THE ANGLO INDIAN COMMUNITY IN KERALA

Thesis submitted to the University of Kerala for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in History

By

K. V. THOMASKUTTY

Principal St.Johns College, Anchal

KERALA UNIVERSITY LIBRARY THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

September 2012

1

DR. T. JAMAL MOHAMMED Charitham, Kariavattom Thiruvananthapuram

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the thesis entitled THE ANGLO INDIAN

COMMUNITY IN KERALA submitted for the award of the Degree

of Doctor of Philosophy of University of Kerala is a record of bonafied

research work carried out by K. V. THOMASKUTTY under my

supervision. No part of the thesis has been submitted for any degree

before.

Thiruvananthapuram DR. T. JAMAL MOHAMMED 07.09.2012 Supervising Teacher

2

K.V.THOMASKUTTY Principal St. Johns College, Anchal

DECLARATION

I, K. V. THOMASKUTTY, do hereby declare that this thesis

entitled THE ANGLO INDIAN COMMUNITY IN KERALA has

not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma,

associateship, fellowship or other similar title or recognition

Thiruvananthapuram K. V. THOMASKUTTY

07.09.2012

3

CONTENTS Pages PREFACE i - v LIST OF PLATES v CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 - 7 CHAPTER II HISTORICAL EVOLUTION AND EXPANSION OF ANGLO-INDIAN COMMUNITY IN KERALA 8 - 37 CHAPTER III SOCIO-CULTURAL TRAITS, PATTERNS, LIFESTYLE AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF ANGLO-INDIANS IN INDIA 38 - 69 CHAPTER IV ANGLO-INDIANS OF KERALA, A CASE OF COCHIN SETTLEMENT 70- 94 CHAPTER V THE CHANGING STATUS OF THE ANGLO- INDIANS IN THE POST INDEPENDENT ERA- 95 - 128 A CONSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS CHAPTER VI THE PEAGEANTRY OF THE ANGLO-INDIAN INSTITUTIONS AND STRUGGLE FOR EXISTANCE 129-154 CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION 155-164 APPENDICES 165-197 GLOSSARY 198-200

BIBLIOGRAPHY 201 209

4

PREFACE

The European domination in India lead to the evolving of a new biological

hybrid ethnic group called the Eurasians later came to be known as

Anglo-Indians. Over a period of time they became a noticeable minority

in India having distinct characteristics of their own. A small minority

living in the mainstream of the society holding English as their mother

tongue and following western style of life is a unique feature exclusively

of Anglo-Indian. Their devotion, love of music, art, costume, cuisine and

gender equality has some striking differences from the traditional Indian

society. Despite constitutional protection, reservations and nominations

facilities they doomed to their privacy and the general public in Kerala

maintained a false impression about their origin, social life and

organisation. Historical background, socio-cultural patterns,

resemblance to European life and the complexities coiled the community

which face the threat of extinction aroused the curiosity to go deep in to

their life in its totality. No serious study has been made on the Socio-

economic traits and cultural heredity of the Anglo-Indian Community in

Kerala.

5

The study is based on an exhaustive examination of authoritative

sources, primary as well as secondary. A good deal of materials for the

study have been collected from Central Archives and Directorate of State

Archives, Thiruvananthapuram, Archives of Kerala Legislative Assembly

and office of the Anglo-Indian Association in Cochin. The reports of

various commissions and committees appointed by Government of Kerala

from time to time, Cover files, confidential files and various Department

Files available in the State Archives have been consulted. Materials such

as the Proceedings of the Kerala Legislative Assembly, Various Acts and

Proclamations were also used for the study.

Apart from the literary sources stated above, non- literary sources

such as interview with Anglo-Indians also provided ample amount of data

for this research work. In interviewing the Anglos certain criteria had to

be accepted since indiscriminate interview could not be resorted to. A

representative character was adopted. People from different walks of life

had to be selected for the purpose. The matter collected from the

interviews was corroborated with the information gathered from the

written documents.

6

Secondary sources like Manuals, Gazetteers, Research papers,

Newspapers, Journals and published works relevant to the present study

were obtained from different institutions such as Kerala University Library,

Libraries of the Department of History, Department of Politics and

Department of Sociology of the University of Kerala and State Central

Library, Thiruvananthapuram. I am obliged to the librarians of all these

libraries for their pleasant support.

It gives me immense pleasure to express my thanks to a great number of

people whose invaluable contributions has made this thesis possible.

Words wont suffice to express my gratitude and indebtedness to my

guide, Dr. T.Jamal Mohammed, formerly professor in History and Principal,

Mannania College of Arts and science, Pangode, Trivandrum, for the

unflinching encouragement, scholarly help and timely advice given by him

throughout my research work. From the depth of my heart, I record my

sincere thanks and obligations to him for his valuable guidance at all stages

of my research.

I am also obliged to Most Rev. Dr. Samuel Mar Irenios, Auxiliary

Bishop of the Major Archdiocese of Thiruvananthapuram for the constant

encouragement and support. Thanks are also due to Dr. Suresh

7

Jnaneswaran, Head of the Department of History and Dean, faculty of Social

Science, University of Kerala for his timely help.

Thanks area also due to the librarians and staff of Kerala University

Library, departments of History, Sociology and Politics for their support. I

also gratefully remember all the staff at the various Archives and

Association offices.

I am thankful to my colleagues and friends especially Dr. K.Alexander,

Divya, Resmi and also Meera and Sreenidhi of the Department of law for

their generous support and assistance.

A host of Anglo-Indian friends generously helped me in this research.

Anglo-Indian Association Manjanakad president Mr. Andrew Rodrigues,

Mrs. Grace Rodrigues, Mrs. Hyasinth, Mr. Jenson DCosta, Mr. Dexter

DCruz, Mr. Lester Concesso, Mr.Kevin Rozario and the Anglo-Indian

community in Manjanakad, Vypeen, Fort Cochin, Kollam, Thankassery and

Alleppey. Thanks are also due to Fr. Rijo Mynattiparampil, Asst. Vicar, St.

Marys Church Njarakkal, Fr. Joseph Sugun Leons Kollam, Msgr. Ferdinand

Kayavil Kollam for their unconditional support and timely assistance. My

time spent with the Vypeen Anglo-Indian community is something

unforgettable. They have given me easy access to their community, provided

8

all the official and private documents and people available for interviews and

interaction.

I would like to thank my wife Annie and my children Bro. George

Thomas, Dr, Joseph Thomas and Jobin Thomas for their support and

forbearance during the entire research period. My brother Msgr. Johnson

Varughese kaimalayil, has been a constant source of inspiration and

encouragement. I acknowledge my debt of gratitude.

Last, but not the least, I sincerely express my gratitude to Soumya,

who is more than a daughter to me, supported me all throughout my

research and took much pain in getting things done. I thank God the

Almighty, and His eternal Word together with the Holy Spirit for all that I

am and for helping me complete this thesis.

9

Plate I Vasco da Gama, the first Portuguese Navigator to India

Plate II Memoirs of Vasco da Gama at Kappadu, Calicut

Plate III Vasco da Gama Church, Fort Cochin

Plate IV Our Lady of Hope Church, Vypeen built in 1606

Plate V St. Angelo Fort, Kannur

Plate VI Part of Emmanuel Fort, CochinPlate

Plate VII The malabar House of Fort Cochin, a perfect specimen of Anglo-Indian

Architecture

Plate VIII Interior of an Anglo-Indian House

Plate IX Gate of an Anglo-Indian House with the Peculiar House Name

Plate X Interior of an Anglo-Indian House in the Heritage area, Fort Cochin

Plate XI A Unique Anglo-Indian Custom

Plate XII A typical Anglo-Indian Costume

Plate XIII An exclusive Anglo-Indian Gathering

Plate XIV Thiruvathira performed by the Anglo-Indians during their Onam Celebrations

Plate XV Anglo-Indian members of Indian Hockey Team - 1928 Summer Olympics

Plate XVI An art form in Anglo-Indian Style

Plate XVII Princes Street of Fort Cochin

Plate XVIII Berger Street of Fort Cochin

Plate XIX Old Street of Fort Cochin

Plate XX Anglo-Indian Association office, Ernakulam

Plate XXI Infant Jesus Church Ernakulam

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Chapter II

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION AND EXPANSION OF ANGLO INDIAN COMMUNITY IN KERALA

The Anglo-Indian communities are the Indo-European minority

community of India whose evolution, expansion, and socio positioning are

inseparably collaborative contained by the politico, ethnic and cultural

problematic of the European colonization in India.1 Anglo Indians have

historically endured a disturbed and non assimilative position in India.2

Since the commencement of their evolution as a group in India, the Anglo

Indians were largely sidelined by native Indians who made no distinction

between them and the British imperialists. Even though India is the

homeland of the Anglo-Indian community and also being constitutionally

documented as one among Indias six minority groups, they continue to

occupy a controversial position within the discourse of Indian national

identity and thus has historically been regarded as un-homed in India, the

land which paradoxically constitutes the communitys historical recollection

most importantly, the domain of their collective memory.3

Historical Background

The evolution of Anglo-Indians can be traced back to the time of

European expedition to the unknown East. The 16th century CE, after a

11

millennium in the dark ages, a handful of courageous and determined

explorers, driven by a thirst of power, glory and wealth, sailed from Europe

to conquer this unknown land.4 The first Europeans who succeeded in this

endeavour were the Portuguese by the arrival of Vasco-da-Gama at the

coast of Malabar in 14985, followed by the Dutch, French and finally the

British. The continued stay of European men in this sub continent paved

the way for politically justified relations with the native women and this

union resulted in the birth of a novel community, previously known as

Eurasians and later Anglo-Indians.6

The historical evolution of Anglo-Indians as a social group started in

India with the arrival of Portuguese and its establishment as a colonial

power.7 The beginning of this was the successful expedition of the well-

known sailor Vasco-da-Gama, who started his voyage from Lisbon on 8th of

July 1498. The manuals and naval records suggest that his expedition

lasted around eight months and it came to an end at the port named

Kappadu near Calicut on 18th of May 1498.8 This was the actual foundation

of both European colonization and the evolution of Anglo-Indians as a

hybrid community in India.9

Gamas request for the permission to leave a repository behind him in

charge of the merchandise he could not sell was dealt with a disappointing

report by the Zamorin asking for taxes in return.10 Thus the willingness for a

12

political discourse and magnanimity of Zamorin of Calicut short lived. Gama

broke up his relation with the Zamorin and sailed to Cannanore. There he

managed to form a trade agreement with the Kolathiri. In 1499 Gama

reached back Lisbon with fleets of ships crammed with spice.11

The next move from the Portuguese emperor was little systematic and

eventually after six months, Gama under the patronage of King Henry had

sent around 1500 men in 33 ships to India under Captain Pedro Alvarez

Cabral, out of which only 6 could reach the shore. Cabral could make good

relationship with the Zamorin.12

The second attempt under Gama succeeded in finding a storehouse at

Calicut. The acceptance that Portuguese got here envied the Arabs who were

enjoying the monopoly of trade in Calicut. Competition in trade and

consequent conflicts between them finally made Cabral leave Calicut early.13

He left the shore after destructing some Arab ships and moved to Cochin. In

24 December 1500 Cabral reached Cochin where he got a warm welcome.

The then king of Cochin Unnirama Thirumulppadu permitted him to

establish a trading station there and left some of his men to take care of it.

Later Cochin became an important centre of the Anglo-Indians.14This is

marked as a major event in the history of Anglo-Indians.15

13

Before leaving, Cabral abandoned some men from the team. But the

King of Kannur was generous in accepting them and making arrangements

for their stay and survival here. Thus Portuguese culture and life style

sprouted in Cochin and Kannur. After Cabral, Joao-da-Nova and followed by

Vasco-da-Gama made their visit to India. Nova couldnt make any trade

agreements, but Gamas activities were a clear reflection of the colonisation

plans of the Portuguese.16

The very next year Gama anchored at Anchidweep at Kannur and

visited the native ruler. On his way to Calicut, Gama wrecked a ship

carrying Muslim Hajjis, as a warning to the Muslim traders in hindering

their growth in Calicut.17 The Portuguese noticed earlier that it was the

Zamorin who makes their establishment in Kerala tough, and wanted the

Zamorin to push out all the Muslim merchants from Calicut. As expected,

the Zamorin denied Gamas wish and as revenge Gama attacked Calicut and

moved to Cochin.18

An agreemenst was signed by Vasco-da-Gama with the ruler of

Cochin.19 The provisions of the agreement favours that, the people should

sell spices and other things to the Portuguese in the price which has

decided by the King and Portuguese.20 Gama got the right to build barracks

for the Portuguese forces. This was another mile stone in the establishment

14

of Anglo-Indians in Kerala21. Before going back to Portuguese Gama came to

Kannur and left 200 men there in purpose.

This new group joined with the already established people who were

abandoned by Cabral and together these groups mingled with the natives

and sprinkled their Portuguese culture. Gama left some of his men in

Cochin too. The Zamorin who had rivalry with Gama asked the King of

Cochin to confer them to him. The King denied this and the Zamorin

attacked Cochin to get them. The Portuguese force was so weak in resisting

the Zamorin and finally they accepted the defeat.22

This war started by Zamorin catalysed the expansion of Anglo-Indians

in Kerala. On 2nd September 1503, a huge Portuguese force reached Cochin

under Francisco Albuquerque to help the King of Cochin and placed him

back to his position. In return, as a token of gratitude the king provided

adequate space for the building of a Portuguese Fort23. On 27th September

1503, they started the building of a fort in the name of Dom Manuel which

subsequently developed as a Portuguese settlement. The Anglo-Indian

development fortified in connection with the Manuel fort. Albuquerque

formed a strong force for the fort and gave all the responsibilities for

maintaining the force to Duarte Pacheco.24

15

The Portuguese force led by Duarte Pacheco, a Portuguese Naval

admiral, conquered the Zamorin at Kodungallore and started to make a fort

there in 1504. After the native chief of Kodungallore took refuge under the

Portuguese, the Anglo-Indians started spreading towards north from

Cochin. The King Manuel of Portugal had decided to keep a permanent force

in Kerala to save the Portuguese interests and towards the same he sent

Fransisco Almeda to Cochin as his representative to look after the fort who

later became the first viceroy of Portuguese. This moulded Cochin a

Portuguese settlement in Kerala.25

Almeda gave remarkable contributions in the spreading of the Anglo-

Indian community. Their growth in Malabar area was accelerated in

connection with the building and strengthening of St. Angelo Fort and other

Forts in Kannur and Calicut. After Almeda, Alfonso de Albuquerque took

charge of viceroy who aimed the widening of Portuguese empire in India.26

Under his leadership the Portuguese attacked the Zamorin, but couldnt

conquer him; instead they could make him sign in an accord.27 According to

this agreement they got right to build a fort at Calicut and buy spices at the

same price that they got from Cochin. But the continuous attack from the

Arabs forced them to give up the fort. This necessitated a major structural

change and the Portuguese shifted their capital from Cochin to Goa.28

16

However, the change in Portuguese capital never affected the spreading

of Anglo-Indians in Kerala. After Albuquerque, Loposores took charge as the

viceroy. He tried to convert Kollam as their centre. They were able to build a

fort at Tangassery, named Fort Thomas and eventually Tangassery became

a major Portuguese settlement in Kerala.29 In the meantime Kunjali

Marakkar, a close aide of the Zamorin became a major threat for their

domination in the Indian Ocean.30 Nuno da Kunha built a fort at Chaliyam

in 1531 and regained their supremacy over Indian Ocean, which was

attacked and ruined the Zamorin in 1571. But the hostility between the

Kunjali and Zamorin opened a new relationship with the Portuguese. This

gave a more assured life to the Portuguese descendants. Zamorin gave

permission to build a factory at Ponnani in 1584. Portuguese and Zamorin

attacked the Kunjali fort and caught KunjaliIV and assassinated him at Goa

in1600 and brought his head to Kannur which was kept for display in a

public place, an act worsened their image among the common people.31 The

Portuguese established factories and settlements in Cochin, Palliport,

Kannur, Calicut, Chaliyam, Purakkad, Kayamkulam and Quilon to carry on

trade in pepper, spices and other articles.32 They also built forts in most of

these places like Fort Immanuel in Cochin, Fort Thomas in Tangasseri

(Quilon) and Fort St. Angelo in Kannur in order to protect their factories.

The origin and growth of the Anglo-Indian community starts around these

17

forts and military centers.33 The Portuguese men who came here with the

force at the beginning of the invasion were mostly unmarried. The need for a

female partner for the Portuguese soldiers and the traders was inexorably

felt. This made the government who had spent huge amount of money for

their wellbeing in India to bring Portuguese women here. Later they found

this as not economic and decided to legalize the relationship between the

Portuguese men and native women, which in reality had started even long

back. In the initial stages, such intermarriages were permitted for men of

good character only and there were only some 100 marriages were recorded

in 1600.34

Origin and expansion of Anglo-Indians

Historically the origin of the Anglo-Indian community dates back to

many centuries to the earliest years of contact between Europe and India,

precisely a period of four centuries to the time when Vasco da Gama, the

Portuguese Navigator, landed at Calicut on the West Malabar Coast of India

in May, 1498. Within two years of 1500 there was at Diu a Portuguese

Governor the great Alfonso d Albuquerque.35 As a means of establishing the

Portuguese authority in India he encouraged his countrymen to marry

Indian women.36 He did not however give permission to marry except to men

of approved character. The women whom they married were the daughters

of the principal men of the land. But nevertheless, the Portuguese failed to

18

establish themselves permanently in India and one of the vital causes of the

Portuguese failure was the arrival of the Dutch and the English in the

opening years of the 17th century. The offspring of these mixed marriages

between the Portuguese and Indians were known as Luso-Indians. When

the Portuguese, under pressure, abandoned their Indian possessions the

Luso-Indians rapidly sank in the social scale and within a space of two

centuries the majorities of them had reverted to Indian stocks, and are

known today as Goanese, a very common community in Goa, Bombay and

the West Coast. But in the larger cities of India like Calcutta, Bombay and

Madras, the better type of Luso-Indians retained their European

characteristics and many of them ultimately amalgamated with the newly

born mixed community, the Anglo-Indians.37

The birth of the Anglo-Indian community in contradistinction to the

Luso-Indian community dates back to the year 1600 when Queen Elizabeth

granted a Charter to the East India Company to initiate trading operations

with India. The English at first merely visited Indian ports as traders. By

1612 a factory had been established at Surat and another in Madras in

1639. Bombay was a centre for trade purposes in 1668. In 1698 the East

India Company purchased the Zemindary of three villages, one of which was

called Calicutta, from which Calcutta derived its name. Very soon it was

crucial to construct fortifications and employ soldiers to defend the factories

19

against attacks from the Mahrattas and other marauders of those early

days. Thus there gradually grew up colonies of English men only in all the

trading factories along the shores of India, for the East India Company had

forbidden women from accompanying their men folk to India.38

Owing to the fact that the English missed the companionship of their

women, and suffered from the monotony and tedium of life in a strange and

tropical land, many of them formed alliances with the Luso-Indian and

Indian women.39 Moreover the English discovered that the offspring of mixed

marriages, the Anglo-Indians, were of great service to them in many ways.40

The Court of Directors of the East India Company on 8th April, 1687, thus

addressed their President at Madras: The marriage of our soldiers to the

native women of Fort St. George is a matter of such consequence to

posterity that we shall be content to encourage it with some expense, and

have been thinking for the future to appoint a pagoda of Rs. 5 to be paid to

the mother of any child that shall hereafter be born of any such future

marriage, upon the day the child is christened, if you think this small

encouragement will increase the number of such marriages.41 The offer of

the Directors was accepted and put into effect so that the British in this way

became officially responsible for the birth of the Anglo-Indian Community.

Gradually however, as the numbers of Anglo-Indians increased, the practice

of Britishers marrying Indian women fell into disrespect, because the

20

necessity for it had disappeared.42 The new arrival could always wed a girl of

mixed parentage, and it became customary for him to do so.43

From the earliest times the Anglo-Indian community stood for the

cause of England. They enlarged the inadequate forces of the East India

Company; they spilt their blood on many a battlefield, they rendered

estimable services in scrutinizing and bringing information of the enemy. In

the early days Anglo-Indians were not branded with the mark of inferiority44.

If their fathers could afford it, they were sent to England for their education,

and returned to India in the covenanted services of the Company. Those

who were not lucky enough to be sent to England were given the best

education obtainable in India and occupied the majority of the positions in

the uncovenanted Civil service, and in the warrant ranks of the Companys

army. They fought under Clive at Arcot. They perished in the Black Hole of

Calcutta. They were to be found in the front line of battle at Plassey.45 These

were the years of their prosperity, their quiet days. The days of chaos and

hardship were fast approaching.46

The days of prosperity of the Anglo-Indian community may roughly

extend from 1600 to 1785. On the 14th of March, 1786, the first of three

repressive orders was promulgated against the community. By the first

order of March 1786 the wards of the upper orphanage school at Calcutta,

21

recently established under the auspices of the East India Company for the

orphans of British Military officers, were prohibited from going on to

England to complete their education, and thus qualifying for the covenanted

services.47 A second order passed in April 1791 stated that no person the

son of a native Indian shall henceforth be appointed by the court in

employment in the Civil and Military forces of the Company. The third

Resolution passed in 1795 stated that all not come dowm from European

parents on both sides were disqualified for service in the army except as

fifers, drummers, bandsmen, and farriers. These repressive measures were

due partly to a fear of mutinies such as had occurred in the English force

under Clive in Bengal in 1776 and in the Madras army which revolted and

imprisoned Lord Pigott, Governor of Madras, in the same year; partly to a

panic in India and England caused by thinking the possibilities of a

rebellion in India led by the now numerous Anglo-Indians.48 This experience

had happened about this time to the Spaniards in San Domingo; and partly

to a desire on the part of shareholders of the East India Company for the

support with regard to filling appointments in India which up to now was in

the hands of the Indian Government, for the shareholders saw in the

Companys service attractive careers for their sons and other near relatives.

Thus Anglo-Indians had been deprived of every honorable career in the

military forces and the door was closed against them with regard to civil

22

appointments.49 Thus within the brief period of 10 years lying between 1786

and 1795, by the standing orders of the great East India Company, Anglo-

Indians had been reduced to the status of a outlawed and down-trodden

race.50 Immediate action was taken in order to give effect to these

regulations, and these conditions with slight variations were in force till the

outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857.51 Anglo-Indians in every branch of the army

were discharged from the service without any compunction as to their

future. Owing to the fact that hence forth they were regarded more like

Englishmen, they had been debarred from acquiring land or residing further

than 10 miles from the nearest Presidency town or Companys settlement.52

Hence they could not turn to agriculture or trade. Thrown out of the

soldiering, the only profession to which they had been reared, there was

nothing for them to do but transfer their services to Indian chiefs, and they

were received with open arms. Others of them formed their own groups of

irregular infantry and cavalry; while hundreds of Anglo-Indian warriors won

their spurs in the ranks of armies not belonging to the East India

Company.53

The East India Company had hardly cast Anglo-Indians out of its army,

when it found itself beset by foes. The Marquis of Wellesley had arrived in

India in 1798 and had introduced his Subsidiary System which initiated

the Mysore and Mahratta wars. At this time to the English in Europe were

23

at death-grips with the French and Napoleon in the Revolutionary Wars and

could send very little help to India. So A Proclamation was issued

summoning all British and Anglo-Indian men and officers who were serving

with the Mahratta army under Perron and in other Indian States, to return

to the Companys forces. The Proclamation concluded with a warning that

those who failed to rejoin the British ranks would be treated as traitors.

There was no need for the threat. The Anglo-Indians heard the Call of the

Blood and absolutely conformed. The war against the Maharattas was

concluded abruptly and inconclusively. The Court of Directors had grown

weary of Wellesleys ceaseless and costly campaigns, and recalled him. A

Non-Intervention policy was once again adopted and expenditure on the

military side reduced.54

During the first half of the 19th century (1800-1850) the Anglo-Indian

community made the first serious attempts to provide for the education of

their children.55 Being shut out from the army they realized that a good

education was needed for the various callings in civil life. In response to this

urge, and with the help of influential men and societies La Martiniere

College was established in 1836, St. Xaviers College in 1834, and many

other institutions too numerous to mention. The spirit of self-help of this

period is worth bearing in mind.56 In spite of improved educational facilities

the prospects of the community during the first half of the 19th century

24

were none too rosy. In fact for many the future was black. The political,

social and economic, disabilities of their community was freely discussed in

every Anglo-Indian home and ultimately it was resolved that a petition

should be presented to the British Parliament on their behalf.57 A suitable

document was drawn and J.W. Ricketts was unanimously elected agent to

present it to the Houses of Parliament. Ricketts arrived in London with this

precious Document on 27th December 1829 and it was at length duly

presented to Parliament. Owing to the political upheavals in England about

this time the petition did not produce the results which were expected of it.

The struggle for Catholic Emancipation and the Reform bill of 1832 was in

progress. The people in England had too many of their own problems to

cope with to find time for the petition of the Anglo-Indians. The communal

activities of the Anglo-Indians about the period 1820-1830 had a local but

nevertheless important result. It called for the sympathy and good-will of

influential friends in the country, who gave their moral support to the

aspirations and reasonable demands of a patient and enduring section of

the British inhabitants.58

In 1833 the Charter of the East India Company was renewed.

Influenced no doubt somewhat by the Anglo-Indians petition, Section 87 of

the said Act stated that No native of the said territories, nor any natural

born subject of His Majesty resident therein, shall, by reason of his religion,

25

place of birth, descent, colour, or any of them, be disabled from holding any

place, office, or employment under the said Company.59 In theory all posts

were thrown open to people of any race in India, but in practice only the

subordinate trades were bestowed upon Indians and Anglo-Indians, since

higher services could be filled only by recruitment in England.60 Fortunately

for Anglo-Indians, about this same time (1833), English took the place of

Persian as the official language of the Courts and Government offices.61 In

future English was to be the only medium of correspondence in commercial

houses. English being their mother-tongue, the Anglo-Indians had an

advantage in this direction and very soon many of the community found

employment under Government and in commercial firms as clerks, though

in subordinate positions. This advantage, however, was only temporary

because Lord Bentinck, who was Governor-General from 1828 to 1836, with

the cooperation of Lord Macaulay who drew up his famous Minute on

Education in 1835, determined that the linguistic disadvantage of Indians

should be removed, and accordingly instruction in English was ordered to

be imparted in Indian schools.62

Fortune once again came to the rescue of Anglo-Indians for soon new

avenues of employment were opening up for them. In 1825 the first railway

had run in England.63 In 1845 the East India Railway was projected in

India.64 Simultaneously railway schemes were set on foot in Madras and

26

Bombay. The first train in India ran from Bombay to Thana in 1853. In

1851 the Telegraph system was inaugurated.65

Anglo-Indians found ample employment on the railways, and in the

telegraph and custom services. These departments needed men of

adventurous stock who were willing to endure the hardships, risks, and

perils of pioneers. The Anglo-Indians had in them the spirit of their

forefathers and placed in navigation Companies with captains, second

officers, engineers and mechanics. From them were recruited telegraph

operators, artisans and electricians. They supplied the railways with station

staffs, engine-drivers, permanent way-inspectors, guards, auditors - in fact

every higher grade of railway servant. The Mutiny of 1857 too had proved

beyond doubt the absolute loyalty of the Anglo-Indians and removed the

suspicion which had been responsible for the repressive measures of the

latter part of the 18th century.66

The modern period for the Anglo-Indians may be begun in the year

1911. It was in this year that the term Anglo-Indians was substituted by

Government for the old name Eurasians, by which the community was

known. In the 20th century Indians have made rapid progress in every

direction. The universities, colleges and schools, of India have turned out

thousands of young men well-fitted to hold posts in all the departments of

27

Government and in civil capacities too. The Morely-Minto Reforms of 1909,

the Montagu-Chelmsford of 1919, and the Indian Bill of 1935 have given

Indians an increasing share in the Government of their country. As the

Indians are fitting themselves more and more to undertake leadership in all

phases of life in India, it is only in the natural order of affairs that Anglo-

Indians should lose the near monopoly they once held and find in the

struggle to secure employment more difficult.67

Today young men of Anglo-Indian community with a good high school

education, and some with degrees, are roaming the streets in search of

employment, and unemployment is widespread. Hundreds, of the

community are to be found today in all the large towns begging for their

daily bread. The community as a whole is downhearted and discouraged,

and had not yet found a solution for its difficulties. In many senses the

community had faced more difficult problems and been through more trying

circumstances in this modern age than ever before in its history.68

Anglo-Indian Expansion in Kerala

The Anglo-Indians of Kerala are chiefly the ancrstors descendants of

the Portuguese, who settled down in the west coast of Malabar in the

sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. There is a sprinkling of the Dutch, the

French and the English descendants also among them. But most of them

28

have intermingled by inter-marriages now. Persons of unmixed European

blood also are there. The surnames Almeida, Abrao, Alweyn, Aruja, Bivera,

Coutinho, Carvalho,Cabral, Coelho, Correya, Dcosta, DCouto, DCunha,

DCruz, DRose, DSilva, DSouza, DClaus, Dias, Durome, Fereira, Faria,

Fernandez, Figerado, Figueres, Furtado, Furtal, Furtas, Gomez, Gonsalvez,

Lopez, Luiz, Livero, Mendez, Nunez, Nevis, Netto, Noronho, Olivero, Paiva,

Padua, Pereira, Pinheiro, Pinto, Prakasia, Rodriguez, Rozario, Rebeiro,

Rebello, Saiza, Severenvce, Sequira, Surrao, and Zimenthy indicate

Portuguese origin; Gallyot, Hoogewerf, Hendricks, Jacobs, Jacques, Lobo,

Meyn, Van Ross, Van Reyke and Van Spall-Dutch origin; Labauchardier and

Lafrenais-French origin and Jackson, Mcleod, Price, Platel, Williams and

Watts-British origin. There are a few offsprings of Germans, Swiss and

Italians also among the Anglo-Indians of Kerala as Guenthers, Schmidts,

Guezlers and Niglis. However, it is seen that some of the Portuguese names

were adapted by converts to Christianity in the south during the Portuguese

Period.69

It was the Portuguese king, Dom Manuel who sanctioned the marriage

of Portuguese men, who had rendered good services to native women. These

marriages were most often from the high ranking and rich families which

enabled them to learn the native language, Customs and manners and

helped them to establish better contacts with the native population. It has

29

been recorded that the Raja of Cochin arranged the marriage of a

Portuguese Officer with a Namboothiri lady.70

The Portuguese were in Kerala for a period of 165 years. Vasco Da

Gama landed at Calicut on May 18, 1498, followed by Pedro Alvarez Cabral

who came to Cochin on 24th December, 1500. The Portuguese had

settlements in Quilon, Kayamkulam, Poracad, kochi, Cranganore,

Palliport, kozhicode, Chaliyam and cannanore. They also built forts at Kochi,

Palliport, Cranganore, Quilon, Calicut and Cannanore. With the surrender

of Cochin to the Dutch on January 6, 1963, the Portuguese supremacy in

Kerala ended. The Protestant Dutch followed a policy of religious

persecution. Hence most of the mixed races who were Catholics fled from

the towns to interior places where they could follow their religion

unmolested. However, in their own interests, the Dutch revised their policy

subsequently and tried to attract back those who left. The Mestices, as the

mixed races were then called were allowed to erect a church at Vypin. The

present church of Our Lady of Hope at Vypeen was accordingly built and

the altar and the old screen from

the Church of St.Francis at Fort Cochin were transferred to that Church.71

When the Dutch surrendered to the British on October 19, 1795, many

among the Dutch preferred to remain in Cochin. But they were gradually

30

reduced to such great distress that the British Government had to settle

pensions on them. The Dutch and their descendants inter married with

Portuguese descendants.72 During the period of the British, some of them

married girls of mixed blood while some others had connections with Thiya

women of Malabar. The progenies of such connections most often followed

the life of their mothers and seldom came forward to claim that they were of

mixed race. But in case of solicitous fathers, the children were sent to

Anglo-Indian schools where they were well educated and looked after. Such

progenies thrived in life because of the special treatment they received at the

hands of British Government. Some of the Frenchmen also settled down and

married girls of mixed decent. Thus we find among the Anglo-Indians of

Kerala, people with the blood of European who came chiefly from countries

like Portugal, Holland, France and Great Britain.73

Anglo- Indians in Alleppey

There is very close affinity between the Anglo- Indians of Cochin and

Alleppey. The Anglo- Indians belong to the Latin Church, and till 1952

Alleppey Diocese was part of the Cochin Diocese and most of the Anglo-

Indians in Alleppey had originally come from Cochin and its suburbs. There

are Anglo-Indians came from Kollam and Kayamkulam who reached there

31

for business and employment. Early settlers in Alleppey were men who hold

important positions in the erstwhile Travancore Government and important

positions in the Commercial banking Houses established by the Europeans.

Mr. A.J Veiyra the Chief Secretary of Travancore, Mr. A. J. Van Rose the

excise Commissioner of Travancore Government, Mr. Robert Cleur the

magistrate of Alleppey, Walter Cleur, the Chief Customs officer of Alleppey,

Dr. Robert Veiyra, Dr. Charles Veiyra, Dr. John La Bouchariere and Dr.

Gomez Medical Officers of the local hospital were the pioneers of Anglo-

Indian settlers in Alleppey. Some of the members of the Anglo-Indian

community established well in commercial sector especially the export of

coir products. Thomas S.DCruz, C.J.hantney, E.Bout, Joe Fernandez and

Edward Fernandez were the most important among them. The members of

the community are well connected with the Latin Catholic Diocese of

Alleppey. The Anglo-Indian association is very active in Alleppey. The Anglo-

Indian Community in Cochin maintains distinct entity having their own

customs and mode of life.

Anglo-Indian Settlement in Cannanore

The first Church in Malabar and the first Portuguesze Church in India

was built in Cannanore by the Portuguese. When Vasco d agama reached

Calicut on 20th May 1498 he failed to get the permission from the King to

32

build a fort at Calicut. Hence Gama contracted the Kolathiri , the local king

of Cannanore and obtained permission to construct a fort at Cannanore.

The construction of the fort was undertaken by Joao Da Nova and he built

store house and a Church at the shore of Cannanore. Portuguese Viceroy

Francisco de Almeida built the castle and the Fort at Cannanore. The Anglo-

Indian Community developed in and around the Cantonment area at

Burnacherry where the Holy Trinity Church situates. They developed the St.

Treasas Anglo-Indian School and St. Michaels Anglo-Indian School in to

renowned education institutions. The Anglo-Indian Association is very active

in Cannanore. It has its activities right from 1952. The Anglo-Indian

teachers at At, Treasas and St Michaels schools sufficiently supported the

activities of the organisation. Now due to large scale migration there is

around 50 Anglo-Indian families in Burnacherry. Anglo-Indian community

in Cannoore will be remembered due to the Fort St. Angelo, the vibrant

Activities of Anglo-Indian MLA C.F.Pereira, the Chief of Indian Naval Staff

Admiral R.L.Pereira,Mrs. Ancel Netto and Mr. Desmond Netto IPS.

Anglo-Indians in Calicut

Calicut had the Anglo-Indian experience from 1498 when Vasco da

Game reached Kappad. Bishop Dr. Maxwell Valentine Noronha, an Anglo-

Indian became Bishop of Calicut in 1980. The prominent Anglo-Indian in

33

religious order could be seen in late Archbishop of Shillong Dr. Hubert

DRozario SDB who was from Calicut. The two Anglo-Indian girls high

schools confirm the strong hold of the community in Calicut. Large scale

migration after independence weakened the structure and functioning of the

association.

Anglo-Indians in Chathiath

Chathiath is one of the important centres of Anglo-Indians in Kerala.

Pachalam, Vaduthala are the adjacent areas where the Anglo-Indians live in

large number. With nearly 1000 Anglo-Indian families in the parish of

Chanthiath, there is a strong feeling of Anglo-Indian presence and unity.

The members of the community were called by others as Saipanmar or

Parangikar and considered as the higher strata of citizens at this area. Anglo-

Indian Association is very vibrant and the Chanthiath-vaduthala Anglo

Indian Association is the biggest association in the union. Edword

Rodrigues, Francis Correya, Francis Severance and Joseph Diaz were the

early leaders of the community.

Anglo-Indians in Kollam

Portuguese established their settlement in Kollam and their authority

could be assessed from the remains of the Fort St. Thomas, near

Thangassery. In later years, Dutch and French and finally English came to

34

Cochin. The descendants of these Europeans now formed the present Anglo-

Indian Community in Quilon. Apart from Thangassery Anglo-Indians lived

at Chavara, Neendakara, Clappana, Eravipuram, Kovilthottam and the

surrounding areas of the present Quilon city. Mr. S.P.Luiz, A.A.D. Luiz and

Stephen Padua were responsible for the strengthening of the community in

this area. The two Anglo-Indian Schools- the Infant Jesus High School for

Boys and the Mount Carmel High School for girls are situated here. The

great names to remembered are Gen. Noronha who lead the UN Missions in

Congo, Ms. Janis Spink, athlet, Dr. N.P. Fernandez and a number of priests

including Msgr.A.J.Rozario, the Vical General of the Diocese of Quilon and

nuns from this area did wounderful service for the community.

Notes and References

1. Moritz Deutschmann, Cultural History of British Colonialism in India,

German, 2011, pp. 1-15.

2. Noel Pitts Gist & Roy Dean Wright, Marginality and Identity: Anglo Indians

as a Racially Mixed Minority in India, Leiden, 1973, p. 122.

3. Ibid., p. 34.

4. Frederick Charles Danvers, Portuguese in India- Being a History of the Rise

and Decline of Their Eastern Empire, New Delhi, 1988, pp. 22-47.

5. L. L. Mehta, Advanced Study in the History of Modern India: Volume One:

1707 1813, New Delhi, 2005, p. 323.

35

6. Ronald Daus, Portuguese Eurasian Communities in South East Asia (Local

History and Memoirs),Singapore, 1989, p. 35.

7. Ibid., p. 68.

8. Richard Worth, Vasco Da Gama, New York, 2009, pp 33-49.

9. Lionel Caplan, Children of Colonialism: Anglo-Indians in a Postcolonial

World, New York, 2003, p. 112.

10 Richard Worth, Op.cit, p. 55.

11 A.Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Indian History, Kottayam, 2007, pp. 176-

178.

12 M.N. Pearson, The Portuguese in India, Cambridge, pp 120-124.

13 Richard Worth, Op.cit, pp. 61-66.

14 A. Sreedhara Menon, Op. cit., p. 231.

15 Ibid.

16 Ibid., p. 178.

17 Richard Worth, Op.cit., pp. 66-68.

18 Sreedhara Menon. A, Op.cit.p. 179.

19 Sanjay Subramanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco d agama, New

York, 1997, p. 14.

20 Ibid.

21 P. J. Cherian, Perspectives on Kerala history: the second millennium,

Thiruvananthapuram, 1999, p. 34.

36

22 Sreedhara Menon A., Op. cit., pp.179-80.

23 T. V. Mahalingam, South Indian Studies, Mysore, 1990, pp. 404 - 405

24 Henry Mores Stephens, Albuquerque, p. 31.

25 Richard Worth, Op. Cit. p.72.

26 Henry Mores Stephens, Albuquerque, New Delhi,1897, p. 35.

27 Frederick Charles Danvers, The Portuguese in India: A. D. 1571-1894,

London, 1894, p. 146.

28 Ibid.

29 Census of India, 1961, Volume 7, p. 132.

30 Pius Malekandathil, Maritime India: Trade, Religion and Polity in the Indian

Ocean, Delhi, 2010, p. 90.

31 Ibid., pp. 131-140

32 Celsa Pinto, Trade and Finance in Portuguese India: A Study of the

Portuguese Country Trade 1770-1840 (XCHR Studies Series No. 5), Celsa,

1994, p. 122-217.

33 Ibid.

34 Ibid.

35 Morse Stephens, Albuquerque and the Early Portuguese Settlement in India,

New Delhi, 2003, p.134-145

37

36 Ibid.

37 Karin Larsen, Faces of Goa, New Delhi, 1997, p.411.

38 Asiatic Journal and monthly miscellany, (Vol.-23)

39 Sultana Choudhry, Multifaceted Identity of Interethnic Young People:

Chameleon Identities, England, 2010, p. 31

40 Esther Mary Lyons, Unwanted!: Memoirs of an Anglo-Indian Daughter of

Rev Michael Delisle Lyons of Detroit, Michigan, Kokata, 2005, p. 33.

41 Nicholas B. Dirks, Colonialism and Culture, Michigan, 1992, pp.122-126.

42 C. J. Hawes, Poor Relations: The Making of a Eurasian Community in British

India 1773-1833, London, 1996, pp.6-19.

43 Ibid

44 Alison Blunt, Domicile and Diaspora: Anglo-Indian Women and the Spatial

Politics of Home, Blackwell, 2005, p.134.

45 Peter Harrington, Plassey 1757: Clive of Indias Finest Hour, London, 1994,

pp. 34-35.

46 Johnson OToole, Confessions of A Gay Globetrotter, London, 2003, p.

124.

47 Austin Anthony DSouza, Anglo-Indian education: a study of its origins and

growth in Bengal up to 1960, London, 1996, p. 15.

38

48 Nancy Lucille Brennan, The Anglo Indians of Madras; An Ethnic Minority in

Transition., Syracuse, 1979, p.78.

49 Mark Harrison, Public Health in British India: Anglo-Indian Preventive

Medicine 1859-1914, Cambridge, 1994, p. 22.

50 Bharati Debi & Anshu Prokash Nandan, The Anglo-Indians of Calcutta: a

community of communities, Kolkata, 2005. p. 6.

51 Evelyn Abel, The Anglo-Indian community: survival in India, Delhi, 1988,

pp.33-38.

52 Ibid.

53 Ibid.

54 C. N. Weston, Anglo-Indian revolutionaries of the Methodist Episcopal

Church, p. 104

55 Austin Anthony DSouza, Anglo-Indian education: a study of its origins and

growth in Bengal up to 1960, Delhi, 1976, p.94.

56 Arnold P. Kaminsky & Roger D. Long, India Today: An Encyclopedia of Life

in the Republic: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic, Volume 1, p. 39.

57 Austin Anthony D Souz, Op.Cit., p. 88.

58 Subodh Kapoor, The Indian Encyclopaedia, Volume 1, California, 2011, p.

268.

39

59 G. S. Chhabra, Advanced Study in the History of Modern India, New Delhi,

2005, p. 75

60 Zareer Masani, Indian Tales of Raj, Berkeley, 1987, p.151.

61 Harish Trivedi, Colonial Transactions: English Literature and India,

Manchester, 1995, p. 37.

62 C. N. Weston, Op.cit., pp. 107-8

63 Sidney Homer and Richard Sylla, A History of Interests Rates, New Jersy,

2005, p. 179.

64 Daniel Thomer, Investment in Empire: British Railway and Steam Shipping

Enterprise in India, 1825-1849, p. 66.

65 Evelyn Abel, Op.cit., p. 32. 4

66 William Ferguson Beatson Laurie, Sketches of some distinguished Anglo-

Indians: with an account of Anglo-Indian periodical literature, London,

1887, pp.100-120.

67 Evelyn Abel, Op.cit., p. 43.

68 Saurav Gangopadhyay, Anglo Indians Yesterdays and Today, p.488.

69 P. Achutha Menon, The Cochin State Manual, Ernakulam, 1911, p.311.

70 Sreedhara Menon A., Op.cit. p. 162.

71 Report of the Backward Classes Commission, (Vol-1).

40

72 P. Achutha Menon,Op. cit. p. 311.

73 Ibid.

41

Chapter III

SOCIO-CULTURAL TRAITS, PATTERNS, LIFESTYLE AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF

ANGLO-INDIANS IN KERALA

AngloIndians who lived in Kerala for centuries made lasting

contribution to the culture and tradition of our country. They formed a new

ethnicity of their own, unique in all respects. The women of Kerala who lived

with Europeans gradually adapted to the western culture and the Christian

faith; logically their children were as well brought up with the same culture

and faith of their parents.1 The AngloIndian community gradually

developed a distinctive way of living, projecting a blended version of both

Indian and European influences and had an obvious inclination towards the

latter.2 Besides British, the Portuguese, the Dutch and the French

contributed their part in determining this hybrid community; however, the

impact of the British was more dominant compared to the others.3 Anglo

Indians adopted the religion, distinctive customs, manners, language, diet,

clothing, and speech of their European progenitors.4 Over the years those

AngloIndians in Kerala, successfully integrated into the main stream of

Indian society and developed a western style of living, influenced by Indian

culture.

Social Life

42

The Anglo-Indians were on the margin of two cultures and two races of

people.5 This position held by the Anglo-Indians largely determined their

social status in India. Language was an important factor that kept the

Anglo-Indians distinct and remote from the Indians. Most of them were

reluctant to learn local languages and Hindi.6 So the Indians regarded the

English-speaking Anglo-Indians as foreigners and socially segregated them.

Besides Indian customs, traditions and practices were alien to the Anglo-

Indians and hence they were reluctant to mingle with Indians. At the same

time, the life style and attire of the Anglo-Indian women created a kind of

distaste among the Indians. The absence of a common culture, language,

religion and way of life restricted them from having unified sense of a

community as Anglo-Indians and desist from mingling with outsiders.7

The conditions changed with the Indian independence. The post-

independence era tells a different story. Anglo-Indian leaders advised them

to be more faithful and committed to India. Frank Anthony urged them to

think themselves as Indians and called for close interaction with other

communities of the main stream. The introduction of western music and

new forms of carnivals enabled better interaction with the local people as

did the familiarity of the Anglo- Indians with the Latin rite, feasts of saints

and other rituals. Wherever the Portuguese landed, as a token of their

43

gratitude to the Lord, a Church was erected. In Cochin itself they built

sixteen churches and chapels.

The Anglo-Indian participation in the political and social activities is

noteworthy. Their representation in the Legislative bodies, social leadership

and active involvement in the activities of the Latin Catholic Church testifies

to their socio-political involvement. The majority of the Anglo-Indians were

literate. It is reported that generally the girls would go for higher levels in

education while the boys choose some technical education which would help

them get a job easily. This is related to the social practice in courtship

where a boy has to bear the expenses of taking a girl out.

Luso-Indians were very industrious. As mechanics, smiths, carpenters

and later in laying railway tracks and drawing telegraph lines during the

British period they undertook a task with utmost satisfaction. The women

took up the professions of tailoring, teaching, nursing and opted for

religious vocation to serve as nuns in the convents in and outside the

country. Luso-Indian women were excellent administrators in the offices of

the commercial establishments. The Luso-Indian men with pleasing

personalities attracted the attention of the British and later rulers and

served as intermediaries to fill the communication gap between the British

and the Indians as they were multi-lingual.

44

Anglo-Indians were people with excellent civic sense and they followed

social etiquettes and manners with great care. Their community had no

social taboos and inhibitions unlike the rigid caste system which prevailed

in the Indian society. They shared water, food and other consumable items

with the members of other communities. They also shared churches and

cemeteries with the members of the Roman Catholic Church. They

enthusiastically participated in church ceremonies, rituals and festivals

with others. There was a variety of recreation and entertainment in their life.

Watching movies, playing music and dancing provided recreation for them.

The Anglo-Indians had a special taste and innate talent for music. Even in

an average Anglo-Indian family one could find a piano. Some of the Anglo-

Indians were pop singers and they popularized pop music in India.

Customs and Traditions

The Anglo-Indian community in Kerala developed as a unique group

with distinguishing features derived from the cultural traditions of Europe.

Both discarded by and rebuffing their Indian heritage, Anglo-Indians

followed a way of life similar to that of the overseas British citizens. They

gave up the aspects of Indian culture which lacked a Western orientation.8

Over decades, this picking and choosing of identity references has had a

major impact on their position in society both within and outside India.9

45

Through centuries, until the Indian independence, the British served as

their reference group.10

Although Anglo-Indians received English cultural patterns as their

own, they never reached a safe terrain of social equality.11 At the same time

they were never really an integral part of the cultural or social sonata of

indigenous India. Manners and mannerisms of the Anglo Indians, especially

women caused much censure from the native people. Esther Mary Lyons

rightly narrates it as: they did not consider the ballroom dancing and going

to club till late at night was good and respectable for women. Besides they

did not think the club where liquor was served was meant for a decent and

respectable Indian woman. Most Indians considered the Anglo-Indian and

European women cheap just because they went to the club, drank with men

and did ballroom dancing in public with different men while the Indian

women were very conservative and kept indoors, had arranged marriages,

the Anglo Indian women lived a more liberated western style life and had the

same freedom and equality in the community as did the British women.12

The Anglo-Indian customs, their cuisine, attire, language and

ceremonies were different from that of the local community. Though they

embraced the Catholic faith their lifestyle was strikingly different from the

Catholic traditions of the Kerala Church. Ceremonies and festivals were part

46

of Anglo Indian life. Marriages, baptisms, birthdays, house warmings,

Christmas, New Years Eve, and other such occasions were celebrated with

great pomp and pleasure. Often the celebrations were beyond their financial

capacity but they kept it up as merrymaking and luxurious life were integral

to their character.13

The Anglo-Indians of Kerala, over the years of mixing and mingling

have been assimilated into the main stream of Kerala society. However, they

tried to maintain the purity of their unique culture. This ethnic community

emerged out of mixed marriages between European men and Indian women

but at present they seldom promote mixed marriages. People outside the

Anglo-Indian community also have some reservation to marrying from the

community. However there are instances of inter marriages in recent times.

Such dilutions have affected the retention of their exclusiveness.14

One of the greatest contributions of the Portuguese was the

introduction of mixed marriages. In a caste ridden society where the

marriages and mingling were restricted to certain classes and castes, the

Europeans shattered the caste structure. With the official permission on the

part of the Portuguese and subsequently other European powers, they

began to marry Indian women. The Portuguese took spouses from different

communities in Kerala. They married Thiyya women in Malabar. After

47

marriage these women naturally embraced Christianity. Mixed marriages in

Kerala by that time became very common, and there are reports that in

1600CE, hundred such marriages were held in Kodungalloor;15 the majority

of such marriages were from the Thiyya community.16

The oppressed population in the lower strata of the caste system began

to enjoy unusual freedom and change in the social status with the

marriages. Thus the mixed marriages brought about a silent but

fundamental revolution in the social structure of the society. The set of

people who were forbidden the freedom and dignity were elevated to a

different social stratum with these marriages.17 This has special significance

to the women at the grass root level especially those who were branded as

untouchables and marginalized the vaisyas and the sudras. The new social

status, freedom from untouchability and the manifold stigmas of caste

system encouraged many to follow the suit.18 It was followed even later

during the Dutch and the English rule. The prolonged period of British rule,

their authority and vibrant presence in the Kerala community, made great

impact in the customs manners and rituals of the people. The marriage

ceremony also underwent great change during this time, an evolution akin

to the European style.

48

The Anglo-Indian family relationship was officially brought into

existence as a result of the policy of the East India Company. In 1978 the

company directors decided to present a pagola to the mother of the Anglo-

Indian child. These pagola marriages were by no means confined to middle

class or lower class Indian women.19 The British secured their wives mainly

in two ways, either by treaties with Indian princes or chieftains or by

marriage to widows or camp followers. Usually the women were baptized

and the marriage was performed according to Christian rites. This period

was known as the Brahminising of English rule, when it was felt that these

marriages or alliances with the local people would attract the sympathy and

support of the Indian population.20

Normally Anglo-Indians are endogamous, but seeking spouses outside

the community is also not uncommon. During the earlier period not only the

community but colour also mattered in their choices in marriage. The white

prefer white and the black opt for the same complexion. But later on the

colour preferences and other restrictions in the selection of marriage

gradually faded. Normally the age of marriage is in between 25-30. The

Anglo-Indian marriage has a specific system. The betrothal or engagement

takes place in the house of the girl and as a symbol of betrothal the boy

slips the engagement ring on the girls finger. The date and venue of

49

marriage will be decided at the time of engagement and it will be announced

in the church on three consecutive Sundays.21

The marriage takes place in the parish officiated by the priest. The

wedding is attended by close friends and immediate relatives of the bride

and the groom. The Anglo-Indian bride conventionally wears a white gown

in the western style and the groom wears a suit. The full skirted gown is

usually made with around seven meters of exotic material. With the

intermingling and affiliations with other Christian denominations and

families, brides wearing white or cream saris are also seen.22 The brides

head is covered with a white decorated veil and a tiara23 or a bunch of

flowers and she holds a bouquet in her hand. The Anglo-Indian marriage

ceremony is enchanting with music and special rituals along with the Holy

Mass. The priest welcomes the couple as they walk along the aisle till they

reach the altar. The ceremony involves a sermon by the priest called a

homily emphasizing the sacredness and sanctity of marriage. Following the

exchange of wedding rings, the bride and the groom hold each others right

hand and make a solemn promise of lifelong commitment stating that they

will stay together in thick and thin to each other in the name of God.24 This

is followed by the blessings of the priest to lay the foundation of a new

family based on love in Christ. Then they sign the marriage register.25

50

Under the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in Kerala customs

like minnukettu, mangalasutra and the concept of manthrakodi crept in

to the marriage ceremony of the Anglo-Indians, especially among those

section of them who follow the customs and traditions of the local

community. (Minnu or Thali is a leaf shaped gold pendant with a cross

sealed on it, worn on a thread with strands drawn from the sari

(manthrakodi)). Those gathered during the wedding ceremony actively

participate in all the rituals and shower their blessings on the couple. The

ceremony is followed by a reception with a live band.26

Anglo Indians are very fond of fashion and dressing up. Clothes and

adornment constitute a major portion of their family expenditure. Quite

contrary to the interest of the women of Kerala, Anglo-Indians show very

little interest in gold ornaments. They are more interested in clothes,

especially in European style garments.27 Two piece dresses which stretch up

to the feet, jackets that extent up to the knee, over coats, pants, suits,

bush-shirts, jerkins and cow-boy jeans are some of their favourite clothing.

They are people with great colour sense and prefer cosy and colourful

dresses.28 For funeral ceremonies they wear black. The Anglo-Indian women

usually wear frocks or blouses and skirts of different style. Mini-skirts and

high heels are common.29 Dresses made up of gorgeous materials such as

silk, georgette and nylon are trendy with upper class and middle class

51

women. Some girls also wear slacks, like boys. In dressing, the men use

European outfits. The women first had dresses styled like the Portuguese

and later adopted other European patterns.30 One speciality of some Luso-

Indian women in Kerala was the Kabaya (a Malaysian dress) with checked

long cloth from hip to toe and a top without color and with long sleeves.31

This dress is still worn by Luso-Indian women in interior parts of Kerala.

This was the dress of the women brought by Alfonso de Albuquerque from

his Malacca mission, who were wedded to Portuguese soldiers in early 16th

century.32 This is the answer for the Mangolian features of some Luso-

Indians in Kerala.

But in recent years Anglo Indians follow the dressing patterns of the

local people. On formal occasions they wear shirts, coats with stiff collars,

bow-ties and boots, narrow lapels and boaters. In ordinary life the middle

and lower class people are not very particular about their clothes whereas

the upper class are very cautious and spend a large amount in procuring

the latest varieties.33 Generally in many families they use old dresses for

making outfits for the children. This is mainly due to economic reasons.

Short hair, miniskirts, facial make up and high heels are some of the

identifying features of Anglo Indian women. They habitually visit beauty

parlours and fashion centres. Unlike Indian women, they do not use flowers

52

or tilak or other ornaments to beautify their hair and face. The dress pattern

followed by the Anglo Indians and Indian women has been mutually

influenced. In the early period the use of the sari was very rare among the

Anglo-Indian women. But later on they started wearing Indian clothes like

sari and blouse and salwar-kameez.34 And on the other hand many women

of Kerala have started to follow the Anglo-Indian style of dressing.

The Anglo-Indian influence in the food habits of Kerala is very obvious.

The Anglo-Indian culture was evolved by combining both the European and

Indian cultures, even though the community adopted the religion, manners

and ways of dressing of their European forefathers, their food is a mixture of

both western and Indian. Perhaps, the Anglo-Indian cuisine is the very first

example of fusion food in the world; it is a result of reinventing and

revamping popular European dishes with a dash of exotic Indian spices

giving it a completely new flavor. Thus a completely new contemporary

cuisine came into existence, which was neither too bland nor too spicy, but

with a distinctive flavor of its own.35 It became a direct reflection of the

multi-cultural cuisine.36

Anglo-Indian cuisine is a gourmets delight and is mostly prepared

using English spices such as pepper, bay leaves, cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon.

Indian condiments such as chilies, cumin, coriander, turmeric, ginger,

53

garlic are also added in moderation. Yoghurt and milk are also used in

certain preparations to offset extra pungency.37 The Luso-Indian food habits

are unique; they prefer bread and meat stew for Almosa (breakfast). They

serve dishes like Vindaloo (beef or pork) and Cutles(cutlets). For evening

snacks they make sowlinge(with rice powder), Penthe feethe (rice powder

wet and shaped with a comb and fried in oil). They prepare soup on holidays

and feast days.38

Food habits constitute an important component of group identity. The

merging up of the eastern and western culinary habits in the Anglo-Indian

cuisine creates an enchanting experience of taste.39 Anglo-Indian cuisine

reflects the cultural affinity, taste and style of England. The flavour in the

Anglo-Indian kitchen reminds one of the fusions of traditional Indian and

exotic western taste. Anglo-Indian special preparations, especially the

Christmas cake evoke the sweet memories of Christmas with its pomp and

pleasure. Christmas has its enduring charm and rich tradition and the

Anglo-Indians added colors to it.40 Gloria Clifford of Fort Cochin seems

excited while describing Christmas. The shops in Fort Cochin announce the

arrival of Christmas with glittering decorations, colourful illuminations,

Santa masks, Christmas tree and stars. For them the preparation for

Christmas starts a month in advance. They make special plum cake and

homemade wine. It is made of grape, banana, carrot and beetroot.

54

Christmas day is celebrated with a great banquet, and socializing on a large

scale. It is celebrated with sports, games, music and dance.41 Such is the

case with all the special occasions said, Mrs. Grace Rodridges.

The Anglo-Indians are non-vegetarians. They eat beef, pork and fish.

Vegetables and eggs are also consumed. Fruit consumption is moderate

while the consumption of milk and milk products is high. Staple foods are

rice and wheat. Eating with a spoon and a fork is a typical habit. Some of

them prepare wine in their houses using grapes and other fruits, which is

specially served during marriages and festivals like Christmas, along with

cake.42 Another special item of food they prepare is a roasted turkey. Among

the economically weaker sections of their society, expensive food is being

replaced by cheaper local food.

The naming of the dishes is unique and original with rhythmic sounds

like Doldol, Kalkal, Ding-Ding and Posthole. While Anglo-Indian Cuisine is

said to be influenced by the various European invasions in India, it was the

British, who left an indelible mark on Kerala Cuisine. This new cuisine was

often called Club food, referring to the food served even today in Country

Clubs throughout India. Roasts, stews, bakes, sandwiches and white bread

are a legacy of the British, and the Anglo-Indians took these to new heights,

making them part of their daily cuisine.43 Other dishes such as fish and

55

chips, cutlets, croquettes, sausages, bacon, ham, egg variants, puddings,

custards, and a savoury treat known as Welsh rarebit became a part of the

Anglo-Indian culinary inventory.44

The Sunday English Breakfast of eggs, bacon and kippers, buttered

toast, cheese, butter, jams; English roast dinners complete with steamed

vegetables, roast potatoes, Yorkshire pudding and gravy, English sausages,

colloquially known as bangers and mash, pies and puddings, especially

the Yorkshire pudding and bread pudding, sandwiches became very

popular.45 The concept of the English high tea in the afternoon was another

remnant of the British.46

The Anglo-Indians are very jubilant in nature. They are free from

inhibitions and taboos attached to social gathering and free mingling. Both

men and women freely mix and mingle with each other which were

unfamiliar to the traditional Indian society Wine and cake are integral part

of their life, indispensable for receiving gusts at home. At every occasion, the

Anglo-Indians invariable offer wine and cake to every guest enters their

homes. On Christmas time the use of wine increases many fold. The use of

liquor is not strange in their social life. Both men and women take liquor.

Women generally prefer beer and it is a usual thing at the dining table. Men

take whisky or brandy. They love to take a chota peg. The term Chota peg is

claimed to be of Anglo-Indian origin.47

56

The baptism ceremony is another blissful occasion in an Anglo-Indian

home. The birth of a child is often regarded as a divine blessing and there is

no distinction between a boy and a girl. They whole heartedly welcome the

newborn. On the fourteenth day the christening rites will be performed as

per Roman Catholic Church norms. Parents have the right to choose the

godfather and godmother from among the relatives. The selection of the

godparents has importance as they have great influence in the life of the

child. The baptismal ceremony is followed by a splendid meal.47 The

Bowthise (Baptism) and wedding are the two instances where the Luso-

Indians retain their identity. Banquet and posh dressing and dancing

differentiate the Luso-Indian community from others. Cake and wine are

served on occasions like baptism and wedding.48

Another exclusive Anglo-Indian custom is manifested in their funeral

ceremony. Death is a solemn occasion. The well-knit relations of the Anglo-

Indians are explicit at the funeral ceremony. The friends and relatives

gather in large numbers and the women invariably wear black clothing

based on their relation with the departed. Tremendous changes took place

in the life of the Anglo-Indians and women have abandoned the habit of

mourning in full black. Moreover, the Anglo Indians have given up many of

the traditional rituals and practices mainly due to heavy expenses.

57

Kinship Relationship and Matrimonial Traditions

Family relations are very strong among Anglo-Indians. Their life in the

railway colonies and cantonments has physically separated them from the

main stream of society. Their preferential attitude to interact with the

Europeans and other Anglo-Indian groups virtually resulted in the

development of socio-economic patterns of their own.49 Their employment in

the Indian government services such as railways, customs, post and

telegraph and the army necessitated frequent and periodic transfer from one

place to another. This has ultimately disrupted their family life and many

struggled hard to adjust to the changed situations causing their children to

be poor performers.50

The Anglo-Indians follow the nuclear family system. Extended families

are seldom found. Interpersonal relationships within the family are very

strong and love and respect links the families together and quarrels are

rare. Among them there is a great deal of cooperation on different occasions

like birth, marriage, and festive occasions like Christmas and New Year and

in times of suffering.51 Their religion and rituals help them to keep their

solidarity. The Luso-Indians being ardent Catholics, apart from church

services, family prayer is obligatory. After prayers the young members wish

the elders Boanoite (good night) and kiss them on their cheeks.

58

Women enjoyed respectable position in the family and are good

housewives. They have the right to inheritance. There is great demand for

Anglo-Indian women for placement as teachers, secretaries, nurses and in

public relations.52 They have the potential and many are professionally

qualified. In the social, economic, religious and political avenues, they

perform at par with men.

Large scale migration has affected their kinship relations. Today there

are only a few Anglo-Indian families in various Anglo-Indian settlements in

Kerala like Cochin and Kollam as most of them have been migrated to

different countries.53 Various associations of Anglo-Indians play significant

role in strengthening their relations. The All India Anglo-Indian Association

working today infuses a new hope to the remaining Anglo-Indians of

Kerala.54

Anglo-Indian Art and Architecture

The coming of the Portuguese changed the style of Kerala Architecture.

Till then there was no great difference in the architectural style followed by

the Hindus and the Christians. The Portuguese introduced the Greco-

Roman style of Architecture. They built the St. Francis Church in Cochin,

the earliest centre of Anglo-Indians, in the Latin style. It was in this church

that the body of Vasco da Gama was kept until it was taken to Portugal.55

59

This style of church construction gradually spread across the country very

soon. They adopted new architecture not only in the construction of the

churches but also of the houses. The churches were built in Gothic style.

The fine architectural skills of these churches have left its lasting

impressions on the many other churches built in Kerala later.56 There is a

move from the Government of Kerala to recreate the old scenic beauty of

these bygone eras in certain areas giving the street Portuguese, Dutch or

British characteristics with a view of attracting tourists.57 During the time

most of the Anglo Indian houses were known as bungalows. The traditional

style of giving the family name to the houses changed under the Anglo

Indian influence. For example love dale, rose dale, love cottage, star dale,

blue house, rose cottage are some of the new house names that gained

ground.

The native rajas imposed a lot of restriction on the construction of

buildings which continued up to the establishment of the Portuguese. The

Raja of Cochin authorised the Portuguese to built buildings and fortresses

with stones and tiles. The Portuguese constructed a palace at Mattanchery

and handed it over to the Raja to be his palace. There were few buildings in

Fort Cochin with underground cells; these cells were used to accommodate

their slaves. They enjoyed a lot of privileges and their ancestors lived along

60

the important streets of Lilly Street and Burgher Street. The architectural

style further improved and local people made a lot of buildings in the same

manner during the British rule.

The Anglo-Indians comprise of both professional and amateur artists

and architects. Tilly Kettle, John Zoffany and Arthur Davis were the experts

who arrived in India in the second half of the Eighteenth century. John

Smart and Ozias Humphery were the great artists of the time. They were

followed by renowned British artists like George Chinnery.58 All these artists

painted in oils, but the most typical medium was water color. The trend in

Britain was for charming, raw nature and that the artists visit India to

depict an extraordinarily inconsistent India with the description of travelers

and later, of missionaries. Captain William, Captain Grindlay and Sir

Charles Doly were some of the comparatively proficient amateur artists of

the 19th century. By the latter half of the Nineteenth century, the interest in

the picturesque had diminished and even professional artists limited

themselves to narrative paintings demonstrating some unique and easily

identifiable moral precept. The European intervention helped to stir up

native interest in art.

The influence of the British is more conspicuous in the field of

architecture. The house-building pattern quite common in Kerala is peculiar

61

for Luso-Indians. Usually in front and in two sides there will be the veranda.

The front portion is built as a portico for the guests. Chair and table were

the important furniture in the guest room. The hall is called saala, the

kitchen is called Kusinja. All the houses had separate dining rooms and

bed rooms. The houses were provided with wide doors and windows. The

roof will be tiled and these were called Portuguese tiles till recently.

The microscopic Anglo-Indian communitys contribution to Indias

mainstream cultural scene has been varied and significant. Stephen Padua

remarks, There was a time when we were the complacent lot, cocooned in

their own world. Slowly the scenario changed- the Indian population had to

meet the demands of the day, we were still basking in past glory. All

avenues had closed; the rest had overtaken them by leaps and bounds in

most spheres. Unable to survive, we were left groping in the dark. But

survive we did. Our optimism won the day for us. The warm, loving people

that we are, we showed the world that we had neither a care nor a worry in

the world. Ready to break into a song or a dance when the occasion

demanded, we were full of the joie de vivre of life. Those who understood the

worth of our culture and way of living imbibed it. Our customs and manners

soon became theirs and we too absorbed the good from the Indian cultural

scene in a mutually beneficial exchange. Still as a community we have a

62

strong cultural identity of our own, which is the very essence of our

existence. 59

Anglo Indian Education; A Critical Evaluation

The Anglo Indian contribution in the field of education is remarkable.

They are people whose mother tongue is English and they follow a western

pattern of living. The English language is the symbol of their identity. They

established Anglo-Indian schools mainly to foster the English language and

their culture. Therefore the Anglo-Indians prefer Anglo-Indian schools and

in its absence, as a lesser option they go for other English medium schools.

Although Anglo-Indian schools have their reputation and attraction all over

the country, the Anglo-Indians do not benefit much out of it. Very few go for

higher education and advanced learning.60 Before and during the early days

of the post-independent period employment to some of the subordinate

positions in the Indian government services were reserved for the Anglo-

Indians. Therefore they seldom bothered about higher education till the

schemes for Indianisation was implemented.61

The Anglo-Indian Schools were established for the educational

advancement of the community. There were day schools and residential

schools. Due to the firm base in English and considerably higher quality of

education imparted by the Anglo-Indian schools, these schools were

63

preferred by the upper-class people who wanted their children to be trained

in an academic environment and to acquire fluency in the English language.

Anglo-Indians are offered free ships in this school but it is inadequate to

accommodate all the Anglo Indian children. Economic issues kept the

Anglo-Indian students outside these schools. Thus the Anglo-Indian schools

appear to fail the very children that they were set up to help.62

Besides the economic issue, the Anglo-Indian students faced the

problem of learning Indian languages. They were poor performers in class

for the Indian languages. Often they failed to speak, read and write Indian

languages and hence they became the repeaters in the class. They were

branded the duffers and were accused of disrupting the class. The Anglo-

Indian students were to a large extent ignored in the classroom. The sad

part is that the system has not been made accountable for the academic

failure of the Anglo-Indian students. Anglo-Indian English medium schools

did not have a well thought out plan to teach English as a second language

to the students of the community. The third issue is religion. Approaching

the question of religion was hampered with political problems. Any attempt

to change or reinterpret religious education could well be treated as silliness

or deception. Christianity at the present time is taught outside the school

timetable. The schools experience of religious education went on