The Age of The Age of Industrialization Industrialization

(1850 – 1950)(1850 – 1950)Worldwide Empires and Worldwide Empires and Worldwide ExploitationWorldwide Exploitation

Social Conditions in the Social Conditions in the Age of IndustrializationAge of Industrialization

The World - 1911The World - 1911

RAILROAD MILEAGE BY REGIONRAILROAD MILEAGE BY REGION

18501850 18601860 18701870 18801880 18901890

New EnglandNew England 2,5072,507 3,6603,660 4,4944,494 5,9825,982 6,8316,831

Middle StatesMiddle States 3,2023,202 6,7056,705 10,96410,964 15,87215,872 21,53621,536

Southern StatesSouthern States 2,0362,036 8,8388,838 11,19211,192 14,77814,778 29,20929,209

Western States and Western States and TerritoriesTerritories

1,2761,276 11,40011,400 24,58724,587 52,58952,589 62,39462,394

Pacific States and TerritoriesPacific States and Territories 2323 1,6771,677 4,0804,080 9,8049,804

TOTAL USATOTAL USA 9,0219,021 30,62630,626 52,91452,914 93,30193,301 129,774129,774

Harper’s Index of the Harper’s Index of the Gilded AgeGilded Age Number of deaths or injury sustained by Number of deaths or injury sustained by

railroad workers in 1889: 22,000railroad workers in 1889: 22,000 Number of hours worked per day by Number of hours worked per day by

railroad workers in 1900: 12 – 14railroad workers in 1900: 12 – 14 Wages paid per day, in dollars, to Chinese Wages paid per day, in dollars, to Chinese

railroad workers: 1railroad workers: 1 Wages paid, per day, to Irish Workers: 2Wages paid, per day, to Irish Workers: 2 Amount, in dollars, paid by J.P. Morgan Amount, in dollars, paid by J.P. Morgan

for Andrew Carnegie’s steel company in for Andrew Carnegie’s steel company in 1900: 492,000,0001900: 492,000,000

Amount then sold in stocks and bonds for Amount then sold in stocks and bonds for the combined companies of Morgan and the combined companies of Morgan and Carnegie: 1,300,000,000Carnegie: 1,300,000,000

Commission fee, in dollars, Morgan gave Commission fee, in dollars, Morgan gave himself for the consolidation: 150,000,000himself for the consolidation: 150,000,000

Possible Significance to Possible Significance to Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

When the overwhelming majority of time and When the overwhelming majority of time and energy each day are devoted to work, little energy each day are devoted to work, little remains for the development of the mind. remains for the development of the mind.

When there is little to no access to schools When there is little to no access to schools or libraries, as was the case with many or libraries, as was the case with many workers in the Industrial era, there are few workers in the Industrial era, there are few opportunities for learning and intellectual opportunities for learning and intellectual growth. growth.

A system which explicitly supports the A system which explicitly supports the development of vast fortunes of wealth and development of vast fortunes of wealth and suppresses the ability of the lower class to suppresses the ability of the lower class to improve their status is not conducive to a improve their status is not conducive to a critical society. critical society.

Declining Standards at Declining Standards at Oxford and CambridgeOxford and Cambridge

The middle of the 19The middle of the 19thth century was a century was a period of tremendous change and period of tremendous change and transition at Oxford and Cambridge. transition at Oxford and Cambridge. Until this point, both had been first Until this point, both had been first institutions for the training of the institutions for the training of the clergy and later places for the sons of clergy and later places for the sons of wealthy elite to meet and establish wealthy elite to meet and establish business contacts. By the 1850’s their business contacts. By the 1850’s their prestige as educational establishments prestige as educational establishments were declining precipitously. were declining precipitously.

Reforms and the TutorialReforms and the TutorialSignificant reforms in second half of the Significant reforms in second half of the

1800’s largely resulted in the Oxford and 1800’s largely resulted in the Oxford and Cambridge which exist todayCambridge which exist today

The Oath of the 39 articles, a pledge of The Oath of the 39 articles, a pledge of religious fealty which all Oxford and religious fealty which all Oxford and Cambridge students were required to Cambridge students were required to take, was abolishedtake, was abolished

Medieval methods of memorization and Medieval methods of memorization and regurgitation were replaced with tutorial regurgitation were replaced with tutorial instruction. This emphasized a low ratio of instruction. This emphasized a low ratio of student to teacher and a high degree of student to teacher and a high degree of reading and writing. The focus was placed reading and writing. The focus was placed on the thinking of the student. Students on the thinking of the student. Students were encouraged to initiate and pursue were encouraged to initiate and pursue their own questions, construct their own their own questions, construct their own conclusions, and develop a unique and conclusions, and develop a unique and well reasoned point of view. well reasoned point of view.

Significance to Critical Significance to Critical ThinkingThinking

The tutorial system curtails passivity and The tutorial system curtails passivity and promotes active engagement, an essential promotes active engagement, an essential trait of the critical mind.trait of the critical mind.

By requiring large amounts of reading and By requiring large amounts of reading and writing, it fosters a disciplined pursuit of writing, it fosters a disciplined pursuit of knowledge and the development and knowledge and the development and refining of ideas. refining of ideas.

However, it also has the potential to However, it also has the potential to produce sophistic critical thinkers who are produce sophistic critical thinkers who are skilled at intellectual trickery and skilled at intellectual trickery and manipulation.manipulation.

No educational system can be designed to No educational system can be designed to foster strong sense critical thinking in all foster strong sense critical thinking in all its students unless instructors have its students unless instructors have internalized a rich conception of critical internalized a rich conception of critical thinking and explicitly teach it to students. thinking and explicitly teach it to students.

Trends in the 19Trends in the 19thth and 20 and 20thth CenturiesCenturies

Beginning in the middle of the 19th century Beginning in the middle of the 19th century and continuing to the present day, there and continuing to the present day, there has been a proliferation in terms of the has been a proliferation in terms of the diversity of critiques produced, making it diversity of critiques produced, making it hard to describe and generalize. hard to describe and generalize.

However, one trend that can be noted is However, one trend that can be noted is that organizations and social movements that organizations and social movements are increasing in scale and consideration. are increasing in scale and consideration.

For example, the International Committee For example, the International Committee of the Red Cross, which was founded in of the Red Cross, which was founded in 1863 with the purpose of protecting war 1863 with the purpose of protecting war wounded, refugees, and prisoners, is not wounded, refugees, and prisoners, is not tied to any one country or polity. tied to any one country or polity.

Trends (contd.)Trends (contd.)

The League of Nations (1919), followed by The League of Nations (1919), followed by the United Nations (UN) in 1945, were the United Nations (UN) in 1945, were founded with the mission of preventing founded with the mission of preventing war, settling global disputes, and war, settling global disputes, and improving the general quality of life improving the general quality of life throughout the world. throughout the world.

The World Health Organization (WHO, The World Health Organization (WHO, 1948) and the United Nations Children’s 1948) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF, 1946), specialized Fund (UNICEF, 1946), specialized agencies within the UN, were established agencies within the UN, were established for similar reasons. for similar reasons.

Trends (contd.)Trends (contd.)

This era also marked the beginning of This era also marked the beginning of social movements based on helping social movements based on helping those in other groups and nations.those in other groups and nations.

In other words, instead of seeking to In other words, instead of seeking to gain benefits for themselves, as much gain benefits for themselves, as much critique and activism had in the past, critique and activism had in the past, many humanitarian efforts in the 19th many humanitarian efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries have had the and 20th centuries have had the express purpose of giving aid to others express purpose of giving aid to others who are not able to help themselves. who are not able to help themselves.

Significance to Critical Significance to Critical ThinkingThinking

These organizations may point towards These organizations may point towards the development of a broader the development of a broader awareness, at least for the small awareness, at least for the small percentage of people who engage in and percentage of people who engage in and support them. support them.

As the world becomes increasingly As the world becomes increasingly interconnected and interdependent, the interconnected and interdependent, the consequences of uncritical and weak consequences of uncritical and weak sense critical thought grow sense critical thought grow exponentially. exponentially.

Influential Thinkers in the Influential Thinkers in the Age of IndustrializationAge of Industrialization

John Henry Newman (1801 – John Henry Newman (1801 – 1890)1890)

Key Idea: Newman critiqued the educational Key Idea: Newman critiqued the educational system in a profound manner, arguing system in a profound manner, arguing vociferously for not simple piecemeal changes vociferously for not simple piecemeal changes but a paradigm shift. His main targets were but a paradigm shift. His main targets were the medieval forms of instruction which the medieval forms of instruction which emphasized rote memorization of masses of emphasized rote memorization of masses of facts, and the more recent decline in facts, and the more recent decline in standards for wealthy elite who essentially standards for wealthy elite who essentially bought their degrees while spending the bought their degrees while spending the majority of their time amusing themselves majority of their time amusing themselves and escaping intellectual work. and escaping intellectual work.

I will tell you, Gentlemen, what has been the I will tell you, Gentlemen, what has been the practical error of the last twenty years – not practical error of the last twenty years – not to load the memory of the student with a mass to load the memory of the student with a mass of undigested knowledge, but to force upon of undigested knowledge, but to force upon him so much that he has rejected all. It has him so much that he has rejected all. It has been the error of distracting and enfeebling been the error of distracting and enfeebling the mind by an unmeaning profusion of the mind by an unmeaning profusion of subjects; of implying that a smattering in a subjects; of implying that a smattering in a dozen branches of study is not shallowness, dozen branches of study is not shallowness, which it really is, but enlargement, which it is which it really is, but enlargement, which it is not; of considering an acquaintance with the not; of considering an acquaintance with the learned names of things and persons, and the learned names of things and persons, and the possession of the clever duodecimos, and possession of the clever duodecimos, and attendance on eloquent lecturers, and attendance on eloquent lecturers, and membership with scientific institutions, and membership with scientific institutions, and the sight of the experiments of a platform and the sight of the experiments of a platform and the specimens of a museum, that all this was the specimens of a museum, that all this was not dissipation of mind, but progress.  not dissipation of mind, but progress. 

All I say is, call things by their right names, and do All I say is, call things by their right names, and do not confuse together ideas which are essentially not confuse together ideas which are essentially different. A thorough knowledge of one science different. A thorough knowledge of one science and a superficial acquaintance with many, are not and a superficial acquaintance with many, are not the same thing; a smattering of a hundred things the same thing; a smattering of a hundred things or a memory for detail, is not a philosophical or or a memory for detail, is not a philosophical or comprehensive view. Recreations are not comprehensive view. Recreations are not education; accomplishments are not education. Do education; accomplishments are not education. Do not say, the people must be educated, when, after not say, the people must be educated, when, after all, you only mean, amused, refreshed, soothed, all, you only mean, amused, refreshed, soothed, put into good spirits and good humour, or kept put into good spirits and good humour, or kept from vicious excesses. I do not say that such from vicious excesses. I do not say that such amusements, such occupations of mind, are not a amusements, such occupations of mind, are not a great gain; but they are not education. You may as great gain; but they are not education. You may as well call drawing and fencing education, as a well call drawing and fencing education, as a general knowledge of botany or conchology.general knowledge of botany or conchology.

Newman’s Significance to Critical Newman’s Significance to Critical ThinkingThinking

Newman contributed a rich and substantive Newman contributed a rich and substantive model of education which, despite its flaws, model of education which, despite its flaws, nevertheless would be a powerful force for nevertheless would be a powerful force for fostering critical thinking if it was taken fostering critical thinking if it was taken seriously and widely applied. seriously and widely applied.

He represents a mind concerned with He represents a mind concerned with lifelong learning, systematic and lifelong learning, systematic and disciplined thinking, applying intellectual disciplined thinking, applying intellectual skills to multiple subjects, to problem’s in skills to multiple subjects, to problem’s in human life, and to oneself in an effort to human life, and to oneself in an effort to take charge of one’s life. He had with a take charge of one’s life. He had with a healthy respect for freedom of thought and healthy respect for freedom of thought and human reason. He was not afraid to human reason. He was not afraid to exercise his autonomous thought by exercise his autonomous thought by speaking out against received views. speaking out against received views.

John Stuart Mill (1806 – John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873) 1873)

Key Idea: Mill contributed much to Key Idea: Mill contributed much to the history of critical thinking, but the history of critical thinking, but the most important of his works are the most important of his works are those focused on civil liberties. In those focused on civil liberties. In these essays, he argues that all these essays, he argues that all liberties are connected in an integral liberties are connected in an integral way, if one should be removed then way, if one should be removed then the others will be, at the very least, the others will be, at the very least, diminished. diminished.

““[The appropriate region of human liberty] [The appropriate region of human liberty] comprises, first, the inward domain of comprises, first, the inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty of conscience consciousness; demanding liberty of conscience in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or theological…speculative, scientific, moral, or theological…The liberty of expressing and publishing The liberty of expressing and publishing opinions…is practically inseparable from it…opinions…is practically inseparable from it…Second, the principle requires liberty of tastes Second, the principle requires liberty of tastes and pursuits; of framing the plan of our life to and pursuits; of framing the plan of our life to suit our own character; of doing as we like, suit our own character; of doing as we like, subject to such consequences as may follow; subject to such consequences as may follow; without impediment from our fellow-creatures, without impediment from our fellow-creatures, so long as what we do does not harm them, even so long as what we do does not harm them, even though they should think our conduct foolish, though they should think our conduct foolish, perverse, or wrong…No society in which these perverse, or wrong…No society in which these liberties are not, on the whole respected, is free, liberties are not, on the whole respected, is free, whatever may be its form of government; and whatever may be its form of government; and none is completely free in which they do not none is completely free in which they do not exist absolute and unqualified.”exist absolute and unqualified.”

We can never be sure that the opinion we are We can never be sure that the opinion we are endeavoring to stifle is a false opinion; and if we were endeavoring to stifle is a false opinion; and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evil still. First: the sure, stifling it would be an evil still. First: the opinion which it is attempted to suppress by authority opinion which it is attempted to suppress by authority may possibly be true. Those who desire to suppress may possibly be true. Those who desire to suppress it, of course, deny its truth; but they are not it, of course, deny its truth; but they are not infallible. They have no authority to decide the infallible. They have no authority to decide the question for all mankind, and exclude every other question for all mankind, and exclude every other person from the means of judging. To refuse a person from the means of judging. To refuse a hearing to an opinion, because they are sure it is hearing to an opinion, because they are sure it is false, is assuming that their certainty is the same false, is assuming that their certainty is the same thing as absolute certainty. All silencing of discussion thing as absolute certainty. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility…on any matter not is an assumption of infallibility…on any matter not self-evident, there are ninety-nine persons incapable self-evident, there are ninety-nine persons incapable of judging of it for one who is capable; and the of judging of it for one who is capable; and the capacity of the hundredth person is only comparative; capacity of the hundredth person is only comparative; for the majority of the eminent men of every past for the majority of the eminent men of every past generation held many opinions now known to be generation held many opinions now known to be erroneous, and did or approved numerous things erroneous, and did or approved numerous things which no one will now justify.   which no one will now justify.  

Mill’s Significance to Critical Mill’s Significance to Critical ThinkingThinking

Mill’s many treatises explicating and defending Mill’s many treatises explicating and defending the rights of citizens exemplify the importance the rights of citizens exemplify the importance of thinking through an idea deeply and of thinking through an idea deeply and following out the implications that result. He following out the implications that result. He thus characterizes the critical traits of thinking thus characterizes the critical traits of thinking in a disciplined and systematic manner. in a disciplined and systematic manner.

He is, in this regard, an excellent example of He is, in this regard, an excellent example of applying intellectual skills to human problems applying intellectual skills to human problems in an attempt to alleviate suffering and pain. in an attempt to alleviate suffering and pain. He was committed to thinking within multiple He was committed to thinking within multiple points of view and to speaking out against points of view and to speaking out against established systems of power. established systems of power.

Additionally, he firmly believed that reason Additionally, he firmly believed that reason should guide human thought and behavior, and should guide human thought and behavior, and that learning is a lifelong process of growth that learning is a lifelong process of growth and development. and development.

Albert Einstein (1879 – Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) 1955)

Key ideas: Einstein did not think of himself as Key ideas: Einstein did not think of himself as being particularly gifted or intelligent, but being particularly gifted or intelligent, but credited his success to a questioning mind credited his success to a questioning mind which could focus on an idea intensely until it which could focus on an idea intensely until it was solved. He refused to follow along with the was solved. He refused to follow along with the scientific status quo and was able to shift the scientific status quo and was able to shift the paradigm in terms of our understanding of the paradigm in terms of our understanding of the universe as a result. Apart from his considerable universe as a result. Apart from his considerable contributions to the scientific world, Einstein contributions to the scientific world, Einstein was also a strong voice for the creation of a was also a strong voice for the creation of a world with more equality that was more just and world with more equality that was more just and more peaceful. Additionally, and most more peaceful. Additionally, and most significant to critical thinking, he grasped the significant to critical thinking, he grasped the importance of a general education and importance of a general education and intellectual traits in the development of the intellectual traits in the development of the mind. mind.

I want to oppose the idea that the school has to teach I want to oppose the idea that the school has to teach directly that special knowledge and those directly that special knowledge and those accomplishments, which one has to use later directly accomplishments, which one has to use later directly in life The demands of life are much too manifold to in life The demands of life are much too manifold to let such as specialized training in school appear let such as specialized training in school appear possible. ..The school should always have as its aim possible. ..The school should always have as its aim that the young man leave it as a harmonious that the young man leave it as a harmonious personality, not as a specialist…The development of personality, not as a specialist…The development of general ability for independent thinking and general ability for independent thinking and judgment should always be placed foremost, not the judgment should always be placed foremost, not the acquisition of special knowledge. If a person masters acquisition of special knowledge. If a person masters the fundamentals of his subject and has learned to the fundamentals of his subject and has learned to think and work independently, he will surely find his think and work independently, he will surely find his way and besides will better be able to adapt himself way and besides will better be able to adapt himself to progress and changes than the person whose to progress and changes than the person whose training principally consists in the acquiring of training principally consists in the acquiring of detailed knowledge.. It is essential that the student detailed knowledge.. It is essential that the student acquire an understanding of and a lively feeling for acquire an understanding of and a lively feeling for values. He must acquire a vivid sense of the beautiful values. He must acquire a vivid sense of the beautiful and of the morally good.and of the morally good.

Einstein’s significance to Critical Einstein’s significance to Critical ThinkingThinking

Einstein was a scientist in the highest sense of the Einstein was a scientist in the highest sense of the word. Far from being locked into the details of his word. Far from being locked into the details of his field, Einstein recognized that every human field, Einstein recognized that every human discovery and invention has implications and discovery and invention has implications and consequences, some of which are negative or consequences, some of which are negative or harmful. His horror at the use of the atomic bomb harmful. His horror at the use of the atomic bomb on humans and his attempt to curtail nuclear on humans and his attempt to curtail nuclear proliferation do him credit. proliferation do him credit.

In arguing for the development of traits and a In arguing for the development of traits and a general education, Einstein comes very close to general education, Einstein comes very close to describing a strong sense critical thinker. describing a strong sense critical thinker.

Einstein was a consummate specialist, yet he Einstein was a consummate specialist, yet he applied his intellectual skills to many subject areas applied his intellectual skills to many subject areas and to human problems as well. and to human problems as well.

Emma Goldman (1869 – Emma Goldman (1869 – 1940) 1940)

Key Ideas: Goldman critiqued Key Ideas: Goldman critiqued established governments as not established governments as not living up to the values which they living up to the values which they professed to uphold. She was professed to uphold. She was especially critical of the U.S. especially critical of the U.S. government and was imprisoned for government and was imprisoned for vocalizing her thoughts. vocalizing her thoughts.

It has often been suggested to me that the Constitution of the United States is a sufficient safeguard for the freedom of its citizens. It is obvious that even the freedom it pretends to guarantee is very limited. I have not been impressed with the adequacy of the safeguard. The nations of the world, with centuries of international law behind them, have never hesitated to engage in mass destruction when solemnly pledged to keep the peace; and the legal documents in America have not prevented the United States from doing the same…Far from the Constitution playing any liberating part in the lives of the American people, it has robbed them of the capacity to rely on their own resources or do their own thinking. Americans are so easily hoodwinked by the sanctity of law and authority. In fact, the pattern of life has become standardized, routinized, and mechanized like canned food and Sunday sermons. 

Goldman’s Significance to Critical Goldman’s Significance to Critical ThinkingThinking

Goldman’s contributions to critical thinking Goldman’s contributions to critical thinking lie in her unwavering devotion to human lie in her unwavering devotion to human rights and her willingness to critique rights and her willingness to critique governments which do not protect those governments which do not protect those rights. rights.

She was a living example of intellectual She was a living example of intellectual autonomy and courage, not backing down autonomy and courage, not backing down from her views even in the face of from her views even in the face of oppression and imprisonment. oppression and imprisonment.

Writing at a time when women had very Writing at a time when women had very little legal or social power or recognition, little legal or social power or recognition, she is also an example of someone who was she is also an example of someone who was able to develop her mind largely able to develop her mind largely independently of outside help. independently of outside help.

Bertrand Russell (1872 – Bertrand Russell (1872 – 1970)1970)

Key Idea: A Key Idea: A philosopher/logician/mathematician philosopher/logician/mathematician who, after making seminal who, after making seminal contributions to professional contributions to professional philosophy, shifted more and more to philosophy, shifted more and more to addressing virtually every major human addressing virtually every major human problem in a series of publications and problem in a series of publications and public addresses. The extent of his public addresses. The extent of his influence is suggested by the fact that influence is suggested by the fact that he published nearly 100 books and was he published nearly 100 books and was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize.

Russell’s Significance to Russell’s Significance to Critical Thinking Critical Thinking

He demonstrated command of the complexity He demonstrated command of the complexity of the major problems of the 20th century of the major problems of the 20th century world, but illustrated at the same time how a world, but illustrated at the same time how a careful critical analysis of those problems lent careful critical analysis of those problems lent themselves to the possibility of practical themselves to the possibility of practical solutions. Virtually to the end of his life, he solutions. Virtually to the end of his life, he demonstrated the power of critical thought to demonstrated the power of critical thought to cut through propaganda and modern sophistry cut through propaganda and modern sophistry and to highlight the potential of intellectually and to highlight the potential of intellectually disciplined integrity. He was a 20th century disciplined integrity. He was a 20th century paradigm of critical thought in the strongest paradigm of critical thought in the strongest sense. sense.