Teologie Biblica II - Horst Dietrich Preuss

7/27/2019 Teologie Biblica II - Horst Dietrich Preuss

1/7

11.2 Anthropological Terms

How does the Old Testament person speak about himself or herself? Which

ideas are used in order to describe human existence, life, behavior, and experiences?

6 8

In the Yahwist's narrative of creation and disobedience (Gen. 2:4b-3:24),

-a" cribx mrr =yahweh 'elohim ydsar("YHWH Elohim forms") humanity,that is, the man ( c i s = 'dddm), like a potter from the nmx = 'Mama ("land";

Gen. 2:7).6 9 With this image, the connection between humans and the soil is

stressed, while, at the same time, the important significance of the inhabited

land for the Yahwist is emphasized. This latter emphasis, assuming the form

of the so-called nnix ('dddmd = "soil, arable land") motif,7 0 runs through the

entire primeval history (Gen. 2:19; 3:19; 4:2f., 10f., 14; 6:1, 7; 8:8; and 9:20)

110 11. The Israelite and His Relationship to God

and enters into and combines with the ancestral narratives, beginning with the

important text in Gen. 12:3. The interpretive addition, "dust" (nsi) = 'dpdr;

Gen. 2:7), which likely stems from Gen. 3:19, emphasizes that humans are

frail, for they are "dust and to dust they shall return," as it is written in Gen.3:19 (cf. Qoh. 12:7), where "dust" (nsu = 'dpdr) also appears together with

nms ('dddmd = "soil, arable land"). Similar conceptions of the creation of humanity

by one or more deities from clay or earth are known in Israel's cultural

environment.7 1

When the frailty, powerlessness, and weakness of humanity are addressed

or are to be addressed, the term "ion = ba'sar("flesh") is used, a term that consequently

does not appear once in the statements about God.7 2 Moreover,

"flesh" in the Old Testament is not at all used in the sense of the Pauline adp^

= sarx ("flesh"; cf., e.g., Gal. 5:16f.), that is, it yet does not characterize "flesh"

as the special location of s i n . 7 3 This also is not even implicit when the sexual

organs of both male and female are included under the term "flesh" (Lev.

15:2f., 7,19; Ezek. 16:26; and 23:20). The male member describes a power and

potency that one uses in making an oath by placing the hand under the thigh

and on the loins ("]T =ydrek; Gen. 24:2-4, 9; and 47:29).

nrhx mrr =yahweh 'elohim ("YHWH Elohim") breathes into the nose of

the human being fashioned out of the earth the "breath of life" (D"n noB3 =

nismat hayyim) and in this way the person became a living being ( r r n DD]^ =

lenepeShayyd; Gen. 2 : 7 ) . 7 4 Whoever translates the statement as "The man became

a living soul" completely misunderstands what is meant, for Old Testament

anthropology is familiar neither with the dichotomy of body and soul nor

a trichotomy of body, soul, and spirit.7 5 What is designated the "breath of life"in Gen. 2:7 is breath (1 Kings 17:17; Isa. 2:22; Prov. 20:27; and Dan. 10:17),

something that, according to Gen. 7:22, the animals also possess. God is the

one who gives this breath of life, meaning that life is dependent upon him and

his gift (cf. Isa. 42:5). In the Old Testament, this breath of life is more often

called m i = ruah ("wind, spirit"), and both expressions occur beside each

other in Isa. 42:5; 57:16; Job 27:3; 32:8; 33:4; and 34:14. When someone

ceases breathing, then both nno: = neSdmd("breath") and m i = ruah ("wind,

spirit") are used for this expression (Dan. 10:17; and 1 Kings 10:5 = 2 Chron.

9:4). When God withdraws this breath of life from a person, then he or she dies

(1 Kings 17:17ff.; Job 27:3; and 34:14f.). And when no naai = neSdmd

("breath") remains, then life no longer exists (Josh. 11:11; cf. 10:40; 11:14; andDeut. 20:16). The Old Testament is not familiar with any part of the human


2/7

person that continues beyond death.7 6 All that has or still has breath praises

YHWH (Ps. 150:6).

The word m i = ruah("W\n&, spirit"), previously mentioned, consequently

can have a breadth of meaning (as does the corresponding Greek equivalent

Trv6\5|xa =pneuma), ranging from wind (Exod. 10:13,19; 14:21; and Isa. 7:2),

11.2 Anthropological Terms 111to breeze (Gen. 3:8), to breath, to spirit (Isa. 19:3; and 29:24), and to the phenomenon

itself as well as to the power that causes it to move.7 7 Accordingly,

mn = ruah stands for both the vitality of the human person (cf. Gen. 45:27;

Judg. 15:19; and 1 Sam. 30:12) and simply his or her breath (Isa. 42:5; 57:16;

and Zech. 12:1), something that is designated as the "breath of life" in Gen. 2:7

that God breathes into the man. In Ezek. 37:1-14, where most of the wide range

of meanings belonging to rrn = ruah is displayed, the term refers to the action

of the mi = ruah (Ezek. 37:6, 9 1 , and 14) that then issues forth through the

word of the prophet. Further, the rrn = ruah as breath cannot be limited only

to humans. The animals also share it (Gen. 6:17; 7:15: P), for "all flesh" contains

it (Num. 16:22; and 27:16; cf. Job 10:12; 34:14; Qoh. 3:19,21; 12:7; Pss.104:291 and 146:4). When God withdraws and takes back to himself the rrn

= ruah or rmo: = nesamd, humans as well as animals die (Pss. 104:291; 146:4;

and Job 34:141). Humans and all creatures continue to be dependent on God.

Consequently, dead idols do not contain breath in themselves (Hab. 2:19). mi

= ruah designates further the human will ("spirit"). Ezekiel 11:19 and 36:26

(here together withzb = leb ["heart"], as in Exod. 35:21; Deut. 2:30; Ps. 51:12,

14; etc.) are typical examples. Further, one may point to, for example, Gen.

41:8; Isa. 26:9; Jer. 51:11; Ezek. 11:5; and 20:32 where the term refers simply

(as does oa: = nepeS; see below) to humanity. It can also be used to mean "I"

(Pss. 31:6; 77:4, 7; and 143:7).

oa: = nepes, a common Semitic word that frequently is found in Israel's

Near Eastern environment, is not what one understands by the word "soul"78

in Greek, Hellenistic, and perhaps even modern thought. Nor does the term oa:

= nepeSapproach the meaning of its predominant translation in the LXX,

= psyche, that is, something that probably is immortal as over against

something corporal, and is more precious than the body. Such an understanding,

found in the LXX, is first present in the early Jewish text, the Wisdom of

Solomon (Wisd.), which seeks to combine Hellenistic ways of thinking with

Old Testment wisdom (Wisd. 2:221; 3:13; 4:10-5:23; 8:191; and 9:15). Moreover,

that 2332 = nepes has nothing to do either with "soul" or with "immortality"

is demonstrated by the Old Testament expression no oa: = nepes met("dead nepeS") which simply designates the entire human person as a corpse

with its dreadful power (Lev. 19:28; 21:11; Num. 5:2; 6:6; etc.). oa: = nepes,

which also can simply mean a "person,"7 9 stands concretely for "throat" (as

does its Ugaritic equivalent; cf. Isa. 5:14; 29:8; Jonah 2:6; Ps. 23:3; Prov. 10:3;

13:25; 16:24; 25:25; 28:25; and Qoh. 6:7), as well as for the breath that passes

through it (cf. noo: - neSdmdor mi = ruah; Gen. 35:18; 1 Kings 17:211; Jer.

2:24; and 15:9). The verb oa: = nps (niphal) means "to draw a deep breath,"80

and *|X = 'ap ("nose") as the human instrument for breathing and blowing (Isa.

2:22; and Job 4:9) not accidentally means "nose" as well as "anger" (Prov.

30:33; Deut. 9:19; etc.). All living creatures have this breath, not just humans

112 11. The Israelite and His Relationship to God(Gen. 1:20, 30). In Gen. 2:7 the breathing into the man results in his becoming


3/7

a rrn OS] = nepes hayyd("living being"). However, this expression is found

frequently within priestly thought also in regard to the animal world (Gen.

1:20; 9:10,12,15,16;Lev. 11:10,46; and Ezek. 47:9). One understands "soul"

to mean the interiority of humans, their feelings, aspirations, and their life

force, but it is not a component of human nature that is separate from the human

person. It is the case then that one can render o'S] = nepes with the word"soul" in some places in the Old Testament8 1 (cf., e.g., 1 Sam. 1:15; Ps. 42:5;

and Job 30:16). Above all, however, OS] = npSoccurs in those places which

have to do with human longing (Deut. 23:25; Prov. 16:26; 23:2; Micah 7:1;

e t c . ) 8 2 and with the human being's vital self (H. Seebass); (Gen. 12:13; 19:19f.;

Prov. 8:35f.; and Job 19:2). "My soul" Cos] = napsi) stands for "my life" or

for "I" (1 Kings 20:32; Pss. 103:lf.; 104:1; etc.; cf. Pss. 6:4; 42:6f.; 43:5; Jer.

4:31; e t c . ) . 8 3 One is to love YHWH with one's entire "I" (E?D: = nps; Deut.

4:29; 6:5; 10:12; etc.; used of YHWH in Jer. 32:41!). For all intents and purposes,

"life" is meant when OS] = nps is spoken about.8 4 In a less colorful way,

OS] = nps stands frequently (both for male and female) for "someone."8 5 The

Old Testament mentions a OS] = nps of YHWH only in Jer. 32:41 and 1 Sam.

2:35, while OS] = nps in Isa. 1:14 probably refers only to his "I."

Important still is the combination ofOS] = nps and m = dam ("blood"; Gen.

37:21ff.; Lev. 17:11; Deut. 12:23). When the breath departs, life ends. When

the blood flows, life flows with it. Life, however, belongs only to YHWH. Consequently,

humans do not have the power of disposal over blood, even when

they are allowed to consume animals following the flood (Gen. 9:4f. P; cf. Lev.

3:17; 7:26f.; 17:10, 12, 14; etc.). For the purposes of atonement, accorded by

YHWH and not produced by humans, blood may be used in the so-called blood

ritual (Lev. 4:5-34; 16:14-19; and 17:11).8 6

The heartbhri7 = leb/lebdb; a common Semitic term), according to thepeople's understanding in the Old Testament (however, e.g., also to that of the

ancient Egyptians),8 7 was the seat not only of the emotions and feelings8 8 but

also of the will, of thought (Judg. 16:17f.), and of the understanding (Deut. 29:3:

understanding heart).8 9 Solomon prays for a "hearing heart" (1 Kings 3:9), that

is, for a will that is willing to be obedient. "Without heart" signifies not "heartless"

in our sense but rather "without insight" (Hos. 7:11). And even when the

beloved is told by his lover that she has stolen his heart, he understands as an

Old Testament human being that she has destroyed his wits. Thoughts of the

heart can also be evil (Gen. 6:5; and 8:21), so that the will in addition to the intellect

is involved. The phenomenon of blood circulation was probably not completely

unknown. Moreover, heartbeats are mentioned in Ps. 38:11. In the firsttwo chapters of Genesis, rich in anthropological statements, 2b = leb ("heart")

is not mentioned. However, the fact that 2b = lib ("heart") stands not only for

the interiority and spiritual nature of humans is shown by the statement that eat11.2

Anthropological Terms 113

ing and drinking make the heart strong (Gen. 18:5; Pss. 22:27; and 104:15).

"Heart and kidneys" as a word pair designate the thought and feelings of humans

as a whole (Jer. 11:20; 17:10; 20:12; Pss. 7:10; and 26:2). Thus, as only

YHWH really knows the heart and kidneys of humans, so his activity and

knowledge have a special affinity with the 3b = leb ("heart") of human beings.9 0

The human person sees what is before his or her eyes; however, YHWH looks

into the heart (1 Sam. 16:7). YHWH is also the one who places a thought intothe human heart (Ezra 7:27; Neh. 2:12; 7:5; and Qoh. 3:11: late texts). Therefore,


4/7

in Hebrew thought "heart" and "speech" are closely connected.9 1 However,

the human 3b = leb ("heart") is also obstinate or can become obstinate.92

A pure, different, and new heart is nothing but thinking that includes a correct

decision of the will and right action (Ezek. l l : 1 9 f ; 36:26; Pss. 51:12; 73:13;

Prov. 20:9; and 22:11; cf. Matt. 5:8). To say that one's heart is not present means

that he or she is not honest (Prov. 23:7). However, when people do somethingwith their "entire heart," then this takes place with their entire will and all of

their feelings (Deut. 6:5; 10:12; etc.). Thus YHWH inscribes the Torah on the

human heart, that is, places it into the will that is the center of human emotions.

In so doing, the Torah is fulfilled (Jer. 17:1; and 31:33; cf. 1 Kings 8:58). And

even YHWH himself has a heart, that is, feelings, will, and desire (Gen. 6:6; 1

Sam. 2:35; 13:14; 1 Kings 9:3; 2 Kings 10:30; Jer. 3:15; 7:31; 32:41; Ps. 33:11;

etc.), and this has positive significance for humans (Hos. 11:81).

rrn = riiah ("spirit, wind"), BEH = nepeS("soul, mind," etc.), and 3b = leb

("heart") can all be used to refer to the emotions, including, for example, anger,

vengeance, vexation, and fury (Exod. 15:9; Deut. 19:6; Judg. 8:3; Isa. 25:4;

Ezek. 16:27; Ps. 27:12; etc.), mourning or pain (Isa. 57:15; 65:14; etc.), love(Gen. 34:3,8; 1 Sam. 18:1; 20:17; and Cant. 1:7; 3:1-4), joy (Prov. 2:10; and

Isa. 55:2), courage (Num. 14:24; Josh. 2:11; etc.), pride as well as humility

(Lev. 26:41; Isa. 57:15; 61:1; 66:2; Ps. 131:1; Prov. 16:19; 18:12; 29:23; etc.),

patience (Qoh. 7:8) or impatience (Exod. 6:9; and Job 21:4), passion (Deut.

24:15; Jer. 22:27; and Ps. 84:3), desire (Deut. 12:15, 20; 1 Sam. 2:16; and

Micah 7:1), and jealousy (Num. 5:14, 30).

The Old Testament is not aware of a particular word for conscience. Probably,

however, the phenomenon of a bad and thus restless conscience is impressively

described in Psalm 32. On occasion, 3b = leb ("heart") is used in

these connections (1 Sam. 24:6; 25:31; 2 Sam. 24:10; 1 Kings 8:38; and Job

27:6), and sometimes also the kidneys (Ps. 16:7).

Liver (133 = kabed; only in Lam. 2:11) and kidneys (nvbs = kelayot) stand

for organs to which the feelings were attributed. The kidneys are so important

that they are especially mentioned as being created by YHWH (Ps. 139:13).

They are the object of punishments (Job 16:13; and Lam. 3:13) and the seat of

feelings (Jer. 12:2; Prov. 23:16; Job 19:27; and Ps. 16:7; together with the

heart: Jer. 11:20; 17:10; and Pss. 7:10; 73:21).


The frequently found proximity of these just mentioned terms9 3 as well as

their intersecting meanings makes it clear that the Old Testament has a rather

holistic view of humanity. The individual terms are related to each other (as,e.g., the "United States": Robinson), for in referring to each respective organ

the Old Testament is not attempting to describe only one particular part of the

human person. Rather, in the reference to an individual organ the Old Testament

seeks to set forth the particular "feature under which the human person

at that specific moment appears." Further, "the nature of the human person

comes to light in his 'behavior'; what the human person is is 'expressed' in

what he does."9 4

11.3 Genesis l:26ff.:

Humanity as the Partner of God

Several Old Testament texts contain theological statements about humanity

that are set forth in a conceptually expanded form. To these belong, first of all,Gen. l:26ff. where God creates humanity according to his own image.9 5


5/7

In a speech that, with its "let us," is directed to his court9 6 as well as to himself

(cf. Gen. 3:22; 11:7: J) but does not point to or even suggest the notion of

the Trinity, God commands the creation of humanity ( c i x = 'dddm) Mcbxz

inniDiD = besalmenu kidmutenu ("as our image, according to our likeness").

The LXX translates cbx ( =selem; "image") here with e i K w v = eikon ("icon,

image"; Vulgate: imago; "image"), while it translates moi ( = demur, "likeness")with 6|XOI(IXTL


6/7

nor with a license to exploit the earth.1 0 2 "Dominion," if one wishes to use this

term, can never refer to absolute dominion, according to Old Testament understanding.

These commissionings are connected with the blessing of God

and, more than that, to the God who issues them. Responsibility is to be lived

out, and it is in this way that the image-like quality and the likeness of humans

to God are expressed. Humans were taken into service as the "partner" of God,a word that probably best and most comprehensively translates the meaning of

"image" and "likeness." These terms make no statements about the nature of

human beings but rather intend to describe humanity's function as willed by

God. Humans represent God in a prescribed realm and receive for this purpose

certain qualities, which do not make them godlike (the a = kelucidates this)

but rather elevates them to be the partners of God. Humans are to be the feudal

partner of God in his formation and administration of the creation. While

they are the partner of God in a legitimate way, they are not regarded as the

"crown of creation." Indeed, God's work for seven days does not culminate

with humanity; rather, rest is the final act of God that brings to conclusion his

activity of creation. Thus, it is the Sabbath that is the crowning climax of thewhole of creation (Gen. 2 : 1 - 3 ) , 1 0 3 and it is the ordinance of the Sabbath that is


founded in creation and blessed and made holy by G o d . 1 0 4 This was and became

the day for Israel's communion with God, since it is on this day that both

YHWH's glory took up residence in their midst and his call was issued (Exod.

24:15b-18a P; cf. also Exod. 39:32, 43). Consequently, humanity is, according

to Gen. 1:26-2:3, not only the partner sharing in the sovereignty of God

but also his conversation partner who, hearing YHWH's call and acknowledging

his sovereignty, was to live responsibly before him. YHWH and Israel

both depended on and gave meaning to the other. The one may not and could

not exist without the other, and the one could not be properly fashioned without

the other. The dominium terrae is no carte blanche for the exploitation of

the world. If one has (unfortunately) (mis)understood this in this way, this is

not intended in the text itself. Rather, what is intended is the commissioning of

humans to participate in divine sovereignty over the earth.1 0 5 One may see

rather clearly in all of this the formative power of Yahwistic faith at work in

the portrait of humanity (cf. later to J, etc.). The creation is to be secured and

to be set in order, and humanity has to live in dialogue with God. As his partner,

humanity has to bring God into the conversation in this world.

Thus, according to the witness of the Old Testament, something was

promised to all humans in general that, elsewhere in the ancient Near East, wasappropriate only for kings. It has been correctly noted that P is also here dependent

on previous tradition. For example,salmu was a royal predication in

Akkadian. This term does not mean the appearance; rather, it designates the

position and office of the king. The king was the representative of the deity,

and this was as true of Akkad as it was of Assur and of Egypt.1 0 6

What mostly in Israel's cultural environment was stated especially about the

king (although not exclusively, as, e.g., Egyptian texts s h o w ) , 1 0 7 the Old Testament

for all intents and purposes attributed to humanity. Further, Gen. 1:26ff.

stands in obvious proximity to Psalm 8, although this psalm shows no evidence

of dependence on Genesis 1. Rather, both texts go back to an older tradition

that was prior to each of them.1 0 8 In addition, what is said in Gen. 1:28 statesin an obviously intentional, more extenuated fashion what was expressed about


7/7

the sovereignty of the "royal" human in Ps. 8:7. Therefore, not only is God

imagined in anthropomorphic terms,1 0 9 humans also are believed to be theomorphic.

In humanity, God is to continue to effectuate acts of creation, and

Gen. 1:28 is God's "preliminary design" (N. Lohfink)1 1 0 for what is to come,

that is, for what P narrates later on. This preliminary design for what is to come

is already said by God to be "very good" (Gen. 1:31). In this divine assessmentof "very good," the sexuality of humanity is also included. The image and partnership

mark the dignity and at the same time the dependency of humanity as

well as its divine commission and responsibility before God. What are present

here are statements of relationship between God and humanity, not expressions

about something that exists within human beings. Whoever chooses to speak

11.4 Humanity according to Different Groups of Texts 117

of God must therefore speak at the same time of humanity, and whoever wishes

to speak correctly about humanity must also speak about God. All of this is true

for both male and female, according to Gen. 1:27. Both genders are to be partners

of God in the ordering of the world. There is in addition to this, at least

implicitly, the addressing of the work of humanity, something that is more directlyspoken dbout in Gen. 2:5 and 3:19. Humanity's work in the producing

of culture and civilization forms a partnership with God's activity in the ordering

of his world.

Teologie Biblica II - Horst Dietrich Preuss

Documents

Transcript of Teologie Biblica II - Horst Dietrich Preuss