεῖKρ->σονται< καὶ Kνοκ9νταυροι !κεῖ κατοικ>σουσιν >cf%68)8@% 5er% ?)) κατοικ%τ>ριον δρακόντ'ν%

)8 !09λ=ατε< : λαός μου< !0αὐτῆς%

5er% 1% >;)@ 8; =J i¢j !09λ=ετε !κ μ9σου αὐτῆς< λαός μου%

)< ,πόδοτε αὐτ7 fς καὶ αὐτ#,π9δ'κεν%

Ps% )6<% >)6B%@ μακ&ριος Gς ,νταποδVσει σοι τὸ,νταπόδομ& σου G ,νταπ9δ'κας μῖν >cf% 5er% 1B% >;K@ 1?@%

)B !ν τ7 καρδί8 αὐτῆς λ9γειF&=%μαι Bασίλισσα< καὶ ->ραοὐκ ε*μί%

Isa% 8BB f% ε5πας a*ς τὸν α*$να ;σομαι @ρ-ουσα ... κα=%μ9ν% ... λ9γουσα !ν καρδί8 αὐτῆς ... οὐ κα=ι$ ->ρα%

) +σ-υρὸς F)ριος : =εὸς :κρίνας αὐτ>ν%

5er% 1B% >;K%@ 68 *σ-υρός< F)ριος ... κρίσιν κρινεῖ %

)?=)?% E9% 1<%, 1B% passim%)1) λί=ον ... ;Bαλεν ... λ9γ'ν–`τ'ς ... Bλ%=>σεται gαBυλV ...καὶ οὐ μ# ε"ρε=7 ;τι%

5er% 1% >;)%@ <6 f% λι=ον ... Aί2εις ... καὶ !ρεῖς ο`τ'ςκαταδ)σεται gαBυλVν ... καὶ οὐ μ# ,ναστ7%

)11 φ'ν# ... μουσικ$ν οὐ μ#,κουσ=7 !ν σοὶ ;τι%

E9% 1<)6 τ$ν μουσικ$ν σου ... φ'ν# οὐ μ# ,κουσ=7 ;τι%

)16a φ'ν# μ)λου ... φ$ςλ)-νου ... φ'ν# νυμφίουκαὶν)μφ%ς%

5er% 1;)K φ'ν#ν νυμφίου καὶ φ'ν#ν ν)μφ%ς< Kσμ#ν μ)ρου

>Heb% 63 #<9)"? , LUU%, codd% S&roF#e3%, φ'ν#ν μ)λου@καὶ φ$ς λ)-νου%

)16 b ο+ ;μποροί σου σαν ο+μεγιστ/νες τῆς γῆς%

Isa% 16 ο+ ;μποροι αὐτῆς ;νδο0οι< @ρ-οντες τῆς γῆς%

)?) ff% ἁλλ%λουk&% Ps% )K8% >)K;%@, al%, tit% ἁλλ%λουk&%

)?6 : καπνὸς αὐτῆς ,ναBαίνειε*ς τος α*$νας%

Isa% 68)K ε*ς τὸν α*$να -ρόνον .. ,ναB>σεται : καπνὸςαὐτῆς @ν'%

)?< f% fς φ'ν#ν ὄ-λου ...!Bασίλευσεν F)ριος ...,γαλλι$μεν%

$an% )K< =J fς φ'ν# ὄ-λου% Ps% ?<% >?B%@ ) : κ)ριος!Bασίλευσεν< ,γαλλι&σεται γῆ%

)?)) ε5δον τὸν οὐρανὸν_νεMγμ9νον< καὶ *δο) ...%

E9% )) _νοί-=%σαν ο+ οὐρανοί< καὶ ε5δον ...%

)?)B f% ;κρα0εν ... λ9γ'ν π/σιντοῖς Kρν9οις ... Dεῦτε συν&-=%τε

ε*ς τὸ δεῖπνον τὸ μ9γα τοῦ =εοῦsνα φ&γ%τε σ&ρκας%

E9% 6?)B ε*πὸν παντὶ Kρν9M ... Pυν&-=%τε ... !πὶ τ#ν =υσίανμου ... =υσίαν μεγ&λ%ν ... καὶ φ&γεσ=ε κρ9α%

)?1) π&ντα τὰ ὄρνεα!-ορτ&σ=%σαν !κ τ$ν σαρκ$ναὐτ$ν%

ib! 1K !μπλ%σ=>σεσ=ε !πὶ τῆς τραπ9R%ς μου%

1K8 ε5δον =ρόνους καὶ !κ&=ισαν!πH αὐτο)ς< καὶ κρίμα !δό=%αὐτοῖς%

$an% B?, B11 !=εVρουν ;'ς Gτε =ρόνοι !τ9=%σαν< καὶπαλαιὸς μερ$ν !κ&=%το ... καὶ τ#ν κρίσιν i=J τὸ κρίμαj;δ'κε τοῖς ἁγίοις%

1K τὸν ldγ καὶ mαγVγ<συναγαγεῖν αὐτο)ς%

E9% 6), 68 !πὶ ldγ καὶ τ#ν γῆν τοῦ mαγVγ ... καὶ συν&0'σε%

1K? !πὶ τὸ πλ&τος τῆς γῆς% Hab% )< !πὶ τὰ πλ&τ% i< τὸ πλ&τοςj τῆς γῆς%

1K? b τ#ν _γαπ%μ9ν%ν% 5er% ))); _γαπ%μ9ν% >cf% Ps% <% >B%@ )@%1K?c κατ9B% πῦρ !κ τοῦ οὐρανοῦκαὶ κατ9φαγεν αὐτο)ς%

8 'egn% ))K κατ9B% πῦρ !κ τοῦ οὐρανοῦ καὶ κατ9φαγεναὐτόν%

1K)) ο^ ,πὸ τοῦ προσVπου;φυγεν γῆ< καὶ τόπος οὐ-ε"ρ9=% αὐτοῖς%

Ps% ))6% >))8%@ 6, B =&λασσα ε5δεν καὶ ;φυγεν ... ,πὸπροσVπου Fυρίου !σαλε)=% γῆ% $an% 16; =J καὶ τόπος οὐ-ε"ρ9=% αὐτοῖς%

1K)1 BιBλία _νοί-=%σαν% $an% B)K BίBλοι _νε—-=%σαν%

1K); εb τις οὐ- ε"ρ9=% !ν τ7BιBλM τῆς R'ῆς γεγραμμ9νος%

$an% )1) uς @ν ε"ρε=7 !γγεγραμμ9νος !ν τI BιBλίM i=J γεγρ. !ν τ7 BίBλMj >cf% Ps% <% ><?%@ 1?@%

1)) οὐρανὸν καινὸν καὶ γῆνκαιν>ν%

Isa% <;)B ;σται γὰρ : οὐρανὸς καινὸς καὶ γῆ καιν> ><<11@%

1)1a τ#ν πόλιν τ#ν ἁγίαν3ερουσαλ>μ%

Isa% ;1) 3ερουσαλ>μ< πόλις ἁγία%

1)1 b fς ν)μφ%ν κεκοσμ%μ9ν%ντI ,νδρὶ αὐτῆς%

Isa% <))K fς ν)μφ%ν κατεκόσμ%σ9ν με%

1)6 σκ%ν# τοῦ =εοῦ μετὰ τ$ν,ν=ρVπ'ν< καὶ σκ%νVσει μετHαὐτ$ν< καὶ αὐτοὶ λαοὶ αὐτοῦ

;σονται%

E9% 6B1B ;σται κατασκ>ν'σίς μου !ν αὐτοῖς< καὶ ;σομαιαὐτοῖς =εός< καὶ αὐτοί μου ;σονται λαός >cf% 4ec#% 1)K >)8@@%

1); *δο καινὰ ποι$ π&ντα% Isa% 86)? *δο !γd ποι$ καιν&%

1)< τI δι2$ντι δVσ' ...δ'ρε&ν%

Isa% ;;) ο+ δι2$ντες< πορε)εσ=ε !φH `δ'ρ ... @νευ ,ργυρίουκαὶ τιμῆς%

1)B ;σομαι αὐτI =εός< καὶαὐτὸς ;σται μοι υ+ός%

1 'egn% B)8 !γd ;σομαι αὐτI ε*ς πατ9ρα< καὶ αὐτὸς ;σταιμοι ε*ς υ+όν >cf% Ps% % >?%@ 1? f%@%

1))K ,π>νεγκ9ν με !ν πνε)ματι!πὶ ὄρος ... "2%λόν%

E9% 8K) f% ?γαγ9ν με !ν :ρ&σει =εοῦ ... !πH ὄρος υ2%λόν%

1))) ;-ουσαν τ#ν δό0αν τοῦ=εοῦ%

Isa% ; δό0α τοῦ =εοῦ περιστελεῖ σε >cf% <K) f%@%

1))1 f% ;-ουσα πυλ$νας ... ,πὸ

,νατολῆς ... ,πὸ Bορρ/ ... ,πὸνότου ... ,πὸ δυσμ$ν%

E9% 86) ff% π)λαι πρὸς Bορρ/ν ... τὰ πρὸς ,νατολ&ς ... τὰ

πρὸς νότον ... τὰ πρὸς =&λασσαν%

1))< τετρ&γ'νος κεῖται% E9% 86)< τετρ&γ'νον !πὶ τὰ τ9σσερα μ9ρ% αὐτοῦ%

1)) !νδVμ%σις τοῦ τεί-ουςαὐτῆς bασπις%

Isa% ;8)1 =>σ' τὰς !π&λ0εις σου bασπιν%

1))? : =εμ9λιος ... : δε)τεροςσ&πφειρος%

ib! )) Nτοιμ&0' ... τὰ =εμ9λι& σου σ&πφειρον

1)16 >11;@ πόλις οὐ -ρείαν;-ει τοῦ λίου οὐδC τῆς σελ>ν%ςκτλ.

Isa% <K)? οὐκ ;σται σοι ;τι : Uλιος ε*ς φ$ς κτλ.

1)18 >1<@ περιπατ>σουσιν τὰ;=ν% διὰ τοῦ φ'τὸς αὐτῆς< καὶ ο+Bασιλεῖς τῆς γῆς φ9ρουσιν τ#νδό0αν αὐτ$ν ε*ς αιHτ>ν%

Isa% <K6 πορε)σονται Bασιλεῖς τI φ'τί σου καὶ ;=ν% τ7λαμπρότ%τί σου >cf% )) b@% Ps% B)% >B1%@ )K Bασιλεῖς ... δ$ραπροσοίσουσιν%

1)1; ο+ πυλ$νες αὐτῆς οὐ μ#κλεισ=$σιν μ9ρας} ν0 γὰρ οὐκ;σται !κεῖ %

Isa% <K)) ,νοι-=>σονται α+ π)λαι σου διὰ παντός< μ9ραςκαὶ νυκτὸς ο" κλεισ=>σονται%

1)1B οὐ μ# ε*σ9λ=6 ε*ς αὐτ#νπ/ν κοινόν%

Isa% ;1) οὐκ9τι προστε=>σεται διελ=εῖν διὰ σοῦ ...,κ&=αρτος%

11) ποταμὸν ... !κπορευόμενον!κ τοῦ =ρόνου%

E9% 8B) *δο vδ'ρ !0επορε)ετο "ποκ&τ'=εν τοῦ α*=ρίου%

111 !ντεῦ=εν καὶ !κεῖ=εν 0)λονR'ῆς ποιοῦν καρπος δVδεκα<κατὰ μῆνα Xκαστον ... καὶ τὰφ)λλα τοῦ 0)λου ε*ς =εραπείαντ$ν !=ν$ν%

E9% 8B)1 ;ν=εν καὶ ;ν=εν π/ν 0)λον BρVσιμον ... οὐδC μ#!κλίπ6 : καρπὸς αὐτοῦ ... καὶ ,ν&Bασις > ! .6? +& LUU%, al!

lect! ,ν&δοσις@ αὐτ$ν ε*ς "γίειαν%

116 π/ν κατ&=εμα οὐκ ;σται ;τι% 4ec#% )8)) ,ν&=εμα οὐκ ;σται ;τι%118 ὄ2ονται τὸ πρόσ'ποναὐτοῦ%

Ps% )<% >)B%@ ); Kφ=>σομαι τI προσVπM σου%

11; Bασιλε)σουσιν ε*ς τοςα*$νας τ$ν α*Vν'ν%

$an% B) κα=90ουσι τ#ν Bασιλείαν ;'στοῦ α*$νοςτ$να*Vν'ν%

11)6 : μισ=ός μου μετH !μοῦ% Isa% 8K)K : μισ=ὸς αὐτοῦ μετH αὐτοῦ%

11) f% !&ν τις !πι=7 !πH αὐτ&<!πι=>σει : =εός ... καὶ !&ν τις

$eut% 81 ο" προσ=>σεσ=ε πρὸς τὸ Aῆμα ... καὶ οὐκ ,φελεῖτε,πH αὐτοῦ >)161R)6)@%

,φ9λ6 ... ,φελεῖ ...11)? τ$ν γεγραμμ9ν'ν !ν τIBιBλίM το)τM%

$eut% 1?1K >)?@ α+ γεγραμμ9ναι !ν τI BιBλίM το)τM%

1% An e3amination of t#is table brings to lig#t some instructive facts% >a@ T#e *riter

of t#e A!ocal&!se refers to eac# of t#e t#ree great divisions of t#e Hebre* canon, and to

most of t#e boo2s% He la&s under contribution eac# of t#e boo2s of t#e La*, t#e oo2 of

5udges, t#e four oo2s of ingdoms, t#e Psalms, t#e Proverbs, t#e Song, t#e oo2 of

5ob, all t#e maor and seven of t#e minor Pro!#ets% ut t#ere are certain boo2s *#ic# #e

uses *it# es!ecial fre"uenc& more t#an #alf #is references to t#e Old Testament belong

to t#e Psalms, t#e !ro!#ecies of Isaia# and E9e2iel, and t#e oo2 of $aniel, and in

!ro!ortion to its lengt# t#e oo2 of $aniel &ields b& far t#e greatest number )% T#e

!re!onderance of t#ese four boo2s is easil& e3!lained t#e& are t#ose *#ic# most

abound in m&stical and a!ocal&!tic elements% >b@ T#e references are of t*o 2inds% One,

*#ic# is to be found in ever& !age of t#e A!ocal&!se, consists of Old Testament *ords

and !#rases, used *it# no s!ecial allusion to !articular conte3ts% If -O$ is fre"uentl&described as e that sitteth on the throne, and t#e saints as they which are written in the

book of life, *#ile t#e 'oman Em!erors or t#eir vassals are the kings of the earth, and

t#e !agan in#abitants of t#e Em!ire they that dwell on the earth, t#e recurrence of t#ese

and similar terms is sufficientl& e3!lained b& t#e *riter7s lifelong familiarit& *it# Old

Testament language% ut t#ere are ot#er references in *#ic# it is clear t#at #e #as in

vie* certain boo2s and !assages, and is !racticall& "uoting from t#em, alt#oug# no

formula of "uotation is used% T#ese occur c#iefl& in t#e visions of t#e A!ocal&!se,

*#ic# are based in almost ever& case on t#e #istories or t#e !ro!#ecies of t#e Old

Testament% T#us t#e vision of t#e -lorified C#rist *al2ing in t#e midst of t#e C#urc#es>))6=)<@ rests on E9e2iel and $aniel t#e vision of t#e Court of Heaven >81=@ on

Isaia# and E9e2iel and 4ec#aria# t#e four #orses of c% <% are from 4ec#aria# Isaia#

su!!lies muc# of t#e descri!tion of t#e bliss of t#e redeemed in c% B% t#e vision of t#e

seven last !lagues in c% )<% is suggested b& t#e Plagues of E3odus, and t#e dirge of

ab&lon t#e -reat b& t#e doom !ronounced u!on T&re and t#e older ab&lon t#e

vision of t#e Ne* 5erusalem is ins!ired b& t#e !atriotic #o!es of Isaia# and E9e2iel% >c@

In man& cases, indeed in most, t#e A!ocal&!tist blends t*o or more Old Testament

conte3ts, *#et#er from different boo2s or from different !arts of t#e same boo2% T#e

result #as been described as a mosaic,7 but t#e *ord is not altoget#er a!t as an

illustration of #is met#od% It suggests t#e *or2 of a cunning artist *#o #as formed a

design out of t#e fragments *#ic# *ere at #is dis!osal% ut t#e A!ocal&!tist7s use of #is

Old Testament materials is artless and natural it is t#e *or2 of a memor& *#ic# is so

c#arged *it# Old Testament *ords and t#oug#ts t#at t#e& arrange t#emselves in #is

visions li2e t#e c#anging !atterns of a 2aleidosco!e, *it#out conscious effort on #is

o*n !art% >d @ T#ere is not a single instance in *#ic# t#e C#ristian !ro!#et of t#e

A!ocal&!se #as contented #imself *it# a mere com!ilation or combination of Old

1 'e n+5ers n o+r lst are: Psal5s, 27; saa', 46; Eekel, 29; anel, 1;

after t'ese co5e eness, Eo+s, e+terono5*, #ere5a', #oel, an

Aec'ara'. See, 'o-e8er, p. 49; an cf. p. 1".

Testament ideas% His #andling of t#ese materials is al*a&s original and inde!endent,

and #e does not allo* #is Old Testament aut#or to carr& #im a ste! be&ond t#e !oint at

*#ic# t#e guidance ceases to lend itself to t#e !ur!ose of #is boo2% T#us in t#e first

vision of t#e A!ocal&!se, *#ile nearl& ever& feature is dra*n from E9e2iel or $aniel,

and t#e *ords Gμοιον υ+ὸν ,ν=ρVπου !oint be&ond doubt to a direct use of t#e latter boo2, t#e conce!tion of t#e -lorified C#rist as a *#ole #as no !arallel in t#e Old

Testament% If t#e vision of c% 8% o*es muc# to Isaia#, E9e2iel and 4ec#aria#, no mere

com!iler could #ave !roduced it and t#e same ma& be said *it# absolute conviction of

ever& ot#er vision t#roug#out t#e boo2% T#oug# in constant relation to t#e older

a!ocal&!tic, St 5o#n7s !ictures of t#e unseen and t#e future are trul& creations, t#e *or2

of t#e S!irit of !ro!#ec& u!on a mind full of t#e lore of t#e earlier revelation and &et

free to carr& its reminiscences into ne* and *ider fields of s!iritual illumination%

6% An ins!ection of t#e table furt#er s#e*s t#at t#e A!ocal&!tist generall& availed

#imself of t#e Ale3andrian version of t#e Old Testament% T#e familiar !#raseolog& of

t#e LUU% meets us ever&*#ere, and #ere and t#ere *e observe its !eculiar renderingse%g% in )))B ˆργίσ=%σαν is a scarcel& doubtful recollection of t#e LUU% KργιR9σ='σαν

>Heb% ! >@!8"8 9, A"% κλονείσ='σαν, S&mm% φοBείσ='σαν@% On t#e ot#er #and man& of

t#e references de!art *idel& from t#e LUU% in !articular *ords, *#ere t#e *riter of t#e

A!ocal&!se #as eit#er rendered inde!endentl&, or #as used anot#er version, or !ossibl&a te3t of t#e LUU% different from t#at *#ic# is found in our +SS% e%g% )< Bασιλ9ίαν<+ερεῖς i=J σJj), ))B ;σ-ατος >ο+ @, 116 !ραυν$ν >cf% 'om% 1B@, 6B τ#ν κλεῖν DαυείδiαJ =Jj, B) γ'νίας, )K6 μυκ/ται, )1? πλαν$ν, )8; 2εῦδος, ); ναός i=J σJj, )11

φ'ν# μ)λου >so some +SS% of t#e LUU%@, 1))1 f% πυλ$νες, 111 !ντεῦ=εν καὶ !κεῖ=εν,

ib! τὰ φ)λλα, 116 κατ&=εμα% No* and t#en t#e A!ocal&!tist seems to ado!t aconflation of t*o versions, e%g% 6)? !λ9γ-' καὶ παιδε)', )<1 κακὸν καὶ πον%ρόν

more often #e #as broug#t toget#er readings from t*o se!arate conte3ts, as *#en in 8#e substitutes παντοκρ&τ'ρ for t#e σαBαV= of t#e -ree2 Isaia#%

T#e references in t#e A!ocal&!se to $aniel demand se!arate notice% $r Salmon

> Introduction to the !T!B, !% ;8 ff%@ calls attention to t#e affinit& bet*een t#ese

references and t#e version of T#eodotion% He finds .no clear evidence t#at St 5o#n #ad

ever seen t#e soFcalled LUU% version/ of $aniel1 if in t*o !assages >))8 f%, )?)<@, t#e

*riter ma& be t#oug#t to follo* t#e LUU% against T#eodotion, t#ere are seven >?1K,

)K<, )1B, )6B, )?<, 1K8, 1K))@ in *#ic# #e su!!orts T#eodotion against t#e LUU%T#e evidence at an& rate s#e*s t#at T#eodotion #as !reserved a considerable number of

readings *#ic# *ere current in t#e first centur&, and t#at t#e -ree2 te3t of $aniel

2no*n to t#e A!ocal&!tist came nearer to t#e T#eodotionic t#an to t#e C#igi te3t%

If it be as2ed *#et#er t#ere are traces in t#e A!ocal&!se of a direct use of t#e

Hebre* Old Testament, t#e ans*er must be t#at t#e de!artures from t#e LUU% ma&

1 &n t'e re5arkale renern3 of Aec'. 12:12 n $poc. 1:7 see t'e note n t'e

co55entar* ad loc., an cf. ess5ann, Die ,eptuaginta7papyri der

Heidelberger Papyrus7sa&&lung (Heeler3, 190"), p. 66 ff.

2 .e. t'e 8erson n t'e +n+e '3 MS.

!er#a!s in ever& instance be ot#er*ise e3!lained% ut t#e forms 1BαδδVν >?))@ and

’ρ mαγεδVν >)<)<@ seem to im!l& ac"uaintance on t#e *riter7s !art *it# Hebre* or

Aramaic, and t#is inference is su!!orted, as *e #ave seen, b& t#e st&le and manner of

#is *or2%

8% If *e acce!t t#e later date of t#e A!ocal&!se, it ma& be assumed t#at t#eC#urc#es of Asia *ere alread& in !ossession of some of t#e earlier boo2s of t#e Ne*

Testament% Certain of t#e Pauline E!istles, and if not one or more of our !resent

-os!els, some collection or collections of t#e sa&ings of t#e Lord *ere !robabl& in t#eir

#ands, and familiar to our aut#or% Suc# documents *ould not be regarded as !ossessing

canonical aut#orit&, li2e t#e *ritings of t#e Old Testament, but t#e& could not fail to

influence a C#ristian *riter *#o *as ac"uainted *it# t#em% If t#e earlier E!istle of St

Peter uses E!#esians and 'omans), and t#e contem!orar& E!istle of Clement of 'ome

refers to Hebre*s and some evangelical collection1, *e ma& reasonabl& loo2 for similar

traces of A!ostolic *ritings in t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n%

T#is e3!ectation is to some e3tent borne out b& an e3amination of t#e boo2% >a@ T#e

A!ocal&!se contains distinct reminiscences of some 2no*n sa&ings of C#rist% Per#a!st#e most remar2able instance is t#e formula : ;-'ν ο(ς ,κουσ&τ' *#ic# recurs to*ard

t#e end of eac# of t#e messages addressed b& t#e S!irit of C#rist to t#e C#urc#es% T#e

follo*ing !arallels also are fairl& certainA!oc% 66 !ὰν ο(ν μ#

γρ%γορ>σ6ς< q0' fς κλ9πτῆ<καὶ οὐ μ# γνIς ποίαν Wραν q0'!πὶ σ9%

+t% 1886 ε* £δει : ο*κοδεσπότ%ς ποί8 φυλακ7 >Lc% Wρ8@ :κλ9πτ%ς ;ρ-εται< !γρ%γόρ%σεν @ν%

A!oc% 6; :μολογ>σ' τὸ ὄνομα

αὐτοῦ !νVπιον τοῦ πατρός μουκαὶ !νVπιον τ$ν ,γγ9λ'ναὐτοῦ%

+t% )K61 :μολογ>σ' κ,γd !ν αὐτI ;μπροσ=εν τοῦ πατρός

μου >Lc ;μπροσ=εν τ$ν ,γγ9λ'ν τοῦ =εοῦ@%

A!oc% )6)K εb τις !ν μα-αίρ6,ποκτενεῖ< δεῖ αὐτὸν !νμα-αίρ6 ,ποκταν=ῆναι%

+t% 1<;1 π&ντες γὰρ ο+ λαBόντες μ&-αιραν !ν μα-αίρ6,πολοῦνται%

A!oc% 1)< !γd τI δι2$ντιδVσ' !κ τῆς π%λῆς τοῦ `δατοςτῆς R'ῆς δ'ρε&ν% 11)B :δι2$ν !ρ-9σ='} : =9λ'νλαB9τ' `δ'ρ R'ῆς δ'ρε&ν%

5o% 8)K ε* £δεις τ#ν δ'ρεὰν τοῦ =εοῦ καὶ τίς !στὶν : λ9γ'νσοι Dός μοι πεῖν< σ ƒν ?A¤Ÿ¥„τ%σας αὐτόν< καὶ ;δ'κεν @ν σοι`δ'ρ R$ν% B6B !&ν τις δι2Š< !ρ-9σ=' πρὸς μ9< καὶ πιν9τ'%

T#ere is also in t#e A!ocal&!se a considerable number of !robable allusions to t#eteac#ing of C#rist, suc# as 1)B δVσ' αὐτI τοῦ μ&ννα, 6)8 : ,μ>ν, 6)B ε5 ... τυφλός

>in an et#ical sense@, 61) !νίκ%σα >cf% ;;@, )1)K !0ουσία τοῦ -ριστοῦ αὐτοῦ, )8)1

"πομον# τ$ν ἁγί'ν, )B)8 κλ%τοὶ καὶ !κλεκτοί, )?? ο+ ε*ς τὸ δεῖπνον τοῦ γ&μουτοῦ ,ρνίου κεκλ%μ9νοι%

>b@ T#ere are no suc# close !arallels bet*een t#e A!ocal&!se and t#e A!ostolic

E!istles), &et t#ere is muc# in t#e A!ocal&!se *#ic# suggests t#at its *riter *as

1 See Hort, 0o&ans and Ephesians, p. 16% f.

2 . T. in the Apostolic !athers, pp. %, 46, 61 f.

ac"uainted *it# some of t#em% is#o! Lig#tfoot #as !ointed out1 t#at .t#e message

communicated b& St 5o#n to Laodicea !rolongs t#e note *#ic# *as struc2 b& St Paul in

t#e letter to Colossae%/ Here and t#ere even t#e !#raseolog& of t#e boo2 reminds us oft#e Pauline letters to Asian C#urc#es t#us A!oc% ); : πρ'τότοκος τ$ν νεκρ$ν recalls

Col% )) πρ'τότοκος !κ τ$ν νεκρ$ν, and A!oc% 6)8 ,ρ-# τῆς κτίσε'ς τοῦ =εοῦ #asaffinities *it# Col% )); πρ'τότοκος π&σ%ς κτίσε'ς κτλ. *#ile ec#oes of E!#% 1)? ff%

συνπολῖται τ$ν ἁγί'ν ... !ποικοδομ%=9ντες !πὶ τI =εμελίM τ$ν ,ποστόλ'ν καὶπροφ>τ'ν ...... ε*ς ἅγιον ναὸν !ν FυρίM ma& be #eard b& t#ose *#o #ave an ear7 in

A!oc% 6)1, 1))8% Points of contact #ave also been found bet*een t#e A!ocal&!se and

t#e E!istle of 5ames) and t#e first E!istle of Peter 1, and it #as occasional resemblances

to t#e E!istle to t#e Hebre*s6% Yet on t#e *#ole, e3ce!t in t#e case of our Lord7s

sa&ings, *#ic# ma& or ma& not #ave been 2no*n to #im in a *ritten form, t#ere is no

convincing evidence t#at our aut#or *as indebted to t#e C#ristian *riters *#o !receded

#im%

;% Can a better case be made out for t#e A!ocal&!tist7s use of nonFcanonical 5e*is#

*ritings $r C#arles !ronounces t#e .*riter or *riters/ of t#e A!ocal&!se to be

.stee!ed in 5e*is# a!ocal&!tic literature%/ T#e details ma& be seen in #is editions of

Enoc# and ot#er 5e*is# a!ocal&!ses, and most of t#em are briefl& enumerated in c! 1 of

t#is introduction8 and "uoted in t#e commentar&, *#ere t#e !arallels occur% Here it is

enoug# to sa& t#at *#ile t#e& s#e* t#e *riter of t#e C#ristian A!ocal&!se to #ave been

familiar *it# t#e a!ocal&!tic ideas of #is age, t#e& afford little or no clear evidence of

#is de!endence on 5e*is# sources ot#er t#an t#e boo2s of t#e Old Testament% Certainl&

#e does not use t#ese sources *it# an&t#ing li2e t#e distinctness *it# *#ic# #e refers to

Isaia#, E9e2iel, or $aniel, or to sa&ings of C#rist *#ic# are in our !resent -os!els% T#emost t#at can be safel& affirmed is t#at #e s#ared *it# t#e 5e*is# s!ocal&!tists t#e stoc2

of a!ocal&!tic imager& and m&stical and esc#atological t#oug#t *#ic# *as t#e common

!ro!ert& of an age nurtured in t#e Old Testament and #ard !ressed b& t#e troubles and

dangers of t#e times%

T#is consideration does not encourage t#e vie* *#ic# regards t#e A!ocal&!se of

5o#n as a com!osite *or2 largel& made u! of e3tracts from un2no*n nonFC#ristian

1 'e sa*n3 n $poc. 2:14 οὐ B&λλ' !φH "μ/ς @λλο B&ρος 'as proal* een

s+33este * t'e letter of t'e co+ncl of $postles an elers 'el at #er+sale5;

cf. $cts 1":2% ;δο0εν γὰρ τI πνε)ματι τI ἁγίM καὶ μῖν μ%δCν πλ9ον !πιτί=εσ=αι

"μῖν B&ρος πλ#ν κτλ.

2 Colossians, p. 41 ff.

1 Ma*or, ,t -a&es, p. 102.

2 /33, 1 Peter , p. 22. He as 'o-e8er: 'ere s not'n3 to s'o- t'at t'e one

ook -as kno-n to t'e a+t'or of t'e ot'er.<

f. e.3. $poc. 21. -t' He. 12:22.

4 pp. 21 ff.

a!ocal&!ses% If it cannot be s#e*n t#at t#e aut#or availed #imself to an& e3tent of

sources still e3tant, including t#e *ellF2no*n oo2 of Enoc#, it is certainl& !recarious

to build t#eories u!on t#e #&!ot#esis t#at #e *as indebted to lost *or2s of *#ic# not a

trace remains%

)8% $OCT'INE)% No one *#o comes to t#e A!ocal&!se fres# from t#e stud& of t#e -os!els and

E!istles can fail to recogni9e t#at #e #as !assed into anot#er atmos!#ere% T#e great

obects of fait# are t#e same, but t#e& are seen in ne* lig#ts, and t#e general im!ression

differs from t#at *#ic# is left on t#e mind b& t#e teac#ing of our Lord or of St Paul% Nor

is it onl& in t#e region of esc#atolog& t#at t#e boo2 ta2es its o*n course its vie*s of t#e

Person of C#rist, of t#e Hol& S!irit, of 'edem!tion, and of t#e C#urc#, are its o*n

even its doctrine of -od #as no e3act !arallel in t#e rest of t#e Ne* Testament%

1% T#e A!ocal&!se ta2es its stand on a monot#eism *#ic# is 5e*is# in t#e s#ar!ness

of its o!!osition to !ol&t#eistic s&stems of ever& 2ind% Its -od is t#e -od of t#e OldTestament, t#e I am of E3odus, t#e oly, oly, oly of Isaia#, t#e 0ord -od of E9e2iel,

t#e -od of heaven of $aniel)% T#e *riter ado!ts t#e titles *#ic# t#e -ree2 translatorsfound to e3!ress t#e glories of t#e -od of Israel -od is : ˜ν< : R$ν< : παντοκρ&τ'ρ

He is ἅγιος< Gσιος< ,λ%=ινός< *σ-υρός< : πρ$τος καὶ : ;σ-ατος1, *#ile later 5e*is# use

contributes a designation for His uni"ue eternit& He is the (lpha and the 6mega, the

&eginning and the "nd 6% T#e -od of t#e C#urc# is t#e Su!reme ing 0#ose T#rone is

in #eaven, t#e +aster and Lord of all8 He is t#e Creator of eart# and sea and s2&, and of

all t#at is in t#em), t#e 5udge of man2ind, t#e Avenger of t#e *rongs t#at are done on

t#e eart#, to be feared and *ors#i!!ed b& all1% ut of His love no e3!ress mention is

made, alt#oug# t#ere is fre"uent reference to His *rat#6% He is no*#ere re!resented as

t#e Dat#er of men, even of t#e rig#teous His rig#teousness and trut# are magnified, but

t#ere is no !ro!ortionate e3#ibition of His goodness and beneficence% T#e !icture

ins!ires a*e, but it *ants t#e magnetic !o*er of our Lord7s doctrine of t#e $ivine

Dat#er#ood% In fact it serves anot#er !ur!ose% Li2e t#e solemn descri!tions of -od#ead

in t#e Hebre* Pro!#ets, it is an ans*er to t#e inanities of #eat#enism rat#er t#an a call

to fello*s#i! *it# t#e Living -od% A revelation of t#e .severit& of -od/ *as needed b&

C#urc#es *#ic# *ere #ard !ressed b& t#e la3it& of !agan life and t#e claims to $ivine

#onours made b& t#e masters of t#e Em!ire% T#e A!ocal&!tist meets t#e immoralities

and blas!#emies of #eat#endom b& a fres# setting fort# of t#e maest& of t#e One -odand a restatement of His sole rig#t to t#e *ors#i! of men% T#us #e re!resents a vie* of

1 1:4; 4:%; 1:%, 22:"; 11:1, 16:11.

2 1:4, 4:9 f.; 1:%, 6:10, 1":4, 1%:%, 1:17.

1:%, 21:6.

4 4:2, 6:10, 11:4, 11:1", 1":.

1 4:11, 10:6.

2 14:7, 1":4; 6:10, 19:2.

14:10, 14:19, 1":1, etc.

t#e $ivine C#aracter *#ic#, a!art from #is boo2, *ould be nearl& *anting in t#e Ne*

Testament, and su!!lies a necessar& com!lement to t#e gentler teac#ing of t#e -os!els

and E!istles%

6% T#e doctrine of -od maintained in t#e A!ocal&!se cannot be rig#tl& understood

a!art from its C#ristolog&% Our aut#or7s revelation of t#e Dat#er is su!!lemented b& #isrevelation of t#e Son% T#e C#rist of t#e A!ocal&!se is t#e C#rist of t#e -os!els, but a

c#ange #as !assed over Him *#ic# is be&ond *ords% He is still li2e a son of man8,7 but

t#e *ea2nesses and limitations of His #umanit& #ave finall& !assed a*a&% He was dead ,

but no* He is alive for evermore;% He *as slain as a victim, but onl& t#e s!lendid

results of His Sacrifice remain<% T#e 0oman7s Son #as been caught up unto -od, and

unto is ThroneB He sits and reigns *it# His Dat#er % All t#is #ad been taug#t b& St

Peter, St Paul, and t#e *riter to t#e Hebre*s but it *as left for t#e A!ocal&!tist to

describe t#e glorified life% In t#e A!ocal&!se t#e veil is lifted, and *e see t#e e3tent of

t#e c#ange *roug#t b& t#e 'esurrection and Ascension% Even t#e Lord7s #uman form is

ideali9ed t#e face s#ines as t#e noonda& sun, t#e e&es flas#, t#e #air is *#ite as sno*,

t#e feet glo* li2e metal in a furnace, t#e voice is li2e t#e t#under of t#e *aterfall at t#e

sig#t of t#e glorified #umanit& t#e Seer s*oons, as $aniel before t#e angel)% Ot#er

a!!earances of t#e ascended C#rist are not less over*#elming *#et#er He sits on t#e

*#ite cloud, cro*ned, and carr&ing t#e s#ar! sic2le *it# *#ic# He *ill !resentl& rea!

t#e #arvest of t#e *orld1, or comes fort# from t#e o!en #eavens as t#e 0arriorFing,

follo*ed b& t#e armies of Heaven, His #ead encircled b& t#e diadems of man& em!ires,

His paludawentum inscribed *it# t#e title 2ing of kings and lord of lords, all is

transcendental and on a scale *#ic# sur!asses #uman imagination6% ut t#ese t#ree great

s&mbolical visions do not b& an& means e3#aust t#e *ealt# of St 5o#n7s conce!tion oft#e glorified C#rist% He de!icts *it# great fulness His relations to t#e C#urc#, to t#e

*orld, and to -od% >a@ To t#e members of His C#urc# t#e ascended C#rist is all in all%

He loves t#em, He redeemed t#em, and He #as made t#em *#at t#e& are, a ne* Israel, a

2ingdom of !riests8% His ascension #as not se!arated Him from t#em He is in t#eir

midst, regulating all t#e affairs of t#e C#urc#es; removing, !unis#ing, guarding, giving

4 1:1, 14:14.

" 1:1%.

6 ":6 fς !σφαγμ9νον.

7 12:".

% :21.

1 1:14O17.

2 14:14 ff.

19:11 ff.

4 1:", 1:6 (Eo. 19:6).

" 1:1, 2:1, 14:1.

victor&, as He sees fit<% Drom Him are to be obtained all s!iritual gifts and #el!sB from

Him are to be e3!ected t#e final re*ards% T#e mart&rs are #is *itnesses, t#e saints His

servants?% He !enetrates t#e inner life of t#e fait#ful He leads t#em on, and t#e& follo*

Him)K% T#e& 2ee! t#e fait# of 5esus, as t#e& 2ee! t#e commandments of -od t#e& s#are

His sufferings, and e3!ect His 2ingdom))

% >b@ In t#e creation 5esus C#rist #olds t#eforemost !lace% He is its eginning and its goal) He receives its tribute of !raise1% In

#uman #istor& He is su!reme He alone is able to o!en, one after anot#er, all t#e seals of

t#e oo2 of $estin&6 He is t#e *uler of the kings of the earth8 He *as born to rule t#e

nations *it# t#e ironFti!!ed rod of t#e universal Pastor of men; t#e greatest of

Em!erors is His vassal<, and t#e da& *ill come *#en t#e Augustus and t#e meanest

slave in #is em!ire *ill tremble ali2e before His victorious *rat#B% T#e A!ocal&!tist

foresees an em!ire more trul& oecumenical t#an t#at of 'ome, in *#ic# C#rist s#all

reign *it# -od% >c@ 0#at is t#e relation of C#rist, in His glorified state, to -od >)@ He

#as t#e !rerogatives of -od% He searc#es men7s #earts? He can 2ill and restore to life)K

He receives a *ors#i! *#ic# is rendered *it#out distinction to -od)) His !riests are

also !riests of -od)1 He occu!ies one t#rone *it# -od)6, and s#ares one sovereignt&)8%

6 2:", 2:2" ff., :9, :10.

7 :1%.

% 2:7 etc., 2:2.

9 2:1, 2:20, 11:1%.

10 :20, 7:17, 14:4.

11 14:12, 1:9.

1 :14, 22:1.

2 ":1.

":", 6:1 ff.

4 1:".

" 12:".

6 17:14.

7 6:1" ff.

% 11:1"; cf. 12:10.

9 2:2.

10 1:1%, 2:2.

11 ":1.

12 20:6.

1 22:1, 22:.

14 11:1".

>1@ C#rist receives t#e titles of -od% He is t#e Living One);, t#e Hol& and t#e True)<, t#e

Al!#a and t#e Omega, t#e Dirst and t#e Last, t#e eginning and t#e End)B% >6@ Passages

*#ic# in t#e Old Testament relate to -od are *it#out #esitation a!!lied to C#rist, e%g%

$eut% )K)B >A!oc% )B)8@, Prov% 6)1 >A!oc% 6)?@, $an% B? >A!oc% ))8@, 4ec#% 8)K

>A!oc% ;<@% T#us t#e *riter seems eit#er to coordinate or to identif& C#rist *it# -od%Yet #e is certainl& not conscious of an& tendenc& to dit#eism, for #is boo2, as #as been

said, is rigidl& monot#eistic nor, on t#e ot#er #and, is #e guilt& of confusing t#e t*o

Persons% T#e name of -od is no*#ere given to C#rist in t#e A!ocal&!se He is t#e Son

of -od ), t#e 7ord of -od )? but t#e A!ocal&!tist does not add, *it# t#e fourt#

Evangelist, .t#e 0ord *as -od,/ nor does #e sa& t#at t#e Dat#er and t#e Son are one%

He is careful to identif& t#e ascended C#rist *it# t#e C#rist of t#e #umiliation He is t#e

firstborn of the dead ), t#e root and the offspring of David 1, t#e 0ion of the tribe of

'udah6 He can call -od His -od% T#e enigma meets us ever&*#ere in t#e Ne*

Testament, but in no boo2 is it so !er!le3ing to t#ose *#o reect t#e Cat#olic doctrine of

our Lord7s Person as in t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n% It #as been urged t#at .t#e !oint of

vie* of t#e Seer is continuall& c#anging% He conceives of 5esus no* as t#e #ig#est of

t#e creatures, no* as t#e eternal beginning and end of all t#ings to us eac# of t#ese is

a definite and se!arate conce!tion, *#ile to #im suc# definiteness and se!aration did not

e3ist8%/ ut t#is e3!lanation is doubl& unsatisfactor&% T#e Seer7s consciousness of t#e

gulf *#ic# !arts t#e creature from t#e (ncreated *as far from indefinite t*ice #e

re!resents an angel as flatl& refusing divine #onours: see thou do it not … worship

-od ; t#e assum!tion or acce!tance of divine names b& t#e 'oman Em!erors *as in #is

udgement t#e damning sin of t#e Em!ire% Nor is it "uite fair to c#arge #im *it# s#ifting

#is ground from time to time from t#e first #is C#rist is a com!le3 conce!tion in *#ic##uman and $ivine c#aracteristics coe3ist% On t#e ot#er #and *e s#ould doubtless err if

*e read into t#e Seer7s visions t#e !recision of t#e Nicene or t#e C#alcedonian

C#ristolog&% An intuitive fait# carries #im be&ond t#e !oint reac#ed b& t#e

understanding #e 2no*s t#at t#e identification of t#e ascended C#rist *it# t#e

Almig#t& Dat#er is not inconsistent *it# strict monot#eism, but #e does not sto! to as2

#imself #o* t#is can be% Some of #is *ords !oint to t#e !ree3istence of t#e Son, ot#ers

1" 1:1%.

16 :7.

17 22:1.

1% 2:1%.

19 19:1.

1 1:", 1:1%.

2 ":", 22:16.

":".

4 . Pal5er, Dra&a of the Apocalypse, p. 10".

" 19:10, 22:9.

re!resent His e3alted condition as t#e re*ard of victor&% T#e reconciliation of t#ese

!oints of vie* is not necessar& to t#e !ur!ose of t#e boo2 it is enoug# t#at t#e Head of

t#e C#urc# is master of t#e situation *#ic# #ad arisen in Asia and of ever& similar

situation t#at can arise to t#e *orld7s end% T#e 5o#n of t#e A!ocal&!se is less of t#e

t#eologian t#an St Paul, and less of t#e m&stic t#an t#e aut#or of t#e fourt# -os!el, but#e sur!asses bot# in #is revelation of t#e unbounded !o*er of t#e e3alted C#rist%

No*#ere else in t#e Ne* Testament are t#e !ersonal activities of 5esus C#rist !resent in

His C#urc#, t#e glories of His #eavenl& life, or t#e !ossibilities of His future

manifestation so magnificentl& set fort#% T#e C#ristolog& of t#e A!ocal&!se ma& evade

anal&sis, but it meets t#e need of t#e C#urc# in times of storm and stress% It is t#e Ne*

Testament counter!art of t#e Old Testament #&mns of antici!ated trium!# -od is our

refuge and strength, a very present help in trouble4 therefore will we not fear! … -od is

in the midst of her4 she shall not be moved % Ho*ever t#e fact ma& be e3!lained, C#rist

is in t#e A!ocal&!se t#e !o*er of -od and t#e *isdom of -od !resent *it# t#e C#urc#,

*#ile in His e3alted life He is in t#e midst of t#e T#rone%

8% Of t#e S!irit *e e3!ect to #ear muc# in t#e one !ro!#etical boo2 of t#e Ne*

Testament, and *e are not altoget#er disa!!ointed, t#oug# t#ere is less on t#e surface of

t#e boo2 t#an *e mig#t #ave loo2ed for% It is in the Spirit t#at t#e Seer receives #is first

and second visions) in t#e S!irit, again, #e is carried into t#e *ilderness *#ere #e sees

t#e #arlot ab&lon, and to t#e mountain from *#ence can be descried t#e ne*

5erusalem1 and doubtless *e are to understand t#at t#e same condition of s!iritual

e3altation accom!anied t#e ot#er visions of t#e A!ocal&!se% T#e Spirit of prophecy

s!ea2s ever&*#ere, bearing *itness to 5esus6, e3#orting t#e C#urc#es in His Name8,

conve&ing t#e revelation of 'esus /hrist to t#e Seer, and t#roug# #im to t#e readers and#earers% It is t#e S!irit of !ro!#ec& *#o ans*ers to t#e voice from #eaven; *#o

identifies Himself *it# t#e C#urc#es in t#eir call for t#e Lord to come<% ut t#e boo2

recogni9es ot#er and *ider manifestations of t#e S!irit of -od% 0#en t#e *riter desires

grace and peace for t#e C#urc#es of Asia from t#e seven Spirits which are before is

Throne it is !robable t#at #e is t#in2ing of t#e One S!irit in t#e variet& and

com!leteness of His gifts% T#e !#rase mig#t in itself mean onl& t#e seven Angels of t#e

Presence), and t#is inter!retation receives some su!!ort from c! 8;, but it does not

accord eit#er *it# t#e trinitarian c#aracter of c! )8 f%1, or *it# c! ;<% T#e seven S!irits

*#ic# bla9e li2e torc#es before t#e T#rone, are in t#e last !assage t#e e&es of t#e

1 1:10, 4:2.

2 17:, 21:10.

19:10.

4 2:1, 2:7 etc.

" 14:1.

6 22:17.

1 %:2.

2 f. s+c' contets as 1 or. 12:4 ff., 2 or. 1:14, Ep'. 4:4 ff.



sacrificed Lamb, i%e% t#e& are t#e organs of su!ernatural vision *#ic# illuminate t#e

#umanit& of our Lord, and *#ic# He sends fort# into t#e *orld% It is im!ossible not to

recogni9e #ere t#e mission of t#e Paraclete, 0#o is at once t#e S!irit of C#rist, and t#e

S!irit sent, b& Him from t#e Dat#er to t#e C#urc#% And on loo2ing bac2 to c! )8 *e see

t#e fitness of t#e number seven eac# of t#e seven C#urc#es #as its o*n μερισμός of t#eS!irit onl& to t#e C#rist and to t#e *#ole bod& of t#e C#urc# considered in its unit&

belongs t#e fulness of s!iritual !o*ers and gifts, t#e septiformis Spiritus 0#o is in His

essence indivisible% T#us t#e A!ocal&!se e3tends t#e teac#ing of t#e E!istles%

$iversities of gifts mar2 t#e *or2 of t#e S!irit in t#e C#urc#es as in t#eir individual

members to eac# is given t#e manifestation of t#e S!irit% Yet t#e individual is not

overloo2ed% T#e action of t#e S!irit on t#e !ersonal life is s#e*n in t#e s&mbolism

*#ic# !oints to t#e *ater of life% The 0amb … shall guide them unto fountains of waters

of life! I will give unto him that is athirst of the fountain of the water of life freely! e

shewed me a river of water of life, … proceeding out of the throne of -od and of the

0amb! e that is athirst, let him come4 he that will, let him take the water of life freely6%

T#ese !assages are remar2able for t#e *idt# of t#eir outloo2 t#e& carr& us from t#e

beginnings of t#e s!iritual life to its maturit&, from t#e first gift of t#e *ater of life to

t#e state in *#ic# access is given to t#e fountainF#ead% T#ere is no stage in t#e

!rogressive develo!ment of t#e ne* life at *#ic# t#e #uman s!irit is not de!endent on

t#e $ivine t#e *ater of life *#ic# satisfies t#e first t#irst, is not less necessar& to t#e

ultimate !erfection of t#e Saints% On t#e essential nature of t#e S!irit t#e A!ocal&!se

#as not#ing to add to t#e teac#ing of ot#er Ne* Testament boo2s% ut in its s&mbolism

*e catc# glim!ses of His relation to t#e Dat#er and t#e Son% 5esus C#rist hath the seven

Spirits of -od t#e& are the eyes of the 0amb, and are sent forth b& Him into all the

earth% T#e 'iver of t#e *ater of life issues from t#e T#rone of -od and of t#e Lamb%

T#ere are ec#oes #ere of t#e teac#ing bot# of C#rist and of St Paul% T#e S!irit of -od is

also t#e S!irit of C#rist, and t#e out!ouring of t#e S!irit *#ic# began on t#e da& of

Pentecost *as a direct conse"uence of t#e Ascension t#e Paraclete *as sent b& t#e

Ascended Lord from t#e Dat#er, and b& t#e Dat#er in t#e name of t#e Son% T#e tem!oral

mission of t#e S!irit is #ere in vie*, but be#ind it t#ere ma& be also t#e eternal

!rocession from t#e Dat#er t#roug# t#e Son of *#ic# t#e Creed s!ea2s% ut t#e latter

does not come *it#in t#e e3!ress sco!e of t#e A!ocal&!tist7s *ords%

;% His treatment of t#e doctrine of t#e C#urc# is not less interesting% Li2e St Paul7sE!istle to t#e -alatians and !er#a!s also t#e E!istle to t#e E!#esians, t#e A!ocal&!se is

addressed to a !luralit& of C#urc#es seven are named, but after t#e first c#a!ter t#enumber is dro!!ed, and t#e *riter s!ea2s sim!l& of α+ !κκλ%σίαι), or once of π/σαι α+!κκλ%σίαι1% T#e singular !κκλ%σία is used of eac# of t#e local C#ristian societies, but

not of t#e C#urc#es in t#e aggregate, or of t#e ideal unit& of t#e C#ristian bod&% Eac#societ& is s&mboli9ed b& a se!arate λυ-νία, and eac# #as its o*n !residing s!irit, its star

7:17, 21:6, 22:1, 22:17.

1 2:7, 2:11, 2:17, 2:29; :6, :1, :22; 22:16.

2 2:2:

or angel% T#ere is no s!iritual counter!art to t#e κοινὸν τῆς 1σίας, no !rovincial C#urc#

or re!resentative council, t#oug# t#e seven C#urc#es ma& be ta2en as in a sense

re!resentative of t#e C#urc#es of Asia in general% Yet, as t#e boo2 !roceeds, t#e

conce!tion of an universal C#ristian societ&, a cat#olic C#urc#, a!!ears under more

t#an one s&mbolical figure% 0e #ave first t#e )88,KKK sealed out of every tribe of thechildren of Israel 6, c#anging, as t#e Seer *atc#es, into an innumerable com!an& before

t#e $ivine T#rone, and after*ards seen again as )88,KKK, surrounding t#e Lamb on

+ount 4ion% T#en a great sign a!!ears in heaven, a woman arrayed with the sun, and

the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars, *#o becomes t#e

+ot#er of t#e C#rist and His Saints)% Lastl&, in s#ar! contrast *it# t#e Harlot ab&lon,

*e see t#e ride of C#rist arra&ed for #er marriage da&, and !resentl& transfigured into

a ne* 5erusalem, coming down out of heaven from -od 1% In t#e first of t#ese visions t#e

C#urc# a!!ears as a collection of units, ma2ing u! t#e *#ole number of t#e elect in t#e

second and t#ird s#e is seen in t#e unit& of #er common life, first as militant against t#e

evil of t#e *orld, #er life #id in -od, #erself im!eris#able but suffering in t#e !ersons

of #er members and t#en, in t#e final !icture, as reac#ing #er ideal in t#e !resence of

-od and of C#rist% T#ere are sideFlig#ts, also, in t#is great series of !ictures *#ic#

deserve attention in t#e first, t#e reconciliation of $ivine fore2no*ledge *it# t#e

freedom of t#e #uman *ill in t#e second, t#e relation of t#e C#urc# of t#e Old

Testament to t#e C#urc# of t#e Ne*, and of bot# to t#e individual in t#e t#ird, t#e

social as!ect of t#e C#ristian life, as set fort# in t#e order and beaut& of t#e Cit& of -od%

On t#e local ministr& in t#e C#urc#es t#e A!ocal&!tist !reserves a com!lete silence

#e s!ea2s of t#e itinerant, c#arismatic, ministr& of A!ostles and Pro!#ets, but not of t#e

bis#o!s or !resb&ters and deacons *#o *ere doubtless to be found in t#e C#ristiancommunities of Asia% T#e !ro!#etic order, from #is !oint of vie*, ecli!ses t#e officers

of t#e C#urc#% ut it does not ta2e from t#e lustre of t#e C#urc# #erself% S#e is a

2ingdom and a !riest#ood all #er members #ave been made b& t#e sacrifice of t#e

Cross 2ings and !riests unto -od and to t#e Lamb6% T#e Augustus and t#e Caesars, t#e

Asiarc#s and #ig#F!riests of t#e Angustea, are of little account in com!arison *it# t#e

des!ised and !ersecuted members of t#e C#ristian brot#er#oods%

<% T#e soteriolog& of t#e A!ocal&!se demands attention% T#rice in t#e boo2 8 .Salvation/ > σ'τ%ρία@ is ascribed to -od, or to -od and C#rist% T#e !#rase is !er#a!s

suggested b& t#e free use of σ'τ>ρ on coins and in inscri!tions in reference to certain oft#e #eat#en deities >e%g% 4eus, As2le!ios@, and to t#e Em!erors% 5o#n recalls t#e *ord

from t#ese un*ort#& uses and claims it for t#e (ltimate Source of #ealt# and life% ut in

t#is attribution #e includes 5esus C#rist) Salvation unto our -od … and unto the 0amb%

cc. 7., 14.

1 c. 12.

2 c. 21.

1:6, ":10, 20:6.

4 7:10, 12:10, 19:1.

1 7:10.

It is b& t#e Sacrifice of t#e Lamb t#at t#e salvation of men #as become !ossible1 thou

wast slain and didst purchase unto -od with thy blood men of every tribe4 unto him that

loved us and loosed us from our sins by his blood … to him be the glory4 t#e Saints

washed their robes, and made them white in the blood of the 0amb8 they overcame t#e

accuser because of the blood of the 0amb% 0#atever ma& be t#e e3act meaning of t#ese*ords, it is clear from t#em t#at t#e *riter attac#ed t#e greatest im!ortance to t#e deat#

of C#rist His sacrificed life *as t#e !rice of man7s redem!tion from sin to t#e service

of -od% T#e idea is St Paul7s, *#o t*ice in one e!istle *rites .&e *ere boug#t *it# a

!rice6,/ and la&s em!#asis on t#e virtue of t#e sacrificial blood8 and t#e latter !oint *as

!resent to t#e mind of our Lord Himself *#en He s!o2e of His lood as shed for many

unto remission of sins;% T#e *riter of t#e A!ocal&!se too2 over t#e familiar figures b&

*#ic# t#e C#urc#es #ad long e3!ressed t#e m&ster& of t#e Atonement% ut t#ere are

ne* features in #is use of t#em% 'edem!tion is a liberation from t#e sins of t#e !ast life,

*#ic# #ave #it#erto .tied and bound/ t#e sinner *it# t#eir c#ains it is a !urc#ase for

-od, its !ur!ose being to transfer t#e sinner from t#e service of sin to t#e service of

-od<% ut its end is not attained *it#out t#e concurrence of t#e #uman *ill% T#e

redeemed coo!erate *it# t#e 'edeemer t#e& *as# t#eir robes and ma2e t#em *#ite,

t#e& fig#t and overcome% Neit#er action *ould #ave been !ossible *it#out our Lord7s

sacrifice, but t#e sacrifice *ould #ave been ineffectual *it#out re!entance and fait# on

t#eir !art% &lessed are they that wash their robes, that they may have the right to come

to the tree of life, and may enter in by the gates into the city )% In accordance *it# t#e

im!ortance t#us attac#ed to #uman effort, t#e A!ocal&!tist d*ells more fre"uentl& on

.*or2s/ t#an on .fait#%/ I know thy works stands in t#e forefront of five of t#e seven

messages addressed to t#e C#urc#es1% *epent and do the first works4 I will give unto

each one of you according to your works4 I have found no works of thine fulfilled before

my -od4 the dead were judged … according to their works4 my reward is with me to

render to each man according as his work is6 :are e3am!les of t#e insistence on

!ractical religion *#ic# mar2s t#e boo2% To re!resent t#is as a return to a 5e*is#

stand!oint is arbitrar&8, but it cannot be denied t#at t#e fre"uent occurrence of suc#

2 1:", ":9, 7:14, 12:11.

1 or. 6:20 _γορ&σ=%τε γὰρ τιμῆς, 7:2 τιμῆς _γορ&σ=%τε.

4 $cts 20:2%; o5. :2", ":9; Ep'. 1:7, 2:1; ol. 1:20. f. 1 Pet. 1:2, 1:19; 1

#o. 1:7.

" Mt. 26:2%; Mc. 14:24; 1 or. 11:2".

6 'ere s a partal parallel n o5. 6:1" ff.

1 22:14.

2 2:2 (Ep'es+s), 19 ('*atra), :1 (Sars), % (P'laelp'a), 1" (!aocea).

2:", 2:2, :2, 20:12 f., 22:12.

4 'e present -rter s +nale to sco8er 'ere or else-'ere n t'e $pocal*pse

t'e +na+lterate #+as5< -'c' 'as een ascre to t ('arles,

sa&ings is a distinguis#ing note of t#e A!ocal&!se% Dait# is rarel& named in t#e boo2 ;,

and *#en it is, it does not a!!ear as t#e !rimar& necessit& of t#e C#ristian life t#e

decisive !lace is given to *or2s t#e fair linen *#ic# dec2s t#e Saints is *oven out of

t#eir rig#teous acts<% Salvation is t#e fruit of t#e Lord7s victor&, but t#e fait# *#ic#

a!!ro!riates it overcomes t#e *orld as He overcame it%B% T#e Angelolog& of t#e A!ocal&!se is abundant% e&ond an& ot#er boo2 eit#er in

t#e Old Testament or in t#e Ne*, it occu!ies itself *it# t#e in#abitants of t#e unseen

order even of a!ocal&!tic *ritings t#e Enoc# literature alone !er#a!s is more fruitful in

revelations of t#is 2ind% T#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#n, #o*ever, is singularl& free from t#e

*ild s!eculations of 5e*is# angelolog&% If angels fre"uentl& a!!ear in its visions, t#e&

belong to t#e scenes *#ic# t#e visions reveal, and are t#ere because t#e su!ermundane

events *#ic# are in !rogress demand t#eir intervention% T#e& are seen engaged in t#e

activities of t#eir manifold ministries, no* as *ors#i!!ing before t#e T#roneB, no* as

bearing messages to t#e *orld), or as stationed in some !lace of trust, restraining

elemental forces1, or t#emselves under restraint until t#e moment for action #as arrived6,

or as !residing over great de!artments of Nature8% Sometimes t#eir ministries are

cosmic t#e& are entrusted *it# t#e e3ecution of *orld*ide udgements;, or t#e& form

t#e ran2 and file of t#e armies of heaven, *#o fig#t -od7s battles *it# evil, *#et#er

diabolical or #uman< t#e Ab&ss is under t#eir custod&B% Sometimes an angel is

em!lo&ed in t#e service of t#e C#urc#, offering t#e !ra&ers of t#e Saints, or !residing

over t#e destinies of a local brot#er#ood or ministering to an individual brot#er, e%g% to

t#e Seer #imself % No c#arge seems to be too great for an angel to underta2e, and none

too ordinar& t#roug#out t#e boo2 t#e angels are re!resented as read& to fill an& !lace

and do an& *or2 to *#ic# t#e& are sent% Little lig#t is t#ro*n on suc# a s!eculativeto!ic as t#e distribution of t#e angelic #ost into orders or ran2s% T#e greater angels are

distinguis#ed b& t#eir su!erior strengt# or more s!lendid surroundings% Onl& one angel

Eschatology , p. 47).

" &nl* n 2:1, 2:19, 1:10, 14:12.

6 19:%.

7 7:11.

1 1:1, 22:6.

2 7:1.

9:1".

4 16:1 ff.

" %:6 ff., 19:14.

6 12:7, 19:14.

7 9:11, 20:1.

% %: f., 2:1 etc., 17:1, 21:9.

receives a name, and it is borro*ed from t#e oo2 of $aniel? t#ere is but a !assing

allusion to t#e seven angels of t#e Presence, of *#om Enoc# #as so muc# to sa&)K%

T#e A!ocal&!se is com!arativel& silent as to fallen angels and evil s!irits% T#e

$ragon of c! )1% is identified *it# Satan or t#e $evil of t#e Old Testament in t#e

celestial *ar of )1B ff% #e is follo*ed b& #is .angels/ *#o fig#t #is battles))

% Idolatr& isregarded as demonolatr&)1 #eat#en magic is due to spirits of demons, working signs%

ab&lon becomes a habitation of demons, and a hold of every unclean spirit )6% T#e Seer

is able to foresee t#e course of Satanic activit& from #is o*n age to t#e end% Dailing to

det#rone t#e ascended C#rist, Satan turns #is attention to t#e C#urc# *#ic# is left on

eart#)8% He finds read& allies in t#e !ersecuting Em!erors and t#e #eat#en !riest#ood),

bac2ed b& t#e !o*er of t#e ne* ab&lon on t#e Tiber 1% ab&lon falls at last6, and for a

long !eriod Satan is bound, and t#e C#urc# dominant8% T#en a reaction follo*s, and t#e

*#ole *orld is !ersuaded to attac2 t#e C#urc#;% ut #er #our of greatest !eril us#ers in

t#e final victor&% Dire falls from #eaven u!on t#e enem&, and Satan #imself is consigned

to t#e burning morass from *#ic# t#ere is no esca!e% T#e fate of #is .angels/ is not

described, but it ma& be assumed t#at t#e& !eris# *it# t#eir leader <, for from t#is !oint

all su!er#uman forces of evil disa!!ear%

% Esc#atolog&, in t#e *idest sense, forms one of t#e main subects of t#is boo2,

*#ic# from c! 8% deals c#iefl& *it# the things which must come to pass hereafter B% Here

our discussion of t#e subect must be limited to t#e .last t#ings/ in t#e narro*er use of

t#e !#rase, i%e% to t#e Coming of t#e Lord, t#e 5udgement, and t#e ne* *orld be&ondt#em% No mention is made of t#e παρουσία or !πιφ&νεια? of t#e Lord, and t#oug#

;ρ-ομαι and t#e res!onse ;ρ-ου are *atc#*ords in t#is boo2, t#e .coming/ intended, in

9 12:7; cf. an. 10:21.

10 %:2; cf. Enoc' 20.

11 12:9.

12 9:20.

1 1%:2.

14 12:7 ff., 12:1 ff.

1 1:1 ff., 11 ff.

2 c. 17.

c. 1%.

4 20:1 ff.

" Ib. % ff.

6 f. Mt. 2":41.

7 4:1; cf. 1:19.

% Mt. 24: ff.; 1 or. 1":2; 1 '. 2:19, :1, 4:1", ":2; #ac. ":7 f.; 2 Pet. :4; 1

#o. 2:2%.

9 1 5. 6:14; 2 5. 1:10, 4:1, 4:%; t. 2:12.

some instances at least, is not t#e final Advent, but t#e visitation of a C#urc# or an

individual)K% +oreover, t#ere is no one vision *#ic# ans*ers altoget#er to t#e

conce!tion of t#e 'eturn, as it is !resented in our Lord7s teac#ing and in t#e E!istles%

0e loo2 for suc# an a!!earance immediatel& before t#e genera resurrection and

udgement >1K)) ff%@, or in conne3ion *it# t#e descent of t#e ride, but it is absent%Per#a!s t#e 'ea!er on t#e *#ite cloud)), or t#e cro*ned 0arrior on t#e *#ite #orse)1,

ma& describe, eac# in its o*n *a&, t#e Last Coming, but neit#er of t#ese visions

e3#austs t#e conce!tion, or occu!ies t#e !osition *#ic# t#e Parousia mig#t #ave been

e3!ected to fill% Yet t#e boo2 starts *it# a clear reference to t#e Advent, *#ic# is

re!resented as visible to t#e *#ole *orld behold, he cometh with the clouds, and every

eye shall see him) and it ends *it# t#e solemn *itness, 9ea, I come quickly% T#e #o!eof a visible Coming, and t#at a s!eed& one, #as not vanis#ed, t#oug# it is clear t#at τα-)

must be inter!reted relativel&, in t#e lig#t of a !ro!#ec& *#ic# inter!oses bet*een t#e

Seer7s time and t#e 'eturn an age of !ersecution of un2no*n lengt# and a subse"uent

millennium of dominant C#ristianit&% T#e Lord7s quickly is His final ans*er to t#e

rising im!atience of t#e C#urc#1, no* on t#e verge of t#e second centur& measured b&

t#e standard of His endless life, the time is at hand %

T#e final 'eign of C#rist and of His Saints is connected *it# t#e #o!e of His return%

His o*n 'eign began *it# t#e Ascension, and it is s!irituall& s#ared b& t#e C#urc#,

even in an age of !ersecution t#e Saints reign upon the earth6, t#oug# a Nero or a

$omitian ma& be on t#e t#rone% T#e A!ocal&!tist diml& foresees t#e conversion of t#e

Em!ire, *#en the kingdom of the world became the kingdom of our 0ord and of is

/hrist , and t#e C#urc# entered on a long !eriod of trium!#, reigning *it# C#rist for a

t#ousand &ears8% ut #e also antici!ates a future 2ingdom of t#e Saints *#ic# *ill fulfilits ideal, and to *#ic# no !eriod can be !ut they shall reign for ever and ever ;%

T#e -eneral 'esurrection and t#e 5udgement belong to t#e same series of events% If

t#e inter!retation of t#e T#ousand Years *#ic# is given in t#is commentar&< is correct,

t#e .first resurrection/ of c! 1K; is, li2e t#e resurrection of t#e T*o 0itnesses in c! ))%,

a s&mbol of t#e revival and e3tension of t#e C#urc# *#ic# *ould follo* t#e age of

!ersecution% No .second resurrection/ is mentioned, but a resurrection of t#e bod& is

im!lied in c! 1K)1 and t#e glor& of t#e risen Saints is !er#a!s s&mboli9ed in c! 1)))%

T#e former of t#ese !assages clearl& teac#es t#e doctrine of a general 5udgement% ut

10 E.3. 2:", 2:16, an per'aps also :11, 16:1".

11 14:14.

12 19:11.

1 1:7.

2 f. 2 Pet. :9.

":10, rean3 Bασιλε)ουσιν.

4 11:1", 20:6.

" 22:".

6 P. 260 ff.



t#e 5udge seems to be not t#e Incarnate Son, but t#e Almig#t& Dat#er t#e A!ocal&!tist

does not a!!ear to recogni9e *it# t#e Evangelist t#at all udgement #as been given to

t#e Son)%

T#e vision of t#e Last 5udgement is follo*ed b& a vision of t#e ne* *orld and t#e

ne* Cit& of -od% Per#a!s it *ill al*a&s be a matter of dis!ute *#et#er t#e final visionof t#e A!ocal&!se is an idealistic !icture of t#e C#urc# as s#e no* is, or a realistic

!icture of t#e C#urc# as s#e *ill be #ereafter% T#ere is in fact an element of trut# in

eac# of t#ese vie*s, for t#e best ideals of t#e !resent are t#e realities of t#e future% T#e

!osition of t#e vision !oints to t#e future, for t#oug# t#e succession of t#e A!ocal&!tic

visions is not c#ronological, t#ere is in it a certain se"uence *#ic# accords *it# t#e

orderl& develo!ment of t#e $ivine !ur!ose% And no stretc# of t#e imagination can

discover in an& !eriod of t#e C#urc#7s lengt#ening #istor& t#e full counter!art of t#e

glories described b& St 5o#n% T#e ride of C#rist #as not &et made #erself read& t#e

Cit& of -od is not free from t#e !resence of t#e unclean and t#e false nig#t still falls

u!on #er streets, alternating *it# !eriods of da&lig#t1% ut t#e future #olds t#e

!erfection of t#e !resent in t#e im!erfect life of t#e Asian brot#er#oods t#e Seer can

find t#e earnest of a maturit& *#ic#, *#en e3tended to t#e race, *ill leave no !art of

-od7s great !lan for t#e reconstruction of #uman societ& unreali9ed%

?% It is not t#e !ur!ose of t#e A!ocal&!se to teac# C#ristian doctrine, but to ins!ire

C#ristian #o!e% ut incidentall& it instructs, and its teac#ing, so far as it goes, is fres#,

strenuous, and suggestive% 0#ile it #as !oints of contact *it# t#e sa&ings of our Lord in

t#e S&no!tic -os!els, *it# t#e doctrine of St Paul and #is sc#ool, and *it# t#e -os!el

and t#e Dirst E!istle of St 5o#n, t#ere are features in t#e doctrine of t#e A!ocal&!se

*#ic# are !eculiar to itself nor is t#e !ro!ortion in *#ic# it !resents t#e as!ects ofC#ristian trut# "uite t#at *#ic# is to be found in ot#er boo2s of t#e Ne* Testament%

0it#out t#e A!ocal&!se, so far as *e can udge, our 2no*ledge of t#e teac#ing of t#e

A!ostolic age *ould #ave been im!erfect in t#is res!ect t#e boo2 is com!lementar& to

t#e -os!els and E!istles, and fulfils t#e im!ortant *or2 of !reserving t#e balance of

trut#% T#is is not t#e least of t#e reasons for *#ic# it deserves careful stud&, and ma& in

itself be #eld to ustif& t#e felicitation blessed is he that readeth, and they that hear the

words of this prophecy%

);% A(THO'SHIP

)% At t#e beginning of t#e boo2, and again at t#e end), t#e A!ocal&!se !rofesses to be t#e *or2 of 5o#n% T#e aut#or furt#er states t#at #e is a servant of 5esus C#rist, a

brot#er of t#e C#urc#es of Asia, and a !arta2er in t#eir sufferings, and t#at at t#e time

*#en #e received t#e revelation #e *as in t#e island of Patmos for the word of -od and

1 #o. ":22; cf. Mt. 2":1 ff. t 5a* e note t'at St Pa+l speaks nfferentl* of

t'e Bῆμα τοῦ =εοῦ (o5. 14:10) an t'e B. τοῦ -ριστοῦ (2 or. ":10); t'e =at'er

L+3es n t'e person of t'e Son.

2 21:2, 21:2", 21:27, 22:".

1 1:1, 1:4, 1:9, 22:%.

the testimony of 'esus1% & t#e .testimon& of 5esus/ #e a!!ears to mean t#e *itness

*#ic# #e #ad borne to our Lord in #is ca!acit& as a member of a brot#er#ood of

C#ristian !ro!#ets6% T#e intimate 2no*ledge *#ic# #e s#e*s of t#e circumstances of

t#e C#urc#es in Asia, and t#e un#esitating tone of aut#orit& in *#ic# #e addresses t#em,

leave no doubt t#at #e #ad resided in t#e !rovince, and #ad e3ercised #is office in t#eC#ristian societies t#ere%It is scarcel& !ossible t#at t#e boo2 can be !seudon&mous% T#e 5e*is# !seude!igra!#a

bear t#e names of Old Testament !atriarc#s, 2ings, or !ro!#ets and a C#ristian a!ocal&!se, if !seudon&mous, *ould naturall& #ave been attributed to an A!ostle% ut in t#at case t#e *riter*ould assuredl& #ave !roclaimed #is identit& *it# t#e son of 4ebedee% T#e a!ocr&!#ala!ocal&!se of Paul begins ,ποκ&λυ2ις τοῦ ἁγίου ,ποστόλου Eα)λου, and t#e a!ocr&!#ala!ocal&!se of 5o#n ,ποκ&λυ2ις τοῦ ἁγίου 3'&ννου τοῦ =εολόγου8% T#ese are later documents,

but even in a first centur& a!ocr&!#on *e s#ould #ave e3!ected some suc# note of identificationas : τοῦ ŽεBεδαίου< : !πὶ τὸ στῆ=ος, or at least : μα=%τ#ς τοῦ κυρίου or : πρεσB)τερος% utt#ere is not onl& an entire absence of suc# a!!ellatives t#e indications, so far as t#e& go, areunfavourable to t#e #&!ot#esis t#at t#e *riter meant to !ose as an A!ostle% T#e 5o#n of t#eA!ocal&!se is sim!l& a .brot#er,/ and t#e onl& office *#ic# #e claims is t#at of !ro!#et% T#isdoes not indeed dis!rove #is identit& *it# t#e A!ostle), but it is not *#at mig#t #ave beene3!ected from a *riter *#o *is#ed to !ass as one of t#e T*elve%

1%% T#e name 5o#anan1 *as b& no means uncommon in 5e*is# #istor& from t#e timeof t#e Ca!tivit& on*ards% Some fifteen !ersons of t#is name are mentioned in t#e boo2sof C#ronicles, E9ra, and Ne#emia#, and five more in t#e boo2s of t#e +accabees%5ose!#us refers to seventeen 5o#ns6 in t#e Ne* Testament t#ere are at least five:t#eson of 4ac#arias, and t#e son of 4ebedee, t#e fat#er of St Peter 8, 5o#n *#ose surname*as +ar2, and a 5o#n *#o *as of t#e 2indred of t#e Hig# Priest;% Of t#ese, 5o#n t#e sonof 4ebedee *as from an earl& time identified *it# t#e aut#or of t#e A!ocal&!se%

T#e *itness of 5ustin #as been given alread&<% Irenaeus calls t#e aut#or of t#e fourt#

-os!el and t#e A!ocal&!se : μα=%τ#ς Fυρίου, domini discipulus >6))% ) ff%, 81K% ))@, but t#etitle, as #e uses it, does not e3clude A!ostles#i! cf% 111% ;, *#ere, immediatel& aftermentioning .5o#n, t#e disci!le of t#e Lord,/ #e !roceeds .non solum Ioannem, sed et alios

2 1:9.

19:10, 22:9.

4 sc'enorf, Apocalypses apocryphae, pp. 4, 70. 'e openn3 of t'e earler

$pocal*pse of Peter 'as not een reco8ere, +t n t'e Petrne ospel t'e

entfcaton s eplct: > 14 !γd δC Pίμ'ν E9τρος καὶ 1νδρ9ας : ,δελφός μου.

1 E8en n 2 Peter St Pa+l s : ,γαπ%τὸς μ$ν ,δελφός (:1").

2 3'&νν%ς, or 3'&ν%ς as H., follo-n3 co. , -rte t'e na5e n c. 1., s a

Hellene for5 of 3'αν&ν (F :0)& 3 .'8 , or :0&)& 3 ') -'c' occ+rs n t'e !QQ. an n

!c. :27. $s to t'e o+le ν see al5an, "r. p. 142.

See Neses ne, p. 46.

4 #o. 21:1" ff. Pίμ'ν 3'&νYνZου.

" $cts 4:6 3'&νν%ς ... καὶ Gσοι σαν !κ γ9νους ,ρ-ιερατικοῦ.

6 P. 10 f.

a!ostolos%/ Hi!!ol&tus e3!ressl& calls t#e *riter of t#e A!ocal&!se .A!ostle/ as *ell as.disci!leB,/ and Tertullian is no less e3!licit% Origen, again, entertains no doubt t#at bot# t#e-os!el and t#e A!ocal&!se !roceeded from t#e son of 4ebedee?% T#e earliest suggestion t#at t#eA!ocal&!se *as t#e *or2 of a second 5o#n, not of a!ostolic ran2, came from Ale3andria afterOrigen7s deat#)K earlier o!!onents of t#e a!ostolic aut#ors#i! regarded t#e boo2 as

!seudon&mous))%6%% As an alternative to 5o#n t#e son of 4ebedee, $ion&sius of Ale3andria mentions

t#e name of 5o#n +ar2, but dismisses it on t#e ground t#at +ar2 did not accom!an& StPaul to Asia% A!art from t#is obection, t#e #&!ot#esis of +arcan aut#ors#i! #as little torecommend it t#e st&le of t#e second -os!el #as no mar2ed affinit& *it# t#at of t#eA!ocal&!se, and its aut#or s#e*s none of t#e c#aracteristics of t#e !ro!#et or t#em&stic #e is gra!#ic and can dra* a telling !icture, but #e is not a visionar& and #as noe&e for t#e transcendental% T#e 5o#n of t#e A!ocal&!se, if not t#e son of 4ebedee, must

be, $ion&sius concludes, some ot#er*ise un2no*n 5o#n *#o visited Asia), and #e findssome su!!ort for t#is vie* in t#e stor& #e #as #eard >φασίν@ t#at t#ere *ere at E!#esust*o monuments *#ic# !assed as t#e tomb of 5o#n% To t#is Eusebius adds t#at Pa!ias

also seems to s!ea2 of t*o 5o#ns *#o *ere bot# disci!les of t#e Lord, and !utting t#efacts toget#er #e infers t#at if t#e A!ocal&!se is not to be ascribed to t#e A!ostle, it *as !robabl& t#e *or2 of t#e second 5o#n *#o is 2no*n to Pa!ias as t#e Elder 1%

T#e follo*ing are t#e *ords of Pa!ias as re!orted b& Eusebius τος τ$ν πρεσBυτ9ρ'ν,ν9κρινον λόγους} τί 1νδρ9ας • τί E9τρος ε5πεν ... • τί 3'&νν%ς • mατ=αῖος ? τις Xτερος τ$ντοῦ κυρίου μα=%τ$ν} ἅ τε 1ριστί'ν καὶ : πρεσB)τερος 3'&νν%ς ο+ τοῦ κυρίου μα=%ταὶλ9γουσιν% Eusebius7 comment is ;ν=α καὶ !πιστῆσαι @0ιον δὶς καταρι=μοῦντι αὐτI τὸ3'&ννου ὄνομα ... ε*κὸς γὰρ τὸν δε)τερον >i%e% t#e Elder@, ε* μ> τις !=9λοι τὸν πρ$τον< τ#ν !πHKνόματος φερομ9ν%ν 3'&ννου 1ποκ&λυ2ιν N'ρακ9ναι%

8%% Per#a!s no conecture #a9arded b& an ancient *riter #as been so *idel& ado!tedin modern times% A conecture it still remains, for no fres# lig#t #as been t#ro*n on t#e

enigmatic figure of 5o#n t#e Elder% ut t#is circumstance #as not !revented sc#olarsfrom confidentl& attributing to #im one or more of t#e 5o#annine grou! of *ritings%Even in 5erome7s time it *as usual to identif& t#e Elder of 1 and 6 5o#n *it# t#e second5o#n of Pa!ias%

Hieron% de virr! ill! ? .Io#annis !resb&teri adseruntur, cuius #odie alterum se!ulcruma!ud E!#esum ostenditur%/ In c! ) #e s!ea2s of t#e .o!inionem "ua a !leris"ue rettulimustraditum duas !osteriores e!istulas Io#annis non a!ostoli esse sed !resb&teri%/ On t#e ot#er #and#e #olds t#at bot# t#e -os!el and t#e A!ocal&!se *ere *ritten b& t#e A!ostle >c! ?@%

7 P. 109.

% P. 10".

9 P. 109.

10 P. 110.

11 P. 106. ff.

1 ap. E+s. H.E. 7:2".

2 H.E. :9.

PAT+OS%Drom a !#otogra!# ta2en in )B be 'ev% T% C% Dit9!atric2%

T#e A!ocal&!se is no* ascribed to t#e Elder b& !er#a!s a maorit& of critics% ut

recent criticism goes furt#er, and transfers to t#e Elder nearl& all t#at #as been #it#erto

given to t#e A!ostle% T#ere *ere t*o 5o#ns in t#e A!ostolic age, but onl& one of t#em

*as a resident in Asia, and #e *as t#e Elder and not t#e son of 4ebedee% It *as t#e

Elder and not t#e A!ostle *#o *as t#e disci!le t#at 5esus loved, *#o gave #is name to

t#e 5o#annine boo2s of t#e Ne* Testament, and claims to be t#e *riter of t#e

A!ocal&!se%At t#is !oint it *ill be convenient to collect t#e traditions *#ic# relate to t#e residence

of 5o#n in Asia and #is e3ile to Patmos% >)@ *esidence in (sia% Iren% 111% ; >ap! Eus% ! "! 616@ π&ντες ο+ πρεσB)τεροι μαρτυροῦδιν< ο+ κατὰ τ#ν 1σίαν 3'&νν6 τI τοῦ κυρίου μα=%τ7συμBεBλ%κότες< παραδεδ'κ9ναι YταῦταZ τὸν 3'&νν%ν} παρ9μεινε γὰρ αὐτοῖς μ9-ρι τ$νnραkανοῦ -ρόν'ν% Ib! 66% 8 >ap! Eus% ! "! 8)8@ καὶ ε*σὶν ο+ ,κ%κοότες αὐτοῦ sc! τοῦEολυκ&ρπου, Gτι 3'&νν%ς : τοῦ κυρίου μα=%τ#ς !ν τ7 Oφ9σM πορευ=είς κτλ. Ib! >ap! Eus% !

"! 616@ ,λλὰ καὶ !ν Oφ9σM !κκλ%σία "πὸ Eα)λου μCν τε=εμελι'μ9ν%< 3'&ννου δCπαραμείναντος αὐτοῖς μ9-ρι τ$ν nραkανοῦ -ρόν'ν< μ&ρτυς ,λ%=>ς !στι τῆς τ$ν ,ποστόλ'νπαραδόσε'ς% Ib! "p! ad 5lorin! >ap! Eus% ! "! ;1K@ ε5δον γ&ρ σε< παῖς ‹ν ;τι< !ν τ7 κ&τ'1σί8 παρὰ τI Eολυκ&ρπM ... Wστε με δ)νασ=αι ε*πεῖν καὶ τὸν τόπον !ν † κα=εRόμενοςδιελ9γετο : μακ&ριος Eολ)καρπος ... καὶ τὰς διαλ90εις oς !ποιεῖτο πρὸς τὸ πλῆ=ος< καὶ τ#νμετὰ 3'&ννου συναναστροφ#ν fς ,π>γγελλε< καὶ τ#ν μετὰ τ$ν λοιπ$ν τ$ν N'ρακότ'ν τὸνκ)ριον Pol&crates >ap! Eus% ! "! 66), ;18@ ;τι δC καὶ 3'&νν%ς : !πὶ τὸ στῆ=ος τοῦ κυρίου,ναπεσVν< uς !γεν>=% +ερε)ς< τὸ π9ταλον πεφορεκVς< καὶ μ&ρτυς καὶ διδ&σκαλος< ο^τος !νOφ9σM κεκοίμ%ται% Of A!ollonius >A%$% )?<=B, Harnac2@ Eusebius *rites > ! "! ;)@κ9-ρ%ται δC καὶ μαρτυρίαις ,πὸ τῆς 3'&ννου 1ποκαλ)2ε'ς} καὶ νεκρὸν δC δυν&μει =εί8 πρὸςαὐτοῦ 3'&ννου !ν τ7 Oφ9σM !γ%γ9ρ=αι +στορεῖ % >1@ "%ile to $atmos! Clem% Al% quis dives 81@κουσον μῦ=ον< οὐ μῦ=ον ,λλὰ ὄντα λ&γον< περὶ 3'&ννου τοῦ ,ποστόλου ... τοῦ τυρ&ννουτελευτ>σαντος ,πὸ τῆς E&τμου τῆς ν>σου μετῆλ=εν !πὶ τ#ν rφεσον% Origen, in #att! )<< :δC H¦'μαί'ν Bασιλε)ς< fς παρ&δοσις διδ&σκει< κατεδίκασε τὸν 3'&νν%ν μαρτυροῦντα διὰ

τὸν τῆς ,λ%=είας λόγον ε*ς E&τμον τ#ν νῆσον% Tertullian, praescr! 6< .babes 'omam ubia!ostolus Ioannes, !ostea"uam in oleum igneum demersus ni#il !assus est, in insulamrelegatur%/ (ct! Iohann! )8 ,π9πλευσεν : 3'&νν%ς ε*ς E&τμον< Gπου καὶ 0ιV=% τ#ν τῆςσυντελείας *δεῖν ,ποκ&λυ2ιν, ib! ;ρ-εται πρός με καὶ τὸν ,δελφόν μου 3&κ'Bον%ictorinus in (poc! )K)) ."uando #aec Ioannes vidit erat in insula Patmos, in metallum

damnatus

)

a $omitiano Caesare% ibi ergo vidit A!ocal&!sin et cum iam senior !utaret se !er !assionem acce!turum rece!tionem, interfecto $omitiano, omnia eius indicia soluta sunt, etIoannes de metallo dimissus sic !ostea tradidit #anc eandem "uam acce!erat a $eoA!ocal&!sin%.

<%% 'ead cursoril&, t#is evidence ma& seem to establis# t#e identit& of 5o#n t#eA!ostle *it# t#e resident in Asia and t#e e3ile of Patmos% ut a more carefule3amination suggests caution% T#e *itness of Irenaeus s#e*s be&ond a doubt t#at a5o#n *#o #ad been a disci!le of t#e Lord resided in Asia *it#in t#e lifetime of Pol&car!is#o! of Sm&rna, *#o *as born >Harnac2@ in A%$% <?% A bis#o! of E!#esus at t#e endof t#e second centur& asserts t#at t#e 5o#n *#o la& on t#e Lord7s breast *as buried atE!#esus and anot#er Asian *riter of t#e same !eriod s!ea2s of a miracle *#ic# 5o#nt#e aut#or of t#e A!ocal&!se !erformed in t#at cit&% No second centur& testimon&,e3ce!t t#at of t#e Leucian Acts, e3cludes t#e #&!ot#esis t#at t#e 5o#n *#o lived in Asiaand *rote t#e A!ocal&!se *as t#e Elder, or com!els us to believe t#at 5o#n t#e A!ostleever resided in Asia% +oreover it is certainl& remar2able t#at in so man& of t#e earliestreferences to #im 5o#n of Asia is called .t#e disci!le,/ and not, e3!ressl& at least, t#eA!ostle)% Nor is t#e evidence for t#e A!ostle7s e3ile to Patmos "uite conclusive% It

begins *it# Clement of Ale3andria, and it is c#iefl& *estern Irenaeus does not mentiont#e e3ile from residents in Asia, *#ere t#e event *ould #ave made t#e dee!estim!ression, no reference to it is fort#coming% 0e cannot overloo2 t#e !ossibilit& t#att#e tradition rests ultimatel& on A!oc% )?, t#oug# against t#is *e must set t#e a!!arentinde!endence of t#e *itnesses, and certain am!lifications of t#e traditional stor&, for

*#ic# t#e A!ocal&!se offers no su!!ort%On t#e *#ole it ma& be said t#at if earl& C#ristian tradition favours t#e

identification of 5o#n of E!#esus *it# t#e A!ostle, it does not e3clude t#e o!!osite

#&!ot#esis, *#et#er in t#e Eusebian form or in t#at *#ic# is no* advocated%

B% It *ould materiall& assist us in arriving at a decision if *e could ascertain t#e

lengt# of t#e A!ostle7s life% Irenaeus, as *e #ave seen, re!resents 5o#n, t#e disci!le of

t#e Lord, as #aving lived to t#e time of Traan, i%e% to t#e &ear ? at least% T#at t#e

A!ostle lived to old age is assumed b& ancient *riters, e%g% b& Clement of Ale3andria in

#is :uis dives), and b& 5erome in #is commentar& on -alatians% T#ere is, #o*ever,

some evidence to be set on t#e ot#er side% A +S% of -eorgius Hamartolus >cent% ?%@

1 o-n t'e 5le of t'e slan r+n a s+ccesson of 'lls; n one of t'e5, n t'e

nort'ern 'alf of t'e slan, t'ere are +arres. 's, per'aps, s t'e eplanaton

of t'e state5ent t'at St #o'n -as Ca5nat+s n 5etall+5, as t'ere o not

appear to 'a8e een an* 5nes, properl* so calle. 'e rock s c'efl*

8olcanc.< . . =tpatrck, A %isit to Pat&os (n 'rsts olle3e Ma3ane,

1%%7).

1 See /o+sset, Die Offenbarung , p. 41 f., an n Encycl. Bibl., 1., col. 19%.

1 $p. E+s. H.E. :24, : πρεσB)τ%ς ... τὸν γ9ροντα.

alleges t#e aut#orit& of Pa!ias, in t#e second boo2 of #is *or2, for t#e statement t#at

5o#n t#e son of 4ebedee *as mart&red b& t#e 5e*s1, and t#e reference to Pa!ias is no*

su!!orted b& an e3tract !rinted b& $r C% $e oor from an O3ford +S% of t#e Bt# or t#

centur&6, an e!itome !robabl& based u!on t#e C#ronicle of P#ili! of Side >cent% ;%@%T#e Coislin +S% of -eorgius adds at /hron! 6)68 Y3'&νν%ςZ μαρτυρίου κατ%0ί'ται}

Eαπίας γὰρ : |εραπόλε'ς !πίσκοπος< αὐτόπτ%ς το)του γενόμενος< !ν τI δευτ9ρM λόγM τ$νFυριακ$ν λογί'ν φ&σκει Gτι "πὸ 3ουδαί'ν ,ν6ρ9=%< πλ%ρVσας δ%λαδ# μετὰ τοῦ ,δελφοῦτ#ν τοῦ -ριστοῦ περὶ αὐτ$ν πρόρρ%σιν% $e oor7s fragment runs Eαπίας !ν τI δευτ9ρM λόγMλ9γει Gτι 3'&νν%ς : =εολόγος8 καὶ 3&κ'Bος : ,δελφὸς αὐτοῦ "πὸ 3ουδαί'ν ,ν6ρ9=%σαν%

0it# t#is testimon& before us it is not eas& to doubt t#at Pa!ias made some suc#statement, for t#e suggestion of a lacuna, offered b& is#o! Lig#tfoot in )B;;, is no*scarcel& tenable, t#oug# it #as been latel& revived b& Harnac2 <% ut if Pa!ias made it,t#e "uestion remains *#et#er #e made it under some misa!!re#ension, or merel& b&*a& of e3!ressing #is conviction t#at t#e !ro!#ec& of +c% )K6? #ad found a literalfulfilment% Neit#er e3!lanation is ver& !robable in vie* of t#e earl& date of Pa!iasB% Hedoes not, #o*ever, affirm t#at t#e brot#ers suffered at t#e same time t#e mart&rdom of5o#n at t#e #and of t#e 5e*s mig#t #ave ta2en !lace at an& date before t#e last da&s of5erusalem% ut even if *e !ost!one it to t#e &ear <?, and acce!t t#e earlier date of t#eA!ocal&!se, t#e boo2 can #ardl& #ave come from t#e #and of t#e son of 4ebedee%

% T#us, if t#e statement of Pa!ias is to be allo*ed to enter into our calculations, it

becomes a ver& im!ortant factor, for it dis!oses of t#e A!ostolic aut#ors#i! of t#e

A!ocal&!se)% If *e believe it, *e s#all be com!elled to attribute t#e boo2 to an

un2no*n 5o#n, *#o *ill !robabl& be t#e second of t#e t*o *#o are named in t#e

Eusebian fragment of Pa!ias% To 5o#n t#e Elder *e s#all t#en ascribe t#e residence in

E!#esus and t#e Patmos *#ic# from t#e time of Clement of Ale3andria it #as been

usual to ascribe to 5o#n t#e A!ostle% T#e Elder *ill also be, as it seems, t#e .disci!le*#om 5esus loved,/ *#ose !ersonalit& is felt t#roug#out t#e 5o#annine literature% If an

unverifiable reference to a lost boo2 seems too narro* a basis for so large a

su!erstructure, t#ere is still t#e c#ance of a !rimar& error, a confusion bet*een t#e

A!ostle and t#e Elder, *#ic# ma& #ave e3isted even in t#e mind of Irenaeus, and #ave

2 See Nolte n Th. ;uartalschrift , 1%62, p. 466.

n Te+te u. ntersuchungen (":2, p. 170, 1%%%).

4 w =εολόγος, as r Sana* ponts o+t (Criticis& of the !ourth "ospel , p. 2"1),

5a* +te -ell 'a8e een +e to t'e fra35entst.<

" ,upernatural 0eligion, p. 212: t'e sentence 5a* 'a8e r+n n t'e or3nal

so5e-'at n t's -a*, Eαπίας ... φ&σκει Gτι 3'&νν%ς YμCν "πὸ τοῦ H¦'μαί'ν

Bασιλ9'ς κατεδικ&σ=%< 3&κ'Bος δCZ "πὸ 3ουδαί'ν ,ν6ρ9=%.<

6 Chronologie, 1. p. 66" f.

7 r Sana* (Criticis&, p. 2"1) -rtes: 'e nat+ral ate for t'e etracts n t's

c'apter E+s. H.E. :9G see5s to 5e to e circa 100.<

1 Jnless -e follo- Epp'an+s, -'o places t'e ele an t'e 8sons of t'e

$pocal*pse +ner la++s; see ao8e, p. 96.



!er!etuated itself in t#e *ritings of #is successors% On t#is su!!osition, again, t#e

A!ocal&!se is not t#e *or2 of t#e son of 4ebedee and !robabl& comes from t#e disci!le

*#o *as not of t#e T*elve%

?% ut t#ere is somet#ing to be said on t#e ot#er side% T#e S&no!tists #ave !reserved

some c#aracteristic recollections of 5o#n t#e son of 4ebedee, from *#ic# t#e reader oft#e -os!els ma& gain an im!ression of t#e man% He *as one of t#e t#ree *#o formed

t#e inner circle of t#e A!ostolic college, and #ad s#ared *it# Peter and 5ames

o!!ortunities *#ic# *ere denied to t#e ot#er nine% He *as one of t#e t*o bret#ren *#o

received from t#e Lord t#e great name of oanerges, a *ord *#ic#, *#atever its e3act

#istor&, seems to indicate a strenuous nature1% It *as 5o#n t#e son of 4ebedee *#o

confessed t#at #e forbade one *#o did not follo* our Lord in t#e com!an& of His

disci!les to use His name for t#e *or2ing of miracles% It *as 5o#n and #is brot#er *#o

*ould #ave called do*n fire from #eaven u!on t#e Samaritan villages *#ic# refused to

receive t#e +aster on His *a& to 5erusalem% It *as for 5o#n and #is brot#er t#at t#eir

mot#er soug#t t#e nearest !laces to t#e +essia# in t#e glor& of His ingdom% In all

t#ese res!ects t#e A!ocal&!tist s#e*s some affinit& to t#e 5o#n of t#e S&no!tic -os!els%

He is a son of t#under #e calls do*n fire from #eaven #is aversion to t#e enemies of

t#e C#rist and His C#urc# is *#oleF#earted% T#e #ostile 5e*s of Sm&rna and

P#iladel!#ia are t#e synagogue of Satan Nero, $omitian, t#e Em!ire itself so far as it

ado!ts t#eir !olic&, is the &east 'ome is &abylon, the mother of the harlots and of the

abominations of the earth% T#e tone of t#e boo2 *#en it las#es t#e !ersecutor, t#e

idolater, t#e unclean, is almost truculent t#e Seer7s rig#teous *rat# reac#es a *#ite

#eat% T#e conce!tion of t#e C#rist is one *#ic# mig#t seem im!ossible for t#e

!πιστ>=ιος, t#oug# not for t#e son of 4ebedee as #e a!!ears in t#e S&no!tists% T#eC#rist of t#e A!ocal&!se is infinitel& maestic and august, but His !redominant

c#aracteristic is unbounded !o*er s#e*ing itself in a ust severit&% As t#e S#e!#erd, He

rules *it# a rod of iron as t#e Lamb, He is terrible in His anger as t#e ing, He treads

t#e *ine!ress of t#e *rat# of -od% Onl& once or t*ice does t#e tenderness of our Lord7s

com!assion, or t#e intimac& of His fello*s#i! *it# men ma2e itself felt in t#is boo2%

T#ere are fe* ec#oes in t#e A!ocal&!se of t#e intense s&m!at#& for t#e suffering and

for sinners *#ic# t#e -os!els associate *it# t#e #uman life of our Lord% T#e Ascension

and E3altation account for t#e !o*er and glor& *it# *#ic# He is invested b& t#e

A!ocal&!tist, but t#e& do not *#oll& e3!lain t#e c#anged !oint of vie* *e feel t#at t#e *evelation of 'esus /hrist #as !assed t#roug# a mind *#ic# #as coloured it *it# its o*n

severit&, and t#e colouring is not unli2e t#at *#ic# t#e 5o#n of t#e S&no!tic -os!els

mig#t #ave been e3!ected to im!art% T#is fact, t#oug# far from being decisive, ma& *ell

lead us to #esitate before *e definitel& reect t#e attribution of t#e A!ocal&!se to t#e

A!ostle 5o#n%

)K% T#e subect must not be dismissed *it#out an attem!t to consider, #o*ever

briefl&, t#e literar& relation bet*een t#e A!ocal&!se and t#e fourt# -os!el% Some of t#e

evidence #as been collected in an earlier c#a!ter of t#is introduction)% It a!!ears to s#e*

2 ,t Mar# 2, p. 60.

1 C. 11.; see especall* p. 121. ff.

t#at t#ere is an affinit& bet*een t#e t*o boo2s, e3tending occasionall& to minute

resemblances, but counterbalanced b& differences so !rofound t#at t#e doubt raised b&

$ion&sius remains unsolved%>a@% T#e difference of st&le and language #as been e3!lained as due in !art to a

.difference in t#e sco!e of t#e boo2s1,/ and in !art to t#eir relative dates% >)@ $r Lig#tfoot calls

attention to t#e !eculiar st&le of t#e a!ocal&!tic !assages in t#e E!istles to t#e T#essaloniansand in 1 Peter .*e seem,/ #e *rites, .to #ave stumbled on a !assage out of t#e Hebre*

!ro!#ets,/ adding t#at t#is .e3!lains also to a great e3tent t#e mar2ed difference in st&le bet*een t#e 'evelation of St 5o#n and #is ot#er *ritings6%/ ut t#e analog& of a!ocal&!tic !assages in Ot#er boo2s of t#e Ne* Testament goes onl& a little *a& to*ards e3!laining t#est&listic eccentricities of t#e aut#or of t#e A!ocal&!se% Even t#e LUU% version of t#e Pro!#ets,uncout# and unintelligible as it often is, can s#e* no succession of anomalies com!arable tot#ose of t#e 'evelation of St 5o#n% T#e argument from analog& *ould be convincing if t#e st&leof t#e 'evelation differed from t#e st&le of t#e -os!el in t#e same or nearl& t#e same degree ast#e a!ocal&!tic !assages in St Paul differ from t#e rest of #is *ritings% ut in t#e former caset#e difference is in trut# not one of degree, but of 2ind% It is incredible t#at t#e *riter of t#e-os!el could #ave *ritten t#e A!ocal&!se *it#out a conscious effort savouring of literar&artifice% >1@ Is t#is difficult& removed if *e su!!ose t#at t#e A!ocal&!se *as *ritten t*ent& orfiveFandFt*ent& &ears before t#e -os!el $r 0estcott >l!c!@, arguing for t#e !riorit& of t#eA!ocal&!se, sa&s t#at it is .ver& difficult to su!!ose t#at t#e language of t#e *riter of t#e-os!el could !ass at a later time in a -ree2Fs!ea2ing countr& into t#e language of t#eA!ocal&!se,/ but on t#e ot#er #and #e t#in2s t#at .intercourse *it# a -ree2Fs!ea2ing !eo!le*ould in a s#ort time naturall& reduce t#e st&le of t#e aut#or of t#e A!ocal&!se to t#at of t#eaut#or of t#e -os!el%/ To t#e !resent *riter t#e latter #&!ot#esis is at least as difficult as t#eformer% T#e *riter of t#e A!ocal&!se ma& not #ave been eit#er more or less of a -ree2 sc#olart#an t#e *riter of t#e -os!el but in t#eir general attitude to*ards t#e use of language t#e&differ fundamentall&% T#e difference is due to !ersonal c#aracter rat#er t#an to relativefamiliarit& *it# -ree2% And *#en st&le e3!resses individual c#aracter it undergoes little

material c#ange even in a long life of literar& activit&, es!eciall& after t#e age *#ic# St 5o#nmust #ave reac#ed in A%$% <? or BK%>b@% T#e differences of t#oug#t *#ic# distinguis# t#e t*o boo2s #ave never been more

successfull& delineated t#an b& $r 0estcott in #is introduction to t#e -os!el of St 5o#n)% Oft#ese, too, #e finds a sufficient e3!lanation in t#e !riorit& of t#e A!ocal&!se1 .t#e differences,/in conce!tion as in language, .ans*er to differences in situation, and are not inconsistent *it#identit& of aut#ors#i!%/ .Of t#e t*o boo2s t#e A!ocal&!se is t#e earlier% It is less develo!ed

bot# in t#oug#t and st&le to go bac2 from t#e teac#ing of t#e -os!el to t#at of t#eA!ocal&!se to reduce t#e full e3!ression of trut# to its rudimentar& beginnings, seems toinvolve a moral miracle%/ ut, even conceding t#e !riorit& of t#e A!ocal&!se, can *e e3!laint#e difference of stand!oint b& develo!ement Is t#e relation of t#e A!ocal&!tic to t#eEvangelical teac#ing t#at *#ic# e3ists bet*een rudimentar& 2no*ledge and t#e maturit& of

t#oug#t And is it to be maintained t#at St 5o#n7s conce!tions of C#ristian trut#s *ere stillrudimentar& fort& &ears after t#e Ascension, and reac#ed maturit& onl& in e3treme old age

))%% ut #o* are *e to e3!lain t#e affinities of t#e t*o boo2s:t#e c#aracteristic !#rases and ideas *#ic# t#e& #ave in common It is usual to account for t#ese b& sa&ingt#at all t#e 5o#annine boo2s !roceed from t#e same sc#ool, t#e sc#ool of 5o#n ofE!#esus, *#et#er t#e A!ostle or t#e Presb&ter% Per#a!s it is !ossible to advance a ste!furt#er% 0#ile t#e A!ocal&!se definitel& claims to be t#e *or2 of 5o#n, no suc# claim is

2 estcott, ,t -ohn, p. %6.

otes on the Epp. of ,t Paul , p. 72 f.

1 P. %". f.

2 &n t's +eston see c. 9. of t's ntro+cton.

!ut fort# in t#e -os!el for suc# !assages as 5o% )?6;, 1K6K f%, do not assert more t#ant#at t#e boo2 contains t#e testimon& of 5o#n, and 1)18 ο^τός !στιν : μα=%τ#ς ... : γρ&2ας ταῦτα is an editorial note *#ic# must not be !ressed too closel&% On t#e ot#er#and earl& tradition e3!licitl& states t#at t#e -os!el *as *ritten from dictation, andunder*ent some 2ind of revision at t#e #ands of t#ose *#o received it%

T#e +uratorian fragment t#us describes t#e genesis of t#e fourt# -os!el ."uartum6

euangeliorum Io#annis e3 disci!ulis% co#ortantibus condisci!ulis et e!isco!is suis di3itConieiunate mi#i #odie triduo et "uid cui"ue fuerit reuelatum alterutrum nobis enarremus%eadem nocte reuelatum Andreae e3 a!ostolis ut recognoscentibus cunctis Io#annes suo nominecuncta describeret%/ 0it# t#is s#ould be com!ared t#e singular statement of a Latin !rologue tot#e -os!el, !rinted in 0ords*ort#F0#ite > ! T! 0atine, )8?K f%@ .#oc igitur evangelium !osta!ocal&!sin scri!tum) manifestum, et datum est ecclesiis in Asia a Io#anne ad#uc in cor!oreconstituto, sicut Pa!ias nomine Hiera!olitanus e!isco!us, disci!ulus Io#annis et carus, ine3otericis1 suis, id est, in e3tremis "uin"ue libris, retulit, "ui #oc evangelium Io#anne subdictante conscri!sit6%/ An anon&mous -ree2 *riter in t#e catena of Corderius tells t#e samestor& 3'&νν%ς ... π&νυ γ%ραλ9ου αὐτοῦ γενομ9νου< fς παρ9δοσαν μῖν G τε a*ρ%ναῖος καὶaὐσ9Bιος καὶ @λλοι πιστοὶ κατὰ διαδο-#ν γεγονότες +στορικοί< ... "π%γόρευσε τὸ εὐαγγ9λιον

τI Nαυτοῦ μα=%τ7 Eαπί8%T#e first of t#ese statements deserves es!ecial attention% It belongs to t#e second

centur&, and !roceeds from t#e C#urc# of 'ome, *#ic# *as in fre"uent communication*it# t#e C#urc#es of Asia +inor, and #ad recentl& been visited b& Pol&car! it ma&even #ave originated *it# Pol&car!% If its main !oints are true, t#e fourt# -os!el *asnot *ritten b& t#e #and of 5o#n, but dictated:a *ord *#ic# ma& be inter!reted *it#some la3it& and it under*ent muc# editorial revision >recognoscentibus cunctis@% Int#ese circumstances it is !ossible to conceive of t#e *riter of t#e A!ocal&!se being t#eaut#or of t#e -os!el, in t#e sense of #aving su!!lied t#e materials from *#ic# it *as*ritten%

)1% ut t#e "uestion of t#e aut#ors#i! of t#e A!ocal&!se must not be com!licated b&considerations connected *it# t#e still more ve3ed "uestion of t#e aut#ors#i! of t#e

fourt# -os!el% T#e issue *#ic# lies before t#e student of t#e A!ocal&!se is in fact

inde!endent of t#e decision at *#ic# t#e critics of t#e -os!el ma& ultimatel& arrive%

0as t#e 5o#n *#o *rote t#e A!ocal&!se t#e S&no!tic son of 4ebedee 0as it 5o#n t#e

son of 4ebedee *#o lived in Asia, and *as e3iled to Patmos, or *as it t#e m&sterious

Elder, *#o is distinguis#ed b& Pa!ias from t#e A!ostle of t#e same name A fair case

ma& be made for eit#er vie*% On t#e one #and t#e general c#aracter of t#e boo2 accords

*it# *#at t#e S&no!tists relate *it# regard to t#e A!ostle 5o#n, and t#e main current of

C#ristian tradition favours t#is conclusion% On t#e ot#er #and, t#ere is some uncertaint&

o. ?uarti. 'e MSS. 'a8e een tactl* correcte n t's etract an t'e net.

1 's s t'e orer +s+all* alle3e; see e.3. t'e passa3es collecte * orssen,

Monarch. Prologe, p. %01 (n T. u. . 1":1).

2 &n t's -or see !3'tfoot, Biblical Essays, p. 69, n. "; ,upernatural 0eligion,

p. 210 ff.

So o. oletan+s; o. re3. S+et. ens: escrpst 8ero e8an3el+5, ctante

#o'anne recte. ('e spelln3 of t'e MSS. 'as een confor5e to t'e +s+al

ort'o3rap'*.)

as to t#e lengt# of t#e A!ostle7s life, and some reason to sus!ect t#at t#e A!ostle and t#e

disci!le are confused in our earliest aut#orities% 0#ile inclining to t#e traditional vie*

*#ic# #olds t#at t#e aut#or of t#e A!ocal&!se *as t#e A!ostle 5o#n, t#e !resent *riter

desires to 2ee! an o!en mind u!on t#e "uestion% Dres# evidence ma& at an& time be

!roduced *#ic# *ill turn t#e scale in favour of t#e Elder% T#ere are t#ose *#om t#isindecision *ill disa!!oint, but it is best fran2l& to confess t#e uncertaint& *#ic# besets

t#e !resent state of our 2no*ledge% 0e cannot &et *it# safet& go far be&ond t#e dictumof $ion&sius Gτι μCν ο(ν 3'&νν%ς !στὶν : ταῦτα γρ&φ'ν< αὐτI λ9γοντι πιστευτ9ον}ποῖος δC ο^τος< @δ%λον%

)<% TEUT)% T#e follo*ing (ncial +SS% contain t#e -ree2 te3t of t#e A!ocal&!se, or a !art of

it%

% Cod% Sinaiticus >8%@% Ed% Tisc#endorf, )<1%

A% Cod% Ale3andrinus >;%@% Ed% E% +% T#om!son, )B?%C% Cod% E!#raemi Parisiensis >;%@% Ed% Tisc#endorf, )86% Contains A!oc% ))=6)?, ;)8=B)8,B)B=;, ?)<=)K)K, ))6=)6)6, )1=)?;%

P% Cod% Porfirianus C#iavensis >?%@% Ed% Tisc#endorf >in mon! sacra ined! <%@, )<?% ContainsA!oc% ))=)<)1, )B)=)?1), 1K?=11<%

G>R1@%

Cod% aticanus -r% 1K<<, olim asiliensis )K; >%@% Ed% Tisc#endorf >in app! ! T! +atic!@,)<B%

@% Cod% osinitsanus >?% or )K%@ see ScrivenerF+iller, 1%, !% 6BB -regor&, Te%tkritik des

!T!, )%, !% ?< en&on, andbook to the te%tual criticism of the ! T!, !% )K8% on Soden, Die Schriften des ! T!, )% )% !% )K8, locates it at $rama% Not &et edited or collated%

1% T#us at !resent t#ere are available onl& t#ree com!lete and t*o im!erfect uncials

of t#e A!ocal&!se% T#e minuscules also are com!arativel& fe* *#ile *e #ave )B1;+SS% of t#e -os!els, ;1K of t#e Acts and Cat#olic E!istles, and <)? of Paul, t#ose of t#e

A!ocal&!se do not reac# 16K)% T#e follo*ing list is based on $r C% '% -regor&7s

$rolegomena to Tisc#endorf and Te%tkritik %)% +ai#ingen, Libr% of t#e Prince of ttingenF0allerstein >)1% or )6%@% T#e onl& +S% used b&

Erasmus in );)< for t#e A!ocal&!se)% 'ediscovered b& $elit9sc# in )<) collated b&Tregelles in )<1%

1% Paris, ibl% Nat% -r% 16B >)K%@RActs )K, Paul )1%6% A +S% cited b& Ste!#en ot#er*ise un2no*n%8% Paris, ibl% Nat% -r% 1)? >))%@RActs )1, Paul )<%

;% 'eadings cited b& Laurentius alla a% )88K%<% O3ford, odl% arocc% 6 >))%@RActs 16, Paul 1%B% London, rit% +us%, Harl% ;;6B >A%$% )KB@RActs 1;, Paul 6)%% London, rit% +us%, Harl% ;BB >)1%@RActs 1, Paul 68%?% O3ford, odl% +isc% -r% B8 >))%@RActs 6K, Paul 6<%)K% Cambridge, (niv% $d% ?<? >);%@REv% <K%))% Petavius 1RActs 6?, Paul 8;, #as disa!!eared%)1% 'ome, at% 'eg% -r% )B? >);%@RActs 8K, Paul 8<%)6% Dran2fort on Oder, L&ceum >))%@RPaul 8%)8% Leicester, Libr% of t#e To*n Council >);%@REv% <?, Acts 6), Paul 6B%

1 'e n+5ers are 8on Soens (1902).

1 &n t'e tet of Eras5+s see Hort, ntro. to H., > 46.

);% asle, (niv% A%N% 6)1 >@ anne3ed to Cod% E of t#e -os!els, but in a later #andcontains onl& A!oc% 66=8%

)<% Hamburg, Cit& Libr% >);%@RActs 8;, Paul ;1%)B% Paris, ibl% Nat%, Coisl% -r% )?? >))%@REv% 6;, Acts )8, Paul )%)% Paris, ibl% Nat%, Coisl% -r% 1K1 >)1%@RActs ), Paul 11%

)?% Paris, ibl% Nat%, Coisl% -r% 1K; >)K%@RActs )B, Paul 1)%1K% 'ome, at% Libr%, -r% 1KK >)K% or ))%@REv% )B;, Acts 8), Paul )?8%1)% 'ome, allicelli $% 1K >);%@%11% 'ome, allicelli % < >)8%@RActs )<<, Paul 1K8%16% Dlorence, Laur% Conv% So!!r% ;6 >A%$% )66)@REv% 6<B, Acts )8<, Paul )1%18% 'ome, at% -r% 1K<1 >)K% or ))%@RActs )<K, Paul )?6%1;% 'ome, at% Palat% -r% )B) >);%@REv% )8?, Acts BB, Paul %1<% O3ford, C#rist C#% 0a2e )1 >))% or )1%@REv% ;K<, Acts )??, Paul 1;<%1B% O3ford, C#rist C#% 0a2e 68 >))% or )1%@REv% ;)B, Acts )?K, Paul 188%1% O3ford, odl% arocc% 8 >);%@ ends at )B;%1?% London, rit% +us% Harl% ;<)6 >A%$% )8KB@RActs <K, Paul <6%

6K% 0olfenbJttel, ))8%@RActs <?%6)% London, rit% +us% Harl% ;);%@%61% $resden, 'eg% A )18 >);%@%66% ienna, Im!% -r% t#% 16 >)6%@REv% 1), Acts <;, Paul ;B *ants )6;=)8, );B=)B1,

))K=)?);, 1KB=111)%68% ienna, Im!% -r% t#% 6K1 >))%@RActs <<, Paul )8%@%6<% ienna, Im!% Libr% su!!l% -r% ?6 >)6%@%6B% 'ome, at% -r% 6<< >);%@RActs B1, Paul B?%6% 'ome, at% -r% ;B? >);%@%6?% 'ome, at% -r% ))6< a >)8%@RPaul ; *ants ))=6, )B <)=)6))%8K% 'ome, at% -r% ))<K >)6% or )8%@REv% )8), Acts B;, Paul <%8)% 'ome, at% 'eg% -r% < >);%@%81% 'ome, at% Pius II -r% ;K >)1%@RActs K, Paul ?)%86% 'ome, arb% 8;< >)8%@% Contains A!oc% )8)B=)1K%88% 'ome, Pro!ag% L% <)? >)8%@REv% )K, Acts 1, Paul ?1%8;% Dlorence, Laur% 861 >A%$% )K?1@RActs ?, Paul ??%8<% enice, St +ar27s )K >);%@REv% 1K?, Acts ?;, Paul )K%8B% $resden, 'eg% A )B1 >))%@REv% 18), Acts )K8, Paul )1K%8% +osco*, S&n% 6K >)1%@REv% 181, Acts )K;, Paul )1)%

8?% +osco*, S&n% );%@%;K% +osco*, S&n% 1K< >);%@%;)% Paris, Nat% -r% 8B >A%$% )6<8@REv% ), Acts ))6, Paul )61%;1% Paris, Nat% -r% ;< >)1%@RActs ;), Paul )66%;6% Paris, Nat% -r% ;? >);%@RActs ))<, Paul )6<%;8% acant%;;% Paris, Nat% -r% )K) >)6%@RActs )), Paul )6%;<% Paris, Nat% -r% )K1 >)6% or )8%@RActs ))?, Paul )6?%;B% Paris, Nat% -r% )18 >)<%@REv% 1?<, Acts )18, Paul )8?%;% Paris, Nat% -r% )? >);% or )<%@%;?% Paris, Nat% Su!!l% -r% ?? >);% or )<%@%

<K% acant%<)% Paris, Nat% -r% 8?) >)6% or )8%@ contains ))=11%

<1% Paris, Nat% -r% 16? >A%$% )811@%<6% Paris, Nat% -r% 18) >)<%@%<8% Paris, Nat% -r% 118 >))%@RPaul );?%<;% +osco*, (niv% 1; >)1%@ contains )<1K=111)%<<% acant%

<B% 'ome, at% -r% )B86 >A%$% )6K)@%<% 'ome, at% -r% )?K8 >))% or )1%@% Contains A!oc% )))=11K, 6)<=<?, B)B=?;,

1))=111)%<?% 'ome, at% Ottob% 1; >)8%@RActs )<), Paul )? a -raecoFLatin te3t% 0ants )11=

111)%BK% 'ome, at% Ottob% << >)8%@REv% 6<, Acts );), Paul )??%B)% acant%B1% 'ome, C#igi '% 8 >)<%@%B6% 'ome, Corsini 8) E% 6B >);%@%B8% enice, St +ar27s ;8< >))%@RActs )8K, Paul 1);%B;% Dlorence, Laur% 86K >)K%@RActs <, Paul ?<%

B<% acantRB;%BB% Dlorence, Laur% B? >)<%@%B% 'ome, at% Ottob% -r% )B< >);%@RPaul )?B%B?% 'ome, at% -r% <;< >)8%@%B? a% +unic#, 'eg% -r% 18 >)<%@%K% +unic#, 'eg% -r% ;88 >)8%@%)% +unic#, 'eg% -r% 16 >)<%@%1% +unic#, 'eg% 1)) >))%@RActs )B?, Paul )1%6% Turin, (niv% % ; >6K1@ >)6%@REv% 66?, Acts )6;, Paul )BK%8% Dlorence, 'iccardi 8 >);%@REv% 6<, Acts );K%;% 5erusalem, Hol& Se!% ? >)6%@RActs )8, Paul 161%<% St Saba )K >)8%@REv% 8<1, Acts )B, Paul 16;%B% erlin, 'eg% P#illi!!s )8<) >)8% and );%@RActs )B, Paul 181 *ants )88=)8, 1))1=

111)%% enice, St +ar27s ; >);%@REv% 1K;, Acts ?6, Paul )K<%?% St Saba 1K >)6%@REv% 8<<, Acts )?, Paul 16B%?K% $resden, 'eg% A% ?; >)1%@%?)% 'ome, at% -r% )1K? >);%@RPaul 1?6%?1% $ublin, Trin% A% 8% 1) >)<%@REv% <), Acts 68, Paul 8K%?6% London, Lambet# ))< >))%@RPaul 1?K *ants )8)<=);B )?8=111)%?8% London, rit% +us% Add% ))6B >A%$% )6;B@REv% 1K), Acts ?), Paul )K8%

?;% Par#am, Cur9on 1% )B >))% or )1%@%?<% Par#am, Cur9on ?6% 1 >)8%@%?B% London, rit% +us% Add% )B8<? >)8%@REv% 8?, Acts )?, Paul 1;;%?% O3ford, odl% Canon% gr% 68 >A%$% ););@REv% ;11, Acts 1KK, Paul 1;B *ants 1))=16%??% Na!les, Nat% 1% Aa% B >)1%@RActs 6, Paul ?6%)KK% Na!les, Nat% 1% Aa% )K >)8% or );%@%)K)% Petersburg, +uralt )1? >);%@%)K1% Paris, Nat% Armen% ? >))%@RActs 6K), Paul 1;? *ants )?)<=111)%)K6% Derrara, (niv% ) NA% B >A%$% )668@REv% ;1, Acts 1K<, Paul 1<1%)K8% St Saba 1K >))%@RActs 186, Paul 1B%)K;% At#ens, Nat% >86@, Sa22% ?8 >)1%@RActs 6KB, Paul 8<? A!% 1)1B=111) in a later #and%

)K<% 4ittau, To*n Libr% A% ) >);%@REv% <<8, Acts 1;6, Paul 6K6%)KB% C#elten#am, B<1 >))%@REv% <K, Acts 1;;, Paul 6K;%

)K% Hig#gate, urdettFCoutts 18 >))%@REv% <??, Acts 1;<, Paul 6K<%)K?% enice, St +ar27s < >);% or )<%@REv% 1K<, Acts ?8, Paul )KB%))K% At#ens, Nat% t#% )1, Sa22% );K >)6% or )8%@REv% B;B, Acts 1<K, Paul 6K?%)))% At#ens, Nat% <B+, Sa22% )KB >)6%@REv% B?1%))1% At#ens, +amou2a >)1%@REv% K, Acts 1<;, Paul 6)8%

))6% -rottaferrata A% a% ) >)8%@REv% 18, Acts 1<B, Paul 6)<%))8% 'ome, at% -r% )1 >)8%@REv% <<% Contains A!oc% <)B=)61 in -ree2 and Latin%));% 'ome, at% 'eg% -r% < >A%$% )8;8@REv% <, Acts 1<, Paul 6)B%))<% At#os, -reg% 6 >A%$% )))<@REv% ?11, Acts 1BK, Paul 61K%))B% At#os, Es!#igm% )< >)8%@REv% ?<, Acts 1BB, Paul 61<%))% At#os, Laur% >)8%@REv% )KB1, Acts 18, Paul 666%))?% At#os, Laur% >)8%@REv% )KB;, Acts 1<, Paul 668%)1K% At#os, Panteleem% 1?% >)8%@REv% )K?8, Acts 1B, Paul 66;%)1)% Paris, Nat% Coisl% 118 >))%@RActs 1;K, Paul 1??%)11% At#ens, Nat% t#% 1)B, Sa22% 8?K >)8%@RActs 1;), Paul 6K)%)16% Paris, Nat% Su!!l% -r% );? >)8%@REv% B86, Acts 1;?%

)18% At#ens, Nat% ><8@, Sa22% ?) >)1%@RActs 6K?, Paul 6KK *ants )11=111)%)1;% Escurial, ‚% 6< >))%@RActs 16;%)1<% Escurial, ‚% 6) >)K%@RActs 16<%)1B% Lesbos, τοῦ λειμ$νος ;; >?% or )K%@RActs 616, Paul 81?%)1% enice, St +ar27s 1))8 >A%$% )K<?@RActs 661, Paul 868%)1?% Lin2X!ing, $ioc% Libr% )8% 6; >)K% or ))%@RActs 668, Paul 86<%)6K% At#os, Iveron 1; >))%@RActs 6;?, Paul 8;1 see !% )?1%%)6)% At#os, Iveron <K >)6%@RActs 6<1, Paul 8;;%)61% At#os, Paul 1 >?%@RActs 6B8, Paul 8<6%)66% C#alcis, sc#ol% 1< >)K%@RActs 68, Paul 6;;%)68% C#alcis, sc#ol% ?< >)1%@RActs 6<, Paul 6;B%)6;% Sinai, 1B? >);%@RActs 6??, Paul 6A%$% );KB@%)6B% ienna, Im!% -r% t#% )<6 >);%@%)6% ienna, Im!% -r% t#% 11K >);%@%)6?% Paris, Nat% -r% 18K >A%$% );86@%)8K% Paris, Nat% Coisl% -r% 1;< >))% or )1%@%)8)% At#ens, τῆς Bουλῆς >)<%@%)81% Escurial, T% 6)B >)K%@%)86% Escurial, U% 6< >A%$% ))KB@%)88% +adrid, O% )?, no% B >)<%@%

)8;% Dlorence, Laur% B1? >)<%@ contains ))=B;%)8<% +essina, (niv% ?? >)6%@%)8B% +odena, Este 6% E% ) >);% or )<%@%)8% +odena, Este 6% D% )1 >);%@%)8?% 'ome, Angel% A% 8% ) >)8% or );%@%);K% 'ome, Angel% % ;% ); >);%@%);)% 'ome, C#igi '% % 66 >)8%@%);1% 'ome, at% -r% 6BK >))%@%);6% 'ome, at% -r% ;81 >A%$% )66)@%);8% 'ome, at% -r% ))?K >);% or )<%@%);;% 'ome, at% -r% )81< >)6%@%

);<% +ilan, Ambr% H% )K8% su!% >A%$% )868@RActs )6?, Paul )B8%);B% 'ome, at% -r% )?B< >)<%@%

);% 'ome, at% -r% 1)1? >)<%@%);?% 'ome, at% Ottob% -r% );8 >);%@%)<K% 'ome, at% Ottob% -r% 16 >A%$% );B8@%)<)% 'ome, at% Palat% -r% 68< >);%@%)<1% enice, St +ar27s )8K >)<%@%

)<6% enice, St +ar27s 1;8 >);% or )<%@%)<8% At#os, Anna )) >A%$% )6;<@%)<;% At#os, ato!ed% ?K%)<<% At#os, ato!ed ?K >1@>@%)<B% At#os, $ion&s% )<6 >A%$% )<11@REvst% <81, A!ost% )BK%)<% At#os, $oc#eiar% ) >A%$% )B?@%)<?% At#os, Iveron 68 >)8%@%)BK% At#os, Iveron 6B? >)K%@%)B)% At#os, Iveron ;8< >)8%@%)B1% At#os, Iveron ;?8 >)B%@%)B6% At#os, Iveron <K; >A%$% )<K)@%

)B8% At#os, Iveron <88 >A%$% )<;@%)B;% At#os, Iveron <<) >A%$% );<1@%)B<% At#os, onstamon% 1? >)<%@%)BB% At#os, onstamon% )KB >)6%@%)B% Patmos, St 5o#n )1 >)8%@RA!ost% )<)%)B?% Patmos, St 5o#n <8 >)1%@%)K% Dlorence, Laur% Con&% So!!r% );K >)1%@RActs )8?, Paul 68? -raecoFLatin%))% London, rit% +us% Add% 1)< >A%$% ))))@RActs 1K;, Paul 8BB%)1% $resden, 'eg% A% )B >)<%@%)6% Saloni2i, Nλλ%νικοῦ γυμνασίου )K >)K%@RA!ost% )<6%)8% Le&den, (niv% Isaac oss -r% 8 >A%$% );<K@%);% Cambridge, (niv% >))% or )1%@REv% )1BB, Acts 8), Paul 88%)<% At#os, Pantocr% 88 >)K%@ contains )18=111) see !% )?1%%)B% -reg% 8?;% 5erusalem, Patr% 6 >))%@RActs >Paul@ 8?;%)% -reg% ;KK% 5erusalem, Patr% Saba <<; >))%@RActs >Paul@ ;KK%)?% -reg% ;K)% 5erusalem, Patr% Saba <B< >)1%@RActs >Paul@ ;K)%)?K% -reg% ;K8% 5erusalem, Patr% Staur% ;B >)1%=)6%@RActs ;K8, Evl% ??) b%)?)% -reg% ;K<% Constantino!le, Hol& Se!% 6K6% 1 >)8%@%)?1% -reg% ;))% At#ens, Nat% Sa22% )81 >);%@%)?6% -reg% )61% 5erusalem, Patr% Saba )K) >)8%@REv% )61%)?8% -reg% )6K% At#os, -reg% 6 >A%$% )))1@REv% >Acts, Paul@ )6K%

)?;% -reg% )68% Andros, Eανα-ρ&ντου )6 >))%@REv% >Acts, Paul@ )68%on Soden > Die Schriften des !T! )% )% !% 1?@ raises t#e number of A!ocal&!se

+SS% to 11?, of *#ic# 116 are cursives%

Of t#e cursive te3ts, so far as t#e& are 2no*n, t#e follo*ing are !er#a!s s!eciall&

note*ort#& ), <, B, )1, )8, 6), 6<, 6, ?), ?1, ?6, ?;, )6K, );1, )BK, )<% An

a!!reciation of t#e available uncials is given b& $r Hort in #is introduction to The !T!

in the original -reek , 688%

6% T#e ancient ersions of t#e A!ocal&!se are as follo*s

)% 0atin >latt%@%

>α@ Old Latin >latvt@)%

g% Cod% Holmiensis >)6%@, 2no*n as -igas, from its si9e a o#emian +S% no* at Stoc2#olm%

Ed% els#eim, )B% T#e te3t of t#e A!ocal&!se is .late Euro!ean/ >0H%, Intr% ))<@

.sc#eint italienisc#er Art 9u sein/ >-regor&, Tk! !% <K@%

# >or reg@% Cod% Dloriacensis >B%@, formerl& at Dleur&, no* at Paris% Ed% erger, )?% Offers,according to 0H%, l!c!, a .a !urel& African te3t%/ Contains onl& A!oc% ))=18, B=?)1,

)))<=)1;, )1<=)8, )8);=)<;%

m% Te3t of t#e A!ocal&!se in t#e Speculum >a PseudoFAugustinian treatise de divinis

scripturis@% T#e boo2 is edited b& 0ei#ric# in t#e ienna /orpus scr! eccl! lat!, vol% )1%

!% 1?< ff% >)B@% T#e fragments of t#e N% T% te3t are collected b& els#eim >)??@% Hort

>-regor&, Tk! !% <K<@ *as dis!osed to regard t#e N% T% te3t of t#e Speculum as S!anis#,

or a recension !arallel to t#e Euro!ean te3t%

Prim% Te3t of t#e A!ocal&!se in t#e commentar& of Primasius ><%@% Ed% Haussleiter, )?) >in

4a#n7s 5orschungen, 8%@%>B@ ulgate >latvg@%

am% Cod% Amiatinus >c! A%$% BKK@%

demid% Cod% $emidovianus >)1%@%

fuld% Cod% Duldensis ><%@%

#arl% Cod% Harleianus >?%@%

li!ss%8, ;, <% Codd% Li!sienses >)8%, );%@%

tol% Cod% Toletanus >%@%

vg%cle% Edition of t#e ulgate issued b& Clement % in );?1 >ercellone, &iblia sacra

vulgatae editionis Si%ti ;! et /lementis <! iussu recognita atque edita% 'omae, )<)@%

1% Syriac >s&rr@%>α@ Su!!lement to t#e ulgate S&riac or Pes#itta >s&r%, -*&nn7s P@% Ed% Leusden and Sc#aaf,

Le&den )BK, )B)B% T#e .canon of t#e true Pes#itta did not contain t#e A!ocal&!se/

>above, !% )))%@, and t#e version of t#is boo2 !rinted in Sc#aaf7s edition and originall&

!ublis#ed b& $e $ieu in )<1? is closel& a2in to t#e Har2leian version, .if not actuall&

t#e *or2 of T#omas of Har2el B% it cannot be !laced earlier:or >!robabl&@ muc# if

at all later:t#an #is time)%/ Onl& one 2no*n +S% is older t#an cent% )<%>B@ A version !rinted in )?B b& $r -*&nn1, 'egius Professor of $ivinit& in t#e (niversit& of

$ublin >s&r g*%, -*&nn7s S@, from a +S% >)1@ in t#e librar& of t#e Earl of Cra*ford and

alcarres% As $r -*&nn s#e*s6

, syr g*%

is !rior to syr!, and is !robabl& .t#e *or2 of

1 &n t'e &l !atn 8erson (or 8ersons) of t'e $pocal*pse see H. !nke,

,tudien 'ur Itala, 1.; /resla+, 1%%9.

H. estcott an Hort, .T. in "ree# (a5r3e, 1%91).

1 -*nn, Apocalypse of ,t -ohn in ,yriac , p. 1".; cf. p. cl.

2 Hs eton -as precee * a 5e5or n t'e Transactions of the 0oyal Irish

Acade&y for 1%91.

-*nn, Apocalypse, pp. 9., 97.

Pol&car!us, and belongs to #is version of t#e *#ole Ne* Testament into S&riac, t#e

P#ilo3enian !ro!er of A%$% ;K%/

T#us our e3tant S&riac te3ts of t#e A!ocal&!se corres!ond in c#aracter *it# t#e

P#ilo3enian and Har2leian versions res!ectivel&% T#e boo2 *as not included in t#e

canon of t#e Pes#itta% 6% (rmenian >arm@%

On t#e editions of t#e Armenian N% T% see St #ark , !% )K)% 4o#rab #eld t#at t#e

A!ocal&!se *as not translated into Armenian before t#e eig#t# centur&, and -oussen

>Studia theologica, 1%@, *#ile !rinting a version of t#e A!ocal&!se *#ic# #e calls

antiquissima and regards as based on a co!& of e3traordinar& age >mirae vetustatis

e%emplar habuisse videtur fontem@, !ronounces t#e ordinar& Armenian A!ocal&!se to

be a *or2 of cent% )1%8 Cf% D% C% Con&beare in Hastings, D! &! )% !% );8 .t#e

A!ocal&!se *as not read in c#urc# before t#e )1t# centur&, *#en Nerses of Lam!ron

issued a muc# c#anged recension of t#e old version;%/

8% "gyptian >aegg@%>α@ +em!#itic or o#airic >me@% Ed% $% 0il2ins, )B)B -% Horner, )?=)?K;% +r Horner

!rints t#e te3t of t#e A!ocal&!se from t#e Cur9on +S% )1, *it# t#e variants of ten ot#er

+SS%<

>B@ T#ebaic or Sa#idic >t#e@% Large fragments of t#e Sa#idic A!ocal&!se are 2no*n to #ave

survived, including cc! ))6=?1), )K<=)<), )B1=)1, ))1=16, )1;=)?1, )?B=

1)?, 1)1;=111))% Some of t#ese #ave been collected b& Am[lineau > )eitschrift f!

(eg! Sprache, 1<)@, and -oussen > (pocalypsis S! Iohannis (postoli, Lei!9ig,

)?;@1%

T#e A!ocal&!se seems to #ave formed no !art of t#e original o#airic or Sa#idic N%T%, or at an& rate it *as #eld to be of inferior aut#orit& for *it# fe* e3ce!tions it is

*ritten se!aratel& from t#e rest of t#e N% T%, and it is not re!resented in t#e Co!toarabic

vocabularies6%

;% "thiopic >aet#@%

'oman edition, );8=?% Ed% Platt, )1<=)6K >)B8@% Cf% $r C#arles in Hastings, D! &! )% !%

B?)%

4 re3or*, T#. 2. p. 6%.

" Mr on*eare, -'o -ll s'ortl* p+ls' an eton, nfor5s 5e t'at t'e

$r5enan tet s +lt5atel* traceale to ao+t $.. 440.

6 Mr Horners eton not appear n t5e to e +se n t'e apparatus criticus.

1 o-e t's nfor5aton to t'e knness of Mr Horner. f. re3or*, prolegg. p.

%6"; T#. 2. p. 7. $ spec5en of a /rts' M+se+5 fra35ent s 38en * r

Ben*on (p. 160).

2 =. onson n Hastn3s, D. B., p. 669; re3or*, T#. 2. p. "7.

Scr8ener@Mller, 2. p. 12; re3or* prolegg. %61, %64, T#. 2. pp. "1, "4;

Horner, . p. 10. See ao8e, p. 11.

<% (rabic >ar@%

Ed% Er!e, Le&den, )<)< Paris !ol&glott, )<8; 'oman edition of )BK6% Cf% Prof% ur2itt in

Hastings, D! &! )% !% )6< ff%

T#e Arabic versions of t#e A!ocal&!se are said to .var& greatl&,/ and to s#e* t#e

influence of t#e Co!tic and S&riac8

%In t#eir 0=(pocalypse en 5ran>ais, ++% Paul +e&er and $elisle #ave !rinted a

t*elft# centur& version of *#ic# t#e earliest +SS% are *ritten in t#e AngloFNorman

dialect% Englis# versions of t#e Drenc# A!ocal&!se *ere current in t#e fourteent#

centur&, and on one of t#ese t#e later 0&cliffite version *as based% An interesting

account of t#e earl& Englis# A!ocal&!se is given b& +iss A% C% Paues, Dello* of

Ne*n#am College, P#% $%, (!sala, in #er degree t#esis ( fourteenth century "nglish

&iblical +ersion >Cambridge, )?K1@% +iss Paues, to *#om t#is information is due, is

!re!aring for !ublication a fuller descri!tion of t#ese versions%

8% T#e !atristic evidence for t#e te3t of t#e A!ocal&!se, if not so e3tensive as in t#e

case of some of t#e ot#er boo2s of t#e Ne* Testament, is bot# earl& and im!ortant% T#e

boo2 is cited, sometimes in large conte3ts, b& Irenaeus, Hi!!ol&tus, Origen, and

+et#odius, and, among Latin fat#ers of t#e AnteFNicene !eriod, b& Tertullian, C&!rian,

and Augustine% ut t#e most im!ortant *itness under t#is #ead is Primasius, *#ose

commentar& retains its original te3t, and #as secured for t#e A!ocal&!se .t#e uni"ue

advantage of #aving been !reserved in a Latin te3t at once continuous and !urel&

African;%/ T#e African te3t of T&conius also is re!resented, !robabl& *it# fair accurac&,

in t#e !seudoFAugustinian #omilies) *#ic# embod& muc# of #is commentar&% On t#e

commentar& of ictorinus some doubt still rests, and #is te3t, as !rinted, is largel&

ulgate in c#aracter% In t#e +SS% of t#e commentar& of Andreas t#e -ree2 te3t of t#eA!ocal&!se varies considerabl&1 its evidence #as been used in t#e a!!aratus of t#is

edition onl& *#ere t#e +SS% agree%

;% T#e grou!ing of t#e aut#orities for t#e te3t of t#e A!ocal&!se is a tas2 of more

t#an ordinar& difficult&, for, as $r Hort remar2s, .#istorical landmar2s are obscure, and

familiar documents assume a ne* !osition6%/ Since $r Hort7s Introduction *as *ritten,

muc# #as been done to bring t#e !roblem nearer to a solution, and t#e student of t#e te3t

*ill find #el! in various directions from t#e follo*ing *riters 0eiss, Die 'ohannes1

(pokalypse >in Te%te und ?ntersuchungen ), )?)@ ousset, )ur Te%tkritik der

(pokalypse >in T! u! ?! ))8, )?8@ ousset, Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis, )?<Haussleiter, Die lateinische (pokalypse der alten afrikanischen 2irche >in 4a#n7s

5orschungen 8%, )?)@ -*&nn, The (pocalypse of St 'ohn, in a Syriac +ersion >)?B@%

4 /+rktt, l.c. Scr8ener@Mller, 2. p. 162 f.; re3or*, prolegg. p. 929 f.

" Hort (ntro+cton to H., > 117).

1 M3ne P. $. ". f. t'e ctatons n t'e 0egulae of *con+s (e. /+rktt, pp. ,

"0, "9, 60 f., 71, %2).

2 =or t'ose +se * sc'enorf see re3or* prolegg , p. 1160.

ntro+cton to H., > 44.

T#e te3t of t#e !resent edition *ill be found to differ onl& in a fe* !laces8 from t#at

of 0estcott and Hort, alt#oug# t#e editor #as #eld #imself free in eac# case to follo* to

t#e best of #is o*n udgement t#e leading of t#e evidence% In t#e a!!aratus #e #as used

t#e materials collected in Tisc#endorf7s editio octava critica maior >)B1@, as amended

in -regor&7s prolegomena 6% >)?8@;

, and #e #as added to t#em t#e evidence of $r-*&nn7s S&riac, and of t*o earl& At#os minuscules >)6K, )<<@, *#ic# *ere 2indl&

!#otogra!#ed for #is use b& Professor La2e, of O3ford and Le&den% It is #o!ed t#at an

a!!aratus t#us constructed *ill be sufficient to !rovide t#e student of t#e A!ocal&!se

*it# o!!ortunities of testing for #imself t#e !rinci!les of criticism *#ic# t#e *or2s

enumerated above *ill suggest%

)B% CO++ENTA'IES)

T#e literature of t#e A!ocal&!se is immense, but it is une"uall& distributed in regard

bot# to time and to !lace of origin% Drom t#e -ree2Fs!ea2ing East, *#ic# !roduced t#e

boo2, no e3!osition #as reac#ed us *#ic# is earlier t#an t#e si3t# centur&, and none ofan& im!ortance *#ic# is later t#an t#e tent#% T#e 0est, on t#e ot#er #and, began to

comment u!on St 5o#n7s !ro!#ec& in t#e time of $iocletian, and #as occu!ied itself

*it# A!ocal&!tic !roblems from t#e da&s of Irenaeus to our o*n%

T#e follo*ing list is fairl& com!lete so far as regards t#e !atristic !eriod, but from

t#e age of C#arlemagne to t#e end of t#e +iddle Ages it #as been t#oug#t sufficient to

notice t#e more im!ortant commentaries% Since t#e invention of !rinting t#e out!ut of

boo2s u!on t#e A!ocal&!se #as steadil& increased, and a bare enumeration of t#em

*ould occu!& more s!ace t#an *e can afford% Onl& t#ose #ave been mentioned *#ic#

!ossess some !ermanent value, or are re!resentative of t#e several sc#ools of

A!ocal&!tic inter!retation%

A% -ree2 commentaries%

4 'e 5ore 5portant of t'ese are sc+sse n t'e co55entar*.

" Pp. 129%O102.

6 &n t'ese MSS. see !a5ros, Catalogue of the "ree# M,,. on Mt Athos, 1. p.

97, 2. p. . t 5a* e ae t'at a fres' collaton 'as een 5ae of co. $, fro5

t'e !onon p'oto3rap'.

1 =or a etale acco+nt of co55entares on t'e $pocal*pse see !Dcke,

*ersuch einer %ollst3ndigen Einleitung in die Offenbarung des Iohannes (/onn,

1%"2), pp. 9"1O1070; an /o+sset, Die Offenbarung Iohannis neu bearbeitet

(Dttn3en, 1%96), pp. "1O141. !Dcke refers to Stosc', Catalogus rarioru& in

Apoc. Ioannis co&&entarioru&, a ook -'c' 'a8e not een ale to cons+lt.

Ellott (Horae Apocalypticae, 4. pp. 27"O"2%) s especall* f+ll on t'e post@

efor5aton pero, +t 5+st e +se -t' ca+ton; 's eal for t'e ant@papal

nterpretaton leas '5 at t5es to o scant L+stce to -rters, -'et'er o5an

at'olc or Protestant, -'o take anot'er 8e-.

+ELITO, is#o! of Sardis, *#o flouris#ed under +arcus Aurelius, *rote, accordingto Eusebius, !"! 81<, περὶ τοῦ διαBόλου καὶ τῆς ,ποκαλ)2ε'ς 3'&ννου :!robabl& a

treatise on t#e $evil in *#ic# certain !assages in t#e A!ocal&!se >e%g% cc! )1%, 1K%@ came

under discussion% A fragment of t#is *or2 ma& survive) in Origen, in $s! 6% tit%

mελίτ'ν γοῦν : !ν τ7 1σί8 φ%σὶν αὐτὸν sc% τὸν 1Bεσσαλdμ ε5ναι τ)πον τοῦδιαBόλου !παναστ&ντος τ7 4ριστοῦ Bασιλεί8< καὶ το)του μόνου μν%σ=εὶς οὐκ!πε0εργ&σατο τὸν τόπον% On a PseudoF+elito super (pocalypsin see Harnac2, -esch!

)% !% 1;8%

I'ENAE(S >1%@% A +S% found at Altenberg b& +artne and $urand1 bore t#e title

erenei 0ugdunensis episcopi in (pocalypsin, but it !roved to contain e3tracts from

later *riters as *ell as from Irenaeus% T#e statement of 5erome, de virr! illustr! 1?,

.A!ocal&!sin, "uam inter!retantur Iustinus mart&r et Hirenaeus, / is satisfied b& t#e

e3!ositions of certain A!ocal&!tic !assages *#ic# are found in t#eir *or2s >cf%

Harnac2, -esch! )% !% 1B1@%

HIPPOLYT(S >1%=6%@% 5erome >op! cit! <)@ sa&s of t#is !rofuse *riter .scri!sit

nonnullos in scri!turas commentarios, e "uibus #aec re!!eri De (pocalypsi%/ T#ee3act title of t#is *or2 is given on t#e bac2 of t#e C#air as υπερ του κατα ιωανηνε υαγγελιου και αποκαλυψεως, on *#ic# Lig#tfoot >/lement 1% !% 6B8 cf% !%81K@ remar2s .from t#e !re!osition >"π9ρ, not περί@, and from t#e association of t#e

t*o *ords toget#er, it is a safe inference t#at t#is *as an a!ologetic *or2 directed

against t#ose !ersons *#o obected to bot# *or2s ali2e,/ i%e% t#e soFcalled Alogi%

Harnac2, on t#e ot#er #and, *rites >-esch! 1% !% <81@ . De (pocalypsi ist

*a#rsc#einlic# als besonderes 0er2 9u betrac#ten *elc#es *a#rsc#einlic# auc#

Andreas fJr seinen Commentar benut9t #at >9u c! )6% ) und )B% )K@%/CLE+ENT of Ale3andria >1%=6%@, according to Eusebius, !"! <)8, commented in #is

H§ποτυπVσεις on all t#e canonical boo2s not e3ce!ting t#e antilegomena6%

O'I-EN >6%@, it is 2no*n, intended to e3!ound t#e A!ocal&!se cf% in #att! 8?

>Lommat9sc#@ .omnia #aec e3!onere singillatim non est tem!oris #uius e3!onentur

autem tem!ore suo in 'evelatione Ioannis #orum autem !rinci!ales e3!ositiones

at"ue !robationes o!ortet fieri cum i!se liber !ro!ositus fuerit nobis ad e3!onendum%/

ut t#e commentar& on +att#e* *as !robabl& one of #is later *or2s, belonging to #is

si3tiet# &ear >A%$% 18<8@, and, as #is deat# follo*ed in 1;6, it must be feared t#at #e did

not succeed in reac#ing t#e A!ocal&!se certainl& no fragments of #omilies or acommentar& on t#at boo2 from #is !en #ave been !roduced%

OEC(+ENI(S ><%@, is#o! of Tricca in T#essal&% A com!lete commentar& under t#is

name #as been discovered in a +essina +S% >cod% S% Salvatore ??, )1%@; b& $r D%

1 Harnack, "eschichte, 1. p. 24%.

2 See t'er *oyages $itteraires, 2. p. 260, cte * Harnack, "esch. 1. p. 264.

f. Aa'n, !orschungen, . p. 1"4 ff.

4 estcott n S5t' an aces D.C.B. 4. p. 111.

" 'e -ork s also fo+n, +t n a s'orter for5, n a +rn MS. (co. 3r. %4) an

t'e o5an MSS. Kat. 3r. 1426, &tto. 3r. 126O%.

$ie2am!, *#o described it in t#e erlin Sit@ungsberichte der k.n! preuss! (kademie der

7issenschaften for )?K) >!% )K8< ff%@)% T#e commentar& is entitled Oρμ%νεία τῆς1ποκαλ)2ε'ς τοῦ =εσπεσίου καὶ εὐαγγελιστοῦ καὶ =εολόγου 3'&ννου συγγραφεῖσαπαρὰ –*κουμενίου% It claims to #ave been *ritten more t#an ;KK &ears after t#e

A!ocal&!se >cf% )1 •δ% πλείστου δεδραμ%κότος -ρόνου ... !τ$ν πλειόν'ν •πεντακοσί'ν@, but t#ere are indications *#ic# mar2 t#e *or2 as not muc# if at all later

t#an A%$% <KK% T#e discoverer !roceeds to s#e* t#at Oecumenius #as been used b&

Andreas, and must t#erefore in future ta2e !recedence of #im and stand first in t#e s#ort

list of e3tant -ree2 commentators u!on t#e A!ocal&!se%

CO$% APOC% )< >ATHOS, PANTOC'ATO' 88@%Commentar& of Andreas of A!oc% )8)6=)<%

A N$'EAS1, metro!olitan of Ca!!adocian Caesarea #as left us a Oρμ%νεία ε*ς τ#ν1ποκ&λυ2ιν *#ic# ma& be assigned to t#e second #alf of t#e si3t# centur&% He "uotes

!atristic aut#orities from Pa!ias to C&ril of Ale3andria, and refers >on 1KB f%@ to t#einvasion of t#e Em!ire b& barbaric #ordes o καλοῦμεν –"ννικ&, and to $ion&sius t#e

Areo!agite, *#o is st&led : μακ&ριος% 0#ile t#e *or2 of Andreas ta2es account ofearlier *riters and occasionall& "uotes t#em, &et, as t#e !reface leads t#e reader to

e3!ect, it is in no sense a catena, but an inde!endent effort to inter!ret t#e boo2% T#e

inter!retation is on Origenistic lines, but t#oug# it allegori9es to some e3tent, an attem!t

is made from time to time to find #istorical fulfilments of t#e A!ocal&!tic visions% Suc#

1 o-e t's reference to Mr . H. +rners artcle Patristic Co&&entaries, n

Hastn3s, D.B. ". p. "2.

2 &n $nreas ($nre-) of aesarea see =arc+s@Harles, %. p. 696 ff.; S5t'

an ace, D.C.B. 1. p. 1"4 f.; Hero3@Ha+ck, 1. p. "14 ff.; /o+sset, co55. p.

6% f.; re3or*, prolegg. p. 11"9; 8on Soen, pp. 2%4 ff., 702 f.

a *or2 naturall& attracted attention in t#e -ree2Fs!ea2ing East, and from t#e nint#

centur& on*ards t#e commentar& of Andreas *as *idel& transcribed nearl& a t#ird of

t#e 2no*n minuscule +SS% of t#e A!ocal&!se contain it, vi9% codd% ), ), 1), 6;, 6<, 86,

8?, ;?, <1, <6, <B, <, BK a, B1, B6, BB, B?, B? a, K, ), )KK, )K), )16, )6<, )6B, )6,

)6?, )88, )8;, )8B, )8, )8?, );), );1, );6, );B, );, );?, )<K, )<), )<6, )<8, )<B,)<, )<?, )BK, )B), )B8, )B;, )B?, )8, )<6, )?1, and seven more *#ic# #ave not

received a number%

T#e editio princeps of Andreas is t#at of S&lburg >);?<@% T#e commentar& *as also

!rinted in t#e &ibliothecae $atrum of );?, )<), )<88 and )<BB8 in t#e !resent

volume it is "uoted from +igne, $! -! )K<%

A'ETHAS, a successor of Andreas in t#e see of Caesarea >?%=)K%@, occu!ied #imself*it# a com!ilation in *#ic# #is !redecessor #olds a large !lace t#e title is Pυλλογ#!0%γ>σε'ς !κ διαφόρ'ν ἁγί'ν ,νδρ$ν, or, according to anot#er +S%, Oκ τ$ν1νδρ9α ... πεπον%μ9ν'ν σ)νο2ις σ-ολικ>< παρατε=εῖσα "πὸ 1ρ9=α% His date is no*

given as c! A%$% ?KK;%

Aret#as is !rinted in t#e Cologne and L&ons &ibliothecae $atrum), in Cramer7s

/atena, % !!% ))=8?<, and in +igne $! -! )K<% t#e "uotations in t#e notes of t#is

volume are from +igne% A critical edition of Andreas and Aret#as is still a desideratum%

esides t#e commentar& of Andreas and t#e com!ilation of Aret#as *e #ave in !rint

>Cramer, % !!% 8?B=;1, from +S% Coisl% 118, f% 666 ;%, s""%@ a briefer e3!osition of

*#ic# $ie2am! trul& sa&s t#at it is .nic#ts Anderes als der et*as ver2Jr9te Commentar

des Andreas1%/ Cramer #imself re!resents it as Oecumenian >ib! !% <%@, for *#at reason it

does not a!!ear +ontfaucon > &iblioth! /oislin!, !% 1B;@ mentions no name in

conne3ion *it# it, t#oug# Oecumenius is named in t#e #eading to t#e !revious item >!%66K ;%@%

% S&riac commentaries%

.T#e c#ief Nestorian commentator, Isho‘-dād of +er* >fl% A%$% ;K@, covers bot#

Testaments in #is e3egetical *or2s, but !asses over t#e four s#orter Cat#olic E!istles

and t#e A!ocal&!se, *#ic# *ere not included in t#e canon of t#e Pes#itta% T#e 5acobite

ar#ebraeus >Q A%$% )1<@ in #is Auṣar Rāzē #as t#e same range and t#e same

e3ce!tions as Isho‘-dād% T#e 2no*n S&riac commentaries on t#e A!ocal&!se seem to be

no more t#an t#ree, and t#e& are un!ublis#ed% >)@ An anon&mous commentar& of

un2no*n date accom!anies t#e te3t in rit% +us% Add% )B)1B an e3tract from t#e

comment on c! 6% is given in 0rig#t7s Catalogue of S&riac +SS%, !art 1% !% )K1K f% >1@

&f t's MS. a p'oto3rap' s s'e-n opposte. o. 1%6F$t'os, Pantocrator 44,

-as p'oto3rap'e for t'e -rter * Mr (no- Professor) !ake n 1901O2, an a

collaton of ts tet of t'e $pocal*pse 'as een 5ae for t's eton.

4 tt3, De bibliothecis et catenis patru&, pp. "2, 109, 426, 492.

" See Harnack n T. u. . 1:1, pp. 9 ff., 4 f.

1 tt3, op. cit. pp. 4%, "04.

2 S5larl* /o+sset, Co&&. p. 70.

TYCONI(S >Tic#onius, Ticonius6@, African and $onatist, follo*ed ictorinus after

an interval of about a centur& #is floruit is usuall& given as c! A%$% 6?K% According to

-ennadius of +arseilles #e *as .in $ivinis litteris eruditus iu3ta #istoriam sufficienter,

in saecularibus non ignarus%/ His e3!osition differed *idel& from #is !redecessor7s

.e3!osuit et A!ocal&!sin Io#annis e3 integro, ni#il in ea carnale sed totum intellegenss!iritale mille "uo"ue annorum regni in terra iustorum !ost resurrectionem futuri

sus!icionem tulit ne"ue duas in carne resurrectiones mortuorum futuras, unam

iustorum et alteram iniustorum, sed unam et tunc semel omnium%/

$onatist as #e *as, T&conius *ins #ig# !raise for #is e3!osition of t#e A!ocal&!se

from one *#o *as no mean udge of t#e inter!reter7s art% ede *rites of #im

.A!ocal&!sin et vivaciter intelle3it, et veridice satis"ue cat#olice disseruit, !raeter ea

dunta3at loca in "uibus suae !artis sc#isma defendere nisus, !ersecutiones "uas i!si

!ertulerunt in eadem gloriatur A!ocal&!si fuisse !raedictas)%/ T#at t#is udgement is

ust is s#e*n b& t#e free use *#ic# *as made of T&conius not onl& b& ede #imself, but

b& a succession of Cat#olic *riters:Primasius, eatus, t#e aut#or of t#e #omilies on

t#e A!ocal&!se !rinted in t#e a!!endi3 to t#e t#ird volume of t#e enedictine

Augustine and in +igne, $! 0! 1?%1, and t#e commentar& !ublis#ed b& $om Amelli in

t#e Spicilegium /asinense >6% !!% 1<6=66)@6% T#e *or2 of T&conius as a *#ole is

!er#a!s no longer e3tant, but it can be largel& reconstructed from t#ose Cat#olic

e3!ositors *#o follo*ed in #is ste!s%

In t#e a!!aratus to t#e te3t of t#e !resent commentar& T&c%7 is used, after t#e

e3am!le of Tisc#endorf, as a s&non&m for anonAug%,7 i%e% t#e A!ocal&!tic te3t of t#e

PseudoFAugustine%

P'I+ASI(S, of Hadrumetum in &9acena8, anot#er African, but a Cat#olic is#o!,*rote on t#e A!ocal&!se before ;86=8, *#en #is commentar& is mentioned b&

2 See Th. $itteraturblatt , $pr. 26, 1%9"; an cf. #. H. Harrs, n E+positor , 8. 1. p.

44%, an $. E'rar, Die altchr. $itteratur1 %on 1%%4O1900, . p. 4%4 ff.

&n t'e spelln3 of t's na5e see /+rktt n Te+ts and ,tudies, . 1. p. 10. &n

*con+s '5self an 's co55entar* see D.C.B. 4. 102" ff., Ha+ssleter n

2eitschrift f. #irchl. =issenschaft etc., 7. (1%%6), p. 29 ff., an n Aa'ns

!orschungen, 4. (1%91); r. Ha'n, Tyconius7,tudien n /on-etsc' an

Seeer3s ,tudien, 6. 2 (1900); an Prof. /+rktts eton of t'e 0egulae,

alrea* na5e.

1 M3ne, P. $. 9, col.

2 See Ha+ssleter, 2eitschrift , p. 240. n a St #o'ns (a5r3e) MS. t's

co55entar* s stran3el* enttle: tractarns enna prester Masslae e

5lle anns et e $pocal*ps<; see r M. . #a5es n Class. 0e%ie9 , . p. 222.

See H. !. a5sa*, Co&&entaire de l5Apocalypse par Beatus, p. 17 f.

*c. *con+s

Cassiodorius >de inst! div! libr! ? .nostris "uo"ue tem!oribus A!ocal&!sis Primasii

antistitis Africani studio "uin"ue libris e3!osita est/@% It *as t#us an earl& *or2,

com!leted before Primasius *as embroiled in t#e controvers& raised in Africa b& t#e

T#ree C#a!ters%7 0it# regard to its c#aracter it !ossesses, as Haussleiter remar2s, onl&

a secondar& value, being largel& made u! of T&conius and Augustine% Augustine is in !laces >e%g% in t#e comment on A!oc% 1K%@ transferred almost bodil& to t#e !ages of

Primasins T&conius is a .!reciosa in stercore gemma,/ *#ic# t#e is#o! !ic2s out of

t#e mire to adorn #is !ages%

T#e commentar& of Primasius #as come do*n to us entire% T#e editio princeps *as

t#at of Cervicornus >Hirsc##orn@, Cologne, );6;% T#is *as follo*ed b& editions in t#e

Cologne, Paris, and L&ons bibliothecae of )<), )<88, and )<BB; t#e Paris edition is

follo*ed generall& in +igne, $! 0! <%, *#ose re!rint is "uoted in t#e !resent volume%

T#e African Latin te3t of t#e A!ocal&!se, *#ic# #a!!il& #as been !reserved in t#e

commentar& of Primasins, is cited from Haussleiter7s admirable edition in 4a#n7s

5orschungen% It is in t#is te3t t#at t#e value of Primasius to t#e modern student c#iefl&

lies see above, !% )?)%

AP'IN-I(S ><%@ is#o! of Pa3 >*#et#er Pa3 5uliaR[a, in Portugal, or P%

AugustaRadao9, in S!ain@, under T#endis, ing of t#e isigot#s >A%$% ;6)=;8@, *as

*or2ing u!on t#e A!ocal&!se nearl& about t#e time *#en Primasius *rote #is

commentar&% So *e learn from Isidore of Seville >de virr! ill! 6K .A!ringius, ecclesiae

Pacensis His!aniarum e!isco!us claruit tem!oribus T#eudis !rinci!is -ot#orum/@%

T#e commentar& of A!ringius *as !ublis#ed at Paris in )?KK b& $om D[roten from a

+S% belonging to t#e (niversit& of Co!en#agen% (nfortunatel& t#e +S% gives t#e *or2 of

A!ringius onl& so far as regards A!oc% ))=;B, and )<=111), t#e lacuna ;=); being filled *it# sc#olia from 5eromeFictorinus%

According to Isidore, A!ringius e3!ounded t#e A!ocal&!se .subtili sensu at"ue

illustri sermone, melius !ene "uam veteres ecclesiastici viri e3!osuisse videntur%/ A fe*

s!ecimens from +% D[roten7s edition #ave been given in t#e notes of t#is commentar&%

CASSIO$O'I(S, !robabl& after #is retirement to iviers >A%$% ;8K@, *rote brief notes

>comple%iones@ on t#e Acts, E!istles, and A!ocal&!se, *#ic# *ere first !ublis#ed b&

+affei in )B1), and are re!rinted in +igne, $! 0! BK% In t#e A!ocal&!se #e refers #is

readers to T&conius, and s#e*s also t#e influence of ictorinus and Augustine%

AE$A of 0earmout# and 5arro* >A%$% <B1=B6;@ comes ne3t in order of timeamong Latin commentators on t#e A!ocal&!se% In #is e%planatio (pocalypsis, as in #is

ot#er e3!ositor& *or2s, ede freel& recogni9es t#e secondar& c#aracter of #is

e3!ositions in t#e A!ocal&!se, *#ile dra*ing on t#e Dat#ers generall&, #e ma2es

es!ecial use of earlier 0estern commentators on t#e boo2, es!eciall& of Primasius and

T&conius t#e latter is not seldom "uoted b& name% Yet ede is no mere com!iler, and

4 &n Pr5as+s see Ha+ssleter n Aa'n, an n Hero3@Ha+ck, 16. p. "" ff., as

-ell as 's earler Cpro3ra55, $eben u. =er#e des Bischofs Pri&asius

(Erlan3en, 1%%7); an cf. B'n, Theodor %. Mopsuestia, p. 24% ff.

" tt3, pp. 109, 49, "0".

not t#e least valuable of #is remar2s are t#ose *#ere t#e !ersonalit& of t#e

Nort#umbrian saint reveals itself% ede7s *or2 on t#e A!ocal&!se is "uoted in t#is

volume from +igne, $! 0! ?;%

A+'OSI(S A(SE'T(S >or Aut!ertus@), a enedictine mon2 of Drenc# origin *#o

died as Abbot of an Italian monaster&, com!osed #is commentarii in (pocalypsim during t#e !ontificate of Paul )% >A%$% B;B=B<B@, and dedicated t#em to Paul7s successor,

Ste!#en 8% >A%$% B<=BB1@% He ma2es use of 5eromeFictorinus, T&conius, and even of

ede, but es!eciall& of Primasius, *#o su!!lies t#e sta!le of #is e3!ositions% T#e *or2

is !rinted in t#e Cologne and L&ons &ibliothecae $atrum, but does not a!!ear in

+igne7s Latin Patrolog&%

EAT(S of Liebana >Libana@, t#e S!anis# enedictine *#o in A%$% B; oined

Et#erius is#o! of Osma in a *or2 against Eli!andus of Toledo on t#e Ado!tianist

"uestion% His commentar& on t#e A!ocal&!se1, *#ic# is dedicated to Et#erius, is, li2e

ede7s, !rofessedl& based to a great e3tent on t#e *or2s of #is !redecessors, among

*#om #e s!ecifies 5erome >i%e% ictorinus in 5erome7s recension@, Augustine, T&conius,

and A!ringius% T&conius, in !articular, #as been largel& used, alt#oug# it is !ossible to

e3aggerate t#e debt *#ic# eatus o*es to #im% T#e conclusion at *#ic# $om 'amsa&

arrives is !robabl& not far from t#e trut# .e crois "ue !artout o eatus, Primasius, et

le PseudoFAugustine e3!loitent un fonds commun, ce fonds est celui de T&conius >sinon

de ictorinus@)%/

T#e +SS% of eatus #ave long been famous for t#eir illuminations, *#ic# su!!l& ric#

materials for t#e stud& of earl& S!anis# art1% ut t#ere is onl& one !rinted te3t6, and t#e

boo2 is so rare t#at no co!& is to be found at t#e ritis# +useum or in t#e Cambridge

(niversit& Librar&8%Of Latin *riters on t#e A!ocal&!se from t#e beginning of t#e nint# centur& to t#e

si3teent# t#e follo*ing deserve to be s!eciall& mentioned

Cent% ?% ALC(IN >+igne $! 0! )KK%@% E'EN-A($CS >+igne )B%@% HAY+O >+igne

))%@% 0ALAD'I$ ST'AO >@ >+igne ))8%@%

1 See =arc+s@Harles, Bibl. $at. 1. p. 77; S5t' an ace, D. C. B. 1. p. 22;

Hero3@Ha+ck, 2. p. 0% f.

2 &n t'e o55entar* of /eat+s an ts MSS. see t-o artcles * o5 H. !.

a5sa*, of o-nse $e*, reprnte fro5 t'e 0e%ue d5histoire et de

litt4rature religieuses, t. 7. (1902), knl* co55+ncate to 5e * o5 E. .

/+tler, an Ha+ssleters artcle alrea* 5entone.

1 $e Co&&entaire de Beatus, p. 1%.

2 H. !. a5sa*, The M,,. of5 Beatus, p. 1 ff.

'e eton of =lore (Mar, 1770).

4 /+rktt, Tyconius, p. 1. o-e 5* +otatons to t'e knness of Prof. /+rktt,

-'o left n 5* 'ans for so5e -eeks a cop* -'c' 'a co5e nto 's

possesson.

Cent% )1% A NSEL+ of Havilberg >$7Ac#[r&, Spicilegium, )%@% A NSEL+ Of Laon

>+igne )<6%@% '(NO of Aste >+igne )<;%@% 5OACHI+ of Calabria >enice, );)? and

);1B@% ' ICHA'$ of St ictor >+igne ?<%@% ' (PE'T of $eut9 >+igne )<?%@%

Cent% )6% ALE'T(S +A-N(S >6pera, t% )1%, L&ons, )<;)@% H(-O $E S% CA'O

> postilla B%, Cologne, )<1K@% PETE' 5OHN OLIA > postilla in (pocalypsin@% PSE($OFAG(INAS >6pera S! Thomae (q!, t% 16%, Parma, )<?@%

Cent% )8% NICOLAS $E -O'HA+ >Ant*er!, )<)B=1K@% NICOLAS OD LY'A >'ome,

)8B)=1@%

Cent% );% $IONYSI(S CA'TH(SIAN(S >Paris, );6K@%

+ost of t#ese mediaeval e3!ositors follo* t#eir !redecessors more or less closel&,

and satisf& t#emselves *it# a s!irituali9ing e3egesis% ut t#ere are e3ce!tions,

es!eciall& erengaud, 'u!ert of $eut9, and 5oac#im t#e lastFnamed #as left a *or2

*#ic# is a landmar2 in t#e #istor& of A!ocal&!tic inter!retation%

$% Commentaries, and ot#er boo2s bearing u!on t#e inter!retation of t#e

A!ocal&!se, from t#e beginning of t#e si3teent# centur& to t#e !resent time%

$% Erasmus% (nnotationes in ! T! asle, );)<%

D% Lambertus% "%egeseos in (poc! libri vii! +arburg, );1%

H% ullinger% In (poc! conciones c! asle, );;B%

T% ibliander% /ommentarius in (poc! asle, );<?%

5% Do3e% #editations on the (poc! London, );B%

5% 0inc2elmann% /ommentarius in (poc! Dran2fort, );?K%

D% 'ibeira% /ommentarius in sacram b! Ioannis (poc! Salamanca, );?)%

5% Na!ier ( plain discovery of the whole *evelation% Edinburg#, );?6%

L% ab Alcasar% +estigatio arcani sensus in (poc! Ant*er!, )<)8%A% Salmeron% In Iohannis (poc! praeludia% Cologne, )<)8%

T% rig#tman% The *evelation of St 'ohn illustrated % London, )<)<%

$% Paraeus% /ommentarius in (poc! Heidelberg, )<)%

Cornelius a La!ide% /ommentaria in … (poc! Ant*er! and L&ons, )<1B%

5% +ede% /lavis (pocalypseos … una cure /ommentario% Cambridge, )<1B%

5% -er#ard% (nnotationes in (poc! 5ena, )<86%

H% -rotius% (nnotationes in (poc! Paris, )<88%

L% de $ieu% (nimadversiones in (poc! Le&den, )<8<%

H% Hammond% $araphrase and (nnotations upon the ! T! London, )<;6%5% % ossuet% 0=(pocalypse avec une e%plication% Paris, )<<K%

5% Cocceius% /ogitationes in (poc! Amsterdam, )<B6%

$% Herv[% (pocalypsis e%plicatio historica% L&ons, )<8%

P% 5urien% 0=accomplissement des prophAties% 'otterdam, )<<%C% itringa% 1ν&κρισις (pocalypsios% Drane2er, )BK;%

0% 0#iston% "ssay on the *evelation of St 'ohn% Cambridge, )BK<%

5% 5% Sc#lurmann% Die 6ffenbarung Iohannis% Li!!stadt, )B11%

D% Abau9it% "ssai sur l=(pocalypse% -eneva, )B6K%

I% Ne*ton% 6bservations upon the prophecies of Daniel and the (poc! London,)B61%

5% A% engel% "rkl.rte 6ffenbarung 'ohannis% Stuttgart, )B8K%

5% 5% 0etstein% ! T! -raecum >1%@% Amsterdam, )B;1%

5% -ill% "%position of the *evelation% London, )BB<%5% -% von Herder% mαρὰν ,=&% 'iga, )BB?%

5% S% Herrensc#neider% Tentamen (pocalypseos% Strassburg, )B<%I% -% Eic##orn% /ommentarius in (poc! -Xttingen, )B?)%

P% 5% S% ogel% /ommentationes vii! de (pocalypsi% Erlangen, )))=)<%

-% H% A% E*ald% /ommentarius in (poc! -Xttingen, )1%

A% L% +att#Wi% Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis% -Xttingen, )1%

Ed*% Irving% 0ectures on the &ook of *evelation% London, )1?%

5% Crol&% The (pocalypse of 'ohn% London, )6%

C% D% 5% 4Jllig% Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis erklBrt % Stuttgart, )68=8K%

0% $e urg#% (n "%position of the &ook of *evelation% $ublin, )8;%

+% Stuart% /ommentary on the (pocalypse% London, )8;%

0% +% L% de 0ette% 2ur@e "rklBrung der 6ffenbarung % Lei!9ig, )8%

E% 0% Hengstenberg% Die 6ffenbarung … erlButert! erlin, )8?=;)%

E% H% Elliott% orae (pocalypticae% London, );)%

D% $Jsterdiec2% andbuch C! d! 6ffenbarung % -Xttingen, );1%

I% 0illiams% The (pocalypse% London, );1%

5% H% E% Ebrard% Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis% Xnigsberg, );6%

C% A% Auberlen% Der $rophet Daniel u! die 6ffenbarung % asle, );8%

C% Stern% /ommentar C! die 6ffenbarung % Sc#aff#ausen, );8%

D% lee2% +orlesungen C! die (pocalypse% erlin, );?%

H% Alford% The -reek Testament , vol% 8% Cambridge, )<)%H% E*ald% Die 'ohanneischen Schriften … erklBrt! -Xttingen, )<)%

D% $% +aurice% 0ectures on the (pocalypse% Cambridge, )<)%

'% C% Trenc#% /ommentary on the "pistles to the Seven /hurches% London, )<)%

-% ol2mar% /ommentar @ur 6ffenbarung % 4Jric#, )<1%

C% 0ords*ort#% The ew Testament , vol% 1% London, )<8%

A% Cerese% 0=apocalysse o *evelatione, )<?=B)%

C% 5% aug#an% The *evelation of St 'ohn% London, )BK%

E% 'enan% 0=(ntichrist % Paris, )B)%

5% C% A% Hofmann% Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis% )B8%A% is!ing% "rklBrung der (pocalypse% +Jnster, )B<%

C% H% A% urger% Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis% )BB%

E% 'euss% 0=(pocalypse% Paris, )B%

S% Lee% The *evelation of St 'ohn% London, ))%

T#% 4a#n% (pokalyptische Studien >in )! f! kirchl! 7issenschaft u! k! 0eben@, );=<

"inleitung , 1% )??%

H% 5% Holt9mann% Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis% Dreiburg )% %, )?)%

0% +illigan% The &ook of *evelation% London, )?%

0% H% Simco3% The *evelation of St 'ohn% Cambridge, )?6%0% ousset% Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis% -Xttingen, )?<%



E% 0% enson% The (pocalypse8 an introductory study% London, )?KK%

L% Prager% Die 6ffenbarung 'ohannis% Lei!9ig, )?K)%

C% Anderson Scott% *evelation >in the /entury &ible@% Edinburg# >n% d%@%

D% C% Porter% #essages of the (pocalyptical writers% London, )?K;%

A volume on t#e A!ocal&!se b& Prof% '% H% C#arles is announced b& +essrs% T% andT% Clar2, in conne3ion *it# t#e International /ritical /ommentary%

)% HISTO'Y AN$ +ETHO$S OD I NTE'P'ETATION)% +ore t#an once) t#e A!ocal&!se a!!eals to t#e intelligence of t#e C#ristian

student, inviting #im to unravel its meaning if #e can% ere is wisdom! e that hath

understanding, let him count the number of the &east! ere is the mind which hath

wisdom% T#e c#allenge *as acce!ted almost from t#e first, but *it# results *#ic# s#e*

b& t#eir *ide divergence t#e difficulties of t#e tas2% Sc#ools of A!ocal&!tic

inter!retation #ave arisen, var&ing not onl& in detail, but in !rinci!le% It is t#e !ur!ose of

t#e !resent c#a!ter to s2etc#1

t#e !rogress of t#is movement from t#e second centur& toour o*n time, and t#en to indicate t#e lines *#ic# #ave been follo*ed in t#e !resent

e3!osition%

1% T#e AnteFNicene C#urc#, alt#oug# s#e seems to #ave !roduced but one

e3!osition of t#e boo2, *as certainl& not indifferent to t#e c#ief !roblems *#ic# it

raises% T*o of t#ese, in !articular:t#e "uestions connected *it# t#e coming of

Antic#rist and t#e #o!e of t#e T#ousand Years:e3cited t#e liveliest interest during t#e

age of !ersecution% 5ustin, as *e #ave seen6, found su!!ort for #is c#iliastic vie*s in

A!oc% 1K% Irenaeus8 bases u!on A!oc% 1)%, amongst ot#er !ro!#ecies, #is e3!ectation of

a terrestrial 2ingdom and a restored 5erusalem% He identifies t#e first of St 5o#n7s 0ild

easts *it# St Paul7s +an of Sin, and gives as one reading of t#e Number of t#e eastt#e *ord Tατεινός, adding .Latini enim sunt "ui nunc regnant)%/ Drom A!oc% )B)1 ff%

#e gat#ers t#at t#e Em!ire *ould be bro2en u! into ten 2ingdoms, and ab&lon >

'ome@ be reduced to as#es1% Hi!!ol&tus, es!eciall& in #is tract 6n /hrist and (ntichrist ,

carries t#e inter!retation of Irenaeus some ste!s furt#er% T#e first east is t#e Em!ire,

*#ic# *ill be *ounded to deat#, but restored b& Antic#rist t#e Second east, t#e ten

2ingdoms t#at are to ta2e t#e !lace of t#e Em!ire6% T#e 0oman *it# c#ild is t#eC#urc#8 ab&lon is 'ome; t#e T*o 0itnesses are Enoc# and Elia#, t#e πρόδρομοι of

1 $poc. 1:1%, 17:9.

2 etals 5+st e so+3't n !Dcke an /o+sset.

P. 10. f.

4 Haer. ":". 2 (cf. E+s. H. E. :9).

1 ":2%. , 0.

2 ":26. 1.

E. !a3are, p. 24 ff.

4

!a3. p. 1 f. τ#ν μCν ο(ν γυναῖκα σαφ9στατα τ#ν !κκλ%σίαν !δ>λ'σεν.

" !a3. p. 17 καὶ γὰρ αὐτ> σε e.3.τὸν 3'&νν%νG !0Vρισεν.

t#e Second Coming<% In common *it# 5ustin and Irenaeus, Hi!!ol&tus entertains

millennarian #o!es, *#ic# #e grounds on A!oc% 1K%B

In 5ustin and Irenaeus:!robabl& also in Hi!!ol&tus:*e seem to catc# a glim!se

of t#e inter!retation *#ic# !revailed in Asia in t#e earl& decades of t#e second centur&%

T#e Ale3andrians, *#o *ere *it#out suc# guidance, inter!reted t#e A!ocal&!ses!irituall&% T#us Clement sees in t#e four and t*ent& Elders a s&mbol of t#e e"ualit& of

5e* and -entile *it#in t#e C#ristian C#urc# in t#e tails of t#e locusts of t#e Ab&ss, t#e

misc#ievous influence of immoral teac#ers? in t#e man&Fcoloured foundation stones of

t#e Cit& of -od, t#e manifold grace of A!ostolic teac#ing)K% Origen re!udiates as

.5e*is#))/ t#e literal inter!retation *#ic# t#e c#iliasts gave to t#e closing c#a!ters of

t#e boo2 and #is incidental references to t#e A!ocal&!se savour of an arbitrar& t#oug#

often noble and #el!ful m&sticism% T#us #e ta2es t#e sealed roll to be Scri!ture, to

*#ic# C#rist alone #as t#e 2e&)1 t#e vision of t#e o!en #eaven, from *#ic# t#e 0ord of

-od issues fort# on a *#ite #orse, suggests to #im t#e o!ening of #eaven b& t#e $ivine

0ord t#roug# t#e *#ite lig#t of 2no*ledge *#ic# He im!arts to believers)6% +et#odius

must on t#e *#ole be ran2ed *it# t#e Ale3andrians, in regard to #is met#od of

inter!reting t#e A!ocal&!se% In #is e3!osition of A!oc% )1%) #e finds in t#e 0oman7s

c#ild not C#rist Himself but t#e ba!ti9ed soul in *#ic# C#rist is born% T#e seven #eads

of t#e $ragon are t#e greater sins1 #is ten #orns are contrasted *it# t#e Ten

Commandments of t#e $ecalogue% T#e east a!!ears to be regarded as a s&mbol of

fles#l& lust6%

T#e Latin fat#ers of t#e first t#ree centuries, on t#e ot#er #and, carr& on t#e line of

inter!retation started b& Irenaeus and Hi!!ol&tus% T#us Tertullian regards ab&lon as an

image of 'ome, .ut !roinde magnae et regno su!erbae et sanctorum $ei debellatricis8%/T#e east from t#e sea is Antic#rist, *#o *it# #is Dalse Pro!#et *ill *age *ar against

6 !a3. p. 26.

7 !a3. p. 1" τὸ σαBBατον τ)πος !στὶ καὶ ε*κdν τῆς μελλο)σ%ς Bασιλείας τ$ν ἁγί'ν<

fς 3'&νν%ς !ν τ7 ,ποκαλ)2ει δι%γεῖται.

% stro&. 6:1, > 107.

9 stro&. :1%, > 106.

10 paed. 2. 11. 12, > 109.

11 de princ. 2. 11. 12.

12 philoc , ":".

1 in Ioann. t. 2:6.

1 ,y&p. %:4 ff.

2 f. &r3en, in Mt. 24:29.

Ib. 1.

4 ad%. Marc. :1.

t#e C#urc#;% A 2ingdom of t#e Saints is e3!ected *#ic# *ill #ave its seat on eart#,

t#oug# it belongs to anot#er order, and *ill be !receded b& a resurrection of t#e bod&<%

An orderl& !lan runs t#roug# St 5o#n7s *or2, t#oug# t#e order must not be !ressed so

far as to include c#ronological detailsB%

Of t#e commentar& of ictorinus in general it is im!ossible to s!ea2 *it#confidence until it is before us in t#e form in *#ic# it came from #is !en% ut t#e

e3tract !ublis#ed b& Haussleiter ? from *#at a!!ears to be t#e original *or2 confirms

t#e statement t#at ictorinus #eld firml& b& t#e c#iliastic inter!retation of A!oc% 1K%A fe* sentences *ill sufficientl& illustrate #is attitude% .In #ac eadem !rima

resurrectione et civitas futura et s!onsa !er #anc scri!turam e3!ressa est "uot"uot ergo nonantici!averint surgere in !rima resurrectione et regnare cum C#risto su!er orbem surgent innovissima tuba !ost annos mille In regno ergo et in !rima resurrectione e3#ibetur civitassancta, "uam vidit descensuram de caelo "uadratam, differentem a vice mortuositatis et doloriset genesis ostendit scri!tura adferri ibi munera regum serviturorum novissimorum etcivitatum%/

6%% A ne* stage of A!ocal&!tic inter!retation is reac#ed at t#e end of t#e fourt#centur&, *#en T&conius *rote #is e!oc#Fma2ing commentar&% T#oug# t#e *or2 #as notsurvived as a *#ole, its line of inter!retation and man& of its details can be recoveredfrom later e3!ositions)% It is abundantl& clear t#at T&conius trod in t#e ste!s of Origenrat#er t#an of ictorinus #e inclined to a m&stical e3egesis, even if #e did notaltoget#er e3clude literal or #istorical fulfilments% ut #is met#od *as largel& ne*, and#is o*n, as ma& be gat#ered from #is liber regularum% His fourt# rule7 reveals t#e

!rinci!le *it# *#ic# #e a!!roac#ed #is tas2 .lo"uimur secundum m&steria caelestissa!ientiae magisterio Sancti S!iritus, "ui cum veritatis !retium fidem constitueritm&steriis narravit in s!eciem genus abscondens dum enim s!eciem narrat, ita ingenus transit ut transitus non statim li"uido a!!areat1%/ T#e e3!ositor of t#e

A!ocal&!se, on t#is !rinci!le, *ould !ass insensibl& from a name *#ic# suggested a !articular obect to t#e universal fact *#ic# it s&mboli9ed e%g% from 5erusalem to t#eC#urc#, or from ab&lon to t#e #ostile *orld6% & t#is means T&conius *as enabled to

!ass lig#tl& over t#e references to 'ome and t#e !ersecuting Em!erors, *#ic# since t#econversion of t#e Em!ire #ad ceased to be of s!ecial interest, and to fi3 t#e attention oft#e reader u!on t#e *orldFlong struggle bet*een good and evil *#ile on t#e ot#er #and#is rule7 did not !revent #im from finding a crucial instance of t#at struggle in t#e fig#t*#ic# #is o*n !art& *ere ma2ing at t#e time in Africa against t#e Cat#olic C#urc#,identified in #is udgement *it# t#e evil of t#e *orld%

So far as #is !rinci!le of inter!retation is concerned T&conius #ad man& Cat#olic

follo*ers, *#o made no secret of t#eir indebtedness to t#e great $onatist% In #is

" de resurr. carnis, 2".

6 ad%. Marc. :24.

7 de res., l.c. n $pocal*ps oanns oro te5por+5 sternt+r.<

% See c. 17., p. 197.

9 n Theologisches $iteraturblatt , 26 $pr. 190", col. 192 ff.

1 P. 197 f.

2 /+rktt, pp. 1":1.

/+rktt, pp. 1, "0.

inter!retation of A!oc% 1K%8 Augustine agrees in t#e main *it# T&conius% Primasius,

Cassiodorius, A!ringius, ede, eatus, and most of t#e *riters on t#e A!ocal&!se *#o

follo*ed t#em in t#e earlier centuries of t#e +iddle Ages, *ere content *it# a m&stical

e3egesis *#ic# varied in its details according to t#e fanc& of t#e individual e3!ositor or

t#e needs or ideas of #is time%8% 0#ile Primasius and ot#ers *ere !o!ulari9ing t#e met#od of T&conius in t#e

Latin 0est, t#e -ree2 East made its first and onl& serious attem!t to e3!ound t#e

A!ocal&!se% Of Oecumenius not#ing can be said until #is commentar& finds an editor%

ut Andreas is !er#a!s t#e best 2no*n of ancient e3!ositors of t#e A!ocal&!se, and

certainl& none of t#em is more edif&ing or, in #is o*n *a&, more attractive% Entering on

#is *or2 *it# t#e conviction t#at Scri!ture #olds a t#reefold sense), #e agrees *it# t#e

Ale3andrians in attac#ing es!ecial im!ortance to t#e s!iritual inter!retation of a boo2,

*#ic# be&ond ot#er boo2s in t#e Ne* Testament lends itself to suc# treatment% ut #e

does not de!art so entirel& from t#e earlier sc#ool of Irenaeus and Hi!!ol&tus as #is

0estern contem!oraries did side b& side *it# m&stical e3!osition #e !laces

suggestions of a #istorical fulfilment% If #e regards ab&lon as t#e *orld considered as

t#e standing enem& of t#e C#urc#, in t#e seven 2ings #e sees successive embodiments

of t#e 0orldF!o*er, of *#ic# t#e si3t# *as 'ome and t#e sevent# Constantino!le% On

t#e ot#er #and t#e millennium is e3!lained as it is b& Augustine and t#e ot#er follo*ers

of T&conius% T#us t#e greatest of t#e -ree2 commentaries on t#e A!ocal&!se is a

s&ncretism, blending t#e met#ods of Irenaeus, Origen, and T&conius, *#ile at t#e same

time t#e *riter feels #is *a& to*ards t#e later s&stem of inter!retation *#ic# discovers

in St 5o#n7s !ro!#ec& antici!ations of t#e course of #istor&%

;% In t#e 0est at long intervals one or t*o e3!ositors succeeded in brea2ing loosefrom t#e tradition started b& T&conius% erengaud, a nint# centur& *riter *#ose

commentar& #as found a !lace in t#e a!!endi3 to t#e *or2s of St Ambrose, combines

t#e m&stical *it# t#e #istorical inter!retation, and endeavours to ma2e t#e A!ocal&!se

cover t#e *#ole course of #uman events% T#e first si3 seals carr& t#e #istor& of t#e

*orld from Adam to t#e fall of 5erusalem t#e first si3 trum!ets re!resent t#e !reac#ing

of t#e *ord from t#e age of t#e !atriarc#s to t#e age of t#e C#ristian mart&rs% T#e T*o

0itnesses are Enoc# and Elia#, *#ose coming *ill !recede t#e second Coming of t#e

Lord% T#e first east is Antic#rist, and #is seven #eads are t#e seven deadl& sins) t#e

second east is a follo*er of Antic#rist, or t#ose *#o !reac# #im ta2en collectivel& asfor t#e number of t#e east, erengaud is afraid to in"uire into it, lest it ma& corres!ond

*it# t#e letters of #is o*n name% ab&lon is Pagan 'ome, but 'ome regarded as

re!resenting t#e .civitas $iaboli/ t#e ten #orns of t#e east on *#ic# s#e sits are t#e

successive incursions of barbarians *#ic# bro2e u! t#e 'oman Em!ire% T#e T#ousand

Years reac# from t#e Ascension to t#e end of t#e *orld t#e first resurrection is t#e

4 de ci%itate, 20:7 ff.

1 prol.: π/σα =εόπνευστος γραφ>< ἅτε τριμερεῖ τI ,ν=ρVπM "π&ρ-οντι< τριμερ#ς !κ

τῆς =είας δεδVρ%ται -&ριτος.

1 See p. 20".

condition of t#e Saints in t#e !resent life% A more remar2able de!arture from t#e older

inter!retations is made in t#e "nchiridion in (pocalypsim of 5oac#im >Q )1K1@, founder

of t#e Ordo Dlorensis% 5oac#im7s *or2 is an attem!t to find corres!ondences bet*een

t#e A!ocal&!se and t#e events and e3!ectations of t#e t*elft# centur&% T#e east from

t#e sea is Islam, *ounded to t#e deat# b& t#e Crusades t#e Dalse Pro!#et is identified*it# t#e #eretical sects of t#e age ab&lon is 'ome, no longer !agan, but *orldl& and

viceFridden nevert#eless% Of t#e seven #eads of t#e east t#e fift# is t#e Em!eror

Drederic2 I%, and t#e si3t# Saladin t#e sevent# is Antic#rist t#e destruction of

Antic#rist *ill be follo*ed b& t#e millennium, *#ic# t#us recovers its !lace as a #o!e

of t#e future%

Of 5oac#im7s !ersonal lo&alt& to t#e 'oman C#urc# t#ere can be no doubt% ut #is

met#od *as s!eedil& turned against t#e C#urc# b& indiscreet follo*ers% (nder t#e &ear

)1;B +att#e* Paris relates t#at certain Dranciscans of Paris ."uaedam nova

!raedicabant deliramenta "uae de libro Ioac#im Abbatis e3tra3erunt, et "uendam

librum com!osuerunt "uem sic eis intitulare com!lacuit Incipit "vangelium aeternum1/

t#e Po!e, #e adds, commanded t#e boo2 to be burnt, .et alia "uae de Ioac#im corru!tela

dicuntur emanasse%/ ut t#e movement continued, and earl& in t#e fourteent# centur&

t#e fate of t#e "vangelium aeternum *as s#ared b& t#e postilla super (pocalypsim of

Peter 5o#n Oliva, anot#er Dranciscan nor can *e *onder *#en among t#e scant&

e3tracts of Oliva7s *or2 *#ic# esca!ed t#e flames *e read .Per sedem bestiae

!rinci!aliter designatus carnalis clerus in "uo "uidem bestialis vita regnat

longe !lus "uam in laicis%/ .+uller star #ic !ro 'omana genre et im!erio, tam !rout

fuit "uondam in statu !aganismi "uam !rout !ostmodum fuit in fide C#risti%/

.Guidam !utant "uod tam Antic#ristus m&sticus "uam !ro!rius et magnus erit !seudoF !a!a%/ 0#en suc# t#ings *ere *ritten *it#in t#e C#urc#, it is not matter for sur!rise

t#at t#e sects too2 t#e furt#er ste! of identif&ing Antic#rist *it# t#e Pa!ac& or t#e

occu!ants of t#e Pa!al See, or t#at t#is became a common!lace of A!ocal&!tic

inter!retation among reforming sects and C#urc#es%

On t#e !a!al side a counterFattem!t to inter!ret t#e A!ocal&!se in t#e lig#t of

#istor& *as made b& Nicolas of L&ra >Q)68K@% He finds in it a forecast of t#e course of

events from t#e time of $omitian to #is o*n% In L&ra7s udgement t#e millennium began

*it# t#e founding of t#e +endicant orders, *#ic# #ad bound Satan, as #e t#in2s, for a

considerable !eriod of time%<% 0it# t#e 'eformation of t#e si3teent# centur& a ne* era of A!ocal&!tic e3egesis

begins% Eac# side in t#e great controvers& found ins!iration in t#is boo2% T#e reforming

!art& in#erited t#e met#od of 5oac#im and t#e Dranciscans t#e e"uation t#e Po!e, or

t#e Pa!ac&, is Antic#rist7 *as t#e cornerFstone of t#eir inter!retation% On t#e !a!al side,

under t#e stress of t#e Protestant attac2, ne* met#ods arose, *#ic# at a later time found

follo*ers among t#e reformed% T#eir aut#ors *ere S!aniards and members of t#e

Societ& of 5esus% Drancis 'ibeira >Q )<K)@, a !rofessor at Salamanca, came to #is tas2

e"ui!!ed *it# a 2no*ledge of bot# t#e -ree2 and Latin commentators of t#e !atristic

2 See note on $poc. 14:6. 'e a+t'or of t'e Introductorius in Aeternu&E%angeliu& -as a frar na5e er'ar; see esler (E. r.), . p. 2"7 n.

!eriod, but *it# an o!en mind *#ic# refused to be bound b& t#eir e3egesis% He too2 #is

stand on t#e !rinci!le t#at t#e A!ocal&!tist foresa* onl& t#e nearer future and t#e last

t#ings, and offered no antici!ations of intermediate #istor&% T#us #e *as able to relegate

Antic#rist to t#e time of t#e end, and t#oug# *it# t#e maorit& of inter!reters #e

identified ab&lon *it# 'ome, #e could contend t#at t#e cit& *#ic# St 5o#n sa* u!ont#e east *as not, as some said, 'ome under !a!al rule, but t#e degenerate 'ome of a

future age% 'ibeira #as been described as a futurist, but t#e designation is inaccurate if it

overloo2s #is real a!!reciation of t#e #istorical ground*or2 of t#e 'evelation% His

brot#erF5esuit, Alcasar >Q)<)6@, on t#e ot#er #and, *as a t#oroug#Fgoing !reterist%7 In

#is udgement t#e bod& of St 5o#n7s !ro!#ec& falls into t*o great !ortions, c! 8=))%, and

c! )1=)?%, ans*ering severall& to t#e conflict of t#e C#urc# *it# 5udaism and #er

conflict *it# !aganism *#ile t#e closing c#a!ters >1K=11%@ describe #er !resent

trium!# and !redominance% ot# Alcasar and 'ibeira *rote in t#e interests of a !art&,

and neit#er of t#e sc#emes *#ic# t#e& !ro!ose is free from manifest difficulties &et

bot# *or2s mar2 an advance u!on earlier inter!retations in so far as t#e& a!!roac# t#e

boo2 from t#e stand!oint of t#e *riter and #is time, and abstain from reading into it t#e

events or ideas of a *idel& different !eriod%

B% T#e seventeent# and eig#teent# centuries *ere bus& *it# t#e *or2 of A!ocal&!tic

e3!osition% In England 5ose!# +ede and t*o eminent Cambridge mat#ematicians, Sir

Isaac Ne*ton and 0illiam 0#iston, found minute fulfilments of St 5o#n7s !ro!#ec&

from t#e da&s of $omitian to t#eir o*n) on t#e continent t#e same general s&stem of

inter!retation *as ado!ted, *it# var&ing results, b& t*o no less eminent aut#orities,

itringa and engel% On t#e ot#er #and -rotius and Hammond trod generall& in t#e

ste!s of Alcasar, *#ile on t#e !a!al side t#e great ossuet suggested t#e division of t#e !ro!#ec& into t#ree #istorical !eriods, t#e age of !ersecution >cc! ;=)?%@, t#e trium!# of

t#e C#urc# >c! 1K)=)K@, and t#e e!oc# of final conflict and victor& >cc! 1K))=11)6@%

At t#e end of t#e eig#teent# centur& Eic##orn struc2 a note *#ic# #as been ta2en u!

again "uite recentl&% T#e A!ocal&!se is in #is vie* a great !oem, or rat#er a drama,

*#ic# ma& be bro2en u! into acts and scenes:t#e drama of t#e !rogress and victor& of

t#e C#ristian fait#%

% 0#ile in#eriting t#e met#ods of its !redecessors, t#e nineteent# centur& found

itself in !ossession of ne* data b& *#ic# it *as enabled to correct or e3tend t#eir

a!!lication% T#e !rogress of events s#ifted t#e !oint of vie* from *#ic# t#e advocatesof t#e continuousl& #istorical inter!retation regarded St 5o#n7s visions room #ad to be

made, for instance, for t#e Drenc# 'evolution and all t#e disturbing tendencies *#ic# it

re!resented or set going)% Among e3!ositors *#o revolted from a s&stem *#ic# *as

under t#e necessit& of revising its results *it# t#e !rogress of events some, li2e S% '%

+aitland and Isaac 0illiams in England, and Stern, is!ing, and ot#ers on t#e

1 C'le -rte, sa*s Mee, Cne-s s ro+3't of a Prnce fro5 t'e Nort'

(5eann3 +sta8+s $olp'+s) 3ann3 8ctores o8er t'e E5peror n efence of

t'e er5an afflcte Protestants.< (Ellott, H.A. 4. p. 474.)

1 See, e.3., Ellott, H.A. :09 ff.



continent, revived and carried to greater lengt#s t#e futurist7 vie*s of 'ibeira *#ile

ot#ers, li2e Auberlen, fell bac2 u!on t#e !osition t#at t#e A!ocal&!se revealed a

!#iloso!#& of #istor& and antici!ated !ersons or events onl& *#en t#e& *ere .solitar&

e3am!les of a !rinci!le1%/ In -erman& a ne* attitude to*ards t#e inter!retation of t#e

boo2 *as created b& t#e endeavour to investigate its sources% If t#e A!ocal&!se of 5o#nis a 5e*is# *or2 ada!ted for reading in C#ristian congregations, or a com!ilation from

nonFcanonical a!ocal&!ses, it is difficult to regard t#e boo2 as more t#an a store#ouse of

firstFcentur& esc#atolog&, or a #istorical monument *#ic# t#ro*s lig#t on an obscure

age% In t#at case it is undoubtedl& of firstFrate im!ortance to t#e student of #istor&, but

its claims to be regarded as a !ro!#ec& in an& true sense of t#e *ord can no longer be

ta2en seriousl&% In -erman& t#is estimate of t#e A!ocal&!se is still dominant, and it #as

revolutioni9ed t#e inter!retation of t#e boo2% In England t#ere are signs of a desire to

assimilate all t#at ma& be of !ermanent value in t#e results of researc#, *it#out

abandoning belief in t#e canonical aut#orit& or !ro!#etical c#aracter of St 5o#n7s *or2%

E3am!les of t#is attitude ma& be found in Professor 0% +% 'amsa&7s 0etters to the

Seven /hurches, and in t#e most recent of Englis# commentaries on t#e 'evelation, t#e

brief but suggestive contribution made to Professor Adene&7s /entury &ible b& +r

Anderson Scott%

?% It remains to state t#e !rinci!les of inter!retation b& *#ic# t#e follo*ing

e3!osition #as been guided%

T#e inter!retation of an ancient boo2, es!eciall& of a boo2 suc# as t#e A!ocal&!se,

must de!end in great !art on t#e vie* *#ic# t#e inter!reter is led to ta2e of its literar&

c#aracter, !ur!ose, destination, and date% T#ese !oints #ave been discussed in t#e earlier

c#a!ters of t#e introduction, and it is onl& necessar& #ere to s#e* #o* t#e udgements*#ic# #ave been formed u!on t#em affect t#e *riter7s attitude to*ard t#e !roblems and

t#e general significance of t#e boo2%

>)@ T#is commentar& #as been *ritten under t#e conviction t#at t#e aut#or of t#e

A!ocal&!se *as, *#at #e claimed to be, an ins!ired !ro!#et% He belongs to t#e order

*#ic# in older da&s !roduced t#e boo2s of Isaia#, E9e2iel, and 4ec#aria#% He is a

medium of communication bet*een -od and C#rist on t#e one #and, and t#e C#urc# on

t#e ot#er% His mind #as been lifted into a s!#ere above its natural !o*ers b& t#e $ivine

S!irit, *#ic# #as enabled #im to assimilate a message from t#e invisible *orld% His

rendering of t#is message into #uman t#oug#t and s!eec# must be inter!reted as *einter!ret t#e !ro!#ecies of t#e Old Testament canon it *ill !ossess t#e same $ivine

elevation t#at *e find in t#em, and be liable to t#e same #uman limitations% T#e student

*#o a!!roac#es t#e A!ocal&!se from t#is !oint of vie* *ill not e3!ect to find in it

e3!ress !redictions of !ersons and actions *#ic# in St 5o#n7s da& *ere &et #idden in t#e

*omb of a remote future nor *ill #e loo2 for e3act c#ronological order in its successive

visions, or for a sense of t#e distances *#ic# !art great e!oc#s from one anot#er% ut on

t#e ot#er #and #e *ill e3!ect and, it is firml& believed, *ill find t#at t#e !ro!#et of t#e

Ne* Testament is not less able t#an t#e !ro!#ets of t#e Old Testament to read t#e

secrets of -od7s general !ur!ose in t#e evolution of events, to detect t#e greater forces2 $+erlen, cte * $rc'p. /enson, Apocalypse, p. 4%.



*#ic# are at *or2 in #uman life under all its vicissitudes, and to indicate t#e issues

to*ards *#ic# #istor& tends%

>1@ As t#e title suggests, t#e !ro!#ec& of t#is boo2 !ossesses a s!ecial c#aracter of

*#ic# t#e inter!reter must not fail to ta2e note% T#e $ivine message came to 5o#n in a

series of visions it is an a!ocal&!se, and it uses t#e ideas, t#e s&mbols, and t#e forms ofs!eec# *#ic# *ere c#aracteristic of a!ocal&!tic literature% T#us St 5o#n7s *or2

c#allenges com!arison *it# t#e a!ocal&!tic !ortions of t#e Old Testament, more

es!eciall& *it# t#e oo2 of $aniel and furt#er, *it# t#e nonFcanonical 5e*is#

a!ocal&!ses, to *#ic# read& access can no* be #ad t#roug# t#e labours of Professor

C#arles and $r +% '% 5ames% It is !ossible to e3aggerate t#e influence *#ic# t#ese

5e*is# boo2s e3erted over t#e mind of t#e C#ristian A!ocal&!tist, and it ma& be

"uestioned *#et#er #e #as made direct use of an& of t#em but t#e& establis# t#e

e3istence of a common stoc2 of a!ocal&!tic imager& on *#ic# St 5o#n evidentl& dre*%

T#e modern inter!reter of t#e A!ocal&!se is bound to ta2e into account t#e !resence in

St 5o#n7s boo2 of t#e conventional language of a!ocal&!tic literature, and to refrain

from !ressing it into t#e service of #is o*n line of inter!retation% P#rases and imager&

*#ic# fall under t#is categor& must generall& be #eld to belong to t#e scener& of t#e

boo2 rat#er t#an to t#e essence of t#e revelation% A recognition of t#is canon of

inter!retation *ill save t#e student from ado!ting t#e nave and sometimes grotes"ue

attem!ts *#ic# #ave been made to inter!ret ever& detail in a boo2 *#ic#, li2e all

*ritings of its class, defies treatment of t#is 2ind%

>6@ Anot#er im!ortant landmar2 for t#e guidance of t#e inter!reter is to be found in

t#e !ur!ose of t#e boo2 and t#e #istorical surroundings of its origin% T#e A!ocal&!se is

cast in t#e form of a letter to certain C#ristian societies, and it o!ens *it# a detailedaccount of t#eir conditions and circumstances% Onl& t#e most !erverse ingenuit& can

treat t#e messages to t#e seven C#urc#es as directl& !ro!#etical% T#e boo2 starts *it# a

*ellFdefined #istorical situation, to *#ic# reference is made again at t#e end, and t#e

intermediate visions *#ic# form t#e bod& of t#e *or2 cannot on an& reasonable t#eor&

be dissociated from t#eir #istorical setting% T#e !ro!#ec& arises out of local and

contem!orar& circumstances it is, in t#e first instance at least, t#e ans*er of t#e S!irit

to t#e fears and !erils of t#e Asian C#ristians to*ard t#e end of t#e first centur&% Hence

all t#at can t#ro* lig#t on t#e Asia of A%$% BK=)KK, and u!on C#ristian life in Asia

during t#at !eriod, is of !rimar& im!ortance to t#e student of t#e A!ocal&!se, not onl&in vie* of t#e local allusions in cc! 1=6%, but as #el!ing to determine t#e aim and drift of

t#e entire *or2% No one *#o reali9es t#at t#e !ro!#ec& is an ans*er to t#e cr&ing needs

of t#e seven C#urc#es *ill dream of treating it as a detailed forecast of t#e course of

mediaeval and modern #istor& in 0estern Euro!e% So far as t#e A!ocal&!tist reveals t#e

future, #e reveals it not *it# t#e vie* of e3ercising t#e ingenuit& of remote generations,

but for t#e !ractical !ur!ose of inculcating t#ose great lessons of trust in -od, lo&alt& to

t#e C#ristFing, confidence in t#e ultimate trium!# of rig#teousness, !atience under

adversit&, and #o!e in t#e !ros!ect of deat#, *#ic# *ere urgentl& needed b& t#e Asian

C#urc#es, and *ill never be *it#out meaning and im!ortance so long as t#e *orld lasts%

It *ill be seen t#at an inter!retation conducted u!on t#ese lines *ill #ave !oints of

contact *it# eac# of t#e c#ief s&stems of A!ocal&!tic e3egesis, *it#out identif&ing

itself *it# an& one of t#em as a *#ole% 0it# t#e !reterists7 it *ill ta2e its stand on t#e

circumstances of t#e age and localit& to *#ic# t#e boo2 belongs, and *ill connect t#e

greater !art of t#e !ro!#ec& *it# t#e destinies of t#e Em!ire under *#ic# t#e !ro!#etlived *it# t#e futurists7 it *ill loo2 for fulfilments of St 5o#n7s !regnant *ords in

times &et to come% 0it# t#e sc#ool of Auberlen and enson it *ill find in t#e

A!ocal&!se a C#ristian !#iloso!#& of #istor& *it# t#e continuousF#istorical7 sc#ool it

can see in t#e !rogress of events ever ne* illustrations of t#e *or2ing of t#e great

!rinci!les *#ic# are revealed% And *#ile it maintains, against t#e maorit& of recent

continental sc#olars, t#e essential unit& of t#e boo2 and its !ro!#etic ins!iration, it *ill

gladl& acce!t all t#at researc# and discover& can &ield for t#e better understanding of

t#e conditions under *#ic# t#e boo2 *as *ritten% Indeed it is from t#is "uarter t#at it

*ill loo2 most confidentl& for furt#er lig#t%

No attem!t to solve t#e !roblems of t#is most enigmatic of canonical boo2s can be

more t#an !rovisional even if t#e !rinci!les on *#ic# it rests are sound, t#eir

a!!lication must often be attended *it# uncertaint& t#roug# t#e inter!reter7s lac2 of

2no*ledge, or t#roug# #is liabilit& to err in #is udgements u!on t#e facts *#ic# are

2no*n to #im% T#e !resent *riter e3!ects no immunit& from t#is la* #e #as stated #is

conclusions *it#out reserve, but #e is far from desiring to claim for t#em a finalit&

*#ic# !er#a!s *ill never be attained% Nor #as #e gone to #is *or2 *it# an&

!reconce!tions be&ond t#e general !rinci!les ust indicated% His !ur!ose #as not been to

add a s&stem of inter!retation to t#ose *#ic# are alread& in t#e field, but sim!l& to

contribute *#atever a !ersonal stud&, conducted in t#e lig#t s#ed u!on t#e A!ocal&!se b& man& e3!lorers, ma& be able to offer to*ards a true a!!reciation of t#is great

C#ristian !ro!#ec&%

T#e follo*ing are a fe* of t#e least obvious abbreviations em!lo&ed in t#e

footnotesAr% Aret#as%$% ro*n $river and riggs, ebrew and "nglish 0e%icon of the 6!T! >O3ford, )?1=

)?K<@%lass, -r % D% lass, -rammar of !T! -reek % Translated b& H% St 5% T#ac2era& >London,

)?@%

urton% E% de 0% urton, Synta% of the #oods and Tenses in !T! -reek >Edinburg#, )?8@%/!I!-! /orpus inscriptionum graecarum%

"nc! &ibl! T% % C#e&ne and 5% S% lac2, "ncyclopaedia &iblica >London, )??=)?K6@%Ev% Petr% T#e -os!el of Peter >cited from t#e *riter7s edition@%

"%p% T#e "%positor %Hastings, D!&! 5% Hastings, Dictionary of the &ible >Edinburg#, )?=)?K8@%

'! Th! St! T#e 'ournal of Theological Studies%SH% Sanda& and Headlam, /ommentary on the "pistle to the *omans >Edinburg#, )?;@%St #ark % T#e *riter7s edition%T&c% T&conius >see !% )?%@%g% T#e Latin ulgate%ict% ictorinus >see !% )?B%@%0H% 0estcott and Hort, !T! in -reek >Cambridge, )?)@ 0H%1, second edition >)?<@%



0+% 0inerF+oulton, -rammar of ! T! -reek , t# Engl% ed% >Edinburg#, )BB@%0Sc#m% 0inerFSc#miedel, -rammatik d! Tlichen Sprachidioms >-Xttingen, )?8: @%4a#n, "inl! T#% 4a#n, "inleitung in das !T! >Lei!9ig, )?B=?@%

The Apocalypse of St. John-Swete-Introduction

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