TAJIKISTANHUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT

2000

3

The basic theme of this year's NHDR is the challenges facing Tajikistan inconsolidating the gains under the General Agreement on Peace and National Reconciliationinto sustainable economic and social development. The report describes and analysessome aspects of this peace-building process and of the challenges which stand in the way,notably the need to reintegrate fully into society, in a way which allows them to earn adecent living, former fighters and returnees. Examples of actions undertaken so far inthis field are also given.

I should like to draw attention to a few of the key points for future action. Giventhe high level of poverty, the predominantly rural distribution of the population, and thefact that the basic natural resource of the country remains its agricultural potential -even though this is limited to 7% of the land surface - it is essential to ensure much greaterproduction and productivity in agriculture and agro-processing. It is also essential toensure that the primary producer receives a fair return on his (or her) assets and labour.This will require the continued consideration of new policies which could transform thewhole sector. The drought which made itself felt quite severely in the middle of 2000 alsodrew attention to the need to improve the overall management of the country's waterresources, which are in fact abundant. By "management" should be understood not justmeteorological, hydrological and hydro-geological aspects nor the technical matters ofcontrolling the flow, storage, and distribution of water, but the purposes to which wateris put - their economic benefits and costs at real prices, their sustainability, theircontribution to human well-being locally and nationally.

There is reference in the report to the necessity to adapt and expand education tothe needs of the vastly changed national and global economy in which Tajikistan nowfinds itself. This is indeed crucial and will require considerable efforts by all componentsof society. It will also be important to ensure that girls and boys do in actual fact benefitequally from access to, and full participation in, all levels of education and training.

The Government's preparation of an Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paperduring 2000 has focussed attention on a number of key steps to be taken to reduce poverty.Many of these are policy and structural steps essential to allow individual people tomake their own contributions to a better life for themselves and their children. It isheartening to note that many of the elements of the IPRSP and of UNDP's overall approachto "human development" coincide. We look forward therefore to working together onthese issues in the coming year and beyond.

Matthew KahaneUNDP Resident Representative in Tajikistan

Dushanbe18 December 2000

2000 NHDR

4

Foreword

This National Human Development Report is the sixth in a row. It reflects the first stepsof the Republic of Tajikistan in the new environment of peace and national accord. Thepeace process in Tajikistan has now become irreversible. Initiated seven years ago underthe auspices of the Inter Tajik Negotiations, the peace process has now achieved its goal:the key terms of the "General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and NationalAccord" have been implemented; the Commission for National Reconciliation, set upunder the "General Agreement" has fulfilled all its functions; the mandate of the UNMOToffice has been completed; and the contact group of countries-guarantors has concludedits activities. At the same time it should be noted that the tasks facing Tajikistan todayare no less important and complex than those it faced in previous years. As a result ofmany years of armed confrontation, more than 50 thousand people have died, and thetotal cost of the damage inflicted by war is estimated at more than US$7 billion. And thisdoes not include the additional costs necessary to ensure the psychological rehabilitationof the population and the inclusion of refugees and returnees - which constitute almostone fifth of population - to the social, economic and political life of the country.

It is clear that under these conditions Tajikistan cannot cope with the solution of complexsocial and economic problems without international assistance. Civil war, naturalcalamities, and the collapse of economic relations with the former soviet republics havealmost completely paralysed the economy, and have negatively affected the capacity ofindustrial and agricultural enterprises and the infrastructure of the country. It is sufficientto indicate that in 1998 the level of GDP in the Republic was 57% lower than in 1990. Atpresent the Republic of Tajikistan has the lowest GDP per capita of all the CIS countries.Average salaries are less than US$9.4 a month in nominal terms. Thus, the overwhelmingmajority of the population can be classified as poor and a significant minority as extremelypoor. The currently high level of poverty can, however, be overcome by labour intensivegrowth with an expansion of employment opportunities, the creation of an efficient labourmarket and the greater participation of young people in the various spheres of labouractivity. In the post-war economy of Tajikistan, international organisations can contributeto the poverty reduction not only by the continued provision of humanitarian assistance,but also by supporting micro-projects that foster labour intensive economic growth,particularly in the rural area.

Following the signing of the "General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace andNational Accord", positive growth in industrial production was achieved for the firsttime since the outbreak of hostilities. In 1998, the volume of industrial production increasedby 8.1%, and this growth continued in 1999, at a pace of 5.6%. Agricultural productionalso increased by 6.5% in 1998. However, due to poor weather conditions this level ofprogress was not maintained and in 1999 growth was just 3.8%. These positive resultsindicate that the decline in production has been slowed. However, the economy remainsfragile and it is too early to say whether Tajikistan is entering a period of enduring rapidgrowth. Such growth is necessary, however, if Tajikistan is to improve significantly theliving conditions of its population.

Despite the difficulties of the war and the post-conflict period, the Government has takenpositive action to rehabilitate the economy including the development of a mid termeconomic reform programme and the adoption of legislation to regulate international

5

economic co-operation. The Republic of Tajikistan is a member of a number of internationalfinancial institutions and follows all the terms proposed by them, both for the receipt ofcredit and the implementation of economic reform in general. Bilateral relations withmany western and eastern countries have been established and consolidated and sub-regional and inter-state partnerships have expanded.

With the globalisation of the world economy, international co-operation will play anincreasingly important role for Tajikistan as the country enters the 21st century. Moretransparent and constructive systems of investment co-operation are needed for thedevelopment of Tajikistan's main resources. Inward investment will assist the rehabilitationof the economy and improve the living conditions of the population. In order to attractinvestments into the economy Tajikistan on its part should improve its legislation, andcreate an enabling environment of trust and security for large, medium and small businesses.

The Republic of Tajikistan is slowly and surely reviving from the political, social andeconomic crises of recent years. A climate of constructive dialogue has been establishedwithin the country. All sections of society feel the necessity to look for ways to intensifythe mobilisation of domestic resources and foreign investments for the efficientreconstruction and sustainable development of the country. In solving the above mentionedproblems the United Nations Development Programme continues to play an importantrole and, in partnership with the Governmental Agencies of the Republic of Tajikistan, iscontributing to the harnessing of human resources for the development of Tajikistan.

Talbak Nazarov

Minister of Foreign Affairs Republic of Tajikistan

6

Editorial Team

ContributorsMunzifa Babadjanova, Head of theDepartment, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, RT

Gulomjon Babaev, State Adviser to the Presidentof the RT on Economic Affairs

Muso Dinorshoev, Vice President, Academy ofSciences, RT

Tavarali Ganiev, Dean of the Department ofEconomics, Tajik State National University

Khabib Gaybullaev, Chairman of the StateStatistical Agency

Mamadsho Ilolov, Chairman of the Committeefor Science, Education and Youth policy at theParliament

Munira Inoyatova, State Adviser to thePresident of the RT on Social Affairs

Margarita Khegai, Director of the NGO"Tradition and Modernity"

Sirojidin Komilov, Vice Rector of Tajik StateNational University

Kholnazar Muhabbatov, Departmental Head,Institute of Geology, Academy of Sciences

Saidali Muhiddinov, Director of the PublicNational Library

Saodat Muminova, Director of the NGO "Sitora"

Evgeniya Narzullaeva, Director, Obstetrician,Gynaecology and Paediatrics Research Institute

Bimukarrama Nasrulloeva, Director of the NGO"Parvin"

Mirmakhmad Nurmakhmadov, Vice Rector of theUniversity of Commerce

Suhrob Sharipov, Head of the Department ofDomestic Policy, Strategic Research Centre

Hisrav Sadykov, Rector of Tajik TechnicalUniversity

Ibrohim Usmanov, Chairman of the Committee forInternational Affairs, Public associations andInformation at the Parliament

Toliboy Yunusov, Deputy Director of the StrategicResearch Centre

Acknowledgements

The NHDR is prepared by a team of national consultants. The views expressed in it are those of theauthors and do not necessarily represent the views of UNDP.

We wish to express our gratitude to all the Government, public, academic, civil institutions and individuals whohave contributed to the preparation of this Report with special thanks to:

Narzullo Abibullaev, Ministry of FinanceZukhra Akhmedova, UNFPA, NPOAbdulhaq Amiri, UNOCHA OfficerNazira Artykova, WHO, Liaison OfficerGulchekhra Bazarova, Social Protection FundMuratboki Beknazarov, HIV/AIDS CentreTatiana Bozrikova, Adviser to the PresidentMuazamma Burkhanova, NGOSascha Graumann, UNDP, JPOJan Harfst, UNDP/UNOPSJolanda Hogenkamp, WFP Officer

Munavvara Khamidova Co-ordinatorJane Falkingham EditorDesign - Studio "World of Travels" Layout & DesignPhotographs of UNDP/UNOPS, UNOCHA, WID Bureau, Gennadiy Ratushenko

Lyubomir Ivanov, WHO Head of OfficeSimon Jenkins, IFESAbdusalim Juraev, Ministry of EnvironmentMansour Kadyrov, Office of the PresidentRafiq Keshavji, Agha Khan FoundationMichael Mills, World BankIvo Petrov, Head of UNTOP, RSGRasoul Rakhimov, UNODCCP, NPOSaidmumin Rakhimov, Committee for SportsKimmat Rustamova, Ministry of Social Protection

7

Contents

Tajikistan: Reforms and Stability

2000 NHDR ....................................................................................................................3Foreword .............................................................................................................................4Contributors and acknowledgements ..................................................................................6Contents .............................................................................................................................7Acronyms ...........................................................................................................................8Basic facts ..........................................................................................................................9Map ....................................................................................................................................10

Introduction. Tajikistan and Sustainable Human Development .........................................11

Section I. The Concept of Human Development ...................................................................14

Section II. Part 1. The Human Factor in Development .......................................................171. Demographic trends and employment opportunities..........................................................172. Democratisation ..............................................................................................................213. Strengthening peace and social cohesion .........................................................................284. Education ........................................................................................................................335. Culture and Sport ............................................................................................................416. Science .............................................................................................................................447. Promotion of gender equity................................................................................................488. Governance and local power..............................................................................................55

Part 2. Economic Growth ...............................................................................................609. National poverty reduction strategy ................................................................................6010. Economic growth and public budget ...............................................................................6711. Rural development .........................................................................................................7212. International assistance ..................................................................................................76

Section III. Threats to Human Security ..........................................................................8013. Morbidity and mortality ................................................................................................8014. Low income and social protection ..................................................................................8615. Violence and crime .........................................................................................................9116. Pollution and environmental issues ................................................................................97

Bibliography ........................................................................................................................102Supplementary Tables ..........................................................................................................103

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AcronymsADB Asian Development BankA K F Aga Khan FoundationCADA Central Asian Development AgencyC A R E Co-operative for Assistance and Relief EverywhereC N R Commission for the National ReconciliationCPI Consumer Price IndexEBRD European Bank of Reconstruction and DevelopmentECHO European Community Humanitarian OrganisationESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific Ocean CountriesF A O Food and Agricultural OrganisationG A A German Agro ActionGBAO Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous OblastG E M Gender Empowerment MeasureGDP Gross Domestic ProductGNP Gross National ProductGRI Gender Related IndexHDI Human Development IndexHIV Human Immune Deficiency VirusHPI Human Poverty IndexIDB Islamic Development BankIFES International Foundation for Election SystemIFRC International Federation of the Red Cross & Red Crescent SocietiesILO International Labour OrganisationIMF International Monetary FundI M R Infant Mortality RateIT Information TechnologyKHO Khatlon OblastLO Leninabad Oblast (renamed to Sughd Oblast in 2000)M M R Maternal Mortality RateOHCHR Commission for Human RightsOSCE Organisation of Security and Co-operation in EuropePHC Primary Health CarePPP Purchasing Power ParityPRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy PaperR R S Regions of Republican SubordinationR T Republic of TajikistanSCF/ UK Save the Children Fund/United KingdomSC/US Save the Children /USASHD Sustainable Human DevelopmentSSA State Statistical AgencySTD Sexually transmitted diseasesTACIF Tajik Social Investment FundTLSS Tajikistan Living Standards SurveyT R Tajik RoubleUNCHR United Nations Commissioner for Human RightsUNDP United Nations Development ProgramUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural OrganisationUNFPA United Nations Population FundUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUNICEF United Nations Children's FundUNMOT United Nations Mission of Observers to TajikistanUNOCHA United Nations Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian AffairsUNODCCP United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime PreventionUNOPS United Nations Office of Project ServicesUNTOP United Nations Tajikistan Office of Peace - BuildingUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentW B World BankWFP World Food ProgramWHO World Health Organisation

9

TAJIKISTAN: BASIC FACTS - 1999

Territory 143,000 km2, density- 42.8Total population 6.1 million, female 49.7%, male 50.3% , rural 73.5%Human habitation on 7% of territoryCapital DushanbeIndependence Day 9 SeptemberHDI ranking of 174 110HDI 0.601GDI 0.599G E M 0.388HPI 29.3GDP per capita US$ 178.50, $14.90 per monthGDP (PPP) per capita US$ 330, $27.50 per monthLife expectancy 68.4Education enrolment (%) 68.8 (of all levels)Currency Tajik rouble, 1999 exchange rate 1US$ = 1,237 TR

26 October 2000 new currency - somoni- was circulated. 1US$=2.2 somoni

Public budget on social sectors (%): 20 Health 6.0 Education 11.8Export (%) 63.3Economic growth (%) 3.7CPI (%) 30.1Consumption basket 23,750 TR ($19.20) a monthAverage salary 11,609TR ($9.40) a monthMinimal pension 2,000TR ($1.60) a monthShare of employed in state sector 37.1%Share of employed in private sector 36.8%Unemployment rate 30% (WB)Privatised entities 5,558Farms, registered 9,174NGOs 469 (200 functioning)Number of students per teacher 12.5Number of teachers 96.8 thousandNumber of secondary schools ` 3,551Number of people per doctor 469.8Number of nurses per doctor 2.5Contraceptive use (%) 30MMR per 100,000 live births 87.8IMR per 1,000 live births 23.4Fertility rate 3.7Population growth rate 1.6

1 0

1 1

Introduction: Tajikistan and SustainableHuman Development

The preparation of this report reflectsthe development priorities of Tajikistan.Contributors include both developmentpractitioners and policy makers who arecommitted to achieving sustainablehuman development for the benefit ofthe people of Tajikistan.

Tajikistan has only been a sovereignstate since September 1991. However,within this short period of time it hasmanaged to find its place within theglobal policy arena as a peacemaker inCentral Asia. This is a significantachievement given the dramatic eventsthat have occurred since independence.During the civil war both the people andthe economy of Tajikistan suffered. Itwas difficult enough to restore positiveeconomic growth in this environment;and it has been even more of a challengeto preserve the past achievements in thespheres of education, health, and socialprotection. Despite these problems,Tajikistan's position in the global HDIranking has improved from 115th in1997 to 110th in 2000 out of a total of174 countries.

At the end of the 20th century,Tajikistan has strengthened i tsnationhood and governance. Peace andnational accord have been achieved inthe ancient Tajik land. In 1999, and thebeginning of 2000, there were a numberof significant poli t ical , social andeconomic events which may beconsidered as milestones in Tajikistan’sprogress in becoming a democrat icnation within the global arena:• In autumn 1999 Presidential elections

were held;

• In 1999, a new Government was formedwith representatives of the Opposition;

• A referendum on the approval of theamendments to the Constitution wasconducted amongst the wholepopulation;

• In spring 2000, Parliamentary electionswere held and a new professionalparliament was formed;

• The 1100th anniversary of the SamanidEmpire was celebrated inside andoutside the country;

• The first census since independence wascarried out, showing that the populationof Tajikistan now numbers more thansix million;

• The first Living Standards Survey wasalso conducted in 1999, providingvaluable information on the livingconditions of population;

• Positive economic growth was achievedfor a third year in a row.

Tajikistan is a country with enormouspotential, with a rich cultural heritage,a population of six million people, highhuman capital and an emergingdemocracy. In 1999 the UNDP HumanDevelopment Index for the country was0.601. The Gender RelatedDevelopment Index has improved from0.534 in 1998 to 0.599 and the GenderEmpowerment measure has risen from0.282 to 0.388, reflecting the continuingadvancement of women. However ,alongside this there is evidence thatpoverty is increasing and inequali tywidening. The Human Poverty Index hasincreased from 27.3 in 1998 to 29.3 in1999. There is a disparity between thegoals of improved human developmentand the actual real l ife si tuation formany people. Poverty is a main cause forconcern. At the same time it is important

1 2

to note that the infant mortality rate hasfallen and life expectancy is increasing.Nevertheless the social inequalities andgrowth of poverty represents a realthreat to Tajikistan 's futuredevelopment. According to off icialdata, today in Tajikistan more than 80%of the population are poor, and 20% areextremely poor, living on less than adollar per day.

Poverty reduction has become a priorityfor the Government . A PovertyReduction Strategy Paper has beenprepared and is being discussed at alllevels of society. Poverty reductionstrategy is aimed at the expansion of accessto basic human needs. Amongst thegroups most affected by poverty arewomen and the elderly population.

Poverty in Tajikistan was caused by theeconomic col lapse fol lowingindependence, with the disruption oftrade and the civil war. Posit iveeconomic growth has been achieved overthe last three years from 1997 to 1999.However, this growth has been slow totranslate into improvements in the livingcondit ions for the majori ty of thepopulat ion , as per capita growthremains relatively low, hindering thereduction of poverty. The Governmentcont inues to make effor ts to reducepoverty by investing in to the social

Table 1. Life expectancy1998 yearsTotal 68.4Male 65.6Female 71.3

(SSA)

Table 3. Public expenditures for the social sectors in 1999 % of the total

budget% of GDP % of budget

2000Education 11.8 2.1 13.5Health 6.0 1.0 6.9Social protection 1.1 0.2 1.3Cash compensation 0.6 0.1 2.3Total 19.5 3.4 24.0

(SSA)

sectors, which account 20% of publicexpenditures.

It is obvious that poverty reduction inthe country wil l need an enormouseffort . I t is a lso obvious that anysuccessful strategy will need to be basedon the promotion of equitable economicgrowth. It goes without saying that onthe dawn of the third millenium, decisiveactions are required to st imulate thehuman potential of Tajikistan - througheducation, medical care, reliable socialprotection, and the realisation of humanrights and freedoms.

Today in Tajikistan people are free toform associations, NGOs, and politicalparties. There are currently around tenpolitical parties and movements in theRepublic. Each year the voices of NGOssound more loudly on a var ie ty ofissues. Participation in an NGOprovides the poor with an opportunityto make their voices heard, to impactupon state policy, to realise their rightsand to identify their place in society.

The factors necessary to ensuresustainable human development are wellknown. They are equity in employmentand access to the means of production,gender equity, eff icient governance,civil society, access to basic services andsocial protection. These can be realised

Table 2. Education enrolment in 1999 (%)Type of education M FTotal 74 63.1Prim - sec (6-17) 79.8 71.9Higher (18-22) 20.9 6.8

(SSA)

1 3

Chart 1. Education enrolment in regions (%)

62 .1

58 .6

67.555 .9

86 .4 LOKHOGBAORRSDushanbe

RT – 68 .8

(SSA)

in Tajikistan.

Tajikistan is improving its developmentpolicy, paying priori ty at tention topoverty alleviation. Its main aim is to

achieve an environment for sustainablehuman development through economicgrowth. The provision of basic socialservices, health, education and socialprotection will also play a key role inpoverty reduction. This wil l be achallenge as currently half thepopulation is unable to meet its basicneeds.

Nevertheless, it is hoped that with thecontinuing support of the internationalcommunity, Tajikistan will be able toattain sustainable human developmentin the 21 century.

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Section I.The concept of Human Development

This human development report forTajikistan is primarily about people. Humandevelopment is concerned with the expansionof choices so that people are able to lead along and healthy life, are educated and havethe resources necessary for a decent standardof living. Development per se is necessaryfor people to have these choices, althoughthe decisions that people ultimately make aredependent on their own preferences. Theprocess of human development creates anenabling environment so that people developtheir potential in accordance with their needsand interests. Thus the concept of humandevelopment is wider than simply providingpeople with the opportunity to realise theircapabilities. It also involves the use of thesecapabilities at work, in leisure time and insocial activities. If there is no balancebetween the formation of capabilities andtheir use, then human potential will remainunrealised.

The main measure of human developmentis the Human Development Index (HDI).The Index reflects the level of lifeexpectancy, education and access toresources within the country. Theadvantage of this indicator is that socialand economic progress is measured notonly by income, but also by improvementsin human capabilities i.e. in education andhealth. One of the key components of theHDI is life expectancy. For a long life it isimportant to have good nutrition, goodhealth and to be educated. Even with a lowlevel of national income it is possible for acountry to achieve a high level of humandevelopment where a significantproportion of that income is spent oneducation and health. Thus, the well beingof a country does not only depend on thelevel of income, but also on the way thisincome is spent. Even with a high level ofincome and government revenue, theremay be a low level of human developmentlevel if resources are distributed unequally

and education and health receive a lowpriority. High income by itself does notguarantee human development. The mainaim of development therefore should be theachievement of both strong economicgrowth and sustainable humandevelopment. There are two sides to humandevelopment - the formation of humancapabilities and use of these capabilities.

Sustainable human development is thedevelopment that leads not only toeconomic growth, but also to its equaldistribution; it regenerates theenvironment, rather than destroying it; itempowers people and does not make themirresponsible mechanical producers.This kind of development pays priorityattention to poor people, expanding their

capabilities and providing them withparticipation in decision-making processeswhich affect their lives. This developmentis for people; it is pro-environment, pro-employment, and pro-women.

The concept of human developmentThe concept of human development isalways evolving. Its pillars areparticipation, empowerment, equity,sustainability, security and gender parity.

• Empowerment depends on theexpansion of human capabilities,functions and freedom. All people maybe free to purchase food stuffs, but this

The main aims of human development

• Basic education for all;• Primary health care, and vaccination

of children;• Elimination of cases of acute

malnutrition;• Access to family planning;• Safe water and sanitation;• Ensure employment.

1 5

freedom means nothing to the poor, whohave no money. Each person may befree to purchase a newspaper, but onlyliterate people can use this capability.Similarly everyone may be free totravel, but only healthy people may beable to use this opportunity and thosewho are disabled may be bedridden. Inorder for people to be active agents oftheir own development they need to beempowered to take advantage of theopportunities that are afforded to them;

• Partnership and co-operation. Peoplelive in a society, which in turn reflectsmany social structures, ranging fromfamily to the state. People valueparticipation within society and theirsense of belonging is an importantsource of well being. It providesemployment, direction, and a sense ofmeaning to life. The concept of humandevelopment recognises the importanceof culture - reflecting the means oforganisation and communication ofpeople within society, its values andbelief - in shaping the humandevelopment of the individual;

• Equity. The term equity is generallyassociated with concepts such as wealthand income. But within humandevelopment its meaning includes thepursuit of equity in opportunities andcapabilities. In this respect it is veryimportant to be healthy and educated,particularly for women. Womencontribute significantly within thefamily and community, but thiscontribution is very often notappreciated as their labour is not paid;

• Sustainability. Sustainable developmentmeets the needs of the presentgenerations without compromising thechoice for the future generations. It isabout equity among generations and thesustainability of capabilities acrossgenerations;

• Security. People in all countries, bothdeveloping and developed, live withrisks. These include the risk ofunemployment, violence, ill health andothers. Unemployment is the mainsource of vulnerability, which decreasesaccess to income.

The HDI, as mentioned above, has three

constituents: long life, education and livingstandards. Long life is measured by lifeexpectancy at birth, which is an indicatorof the health of a nation. Education ismeasured by adult literacy and schoolenrolment, which indicates the humancapital of a nation and investment by thestate in increasing the capabilities andopportunities of its citizens. The standardof living is measured by real GDP percapita adjusted to the local cost of living.The HDI is an alternative to GDP for themeasurement of social and economicdevelopment. HDI indicates the level ofhuman development achieved, facilitatescomparisons between countries, regionsand identifies the priorities for futurepolicies.

The measurement of human developmentcan be used to assess the quality ofeconomic growth. Good economic growthpromotes all aspects of humandevelopment. Such growth:• Provides employment opportunities and

security for households;• Strengthens freedom of people and their

potential;• Distributes assets equitably;• Promotes social cohesion;• Protects future human development.At each stage policy makers should ask:Who gains from growth? Does it createjobs? Does it meet the needs of culturaldiversity?

This NHDR underlines the necessity ofpromoting economic growth, politicalstability, freedom of rights, and civil societyorganisations as engines for humandevelopment. The recent situation inTajikistan has confirmed that expansion ofhuman capabilities and individual choiceas well as reductions in poverty cannot beachieved without the solution of politicalproblems and the achievement of peace andnational accord.

Though Tajikistan has experienced adifficult period in economic growth, it stillhas the opportunity to integrate SHDwithin its macroeconomic policy. Thecountry has a high level of human capital,including a well-qualified and literatelabour force, as well as extensive natural

1 6

resources and mineral deposits. Irrationalhuman activity often negatively impactsupon the country’s natural resources. It isimportant to reverse this trend and toimplement policies that both tackle theeconomic difficulties of the country andsupport human development. The impactof economic growth on the improvementof quality of life depends much on thecharacter of the distribution of thatgrowth. In particular, it is dependent uponwhat poor people get, and how additionalresources are used to support the socialsectors, for example, basic education, andprimary health care services.

SHD involves a moral commitment tocreate an enabling environment in whichall people can develop their capacities,and in which these opportunities willexpand both for present and futuregenerations. This requires the investmentof sufficient resources in the education

and health sectors, which will in turn giverise to positive returns in future. It alsorequires a change in the way naturalresources are used, which will avoid theirdepletion and ecological damage forfuture generations.

During the last years, despite thedifficulties, there has been progress inachieving human development. However,new problems have emerged thatthreaten this progress, such as the growthin poverty, malnutrition, criminality anddrug use. As Tajikistan enters the 21stcentury, it should renew its commitmenttowards SHD. To this end policies shouldbe implemented that stabilise populationgrowth, decrease inequalities, provide forsustainable use of energy resources andencourage biodiversity, protect theenvironment, increase investments intobasic education and medical services aswell as foster strong economic growth.

1 7

Section II. Part 1.The Human Factor in Development1. Demographic Trends and EmploymentOpportunities

1.1 Demographic trendsThe first Census of the independentRepublic of Tajikistan was conducted inJanuary 2000. This provides an up-to-datepicture of the size and distribution of thepopulation of Tajikistan. As of January2000, the total population is estimated tobe 6.1 million, of which 73.5% live in ruralareas. The population is distributed acrossthe four main oblasts and the capital(Dushanbe) as follows: Khatlon oblast-35.1%; Leninabad (Sughd) oblast - 30.5%;Regions of Republican Subordination -22.7%; Dushanbe - 9.2% and Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous oblast- 3.4%.The gender balance in the country isroughly equal, with men constituting50.3% of the population and women 49.7%.

In the summer of 1999, the State StatisticalAgency, in partnership with UNDP andthe World Bank, conducted a detailedhousehold survey in order to examine theliving standards of the population.According to the data of the TajikistanLiving Standards Survey (TLSS), in 1999the average household size was 7.1 people.This varied between rural and urban areas,with a mean household size of 5.7 peoplein urban areas and 7.6 people in ruralareas.

According to the same data, the averageage of population of Tajikistan is 22.8years, reflecting a relatively youthfulpopulation. The share of population aged15 and under is 45%. This is despite the fact

Table 1. The population of the RT in January 2000 (thousand people)Total Of which

Urban Rural Male FemaleRT 6,127 1,623 4,504 3,082 3,045Dushanbe 562 562 - 290 272LO 1,870 497 1,373 934.5 935.5KHO 2,151 370 1,781 1,076.5 1,074.5GBAO 206 28 178 104 102RRS 1,338 166 1,172 677 661

(SSA)

that the last ten years have witnessed adecrease in the birth rate. In 1991, therewere 38.9 births per 1,000 population. By1999 this had fallen to just 18.2 births per1,000 population.

Although there is no doubt that the birthrate has fallen since independence, thesefigures may overestimate the true extentof the decline. The accuracy of data on bothbirths and deaths has been affected by theintroduction of a fee for registration. Theregistration fee, which is equivalent to $3- or to put it into perspective, the averagemonthly salary of someone employed inhealth and social protection sectors - islikely to deter many families fromregistering births, especially in remote ruralareas.

The reduction in births over the last decadehas resulted in a decrease in the naturalgrowth rate of the population. In 1991, thepopulation was estimated to be growingby 32.8 per 1,000 population, i.e. 3.3%.However, by 1999 the growth rate hadfallen by over a half to 14.4 per 1,000 (or1.4%).

The crude death rate has declined from 6.1deaths per 1,000 population in 1991 to 4,2per 1,000 in 1999. Life expectancy at birthfell from 70.5 years in 1991 to a low of66.1 in 1993-1994. Since then it hasrecovered somewhat and in 1999 wasestimated to be 68.4 years.

1 8

Table 3. Marriage and divorce rates in 1991-19991991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Number of marriages 56,505 46,672 53,945 38,820 32,078 27,021 28,836 20,192 21,578Number of divorces 7,562 6,482 5,293 4,372 4,342 4,516 4,109 2,539 2,339Per 1,000 population- marriage 10.3 8.4 9.6 6.8 5.5 4.6 4.9 3.4 3.7- divorce 1.4 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.4

(SSA)

Table 2. Demographic indicators, 1991-1999Per 1,000 population 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Crude Birth Rate 38.9 32.2 33.1 28.2 28.6 24.5 25.0 18.4 18.6Crude Death Rate 6.1 6.6 8.7 7.0 5.9 5.4 5.8 4.6 4.2Infant Mortality Rate 40.6 45.9 47.0 40.6 30.9 31.3 30.7 23.4 -Maternal Mortality Rate - - - 87.6 93.7 87.6 65.5 ... ...Life expectancy 70.5 68.3 66.1 66.1 68.3 69.6 68.3 68.4 68.4

(SSA)

Chart 1. Migration of population in 1992-1999, (thousand people)

51.2

71.3

43.2 37.126.0 20.8 18.1 15.0

146.0 145,9

88.874.9 53.6

37.1 33.2 30.3

0

20406080100120140160

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Arrived Left

(SSA)

The overall level of population growthwithin the population is affected by thelevel of migration, as well as by births anddeaths. Throughout the last decadeTajikistan has experienced out-migration,with the number of those leaving thecountry exceeding those entering. Between1992 and 1999 more than 610 thousand ofpeople left Tajikistan, with the peak flowsoccurring in 1992 and 1993 immediatelyafter independence and during the heightof the civil unrest. In contrast, over thesame period 290 thousand people enteredTajikistan. Though the level of out-migration has fallen, the net migration rateis still high - at 2.5 per 1,000 population.Thus, although the recorded level of out-migration in 1999 was 323,000, its truelevel may be much higher.

Marriage and divorce rates provide animportant insight into demographicbehavior within Tajikistan. The number ofmarriages in 1999 was just 38% of the level

in 1991. This decline is caused bydeterioration of living conditions and thecivil conflict in 1992-1993. The decline ofthe marriage rate is, in part, responsiblefor the decline in birth rate noted above.

Unlike elsewhere in the former SovietUnion, the decline in marriage rates hasnot been accompanied by an increase indivorces. Rather, the trend has beentowards a reduction in the number ofmarriages breaking down and the generaldivorce rate fell from 1.4 per 1,000population in 1991 to 0.4 in 1999. The lowlevel of divorce reflects the tradition andculture of Tajikistan.

In sum, despite recent changes in thedemographic characteristics of Tajikistan,population growth remains at 1.6% perannum. The solution of population issueswill require reforms in economic and socialsectors, the achievement of gender equity,and meeting the health care needs ofpopulation. All of this will need to be donewithin the framework of national, religioustraditions and customs.

Recommendation:• National Population and Development

strategy should be worked out;• Access to reproductive health centres

needs to be provided by the Ministry ofHealth to both rural and urbanpopulations;

• Family planning should be promotedwith regard to the national, religioustraditions and customs of thepopulation;

1 9

Table 4. Labour market and employment in 1998-19991998 1999 1999 as a %

1998Economically active population (thousands) 1,855.0 1,780.0 96.0Number of persons listed as being employed in the nationaleconomy (thousands)

1,153.0 1,081.2 93.8

Number of people actually working (thousands) 1,024.9 829.7 80.9

Number of registered unemployed (people) 66,366 61,394 92.5Number of officially recognized as unemployed (people) 54,101 49,720 91.9Number of those who applied to employment centres (people) ofwhich- employed (people)

42,370

15,381

33,153

16,225

78.2

105.5Official level of unemployment (registered unemployed as apercentage of economically active population)

3.2% 3.1%

(SSA and Ministry of Labour and Employment)

• To strengthen potential of academic andresearch institutions, which collect andanalyse data on health, population, andgender by preparing courses ondemography and throuch exchange ofexperience;

• System of registration of births shouldbe reformed;

• Survey should be conducted to identifypriorities in population strategy.

1.2 Employment opportunitiesAccording to the official data, both thenumber of people registered asunemployed and those officiallyrecognized as unemployed has fallen overthe last year. The official unemploymentrate dropped from 3.2% in 1998 to 3.1% in1999. However, analysis of employmentdata reveals a different picture, with anincrease in the number of people who arenot actually working. The number ofpeople listed as being employed in thenational economy was 1,081,200 in 1999.However, it is estimated that the numberof people who were actually working inTajikistan was 829,700; a decline of195,200 compared with 1998. The share ofthose actually working as a proportion ofthose who were listed as employed was:71.7% in the sphere of material production,and 94.8% in the sphere of non-materialproduction. Thus, in 1998 it was estimatedthat 128,100 people did not work and didnot get salary, and by 1999 this had risento 251,800 people.

Taking these figures as an indicator ofunemployment, it is estimated that the truelevel of unemployment in Tajikistan,calculated by ILO methodology, in 1999

was 16.8%. Taking into account thenumber of hidden unemployed and thoseworking temporary, the real level ofunemployment may be as high as 30%.

In 1999, 33,153 people applied toemployment centres for assistance, whichis 27.8% less than in 1998. Of these 46%were women and 49% were youth, agedbetween 15 and 29 years. The latterstatistic is particularly alarming as youngpeople represent the most energetic partof population. The fall in the number ofapplicants is related to the lack of new jobopportunities, low value of unemploymentallowances, and the fact that the skills ofmany unemployed people are notcompatible with the skills required.

The young also constitute a worringly highproportion of the registered unemployedand those applying to employment centres.Over half (52.5%) of the total number ofregistered unemployed are aged 18-29 andthis proportion rises to 67.5% in GBAO.The highest rate of unemployment in allthe regions is found amongst secondaryschool graduates. Their share in totalnumber of unemployed in RT is 68.9%. Thisvaries from 73.6% in RRS to 60.0% inDushanbe, with GBAO - 70.9%, KHO-63.1%, and LO-65.6%. The majority ofunemployed school graduates aredependants in their families or receive lowofficial income. Poor access to economicresources from legal avenues has resultedin an increase in the number of crimesinvolving young people. It is thereforeessential to create the mechanisms toincrease employment opportunities foryouth, as well as to support organisations

2 0

Table 5. Employment Centre Activity by regions 1999 ( people)In 1999Regions Number of

registered inemployment

centres

Of whichregistered asunemployed

applied employed Sent fortraining

Social works

RT, of which 61,394 49,720 33,153 16,225 2,544 8,653GBAO 15,214 13,790 3,056 762 127 916Dushanbe 2,907 774 3,206 1,396 533 636KHO 7,036 5,375 8,768 6,466 680 2,367LO 17,890 15,073 10,634 5,344 762 3,209RRS 18,347 14,708 7,489 2,257 442 1,525

(Ministry of Labour and Employment )

and facilities that will provide structure fortheir leisure time and enhanced educationalopportunities.

Data on the geographical distribution ofthe registered unemployment show thatthere are far fewer registered unemployedin Dushanbe than elsewhere in the country.Although the registered unemployment ishighest in Leninabad, its share of the totalpopulation is considerably higher in GBAOthan elsewhere in the country.

Of 49,720 unemployed registered in 1999,34,678 people were eligible forunemployment allowance. However only20,694 people actually received such anallowance and the total amount of paidbenefit was 116 million TR.

In 1999 the number of vacancies was just7,334. To put this another way, there wereon average nine registered unemployed for

one vacancy. If the non-registeredunemployed are taken into account, thisfigure rises to over 30. Therefore for thesolution of the unemployment problem itis necessary to have a dynamic stateemployment policy. This will require long-term national, regional and sectorsemployment programs that provide bothtraining and job skills for the unemployedand help to create new jobs.

Recommendations:• Develop co-ordinated national, regional

and sectors employment programmes;• Activate and improve the training and

retraining of personnel;• Develop a well functioning labour

market;• Increase the number of job seats by

pursuing a policy of labour intensivemacroeconomic growth;

• Improve the institutional capacity forthe expansion of private businesses.

2 1

2. Democratisation

The Global HDR -2000 reports that forthe first time in history the majority ofthe countr ies in the world l ive in ademocracy. This provides hope, as thedemocratic system is the only one inwhich all human rights are respected.At the end of the 20th century,advances have been achieved inTajikistan in the realms ofdemocratisation and the expansion ofhuman rights. This confirms that on theeve of the 21st century the country ison the road to human development ,demonstrating to the world communitythe indispensable role of the humanfactor in the peace making process.

The aim of democracy is to providehuman beings with seven main liberties:l iberty from discrimination, freedomfrom fear , poverty, injust ice,exploitation, and the freedom to realisetheir human potential and to participatein the decision making process.

In 1997, with the achievement of"General Agreement on theEstablishment of Peace and NationalAccord", the country began to moveway from being a “conflict state”. Thegreatest contributions to the promotionof peace, democratisation and socialcohesion were made by the Governmentof the RT, the Majlisi Oli (Parliamentof the RT), and the Council for NationalReconciliation and UNMOT. Theycreated an enabling environment for thesigning of an amnesty, disarmament andreintegration of the UTO withingovernment structures. Members of theOpposi t ion were appointed to theGovernment positions according to the30% quota stipulated by the "GeneralAgreement". The favourableenvironment facilitated the preparationof a new law "On Political Parties", theannulment of the ban on the activities

of the parties and movements of UTO,and the inclusion of the UTO membersinto the Central Electoral Commission(25%). The climax of these activitieswas the preparation of a new Law "OnElections to Majlisi Oli", followed bypeoples ' referendum to approve theamendments to the Constitution of theRepublic of Tajikistan, and f inal lyelect ions to the f irs t professionalparliament of Tajikistan.

2.1 The Road to ElectionsThe People's referendumThe main political processes in societyhave been reflected in amendments andadditions to the Constitution of theRepublic Taj ikis tan. The people ofTajikistan approved these changes in areferendum held on the 26 September1999. The amendments to theConsti tut ion, adopted by peoples 'referendum, introduced seven years ofPresidential rule and a two chamberParliament - composed of Majlisi Milli(National Chamber), and Majl isiNamoyandagon (Chamber ofRepresentatives). They also introducedthe right of citizens to participate in theformation of pol i t ical part ies on areligious basis.

A total of 2,591,905 people voted bysecret ballot during the referendum. Thiswas 91.55 % of the total populationeligible to participate. 71.79 % voted infavour of the amendments and 23.53%registered a vote against . After thereferendum, the changes wereintroduced to the "Law on Elections ofthe President of RT", and the "Law onElections to Majlisi Oli". With thesenew laws, the democratisation of theelectoral system of Tajikistan becamelegitimate.

The basis of elections: multi party

2 2

alternativesIn accordance with the Constitution ofthe RT, each citizen has the right toparticipate in the formation of a politicalparty. For the formation of any politicalparty, it is necessary that 1,000 peoplesupport the application and every partyhas to be registered in the Ministry ofJustice. The party system withinTajikistan is sti l l in i ts infancy. Sixpolit ical parties participated in theparliamentary elections. These were theDemocratic Party, the CommunistParty, the Peoples Democratic Party,the Socialist Party, the Party of IslamicRevival, and the Party of Justice.

A number of other par t ies did notparticipate in the recent parliamentaryelections, as they were ei ther notregistered in the Ministry of Justice orhad no time to do so. However, some ofthem are functioning without officialregistration.

During the election each party publishedits own electoral material, detailing itsactivi t ies and beliefs. The nongovernmental mass media also providedthe electorate with informationconcerning the different parties. Thesesources included the newspapers “Asia-plus”, “Business and Poli t ika”,“Vahdat” and others.

The part icipation of six part ies andindependent candidates ensuredplurality. However, in general, electoralcampaigning was low-key. Electoraladvert is ing, such as posters andbrochures, was poorly presented and notwidely distributed. Thus, it is possibleto say that there is a multiparty systemin Tajikistan, but the extent of its impactremains ambiguous.

Various public movements are alsoplaying an important role in the processof democratisation of Tajikistan. Thesemovements include the Congress ofPeoples Unity, the National Movementof Tajikistan, and the Movement ofNational Unity and Revival.

2.2 Elections of the President of the RT

New elections of the President of RTwere held in November 6, 1999. TheConstitution of the RT of 1999 statesthat "any citizen aged between 35 and65 years, who knows the state (Tajik)language and who has been living in thecounty for not less than the last 10 years,can be nominated for the post of thePresident of RT". Nomination ofcandidates to the post of the Presidentis democratic. Nationali ty, ethnicorigin, and religion are not barriers toselect ion. However, in order to benominated, an individual must collectthe signatures of not less than 5% ofvoters. Article 66 then states: "Thecandidate is elected to the post of thePresident of RT if over half of the votersvoted for him". The President is electedfor a term of office lasting 7 years.

In 1999, for the first time in the historyof Tajikistan, all political parties weregiven the right to nominate Presidentialcandidates . Two candidates wereadmitted by the Central ElectoralCommission to the elections, the formerPresident nominated by PeoplesDemocratic Party, and the servingMinister of Economics, representing theParty of Islamic Revival. The electoralturn out was high, with 98.91% of thoseeligible to vote participating. Of these,96.97% voted for Rakhmonov and2.11% voted for D. Ismonov.

2.3 Legislative powerElections to Majlisi OliThe draft of the new "Law on Electionsto Majlisi Oli" was prepared by CNR,as was stipulated by the "The Protocolof Poli t ical Guarantees for thePreparat ion of Parl iamentaryElections", signed by the President of RTand the Leader of UTO in November 5,1999.

A new Law "On Election to Majlisi Oliof RT" was adopted in December 10,1999 at the session of Majlisi Oli. Thislaw laid the foundations for Tajikistan'sf irs t elect ions to a professionalParliament on democratic principles.The new Majlisi Oli consists of twoChambers - the Chamber of

2 3

Representatives (MajlisiNamoyandagon), which sits on a regularbasis and the National Chamber (Majlisi Milli) , which sits only whenconvened to do so. The functions of twoChambers are defined by theConstitution.

Majlisi Namoyandagon (Chamber ofRepresentatives)The Chamber of Representatives of theParliament of Tajikistan was elected bysecret ballot on the 27th February 2000for 5 years. The elections were held onthe basis of both majori ty vote andproportional representation. Unlike thepast, there were no quotas for particulargroups such as women. The 63electorates (22 by party list and 41 bymajority) were contested by 331nominees. The elections were held in twostages. 60 deputies were elected in thefirst s tage and in three distr icts theelections were conducted again. A totalof 6 political parties participated in theparliamentary elections. Only 3 partieswere successful in achieving more than5% of the vote, the Communist party,the Party of Islamic Revival , thePeople's Democratic Party. A total of2,683,010 citizens participated in theelections, that is 93.3 % of those eligibleto vote. 200 international expertsobserved the elections.

The Majlisi Namoyandagon works insessions, which are held once a yearfrom October to June. The Chamber hasnine committees on: Economy, Budgetand Finance; Const i tut ional Order;Governance and Management;Agriculture and Employment;Internat ional Affairs , PublicAssociat ions, and Information;Education, Culture and Youth Policy;Family and Ecology; Order andDefence; Energy, Industry,Construction and Communication. Inaddition, there are two commissions, oneconcerned for timetable and timekeepingof parl iamentary activit ies, and theother with the ethics of its members.

The Committees drafts laws,amendments and additions to the laws,

and monitor their implementation.

New opportunitiesThe majority of citizens have the rightto be registered as a candidate tobecome a Deputy. According to the Law«On Elections to Majlisi Oli”, Deputiesshould be "citizens aged not less than 25years and with a higher education". Toregister as a candidate, applicants needto write a statement concerning theirdesire to participate in the elections, andthey also need to collect at least 500signatures in support of their

Population by regions

3%

31%

35%

8%

23%

3% - GBAO31% - LO35% - KHO23% - RRS

Party affiliation

65%12%

23%

Professional characteristicsof deputies

55%27%

18%

65.2% - People's Democratis Party (22) 55.9% - Heads of local administration (19)11.8% - Communist Party (4) 26.5% - Managers (9)23.0% - Independent (8) 17.6% - Other specialists (6)

Chart 1. Composition of the legislative bodyMajlisi Milli (34 members)

The Chamber of Representatives

The main functions of the Majlisi Namoyandagonare:• Formthe Central Electoral Commission for

elections and referendums;• Adopt the laws by a simple majority and the adopt

the constitutional laws by a majority of 2/3 ofDeputies;

• Ratify or decline the international agreements;• Forward the proposals to conduct a referendum;• Form the courts;• Approve the economic programmes;• Approve and monitore the budget;• Authorise the extension and receipt of the state

credits;• Approve state awards.

2 4

application. The Central ElectoralCommission may randomly check thevalidity of the signatures, and if over 3%of the signatures are found to be falsethe applicant will be refused registration.In order to be elected, the candidateneeds to obtain more than 50% of thepopular vote.

Majlisi Milli (The National Chamber)The National Chamber is partly electedand partly appointed. It functions on aconvening basis. It has 33 members: 25%are appointed by the President and 75%are elected by the majority in a secretballot at the joint meeting of all localMajlisis in the 5 oblasts of Badakhshan,LO, KHO, RRS and Dushanbe. FormerPresidents may also be members ofMajlisi Milli, if they wish. To qualifyas a member, candidates need to be aged35 years and over, have a highereducation, and have been a citizen of thecountry for at least the last 7 years.

The main functions of Majlisi Milli are:• Form, dissolve, and change the

boundaries of the administrat iveterritorial units;

• Approve or decline the laws, adoptedby Majlisi Namoyandagon;

• Appoint and recall the Chairperson,Deputies and Jury of theConstitutional and Supreme Courtsby the proposal of the President;

• Authorise the appointment andremoval of the Attorney General andits Deputies.

The Majlisi milli is convened at leasttwice a year. It is written into itsconstitution that one of the DeputyChairman of Majlisi Milli should beelected from Gorno-Badakhshan.

The Majlisi Milli has 5 committees:Economy and Communicat ion;Consti tut ional Rights and Order;Agrarian issues, Employment andEcology; Social issues, Health, Science,Culture, Women, and Youth policy;Coordination of the Majlisi Milli andMajlisi Namoyandagon, Public unions,the Mass Media and the InternationalRelat ions. In addit ion, there is a

commission concerned with thet imetable and t imekeeping ofparliamentary activities, and the ethicsof the Chamber members.

The Legislative processThese two Chambers form the supremelegislative body - Majlisi Oli , orParliament of the RT. Joint sessions ofthe Majlisi Milli and the MajlisiNamoyandagon are convened to:approve the Presidential Decrees;authorise the outside use of the armedforces of the RT for internat ionalcommitments; approve the appointmentor removal of the Prime Minister andother members of the Government; andto appoint Presidential elections. ThePresident of RT has called the first jointsession in April 27, 2000.

The right to initiate legislation isentitled, by the Constitution of the RT,to the members of Majlisi Milli , theDeputies of Majlisi Namoyandagon, thePresident of RT, the Government of RT,the local Majlisi of Deputies ofBadakhshan, the Constitutional Court,

the Supreme Court , and the HigherEconomic Court . Laws must f irst beadopted by the majority of the MajlisiNamoyandagon. According to Article60 of the Constitution, the Laws arethen submitted to the Majlisi Milli andare approved if the majority of MajlisiMilli vote for them. In the case of declinethe law is reviewed for the second timeby the Majlisi Namoyandagon. Wherethe Majlisi Namoyandagon does notagree with the Majlisi Milli, a law canst i l l be passed provided that on i ts

Party Affiliation

58%21%

3%18%

57.4% - Peopl es' Democratic Party (35)21.3% - Communist Party (13)3.3% - Party of Islamic Revival (2)18.0% - Independent (11)

Chart 2. Majlisi Namoyandagon (61deputies)

2 5

second reading 2/3 of deputies of MajlisiNamoyandagon vote for it.

Each chamber has i ts ownadministrat ion. Complaints andproposals are first send to the generaldepartment and then to the committees.Majlisi Oli has its newspaper "SadoiMardum" (The Voice of People).

Who are the new parliamentarians?In November 2000, there were a totalof 95 parliamentarians within the twoChambers of the Majlisi Oli, 61% ofthem specialised in humanities and 39%- in science. Women make up 13%, andnational minorities - 7.5%. About 30%have an academic degree. The Deputiescome from a wide range of professions,including economists, teachers, lawyers,engineers and other specialists.

2.4 Executive powerA Presidential system of governmenthas been adopted in the Republic ofTajikistan. According to theConstitution, the President of the RT isboth the head of the State and of theGovernment. The President has theright to issue Decrees and orders onalmost any social issue. He appoints andremoves the Prime Minister and othermembers of the Government, by theapproval of the Parl iament . TheGovernment, at the same t ime, isresponsible for the efficient managementof the economy and social spheres, andfor the implementation of the laws andresolutions of Majlisi Oli and Decreesof the President of the RT. Members ofthe Government cannot be at the sametime members of the legislative bodies.

The Government in accordance with theConstitution and the laws of the RT,issues resolut ions and orders . Theimplementation of these is obligatory.It submits i ts social and economicprogrammes to Majlisi Oli for approvalas well the extension and receipt of statecredits issues, economic assistance toother countries, public budget draft, andpublic budget deficit and the informationon the sources to cover it.

2.5 Judicial power Judicial power in the RT is exercisedby the Consti tut ional Court , theSupreme Court, the Higher EconomicCourt, the Military Court, the Court ofGBAO, oblast , urban and regionalcourts, and the court of Dushanbe.

The President of the Republic ofTajikistan presents to Majlisi Milli thelist of the candidates for the positionsof the Chairperson, DeputyChairperson, lawyers of theConstitutional Court, Supreme Courtand Higher Economic Court, and theCouncil of Justice.

Judges of the Military Court, Court ofGBAO, oblast, regional, urban and ofDushanbe, and the Economic courts areappointed and dismissed by thePresident of the RT upon the proposalof the Council of Justice. The judges areappointed for 5 years.

The Constitutional court consists of 7members , one of which is arepresentative from GBAO. Themembers of the Constitutional court areelected from the body of judges andmust be aged between 30 and 60 withat least 10 years of professionalexperience. The decisions of theConstitutional Court are final.

A judge should not hold any position inlegislative and executive branches, bea Deputy of the representative bodies,a member of poli t ical party andmovements , or be engaged in freeenterprising. He can do research andteaching.

2.6 Building democratic institutionsThe recent elections to the Majlisi Olidemonstrated that Tajikistan is lookingforward to democrat isat ion of al laspects of social l i fe . The worldcommunity has noted the posi t ivepolit ical changes in Tajikistan. TheSecretary General of the UN, KofiAnnan, highlighted the significance ofthe part icipat ion of the formerlyopposing sides in the elections, and also

2 6

the fact that the first multiparty electionsin Tajikistan had been held in anenvironment free from violence. This isan important factor of humandevelopment and social cohesion. I tmarks the new institutional building.

A variety of international organisationsprovided technical assistance and supportfor political education programmes - bothfor the electorate in general and for thestaff of the electorate commissions beforethe elections. IFES and UNMOTprepared an information brochurecontaining 50 questions and answersabout the law “On Elections”. OSCEconducted 100 seminars for training theelectorate, and on the issues ofdemocracy. Particular attention was paidto encouraging women to participate inthe elections. UNMOT conducted 15seminars in KHO and facilitated a TVinformation campaign that focussed ondisseminating four main messages to theelectorate: a) everyone was entitled tovote and should vote him/herself ratherthan let another person do it for them byproxy; b) in order to vote one would needto show the ID; c) balloting is secret; d)the importance of voting as democraticright. IFES also disseminated brochuresand posters, conducted round tables forpolitical parties and candidates,broadcasted 6 radio programmes, and 5TV programmes. A manual on elections,prepared by joint efforts of UNMOT andIFES, was distributed to all pollingstations. Election Day passed peacefully,despite some shortcomings andconstraints caused by the lack ofexperience and training.

2.7 Recommendations:The Government of Tajikistan has takenan important s tep forward towardsdemocracy. However, there is morework to be done:• Define the tasks of the electorate

commissions, state bodies and localadministrat ion for the elect ionsperiod. Local power should notintervene in the electoral process;

• Expand activit ies presenting allparties in mass media;

• Expand the educational programme

for voters;• Set up an Academy for the education

of the professional parliament withthe part icipat ion of internat ionalexperts, UN and OSCE and others;

• Improve the laws "On Poli t icalParties" and "On Elections";

• Promote the laws, related todemocrat isat ion and economicreforms, ensure the reduct ion ofunemployment; and strengthen thesocial , education and heal th careservices;

• Contribute to the creation of civilsociety institutions;

• Remove disparities which threatendemocratic achievements;

• Protect an independent court systemand independent mass media;

• Promote inclusive democracy,protecting minorities and marginalgroups;

• Strengthen social and economicrights along with civil and politicaland rights;

• Deepen the achieved level ofdemocracy;

• Expand education in all spheres ofhuman rights.

2.8 Summary and concluding commentsFor the first time a multiparty politicalsystem is formed in the country andelections to a professional parliamentwere held on the alternative basis. Forthe first time a political Party of IslamicRevival is legally functioning. The mainpolit ical parties and minorit ies arerepresented in the Government and inthe Parliament. Civil society is growingand the number of functioning NGOshas increased.

All these achievements expand theprocess of democrat isat ion in thecountry. The Government, NGO, civilinstitutions and private sector need tocontinue to educate the population onthe posi t ive aspects of democrat icdevelopment and to s trengthendemocratic values within society. Thesocial adoption of democratic valuesdepends on the level of political culture.The Year 2000 was announced as theYear of Culture and Peace.

2 7

Today 130 countries recogniseTajikistan's national sovereignty. Realcooperat ion has helped to establishdiplomatic relat ions with manycountries, and RT has made agreementson friendship with 40 countries, and hasrepresentat ion in 15. At presentTajikistan is a member of more than 50international organizations andagencies. The opening in Tajikistan ofthe representations of the UN, and morethan 40 major internationalorganisat ions and NGOs shows thatTajikistan is taking its due place in theworld community

The more Tajikistan will be involved inthe democratic structures of the worldcommunity, the more the country willfol low the democrat ic principles ofpolitical improvement.

The promotion of democratic changes inTajikistan is taking place and i t isimportant to speed up this process. Toordinary people, the advantages ofdemocracy are not clear yet, as thereare no significant economicachievements, and the living conditionsof most people have not improved. Theposi t ive achievements ofdemocratisation in Tajik society need tobe made clear and simple, so that peoplecan recognise the advantage ofdemocrat ic development and theexpansion of their economic and civilrights. NGOs and the mass media needto play an active role in this process.The building of civil society requires theactivity of its citizens. Equally importantwill be the interaction of central andlocal government with NGOs. Thefuture development of democracy willdepend on the efficiency, transparencyand sustainability of the state.

2 8

3. Strengthening Peace and SocialCohesion

Social cohesion is necessary for humandevelopment and the expansion ofopportunities. 1999 was a year of Tajiknation, when peace was strengthened , andpublic accord achieved.

One of the important indicators of theestablishment of public accord in Tajikistanwas the celebration of the 1100th anniversaryof Samanid State as the national festival ofunification for Tajiks all over the world. Thisevent had not only cultural and historicalimportance, but also political significance. Itshowed the desire of Tajiks to rejoice in theindependence and integrity of the country.The celebration of 1100th anniversary ofSamanid State became the result of the jointactions of various social and political groupswithin society.

1999 was the year when Tajik statehoodtransitted from civil confrontation to socialand political cooperation and democraticreform. In 1999, the process of nationalaccord united the opposing forces. The moodof social cohesion was further supported bythe activities of the mass media, NGOs,educational programmes, sport competitions,meetings and discussions. The messages onthe importance of peace and national unitywere disseminated across all the regions ofthe country, including remote areas. As thesemessages reached peoples' hearts, tension andfear turned into understanding and stability.National confidence was strengthened.

3.1 The completion of the work of the Councilfor National ReconciliationIn 2000, the CNR accomplished its functionsfor strengthening peace and accord withinthe country. Members of the Opposition wereappointed to a number of Government posts,including the First Deputy Prime Minister,Deputy Prime Minister and 6 other ministers.In other ministries, including the Ministry ofDefence, Foreign Affairs, Communication,and Social Protection members of theOpposition were appointed to the posts of

Deputy ministers. The Opposition also heldthe positions of the Deputy Chairman ofSupreme Court, the General Prosecutor,Chairman of 5 committees - including theCustoms committee, and the Administratorsof 15 cities and districts.

After the elections, the opposition turned itsactivity away from political confrontationtowards partnership and cooperation. Thisfactor shows the public accord in Tajikistan.It also marks the completed transition fromconflict to peace in the country.

One of the most important CNR activity hadbeen the integration of the armed forces ofopposition with the army of the Government.According to the signed agreements, theimplementation of this term would provide abenchmark for the transition period to peaceand development. According to the "Generalagreement" elections should be held onlyafter the complete merger of the UTO forceswith the national army. This required thatboth phases 3 and 4 of the military protocolsshould be fulfilled before new elections.

In 1999, as part of phase 3 of the militaryprotocol, about 5,000 UTO ex-combatantspassed through attestation commission tocontinue their military service within thenational army. Fifty ex-combatants wererecommended for higher command positions,and more than 1,000 were demobilized. Afterattestation of the armed forces in theKarategin valley and their integration withgovernmental structures, the UTO Presidiumannounced the disbandmend of its armedforces. Carrying weapons in public places inrural and urban areas was banned as of July20, 1999.

By the Resolution of Majlisi Oli, 6000 ex-combatants were exonerated. The process offull integration with government forcesstarted in August 1999. Although theimplementation of the 4th phase i.e. thecompletion of full integration had been

2 9

delayed, the peace process was irreversible,and the integration of some divisions withinthe government army laid the foundation forthe final integration of both forces. Therefore,the conduct of the elections during the 3rdphase of the protocol was both possible andnecessary.

In August 1999, the UTO officially declaredthe disbandment of their forces. The ban onthe political parties, movements and massmedia of the UTO was lifted. This createdan enabling environment for theirparticipation in the forthcoming politicalevents.

The CNR activities laid the basis for peacefulprogress in the Republic. When the newMajlisi Namoyandagon formed itsmanaging bodies, the President of RT issueda Decree to close the CNR. This signalledthe completion of the transition period andpeace was restored.

The UN Security Council has also respondedto the completion of the peace makingperiod. In May 2000 it adopted the resolutionto close the UNMOT Office in Tajikistan.However, to strengthen and promote peacein Tajikistan the UN Secretary General KofiAnnan made a decision to establish theUnited Nations Peace Building Office inTajikistan (UNTOP).

3.2 Strengthening social fabricSocial cohesion depends on the national unityof all the citizens. To achieve this, it isimportant that the interests of all the nationalminorities are taken into account in all sectorsof social life. One of the most fundamentalhuman rights is the right to communicate inyour native language. Although the officiallanguage of Tajikistan is Tajik, in the townsand villages where the majority of thepopulation is Uzbek or Kyrgyz, theConstitution has also laid the basis forconducting clerical work in the appropriatenative language. Several members ofminority groups were elected to the MajlisiOli.

1999 has become the year of closecooperation not only between politicalparties, but also between all social strata ofsociety. It is still necessary to combat

regionalism and religious discrimination. Itshould be noted that in the regions where theconflict was most severe, much success hasbeen achieved. One of the important factorsstrengthening accord has been the freedomof religious beliefs. It is known, that morethan 90% of the population of Tajikistan areMoslems. The national traditions of the Tajiknation are deeply intertwined with theIslamic culture. It is important that localauthorities continue to ensure equal accessto basic social services regardless of religiousdenomination. This will help to reduce theinequities between rich and poor, includemarginal groups and overcome absolutepoverty. Due to national accord havehundreds of thousands of refugees returnedto their houses and restarted peaceful life.

3.3 Reintegration of ex-combatantsThe reintegration of ex-combatants intosociety will define the success of the peaceprocess. With the Decree of the President ofthe RT of February 1999 “On formationtemporary divisions of ex-combatants withinthe national armed forces”, those ex-combatants who wanted to continue militaryservice could join the national army subjectto the approval of the qualificationcommission. Those ex-combatants whodecided to leave a military career weredemobilised and returned to civilian life. Thereintegration of ex-combatants to civilian liferemains the priority for strengthening peace.

Finding salaried jobs for all ex-combatantsrepresents a major challenge for theGovernment. Following a PresidentialDecree, which banned carrying weapon inpublic places, and discontinued thecontractual services in the Armed forces, itis expected that in the second half of 2000the number of those who will return to civilianlife will increase to 2,000-3,000.

An important factor will be how well the ex-combatants adapt to their new life. In orderto support this process a rehabilitation centrefor ex-combatants has been established. Thecentre has served more than 730 UTO ex-combatants and to date mainly providesmedical services. The Ministries of Defenceand Health should give attention to the ideaof expanding the capacity of the centre, bothin terms of the number of clients it serves and

3 0

the range of services it provides.

International organisations have alsorendered assistance in reintegration. UNDPthrough UNOPS has launched programmeson "Reconstruction, Rehabilitation andDevelopment" and the "Reintegration of excombatants" in the Karategin and Khatlonareas.

The project on reintegration is aimed atstrengthening the peaceful process by:• Job creation for ex-combatants and

vocational training;• Reconstructing the damaged

infrastructure (schools, hospitals, bridges,etc) for the benefit of the wholecommunity;

• Creating sustainable employmentopportunities. Reconstruction of markets,enterprises, along with micro credits forprivate business, provides people with thecapacity to generate income;

• Creating mechanisms to attract ex-combatants into other programmesthrough consultative and reintegrationcommittees.

Between 10 and 40 ex-combatants work ineach re-integration project. They have mainlybasic education and some work experience.During the implementation of the project,experts provided ex-combatants withtraining in some vocational skills, so that atthe end of the project they could work asmechanics, drivers, clerks, plumbers,carpenters, and builders and hopefully obtain

a sustainable income. The former combatantswere each paid an amount equivalent to $50.One time allowance was paid for those ex-combatants, who had only military uniform,so that they could buy civilian clothes assome only had their military uniforms. Warwidows were also involved in the projectactivities.

In December 1999, in 75 projects in fiveregions of the Karategin valley 1,102 ex-combatants were temporary employed andacquired vocational skills. 272 local expertsand specialists were invited to train them .67 war widows with large families alsoreceived employment, mainly as cooks.Although the projects were mainly limitedto men, women and children also benefitedfrom income generated by the projects. It wasestimated that the number of indirectbeneficiaries was five times that of the directbeneficiaries as each ex-combatantsupported, on average, a family of 5. In factthe number of indirect beneficiaries, isprobably much greater. The reconstructionof schools, roads and hospitals improved thequality of life for the whole community.

The efficient reintegration of ex-combatantsdepends on the extent to which they arerecognized as citizens of that society. It isimportant that they should feel part of thesociety and that other members of thecommunity should accept them. Thevoluntary return of many to their villagesreflects a certain confidence, but it does notmean the return of normality in the relationsbetween returnees and other members of thecommunity. That is why the programmes forreturnees were designed to take intoconsideration the interests and benefits of thewhole community. Such structures as roads,bridges, electricity lines, schools, workshops,dwelling houses, hospitals, markets, etc. wererehabilitated.

In the regions where these projects wereimplemented, district consultativecommittees were set up. These committeeswere composed of representatives of the localadministration (hukumat), UNDP/UNOPSproject staff, community groups and ex-combatants. They jointly identified thepriorities for the project activities. Thisinvolvement in the decision-making process

3 1

helped to build confidence and restorecommunity links. The access to legalemployment and sources of income alsoprovided ex-combatants with an alternativeto becoming involved in drug trafficking andother illegal operations, with a positiveimpact on the stability in the region.

3.4 NGOsLocal NGOs are an important element ofcivil society and they are in constant touchwith society and people. Humandevelopment in Tajikistan depends, in part,on the success of NGOs in attracting peopleand helping them to realise their potential.At present around 200 NGOs are activelyfunctioning within Tajikistan. The activitiesof NGOs cover almost all spheres, dealingwith social protection, education, health,ecology, gender, security and human rights.In many areas there is now close cooperationbetween Government and NGOs. Forexample, 60 NGOs whose main focus is ongender equity have contributed to the"National Plan for the Advancement ofWomen 1998-2005" . NGOs with a focus onecology are also very active. In 1999, theyconducted various activities to prevent landsalination, co-operated with the Governmenton the ecological education of youth, andwith national and international experts in theproblems of Lake Sarez.

NGOs in Tajikistan have actively contributedto peace and stability. Many of them signedthe "Agreement on the Public Accord inTajikistan". NGOs on human rightscontribute to legal literacy. They publishpromotional brochures and books on the mainprinciples on human rights, as specified in theinternational documents, as well as conductseminars, round tables, and trainings.

The main problem of NGOs within Tajikistanis the lack of financial resources and thecomplicated procedure of registration. TheGovernment can support them bysimplifying the registration procedure. Activecontacts between NGOs and private sectormay also provide NGOs with alternativesources of finance.

3.5 Mass mediaThe mass media can play an important rolein strengthening national unity. Press, radio

and television are the main sources ofinformation about, and within, the country.Article 30 of the Constitution of the RTguarantees the freedom of speech and thelaw "On Press and Mass Media" guaranteespress freedom.

TV remains the main source of information.There is an interstate teleradio company"Mir" and 14 TV channels. State radio andTV disseminate information to almost all thecountry. Current events are transmitted inTajik, Russian, Uzbek and English.Currently, there are no private radio stationsin Tajikistan, although the law "On TV andRadio-broadcasting" stipulates theirestablishment. Some private regional TVstations function locally. However, due tothe financial constraints, there are norepublic-wide private TV channels. 78% ofpopulation also watch Russian channels andprogrammes.

Tajik State TV provides the population withinformation on all aspects of the social andeconomic life of the country, reforms, andvarious initiative taken by the population.Tajik TV has tried to improve the quality ofprogrammes and provides a choice of youth,education, sport and entertainmentprogrammes. During the electoral campaign,Tajik State TV gave free time to all politicalparties and candidates and transmitted a setof trainingl and information programmes forthe electorate (such as "Elections andSociety", "Elections and Youth", "Humanbeings and Law") to explain the new law onelections. The population of the countryperceives Tajik State TV as providing theofficial point of view. In 1999 a programme"Vahdat" ("Unity") was launched, in whichrepresentatives of former oppositionparticipated.

The print media is also very important inTajikistan. It is estimated that 126newspapers and journals are in print,although the print runs, particularly forjournals, are often very small. According tothe SSA data in 1999, 58 newspapers werepublished. Of these, 40 newspapers are inTajik, 9 in Russian, and 9 in other languages.Four have a Republic wide circulation, 5 areoblast wide, 31 are local papers, 8 providemainly information and advertisements, 3 are

3 2

private, and 7 are published by variouspolitical parties and movements. A numberof private publication units have also beenestablished, supported by internationalsponsors.

There are three professional organisations ofjournalists in the country which are non-governmental. In general the standard ofnewspapers and journals and their impact onthe population has increased. However, thesector still needs to be strengthened. Itremains the case that not all of the populationin the regions has access to TV, radio andnewspapers, and that newspapers are oftensubject to serious delays in delivery to remoteparts of the country. Furthermore, manypeople cannot afford to buy a newspaper andare excluded from access to an importantsource of information.

In recent years public opinion surveys havebecome popular in Tajikistan. The massmedia regularly publishes the results of publicopinion surveys carried out by informationagencies and centres of sociological studies.However , the results are often published inperiodicals with small print runs or only localcirculation, making it difficult for theinformation to reach the public at large. Onesuggestion is to establish an independentnational centre to study public opinion andto disseminate the results to a wide audience.

Tajikistan has started on the road ofdemocratisation, and expansion ofdemocratisation will expand acccess toinformation. The opportunities for populationto use e-mail facilities are expanding. Anumber of private centres have been set upto provide access to the Internet, such as"Tajiktel", "Vavilon", "Intercom", "TelecommTechnology"and others. However, accessremains limited to a small number of users,both due to the technical constraints and,more importantly, to the high cost involved.

To ensure wider access to the globalinformation network, exchange ofinformation and the implementation ofmodern technologies, in September 16, 1999the President of the RT signed a Decree "OnMeasures to Ensure Access to GlobalInformation Network". In 1999 the firstwebsite pages about Tajikistan were created.Thus, the Webpages "The National PressReview" was opened.

3.6 Traditional institutions of localgovernanceThe traditional institutions of localgovernance such as the mahalla (urbancommunity) have served to strengthen socialcohesion. In the years of civil confrontation,these structures helped to save the lives ofthousands of ordinary people. The mahallaare also well placed to assess which familiesare at risk of food insecurity and are activein working with international NGOs toensure food sufficiency within these families.The expansion of traditional systems of localgovernance is a positive sign on the path todecentralisation in Tajikistan.

3.7 Recommendations• Provide smooth reintegration of ex-

combatants in society by creating jobopportunities and providing access tomedical service and education;

• Government should cooperate moreclosely with NGOs and involve them invarious governmental projects;

• Continue to expand access to alternativesources of information to support thedemocratisation of society, i.e. by givinglicenses for private radio and TVbroadcasting stations;

• Reforms of the mass media should becoordinated with reforms in other sectors.

• Stimulate the private sector to supportNGOs and the mass media;

• Simplify the procedure for registration ofNGOs within the Ministry of Justice.

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4. Education

Previously, Tajikistan had performed wellagainst indicators of educationalperformance. However, during the 1990seducational performance has worsened asa result of a shrinking budget, low salaries,brain drain of teachers, lack of textbooks,destruction of infrastructure especially inthe zones where military activities tookplace, and low school attendance.

According to IMF and WB surveys, nearly20% of schools were destroyed, and morethan 130 buildings are now in need ofrepair. The war has impacted not only onthe physical infrastructure, but also on thecapabilities of children. The war alsodistorted youth behaviour and deepenedintolerance. In sum, the process of humandevelopment was arrested.

Education is the foundation of a civilizedsociety, and fosters the development of thespirit and the intellectual potential of thenation. The destruction of the educationalsystem implies the destruction of the basisof the nation. The expansion of ducationwill lead to the prosperity of the nation.All levels of educational institutions arepart of the nation's wealth. In theimmediate aftermath of the war inTajikistan much attention was paid torestructuring infrastructure and to long-term economic development. Currently themain task of society is to strengtheneducation and to enhance the value ofeducation as a contribution to sustainabledevelopment.

4.1 Strategic aims and tasksThe real wealth of a country is its people.The education system enables people toparticipate as citizens and thinkers andcreators. The collapse of the Soviet Unionhas created a paradigm shift in terms ofhow people should function within theirsociety, with less emphasis on themechanical execution of their roles. Hence,

new approaches to education are urgentlyrequired.• The first task is to encourage respect for

the social values and human rights.Looking beyond, the task is to enablethe people of Tajikistan to live, createand interact freely as global citizens.

• The second task is to produce highlyqualified and responsible citizens, witha wide range of skills, so as to developthe knowledge, skills and flexibility toadjust to the current and future demandsof society.

• The third task is to provide educationalopportunities to all, at all stages of thelife cycle.

Access to education is guaranteed underthe Constitution of RT. There are tworelevant laws, "On Education", and the"Concept of School Education" and otheracts. The Government has reinstated a fourlevel system of education, consisting ofpreschool education, secondary education,special secondary colleges and vocationalschools, and higher educationalestablishments. In accordance with Article41 of the Constitution, general educationis free and compulsory for all children

A number of indicators point to animproving situation through, therestoration of ruined schools, the trainingof experts, and an increasing number and

3 4

quality of higher and secondary specialprofessional establishments. During thetransition the status of higher educationseems to have increased. The competitionfor university places is high. The overallrate of tertiary education enrolment ishigh.

At the same time problems persist: somechildren from poor families, particularlygirls, do not attend primary schools asthey have no clothes and shoes.

The reforms in education aim to adjust RT'snational standards of education tointernational ones. A number of specificmeasures have been taken to bring aboutthis change:

a) The aims and content of educationalprograms have been drastically changed.

b) A number of structural reforms arebeing implemented:• New types of schools are being created

such as schools-lyceums, gymnasiums,colleges, as well as institutions like"school-kindergartens", "gymnasiums-universities", and "universities-lyceums-colleges";

• A multilevel system of higher educationintroduced with the qualification ofMaster of Arts (Sciences) and Bachelordegrees;

• Some technical schools and colleges areintegrated into the universities toprovide initial professional training;

• In addition to Government educationalestablishments, a number of private andnon governmental schools, colleges,Universities and educational centres areset up, as well as inter-State institutionssuch as the Tajik-Russian SlavonicUniversity, Tajik Turkish lyceum, TajikAmerican Universities.

c) The legislative framework is in place:• In accordance with the "Law on

Education", major reforms have beeninitiated regarding the decentralisationof the management of educationalestablishments;

• Resolutions on educationalestablishments have been renewed;

• A State Qualification Commission has

been set up;• A legal basis has been set up for

attestation, accreditation and licensingof educational establishments.

d) New policies on financing education arein place:• The legal basis for multi-financing has

been established and is now operational;• The first steps have been taken towards

improving the financing of education,both from the public budget and fromnon-budgetary sources such as parents'resources, grants, stipends, donations,credit and support of donors;

• The share of the officially paid traininghas increased;

• Resolutions of the Government onsocial protection of teachers have beenadopted. Their salary will increase by40% on the annual basis.

The Government, national andinternational organizations are all strivingto ensure that access to education isindependent of nationality, gender,residence, social and income status. In thisprocess it is hoped to regain some of theprevious achievements of the educationsystem.

4.2 Preschool educationThere are currently 523 preschoolestablishments in the RT. During thetransition it has been dificult to sustainpreschool establishments out of the centralbudget. The number of children of pre-school age is more than one million.Between 1990 and 1998, the number ofpreschool establishments has fallen by 40%,and the number of children registered inthem has dropped by two-thirds, from150,000 to 53,000. The decline in enrolmentis the result of the deterioration of thequality of services and the collapse of theinfrastructure, combined with an increasein charges, which are no longer affordableby parents with low incomes. The Ministryof Education is taking active measures toreform preschool educationalestablishments.

4.3 Secondary educationThere are 3,551 full-time secondary schoolsand in 1999-2000 there were 1,464.900

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Table 2. Preschool establishments1995 1999

Number 555 523Urban 406 387Rural 149 136Number of children ( thous) 78.0 51.6Of which girls 20.5 23.3Enrolment (%) 9.4 5.4Urban 33.4 19.9Rural 2.5 1.3Seats per 100 children 90 77

(SSA)

Table 1. Educational enrolment (%)¹ Educational enrolment. 1995 1996 1997 1998 19991 Primary education

(age group 7-11)71.02 72.44 77.24 75.38 78.94

2 Basic education (age group 7-15 ) 86.51 85.42 87.50 89.09 79.443 Secondary education

(age group 15-18)38.67 41.72 34.08 30.92 39.04

4 Secondary professional education (15-18 ) 8.78 6.57 6.18 5.40 4.27 (SSA)

students in secondary schools, of which1,400 pupils were in schools for thedisabled.

Primary education is the main focus ofeducation in RT. There is a generalawareness of the benefits of primaryeducation in the population. Childrenusually start primary school at the age of7, although sometimes the school

administration accepts children from age6 in response to the wishes of parents. Aseconomic conditions improve, education infuture will start from age 6 and the periodof education will extend to 12 years.Primary education enrolment is a priorityfor the Government of RT.

A joint effort by various actors in RT hasachieved a basic enrolment level of 1.4million pupils. The implementation ofprograms in education funded by the WB,the IDB the ADB has allowed more than100 thousand children to go to school. TheWorld Bank education sector project isrehabilitating 20 pilot schools. The sameproject is organising the publication ofmodern textbooks, working with parents,students and communities to make surethat materials are relevant.

For the first time in the Republic, talentedchildren are receiving special attention.There are now special secondary schools,

such as lyceums and gymnasiums thatwork with talented and gifted children .These schools also provide specialized studyof various subjects in humanity, arts,science, language and technical subjects.According to data from the SSA, there are8 private schools in Tajikistan in which 828pupils study.

Many challenges remain. The number oforphans has grown as a result of theconflict and poor economic situation.According to UNICEF data, in 1995 therewere 60,000 orphans in Tajikistan. In thelast two years more than 10 boardingschools for such children have been opened,but it is impossible to help all of them and

educate them from the state budget. Forexample, in just 24 regions of KHO thereare 30,7 thousand orphans. To meet theneeds of these children, there would needto be 150 educational establishments with200 children in each. Such a situation ishard to envisage in the current economiccircumstances. One of the alternative isthat families and individuals take care ofthem.

The problem of street children is a real one.A pressing question is how to manage theschool enrolment of refugee children whohave been repatriated. In 1997-1998 inKHO alone, there were about 4,190 schoolchildren from repatriated refugees families.

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In 1999, a World Bank project commencedwith the aim of printing of 18 textbooks.

Gender equality is a particular area ofconcern. The economic and socialhardships of transition have negativelyimpacted on women. In the RT, genderequality is enshrined in law but in realitymen and women may experience verydifferent outcomes. There is a markeddecline in school attendance amongst girlsafter form 9 This is more of a problem inrural than in urban areas.

Traditional constraints are part of the storyof gender inequality. The President hasissued a Decree “On Advancement ofWomen in Tajikistan” in 1999, that aimsto increase the role of women in thesociety. A number of activities are plannedto ensure the implementation of this Decreeand a national program to improve thestatus of women in all spheres of life is beingdeveloped. Ouotas for rural girls are

Table 4. Number of gymnasiums, lyceums andstudents in them.

19951996

19992000

Number of gymnasiums: 1 24Number of students inthem

300 11,016

Number of lyceums 5 49Number of students 1,694 12,167

(SSA)

Tajikistan is a multi-ethnic state. TheGovernment respects the principle ofconserving the national and linguisticcustoms of minorities and education isprovided in Tajik, Uzbek, Russian, Kyrgyzand Turkmen languages. Out of 3,591secondary schools in the RT, instructionin the Tajik language is carried out in 2,318schools, in Uzbek in 1,081 schools, inRussian and bi-languages in 144 schools,in Kyrgyz in 41 schools and in Turkmen in7 schools.

After independence, the Ministry ofeducation reviewed a number of textbooksand manuals for secondary schools. 50books were sent for reprinting, which isslowly being carried out due to the lack ofpaper. The lack of textbooks has impactedon the quality of education. Internationalorganisations have rendered assistance. In1998 ,UNICEF supported a project topublish 11 textbooks for primary classes.

Table 3. Main indicators of educational development in RTNumber of schools 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Secondary schools, of which 3,450 3,470 3,524 3,560 3,591Full time: 3,406 3,432 3,484 3,522 3,551Part time: (shifts) 44 38 40 38 40Students thousand 1,322.8 1,340.9 1,388.9 1,451.3 1,479.3Full time 1,310.1 1,327.3 1,374.0 1,436.6 1,464.9Part time: 12.7 13.6 14.9 14.5 14.4New seats in secondary schools 3,151 1,637 4,141 3,231 3,285

(SSA)

THE AGA KHAN HUMANITIES PROJECT

The Aga Khan Humanities Project (AKHP) is a regionaleducation project based in Dushanbe and serving Tajikistan,Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Its fundamental aim is toencourage tolerance, respect for diversity, rational discussion,aesthetic appreciation, problem-solving, and ethical reflection,by drawing upon the cultures of the region. The AKHP seesthese skills as vital for the development of national consciousnessthat is pluralistic, using a pedagogy that gets students to thinkfor themselves by drawing upon the best of the past. The projectfocuses on the foundations for good citizenship. All the materialfocuses on a thematic understanding of the human being. Thethemes are:• The Human Being as the Object of Cognition, Human

Diversity and Human Ideals;• The Responsibility of the Individual to Community, Society

and Environment;• Art and the Human Condition;• Culture, Tradition and Innovation;• Formal and Informal Traditions in Culture;• The Rise and Decline of Civilisation.The AKHP works by encouraging Central Asians to developcurriculum material and by training teachers in innovativepedagogies, and then piloting the curriculum in nine universities,including five in Tajikistan. A crucial aspect of implementationis the collaboration with the Ministry of Education and thestrong commitment of the Rectors of the universities.This year, in collaboration with the Ministry of Education, theproject selected eight teachers from the pre-school to the highschool level to develop a plan for expansion to the school systemsof Central Asia.Dr. Rafique Keshavjee, Director, Aga Khan HumanitiesProgramme

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effective for university enrolment. TheCommittee for Women and Family has setup courses to train women to become futureleaders. UNDP, through the Women inDevelopment Bureau, supports a numberof Learning Centres to train women-leaders.

4.4 Training of personnel for educationThe training of personnel in the educationsector will have a multiplier effect andenhance the potential for development. Thetype of education that RT requires haschanged, and it is necessary to updateteachers' qualifications, and introduce moreinteractive methods of training andeducation. To meet these needs the Ministryof Education in 1999 has changed the contentof education syllabuses, new colleges wereestablsihed and a new cycle of retraining ofsecondary school teachers started.

Today the teachers are trained in fivepedagogical universities, in the Institute ofLanguages, in the Tajik State NationalUniversity, in three pedagogical collegesand eleven pedagogical special schools.

The total number of teachers has increasedas a result of setting up a one-yearpedagogical course for the secondaryschools graduates and those who had noprevious pedagogical education, as well asretired teachers, and university graduates.At the same time the low salaries ineducation sector remains a very seriousissue.

4.5 Secondary special professional trainingSecondary special professional traininggives students after ninth grade theopportunity to acquire a profession andenter the university. The spectrum ofsecondary, special and educational schoolsconsists of colleges, technical schools,vocational schools, and colleges of varioustypes.

Currently, the number of experts withsecondary special professional educationis not high, at10 per 10,000 population. Thelack of such experts is most obvious in smalland medium businesses, services andtechnology related businesses. In view ofthis shortage of experts, the majority oftechnical schools and colleges haveswitched to new plans and curricula.Testing has been widely implemented.Training for a first professionalqualification is free, and for the second, andbeyond should be paid for from extrabudgetary sources.

A system for retraining is now in place.Retraining provides access toqualifications and professions, which canimprove a job seeker's prospects in themarket economy.

Vocational schools aim to help childrenfrom poor families to obtain basicprofessions. Vocational schools are basedon the curriculum of the secondary school,but there some groups, which provide onlyvocational training. Vocational schools arefinanced from the public budget. Thevocational school students are providedwith free meals, it is a big support for poorfamilies.

The national crafts training centres(carving, wall painting, pottery,embroidery). Vocational schools facefinancial difficulties, as the state budgethave no required resources to invest intomodernistion of the training computerexperts, radiotechnicians and other

Table 5. The number of teachers in secondary school by level of education in 1999Total,thousand

Higher Incompletehigher

Secondary andprofessional

% women

96,8 61 4,5 30,5 43,9(SSA)

5348 50 47 44

5.6 4.3 5.5 4.1 3.8

2819 15

21

12.6 1 0.84 1.1 0.050

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Order Issues ( mln) Published Copies ( mln)

(SSA)

Chart 1. Publication of textbook and manuals

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Table 7. Secondary professional educational establishmentsNumber 1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000Secondary professionaleducational establishments

44 47 44 42 42

Students in them, thous and 26.8 23.5 19.9 19.4 23.2Of which women, thousand 12.6 11.7 9.6 9.6 11.6% of total 47 50 48 48 50

(SSA)

Table 8. Vocational schoolsNumber 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999Vocational schools 74 74 72 72 72Students 3,057 2,758 2,598 2,468 2,382

(SSA)

of integrating it into the world educationsystem. The legal basis for reforminghigher education was created through thefollowing laws: the Law on "Education",on "Regulations for Higher EducationalEstablishment", on "State Standard ofHigher Education, "Requirements for theContent and Level of Graduate Training","Branches and Specialties of HigherEducation" and others.

The higher education standards stipulate:• A multilevel system of training of

specialties, which is flexible enough toadjust to the demands of the market andother changes;

• Integration of specialised secondaryschools should be integrated withuniversities, to improve the quality ofeducation;

• Academic mobility, and training ofspecialists on various levels accordingto the individual abilities andcharacteristics of students;

• The possibilities exist to continuetraining and university education inother universities abroad and in the CIS.This is important for RT, where trainingis focussed on a few specialties.

In the modern world the potential to spreadinformation is one indicator of the degreeof economic development of society.

Table 6. Breakdown of secondary students by grades (without handicapped), thousandsGrades 1995-1996 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female1 88.7 85.2 93.8 87.0 92.7 85.3 89.6 81.42 95.1 83.9 86.3 85.0 93.6 85.3 92.5 84.63 67.3 62.3 86.7 81.0 87.9 81.3 92.7 84.54 67.1 62.7 87.4 79.6 85.1 79.0 88.8 77.75 75.4 72.3 64.2 58.3 85.2 77.5 83.6 77.76 71.9 71.0 64.9 58.9 63.1 55.7 83.8 77.27 29.2 29.5 74.0 65.9 62.5 56.2 61.1 74.88 65.3 59.7 69.7 63.0 71.0 62.7 62.0 53.59 56.8 54.8 29.8 25.0 66.6 58,4 67,9 58.110 33.2 24.4 36.6 23.6 19.0 11,9 40,1 28.8

11(12) 31.5 21.4 31.6 19.7 33.2 21.1 17.7 10.4Total 681.5 627.2 725.0 647.0 760.0 674.5 679.9 683.5 (SSA)

technical specialists that the country needs.

Vocational schools also function on a fee-paying basis, but the number of studentswho are able to pay is low. The number ofstudents, enrolled on contractual basis, hasdropped from 858 in 1995 to 513 in 1999.In general, paid education is stillunderdeveloped. Employment andvocational centres should improve theirefficiency.

4.6 Higher educationHigher education is highly valued in theRT. The speed of change is so fast thataccess to new knowledge and skills isrequired on an on-going basis. The demandfor higher education is growing. The natureof demand for education differs from thatof 5-10 years ago. Today demand iscentered on developing professional skills,and on preparing people to be responsiblecitizens.

In recent years there has been a concertedeffort to reform the higher educationsystem in line with changes in political,economic and social life and with the aim

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Information technology has enhanced thespread of information worldwide.However, many teachers and scholars inRT currently feel an information vacuumin their activities. To overcome thissituation, the Association for theDevelopment of Science and Educationwas set up in 1999. This public organisationaims to disseminate information touniversities and to the regions. Eightuniversities are members of thisAssociation. they are StateN a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y ,P e d a g o g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y ,TechnicalUniversity, AgrarianUniversity,MedicalUniversity, Tajik-RussianSlavonic University,T e c h n o l o g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y , a n dCommercialUniversity. In December 1999,the Academy of Sciences became anhonorary member of this association. Thenational company "Telecom Technology"supports the Association by donatingInternet time to these universities and tothe Academy. The programme "Life,Technology, Science and ComputersNetwork" supported a project to create anacademic university computer network inTajikistan. This will permit many studentsand teachers to gain experience of theInternet, and may lead to the introductionof new technologies.

Higher education faces many problems,the main one is inadequate financing. Thishas caused a brain drain, and underminedefforts to improve teachers' qualifications.The current national economy producesfew job opportunities for graduates.

Best experienceThe Tajik Technical University currentlyoffers specialist training at various levelsdepending on individual ability and othercharacteristics of students, from juniorspecialist and bachelor to specialist withdiploma and masters. To provide thismultilevel education, a number ofsecondary special schools (colleges) wereincorporated into the structure of theUniversity. Basic university training takestwo years. Colleges follow the samecurricula as universities, and the graduatesof colleges may continue their educationin the University from year 3. This systemprovides the opportunity for collegestudents who have completed two yearsto go on to the University. With this aimin mind the University introduced a ratingsystem to assess the academic performanceof students as a way of screening accessto further training. There is a departmentfor pre-university training in theUniversity, a lyceum, and preparatoryclasses. Postgraduate courses include a

Table 9. Higher educational establishments1995-1996 1996-1997 1997-1998 1998-1999 1999-2000

Number 24 25 25 24 29Students thousands 74.0 76.0 76.7 75.5 79.2Full time 53.4 52.4 51.2 49.9 50.6Women thousands 19.9 19.6 20.0 19.4 19.9Extramural 20.6 23.6 25.5 25.6 28.6

(SSA)

Table 10. Breakdown of the number of students, thousand , by specialities in 1999-2000Specialities Enrolment. Graduated Total number of students, of

which womenTotal 17,079 13,102 78,790 19,892Natural and scientific 2,357 1,762 9,779 5,947Humanities and social 5,998 3,269 26,661 8,370Education 1,093 1,176 5,811 1,444Health 781 1,103 4,377 1,633Culture and art 365 189 1,158 210Economics and management 4,257 3,509 20,043 4,545Natural and technical 152 86 615 133Radio-technique andcommunication

31 9 200 18

Informatisation 221 26 578 120Agriculture and fishery 676 819 3,906 117Ecology and use of nature 26 57 9Other 1,148 1,128 5,605 2,654

(SSA)

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doctorate course, graduate courses, andadvanced courses for teachers andspecialists. Separate universitydepartments and institutes are also plannedsuch as the Institutes of Energy,Communication, Technology, Metallurgyand Transport. An agreement has beenmade on cooperation between theAcademic Institution and the TajikTechnical University. In 1999, a system ofacademic chairs was set up in the Instituteof Chemistry. There is also an agreementto set up a chair of seismology. Otheruniversities in Tajikistan are now engagingin similar activities.

Recommendations• Improve the efficient use of available

resources to provide equal access by allgroups to education;

• Ensure basic education as a priority;primary schools should be providedwith textbooks free of charge;

• Continue activities on the rehabilitationof the infrastructure;

• Promote further public awareness ofthe role of education for povertyreduction;

• Introduce modern technology tointegrate the national education systeminto the global system;

• The Ministry of Education should takemeasures to improve the quality oftraining, and increase teachers salaries;

• In pre-school education, the mainattention should be given to the physicaland moral training of children;

• In secondary schools the main principleshould be "Education for all". Thenetwork of the alternative educationshould be expanded;

• In the system of special and vocationaleducation the curricula should bereoriented to reflect the demands of themarket;

• It is important to promote quotas for thegirls from rural areas in tertiaryeducation;

• The Government and NGOs should payparticular attention to encouragingschool attendance by children frompoor families and should provide themwith free textbooks and tuition.

A distance learning programme was set upin the Technical University as a result of acooperation agreement between MoscowInstitute of Economics and Statistics andthe Tajik Technical University in 1999. Asa result citizens of Tajikistan can participatein new programmes without leaving thecountry and get the certificates anddiplomas of Moscow Institute of Economicsand Statistics. Negotiations are underwaywith Moscow Energy University andMoscow Construction University. This isvery important for the RT, as it createsthe possibility to access educationprogrammes in specialties from outside thecountry. Distance learning helps alsohandicapped people to get education.

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5. Culture and Sport

Tajikistan is a country with an ancientculture and age-old values and traditions.Culture has played an important role in theachievement of peace and social cohesionwithin Tajikistan. The country's traditionsand values have brought people togetherand formed the foundations for sustainablepeace. Tajik culture is unique and shouldbe preserved for future generations.

5.1 The 1100th anniversary of SamanidsThe brightest cultural events in Tajikistanduring 1999 were the 1100th anniversaryof Samanids and the 8th anniversary ofIndependence. The Samanid Empire (874-1005 AD) marked the formation of theTajik nation, with a common language,territory and culture. This first Tajik stategave birth to civilization and statehood forfollowing generations of Tajiks; and now,on the dawn of the third millennium,Tajikistan is recognised and known all overthe world as an independent nation.

As part of the celebrations, there was aprogramme of international conferencesand symposiums. Perhaps the mostsymbolic of these was the 4th“International Forum of Tajiks andCompatriots Living Outside Tajikistan”,which was held in Dushanbe and sawTajiks returning “home” from all cornersof the globe. Various other conferenceswere held in Dushanbe and all regions ofTajikistan, Saint Petersburg, and Iran.They were devoted to the main theme“History, Civilization and Culture ofSamanids”.

In the National History Museum newexhibitions displayed the tools, musicalinstruments, coins, and clothes of theSamanids. New exhibitions were alsodevoted to the Independence Day. A largebook exhibition was organised with adisplay of more than 1,500 books to markthe 1100th anniversary of Samanids. Over700 people visited the exhibition. The

Ministry of Culture organised acompetitionbetween the nation's libraries- "Charogi Hidoyat"(Enlightment). Firstplace was won by the public library inKhujand. The Ministry of Culture alsoorganised more than 10 festivals, 8international and national conferences, andpublished 189 books. All of these activitieshelped to foster national pride, strengthenconfidence and social cohesion. 62 regionsof the Republic took part in the "Andoleb"(nightingale) festival of folk art. It isestimated that the total audience numbered1.5 million. 14 theatres and 240 actors

participated in the theatre festival"Parastu-99"(swallow) and the events werewatched by 10,000 people.

5.2 CultureTheatreTheatre plays an important role within thecultural life of Tajikistan. In 1999 it isestimated that 524,000 people visited thetheatre; that is nearly one in ten of thepopulation. There are 15 theatres in thecountry, of which 10 are devoted to drama,4 to children's drama and there is the OperaHouse located in the nation's capital. To

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underline the important place of theatrein the life of the country and its role in thepeace process in December 10, 1999Majlisi Oli adopted a resolution to declarethe 7th of November as a Day of TajikTheatre.

With the return of peace in the country,Tajik theatre is undergoing a renaissanceand 1999 saw several significantachievements. The chorus of the TajikNational Opera House took part in theinternational festival of academic chorusesin Ankara and was placed second in a fieldof 39 countries. The Tajik Drama Theatrestaged 4 plays, one of which - "Call of love"- received the first price in the festival"Parastu-99". The Mayakovsky RussianDrama Theatre staged 4 plays on children'sissues. The Puppets Theatre in Dushanbevisited Italy with the performance"Reflections on war and peace". Theyouthe theatre "Ahorun" prepared twoplays on historical and philosophical

themes to mark the anniversary day.

The creative work of actors and poets isencouraged by the people and by theGovernment. In 1999, the honorary title"National Actor of Tajikistan" wasconferred upon three actors andcomposers. Two national actors ofTajikistan were awarded the "Star ofPresident". The honorary title of "NationalPoet of Tajikistan" was awarded to threepoets.

Music and DanceMusic and dance also play a central rolewithin Tajik culture. Scholars fromTajikistan, Russia, and France disccussed

the issues of professional musical educationand musical heritage of the Tajik nation atan international festival. Dushanbe hostedthe 4th annual festival of Music and Booksfor Children and Teenagers, organised by"Peace Fund for Children" programme topromote human values. There was alsointernational success when the children'sdance group "Jahonoro" (beauty of world)won the first place at the internationalfestival "World Children and Art” inTurkey. 36 countries participated in thisfestival.

Museums and LibrariesThere are 27 museums in Tajikistan, ofwhich 21 are devoted to the history of thecountry and 4 to the literature. Altogether312 thousand people visited museums,equivalent to an attendance rate of 51 per1,000 population.

The pearls of Tajik culture are the uniquemanuscripts of the famous scholars andwriters of the medieval period and 2,201manuscripts are preserved in theDepartment of Oriental Manuscripts in theState National Library. This Library is alsohome to approximately three millionbooks. During the year donations of newbooks were received from national authorsand international organizations andembassies. The first professional newspaper"Kniga" was issued.

Libraries continue to provide an importantsource of information for the populationof Tajikistan. According to the SSA data,there are currently 1,463 libraries with atotal number of 798,500 readers. The

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average number of books and journals perreader is 17. However, financialconstraints have meant that the stocks ofbooks are not updated regularly.Furthermore, with the shrinking publicbudget expenditures, the salary oflibrarians became very low, only 2,000TR. The prestige of the profession has beenbadly damaged and many staff have left.The rural libraries have been hardest hit.Premises are not heated and repaired.Many libraries in rural areas have shutdown.

Book publication is important for thedissemination of information, and thepreservation and documentation of thecultural heritage of the nation. In 1999, 189new books were published with a total issueof 0.4 million copies. 138 - in Tajik, 36 - inRussian, 7 - in Tajik and Russian, 8 - inother languages. 65 of the new books weredevoted to children, 40 - to politics andsocial aspects, 33 - to culture and education,24 - to nature and science, and 17 - tomedicine.

The President of the RT has allotted 450million TR from his foundation to supportthe publication of books. The payment forauthors, writers and poets is increasing.However, the books are printed on paperof low quality and print runs remain smallas few people can afford to buy new books.

5.3 SportsAt present 31 kinds of sports are practicedwithin the country, the most widespreadand popular of which are: football, Tae -Kwon-Do, boxing, sambo, dzu-do, chess,tennis, volley-ball, field athletics,gushtangiri, mountain climbing, mountain-

skiing, and canoeing. 27 RepublicanFederations have the status of independentorganisations. Several are members ofInternational Federations, most notablyfootball, field athletics, boxing, and Tae-Kwon-Do. In 1999 in Tajikistan 54“Masters of Sport”, 9 “Masters ofInternational Class” and 2 “HonoraryMasters of Sport” were trained inTajikistan. The sportsmen of Tajikistan woninternational recognition in several kindsof sports in 1999. Five of them won worldcups at the Sambo World Championship,Asia. Two representatives from Tajikistan,one of them a women, participated in theWorld Championships of Tae - Kwon - Do.

5.4 RecommendationsCulture lies at the heart of society's moral,spiritual and intellectual life. Thedevelopment of culture is one of the mainplanks of human development, as theaspiration to creativeness and inventiondevelops human potential andopportunities. The state strategy shouldsupport talented groups that are interestedin the development of traditional cultureand to create an enabling environment formulti-channel financing. Only by ensuringan enabling environment for creativenesscan the brain drain be stopped.Tthe strategy in the field of culture shouldconsider:• Promotion of cultural pluralism as a

factor of social cohesion;• Increase of financing of the cultural

foundations;• Expansion of income generation

opportunities;• Adoption of the law “On Libraries»;• Modernisation of the equipment for

libraries.

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6. Science

Science is an important factor for humandevelopment, and is aimed at theimprovement of quali ty of l i fe . Theachievements of science are for thebenefit of all human beings, and not forthe sake of the science itself. Today inTajikistan, academic, universi ty andministerial research activities are allworking together to find solution to thesocial and economic problems of thecountry.

6.1 Human resourcesThere are a total of 3,197 people withan academic degree in Tajikistan .Women constitute 17 percent of them.There are 48 research inst i tut ions,employing nearly five thousand people,including 810 postgraduates . A totalbudget is under 1 billion Tajik roubles.The largest research centre in the countryis the Academy of Sciences.

6.2 The Academy of SciencesThe Academy of Sciences of Tajikistanwas formed in 1951, and grew out of theTajik Research Station, which was firstestablished in 1933. The Academycurrently has 16 Institutes (Institutes ofMathematics, Astrophysics, Physicaland Technical Sciences, Chemistry,Geology, Seismology, Botanicals,Zoology, Gastroenterology, Plants andGenetics, History, Archaeology andEthnography, Philosophy and Law,Oriental and literary heritage, and thePamir Affiliation of Academy of Sciences,including Pamir Institute of Humanities and

Table 2. Number of post graduates withacademic degree, 1999

womenTotal 3,197 534Doctorates 504 45Ph.D. 2,693 489

(SSA)

Table 1. Total number of research institutionsRT 1999Total number 48Number of employed 4,945The volume of work ( mln TR) 948.8Total post graduates 810Of which women 230

(SSA)

Pamir Biological Institute), which aredivided into three departments: Physicsand Mathematics, Chemical andGeological and Social Sciences. TheAcademy also has three centres ,Khujand Research Centre and KhatlonResearch Centre and Centre forPopulation Studies. The Academy ofSciences is headed by the Presidium, andits main pr iorities are the stimulation ofyouth, the improvement of l ivingcondi t ions of scholars , and theacquisition of new IT equipment.

ResourcesA total of 1,721 people are employed inthe Academy; of whom 779 are Fellowsof the Academy, of which 17% are agedunder 30. For the first time since 1992the number employed has increasedcompared to the previous year and itappears that the brain drain of expertsaway from academia has slowed down.Another positive sign is the increase inthe number of young people attractedto the research insti tutes. This isimportant to ensure future generationsof scientists in Tajikistan.

The financial s i tuation has alsoimproved. The budget of the Academyof Sciences was increased by 30% in1999, but despite this increase it is stillinsufficient to meet the current level ofcommitments. In 1999 4.3 million TRwas allocated from the public budget forresearch work. Actual financing was92% of this amount . The fundingshortfal l was even higher for salarycosts, with just 59% being met. The

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average salary of scholars in 1999 was8,500 TR.

ResearchIn 1999 members of the Academy ofSciences were involved in research onover 100 different themes. Four majorprojects were completed. Six groupsreceived international grants forresearch. Contracts to a total value of2.6 million TR have been completed. TheAcademy of Sciences also conducted 25conferences and seminars , coveringtopics such as "Science in the epoch ofSamanids", "Samanids the Cul turalRevival of Tajiks", "HumanDevelopment in Tajikistan", "WaterResources in Taj ikis tan", and"Combating D esert i f icat ion". Theregional conference on "Mountainousregions, and SHD" was conducted inDushanbe.

A total of 778 scientific works werepublished, including 107 monographs,593 art icles in national journals, 83art icles in foreign journals , and 65manuals.

The Central Scientific Library in 1999served 15,931 readers. The total bookstock is just under 1.5 million. Newbooks and journals were received frominternational organisations. The OpenSociety Institute, supported by SorosFoundation gif ted 1,500 copies ofjournals in the English languagecovering a variety of disciplines. TheEmbassies of Germany, India and othercountries also provided support withmany journals. Exchanges with otherlibraries yielded 2,242 books.

Creativity and scientific achievementsIn 1999, scholars of the Academy ofSciences received 4 patents and 9approvals for patents. 13 designs wereimplemented into product ion, and 6findings were proposed to the variousbranches of industry. Some of the recentscientific achievements have been put touse for the benefi t of the nat ionaleconomy. As a whole there were 259applicat ions for patents for newinventions.

Scientif ic advances throughcollaborationThe Academy of Sciences has treatiesand agreements on co-operation withthe Ministry of Environment "On jointactions to solve environment problemsand rational use of natural resources".There are also agreements with otherministries and agencies. The Physicaland Technical Institute is co-operatingwith the Republican Centre on thedisposal of radioactive raw materialsand its deactivation. The Institute ofGastroenterology is working with theblood transfusion service to study theincidence of hepati t is viruses. TheInstitute of Plants collaborats with theMinistry of Agriculture in cultivatingcotton, wheat and potato seeds. ThePamir Biological Institute has preparedrecommendations on the complex use ofheat from the thermo-waters of Pamir.The Academy of Sciences gave 25,000trees and seeds to the Dushanbe CityAdministrat ion to improve theecological environment of the city. It hasalso given 8,182 trees and plants to theKhorog City Administration.

Scholars of the Academy of Sciencescooperate with a number of Taj ikUniversities. Scholars also collaboratewith many foreign intellectuals andinstitutions. In the CIS, the Academy ofSciences has extensive academic linksthrough international associations andinternational economic committees. In1999, 49 scholars from the Academy ofSciences participated in international

1999 saw the publication of the first and second volumes ofa six-volume monograph on "History of the Tajik Nation"by the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography.Other landmarks include the completion of research on thehistory of education in ancient and medieval periods inTajikistan.The Institute of Philosophy and Law completed researchin the history and theory of human studies. Studies werecarried out in the areas of national consolidation, socialdisparities, and education. The reasons for the declineof the prestige of education were studied. The problemsof religion within society were also examined. Finally, keyaspects of the implementation of laws and ways in whichto improve current legislation were identified.

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seminars. 32 scholars carried out jointresearch with foreign partners and 12people studied at various courses. Inaddi t ion, 23 foreign scholars f romGermany, USA, France, India, Canada,Iran visited the Academy of Sciences.10 prominent foreign scholars aremembers of the Academy of Sciences .

During a period of profound change, theAcademy of Sciences has been an activepart icipant in the building of ademocratic society. Through theexpansion of experience and knowledge,it has provided a forum for dialogue onthe future of society, facilitating peace,social cohesion, stimulating youth tocreativity, and promoting human values,such as peace, just ice, sustainabledevelopment.

6.3 Information technologyDevelopments in informationtechnology are opening up new horizonsand opportunities. However , at presentthe popular use of IT is largely confinedto developed nations. It is estimatedthat 96% of users of the Internet live inhighly developed countr ies . Thissituation highlights the need for promptintervent ion to overcome theinformation gap between rich and poorpeople. At the International Symposiumon IT and Development in Tokyo in July2000 i t was noted that developingcountr ies should use the newopportuni t ies afforded by theinformation revolution and the Internetto manage changes in all spheres of

society. IT can be used to st imulateeconomic growth and humandevelopment. For example, farmers canget access to the weather forecast forcrops, as well as information on theprices for their products. Similarly, ITcan help to increase the resources of thepoor by giving them information onvarious social services as well asemployment and income generat ingopportunities.

To decrease poverty UNDP has put thepromotion of IT on the agenda as apr ior i ty for fu ture . UNDP helpscountries to develop their informationinfrastructure and create a favourableenvironment to expand access tocommunicat ion . By overcoming theproblems of distance and time, IT allowspoor people to get access to informationabout education. Education in itself isthe key to the future development of IT.Thus, an increase in IT literacy amongstthe populat ion should be a priori ty.Here access to Internet is a cr i t icalfac tor , i t i s expensive and is notextended to rural areas. It is necessaryto provide a l l rura l a reas wi thtelephone communication. Currently,according to the results of the TLSS, it ises t imated that only 14% of rura lhouseholds have telephones. This willhave to be done in partnership with thepr iva te sec tor and the in terna t ionalcommunity.

In his speech at the Tokyo conference,the UNDP Administrator appealed todeveloped counties to help developingcountries to take advantage of the ITrevolution.

6.4 Recommendations:• Expand access to information

technologies and provide newequipment. At present poorcommunication facilities and high pricesimpede the flow of information andestablishment of international contacts;

• Re-establish contacts with othercountries for the exchange of thepublications, experience andinformation. Find resources for regularpublications of the academic journals;

Scientific achievements and the national economy

• A new treatment using red laser rays developed by the Physicaland Technical Institution has been implemented in the urbanhospital N1;

• New technology proposed by the Institute of Chemistry willhelp to save $50 thousand in the steel-moulding workshop inthe Aluminium plant. The technology uses quartz sand fromLO to produce synthetic steel. The technology may also beapplied to assist purification of water and to provide medicinefor animals;

• The Institute of Zoology discovered 27 parasites on vegetablesand melons in Penjikent, Khojand and Isfara regions, andhas successfully designed a means of treating and cleaningthe vegetables.

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• Find extra-budgetary resources andinternational grants for research;

• Stimulate and attract youth toacademic work;

• Work out a clear programme tointegrate science and education.

IT- priorities in Development

UNDP Tajikistan in partnership with UNESCO launched a project "Establishment ofthe Technological University of Tajikistan Computer Centre for Informatics SkillsDevelopment and Information Services" expanding access to Internet for population,particularly students.The long-term objectives of the project are:• Provide IT services, traininginformatics skills;• Increase of the role of informatics in competitiveness market;• Provide information to other sectors;• Provide access to global information to wide range of population.

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7. Promotion of Gender Equity

The main provision for SHD is thepromotion of gender equity. Womenconstitute 49.7% of the population andlabour force of the country. Theprovision of women with opportunitiesfor equal participation with men indevelopment demands the efforts notonly of a strong state, but also of theprivate sector and civil society. TheGovernment determines gender policy;and civil society can lobby for theinclusion of gender policy into new laws,or lobby to ensure that such laws are notgender blind. The private sector cansponsor these initiatives.

7.1 GovernmentThe role of women in modern Tajiksociety is influenced both by theinheritance of the Soviet period, with itsemphasis on gender parity within thepublic sphere, and the traditional valuesof the Tajik family. The collapse of thesocial protection system (free health careand education, family benefits, and awide network of kindergartens andnurseries), has increased the burden on

women and has reduced herparticipation in the decision makingprocess. With the cessation of themilitary confrontation in Tajikistan, theGovernment has paid more attention toincreasing the role of women in society.In September 1998, with the participationof NGOs, the "National Plan of Actionfor Advancement of Women for the years1998-2005" was adopted. In December1999, the President of the RT issued aDecree "On Advancement of Women",which provided official recognition of thesupport for a gender policy in Tajikistanto ensure equal rights and equalopportunities for all members of society.

The aim of the "National Plan of Action"is to improve the health of women,ensure equal access to education,increase women's awareness of economicand legal issues, to improve livingconditions for women, promote equalrights and opportunities in all spheres oflife, prevent gender-based violence,ensure ecologically sustainabledevelopment, and reduce the affect ofpollution on women's health. The mainprogrammes of work have beendeveloped. The Committee for Womenand Family at the Government of the RTis responsible for their implementation.

7.2 NGOsNGOs have played an important role inthe promotion of gender parity. Thegrowth in the number of gender relatedNGOs has been impressive; from just 3in 1995 to 71 in mid 2000, according tothe Ministry of Justice data. Women'sparticipation in civil society is not,however, l imited to gender-relatedNGOs; women are active across theentire sector.

In rural areas, many of the initiatives ofwomen's NGOs are directed towards

Women in Tajikistan

There are 3,045 thousand women in Tajikistan. Femalelife expectancy is 71.3 years. Women shouldered manydifficulties of the transition period. They are proud of theirrole of mothers, housekeepers. Women hold 13% of theseats in the new Parliament and constitute 49.3% of thelabour force, 44% of teachers, 37% of doctors, and 53%employed in the national economy. Girls make up 46% ofstudents in secondary schools and 25% of universitystudents, and 17% of scholars are women.

Article 17 of Constitution guarantees equal rights andliberties for everyone, irrespective of nationality, race,gender, religion, language, political orientation, social andproperty status. The Government recognises that the activeparticipation of women in all spheres of society - political,economic and social - is for the benefit of humandevelopment.

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economic activities aimed at sustaininglivelihoods. These include creatingsustainable jobs using micro-credit. Inurban areas, the focus is more on theexpansion of knowledge on humanrights, including women's rights andgender education. Activities includeproducing literature and informationalpress releases, newspapers, posters, theconduct of social surveys. Theseactivities are aimed at benefiting womenthroughout Tajikistan, in both rural andurban areas. These ventures havesucceeded in increasing the activity ofwomen in economic and social life. Butthe most important factor is that womenthemselves develop the projects andmanage their implementation.

The quality and style of NGO work haschanged over time. First they workedusing a top down approach of Donor-NGO to and with target group. NowNGOs consult with their target groups(very often NGO members are alsomembers of that group) to determinepriorities. NGOs now try to impact onthe policymaking process by bi-lateraldialogues, conferences, and round tablesto influence. Since 1998, women's NGOshave started to lobby their interests toincrease the number of women in themanagerial and governmental positions.NGOs highlighted the decline in politicalrepresentation of women since theabandonment of quotas. Their campaignwas picked up by the civil society, pressand facilitated the introduction of thenew legislation.

All civil organisations depend onfinancing. New taxation reforms shouldgive incentives to private commercialsector to encourage donations to thesocial needs of population. The privatesector revenues, donated for the socialprogrammes, should be tax exempted.This would make financial support to civilsociety more sustainable, and assist inrealisation of social programmes oneducation and poverty alleviation. Thesupport of the commercial sector isparticularly important for the expansionof NGOs in rural areas.

National Plan of Action for Advancement of Womenfor the years 1998-2005

In 1998, the Government of Tajikistan took positive stepsto realize the Program of Actions adopted by the 4thUN Conference on Women held in Beijing in 1995. OnSeptember 10 1998 the "National Plan of Action forAdvancement of women for the years 1998-2005" wasadopted. The National Plan includes the followingsections: healthcare, education and training, poverty andeconomics, women rights, violence against women,ecology.

Gender studies come to Tajikistan

UNDP promotes the concept of SHD,which is job creation, protection ofenvironment and gender parity. To findout the factors that impede gender parityin any particular country, it is importantto study the social and economic situationof women. The study of the genderrelations was new to Tajikistan and inorder to support work in this area UNDPlaunched the “Women in Development”project in 1995. Under the WIDprogramme, a major sociological surveywas conducted on the problem of genderbased violence and reproductive health.Studies have taken place on topics asvaried as women and leadership, socialvalues, and gender roles in literature, artand language. Research has been carriedout by scholars and NGOs, such as"Traditions and Modernity", "Open Asia",the Association of Business Women ofKhojand, "Odamiyat" (Humanity), and"Women of Science in Tajikistan". In 1999the first statistical volume devoted togender statistics was prepared andpublished. In 2000 the Centre for GenderStudies was set up within the Tajik StateNational University. To coincide with this,the first academic conference on GenderStudies in Tajikistan was held and acollection of articles was published.Courses on gender studies (such as genderand culture, gender statistics, genderplanning, gender and mass media) are alsostarting to be offered at higher educationalestablishments including Tajik StateNational University and the Russian-TajikSlavonic University.

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7.3 Women's participation in politicsAnalysis of the electoral campaign in2000 shows that the opportunity torealise ambition in political leadershipwas used almost exclusively by men.Women are active in the political life ofthe country, but seem to have foundgreater opportunities to find their voicewithin the NGO sector. In contrast topolitical parties, which confront eachother, NGOs can cooperate with severalpolitical parties at the same time and alsowith each other to achieve their commoninterests. Thus, during the electioncampaign, many women's NGOsorganised seminars and round tables forvoters and candidates, giving equalopportunities to all the parties to explaintheir election programme to voters. It isnot the desire to lead which driveswomen, but the wish to achieve theaccord of opposing views. The differentapproach to leadership of men andwomen is responsible for theirconcentration in the different spheres ofthe political and social life of the country.

The level of participation of women inthe Elections in 2000 was highercompared to the previous election.However, women made up only one inten of the candidates. In the 41 electoraldistricts for Majlisi Namoyandagon (theChamber of Representatives) 287 peoplewere nominated as candidates, of which10% were women. Four women wereelected, constituting 10% of successfulcandidates! Political parties nominated108 list candidates (for the seats to bedecided according to proportionalrepresentation), of which 15 werewomen. The People's Democratic Partywon 15 seats, of which 4 went to women.

In the new Majlisi Oli women hold 12seats or 13% of the total number of seats.In the former Majlisi Oli there were only5 women, or 3%. The Deputy Chairmanof the Majlisi Namoyandagon is awoman. Women head two of the sevencommittees in the MajlisiNamoyandagon.

Women’s representation has alsoincreased in local government; women

now account for 14.4% of the totalnumber of deputies compared to 8.9%after the 1995 elections. Following thePresident's Decree "On Advancment ofWomen in society", women wereappointed as Chairpersons in 10 of the64 local hukumats. This contrasts withthe previous posit ion where prior toDecember 1999 there were only twowomen Chairpersons. However, theposition of Deputy Chairperson is heldby a women in 70% of the localhukumats.

The empowerment of women in theexecutive branch will provide the impetusfor the acquisition of leadership skills. Infuture these women will form a pool ofpotential candidates for the nationalelections. With work experience asmanagers at a local level, later they willhave the management skills to ineconomic and social spheres. Politicalparties can contribute to gender equalityby creating gender balanced party listsfor the Majlisi Namoyandagon. NGOscan also provide experience in leadershipfor women. The project “Women's Schoolof Political Leadership”run by the NGO"Traditions and Modernity" serves as agood example of what can be achieved.The project, financed by IFES andUSAID, conducted training in leadershipin 6 towns, with the participation of 200women. Some of the participants werethen nominated as candidates for theparliamentary elections. The womenwere trained how to prepare programmeand activities for the electoral campaign,the mass media and voters.

7.4 The Economic participation of womenIn 1999, 69% of men and 44% of womenwere economically active, according to

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the WB data. Women are primarilyemployed in the agricultural sector, andin the public service areas of educationand health. As a consequence of dramaticdeclines in the real levels of publicexpenditure, spending on health andeducation have fallen significantly withthe consequence that wages in thesesectors are now very low. On average,women's income is 4 times lower than theincome of men, according to TLSS data.

The low representation of women-managers is a direct result of thetraditional gender roles within society.Women also lack entrepreneur skills.There are no official statistics on thenumber of women in business. Accordingto data from the Association of Smalland Medium Business, only 3% of 482private enterprises are headed bywomen. Women are more often engagedin “shuttle trade”.

The majority of women (52.4%) arehousewives. Thus, one of the mainproblems for many women is how tocombine paid work with family duties.In the soviet period, there was fully paidmaternity leave and many state-runenterprises had nurseries and child carefacilities. This gave women the chanceto combine maternity with economicactivity. However, since 1992 many ofthese facilities have closed down, leavingwomen to bear the burden of both familyand work. Furthermore in the marketeconomy, many private employers arereluctant to hire women, giving greaterconsideration to their reproductivefunctions than their professionalqualifications.

Reform of labour legislation is necessaryto give the right for childcare to anymember of the family, regardless ofgender. Such reforms in labour

legislation would weaken thediscrimination women in the labourmarket. Equal division of responsibilityfor children will promote not only genderparity, but will also expand the choiceof opportunities faced by women. Thelaw would also help to alter thestereotype of the limited responsibility ofmen.

To overcome the economic crisis it isnecessary to develop gender povertyreduction strategies, empower women,and give them opportunities forparticipation and sustainable livelihoods.The farming skills of women are oftenunderestimated. At present many womengrow agricultural products and sellhomemade products in the local markets.In order to support this type of activity,the Government should expand women'saccess to land and to credit necessary tobuy seed and other inputs.

7.5 ViolenceEnsuring equal access to assets will helpto alleviate tension in families with lowincome. According to a survey inGBAO, in 1999, 7% women confirmedthat relations within the family hadbecome tense because of the lack ofincome. The "Women Scientists inTajikistan" Association also found a link

ScienceCredit and insurance

State management

AgricultureIndustry

Total number of employed women

Health

EducationCulture and art

0 200 400 600

540.411.8

45291.2

5380.3

4.82

1.96.6

Trade

(SSA)

540.4

Chart 1. Number of women employed by sectorsin 1999 (thousand people)

Table 1. Market sellers by regionsNumber Total Dushanbe LO KHO GBAO RRSTraders per day 30,444 11,443 8,209 7,827 607 2,295Of which women% of women of total

14,91049

5,14945

4,59756

3,56946

51685

1,07947

Of which women over 55 1,174 360 138 511 46 119Girls under 16 1,228 412 322 356 41 97

(SSA)

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between economic stress and tensionwithin the family. In interviewing 1,600women on their perception of violence,67% of women reported that they hadsuffered from some type of violence.

To address this problem, one of the 6 keysections of the National Plan of Actionfor the Advancement of Women focuseson the need to prevent any type ofviolence. In February 2000 there was ameeting of 14 NGOs on violence issues,headed by the NGO "Open Asia". TheOpen Society Institute, supported bySOROS Foundation has also conductedtraining for lawyers and doctors on theseissues.

The NGO "Sitora" has recently carriedout a small research project on theincidence of domestic violence againstwomen. Interviews with 200 women inDushanbe revealed high levels ofunemployment, the growing feminizationof poverty, and generally low levels ofawareness amongst the population ofany gender policy. Four percent of the200 women were second wives and 37%indicated that their marriage wascoerced. 80% reported that theirhusbands regularly consumed alcoholand tobacco products and 3% reportedthat their husbands took drugs. 84% ofwomen said that they had notexperienced domestic violence, butthought it was widely practiced. Theresults of the survey were published in acollection of papers entitled Beijing+ 5in 2000.

7.6 Access to education The education of women is important forfuture generations. Education enhanceshuman capital, and decreases poverty.There is growing evidence that childrenfrom poor families do not attend school,and they have no money, clothes, shoes,and textbooks. Many such children haveto earn money and help their parents.The quality of education has alsodeclined; 4,000 qualified teachers haveleft the country, the classes are notheated, children are hungry, and theclasses are overcrowded. About 11% ofteachers do not have any special

pedagogical education.

Within secondary education there is nowa growing differential in attendancebetween boys and girls. It is necessaryto take urgent action to ensure the equalaccess to education to all, irrespective ofgender and social status. Now there arejust 63 girls per 100 boys in secondaryschools; in 1990, there were 104 girls per100 boys. One way to do this is to ensurethat poorer families are relieved fromany payments associated with schooling.In 1994, NGO "Save the Children/US"provided school meals for about 170thousand children from classes 1 - 4 in635 schools. As a result of theprogramme it is estimated that schoolattendance increased by 20 - 22%. In1999, NGO "CARE - International"began to provide rural schoolchildrenwith hot meals and textbooks.

The gender gap in access to education iseven wider within higher education. In1990-91, girls made up 36.6% studentswithin tertiary education. By 1999-2000,this share had fallen to just 25.1%. Therepresentation of girls within differentacademic disciplines is also very unequal.For example, amongst those studyingindustry, there is just one girl for every5 boys.

One of the reasons for the decline in theproportion of girls in higher education isthe decline of the average age at marriagefrom 24.3 in 1990 to 20.8 in 1998. Manyparents hope to find financial security fortheir daughters this way. The otherreason is the lack of safe dormitories forrural students to live in towns. The WIDBureau, financed by UNDP, hasestablished a Learning Centre inDushanbe for Girl Students. Theenrolment of girls to universities iscurrently subject to Presidential quotas.However, in many regions these quotasare not filled.

The level of education of women and girlswill contribute to the further expansionof women rights and strengthening thepotential of future generations. Childrenof more educated mothers are likely to

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survive longer and achieve higher levelsof education themselves. Expansion ofaccess to education will enhance socialmobility and be an engine for economicgrowth and human development.

7.7 Gender roles in the family

Between 1991 and 1998 the annualnumber of registered marriages fell byalmost three-quarters; in 1998 there werejust 21 thousand marriages. In realitythere are 3 times as many marriagescontracted as shown by the officialfigures. More and more women arebecoming second, or even third, wives inorder to provide themselves and theirchildren with the minimum for survival.As a result they are deprived of any legalrights over joint assets, rights forinheritance, and their share at thedivision of assets in case of divorce ordeath of the husband. Mesaures need tobe taken to protect women and theirchildren in such circumstances

It is also important to take measures toease the burden of unpaid labour ofwomen at home. It is estimated thatwomen spend between 4 and 5 hours perday on household tasks, compared withtheir husbands, who spend 1.5 - 2 hoursa day, according to SSA. The significantdeterioration of amenities, (such asfrequent disruption of gas and electricitysupplies, lack of heating), have increasedthe workload on women within thehousehold. This load is also increased bytaking care of sick and dependentmembers of household as in many casesthe household cannot afford the servicesof hospitals and preschoolestablishments.

There is often a gender imbalance inaccess to household finance. It is commonfor men to make the decisions on how tospend the household budget. Whenpurchasing consumer durables,

preference is often given to audio andvideo equipment, which are for leisuretime and entertainment and are mostlyused by men. In the last 7 years, onlyfive percent of families have purchaseda washing machine and/or vacuumcleaner, which easen housekeeping workand which are mainly used by women.Women have less free time than men.Only 8% of urban women and 2% ofrural women reported that that they canspend leisure time outside the family.Nowadays, people rarely visit each otheras guests, and they are not fully realisingthe national tradition of hospitality.

Changes in the composition of thefamiliesTraditionally the Tajik family had manychildren. Recent changes in births,marriage and divorce have given rise tochanges in the composition of the typicalfamily. In 1998 alone, registered deathsand births dropped by 17%. This was inpart due to the introduction of fees forregistration, but there is no doubt thatfertility is declining. The total fertilityrate has fallen from 5.1 in 1989 to 3.7 in1998. On the one hand, this decline is theresult of the reproductive health centresactivities, and on the other hand, it showsthat in an agrarian country, wherechildrenare highly valued, the population is undereconomic duress.

7.8 Reproductive healthThe last decade has seen improvementsin several indicators of reproductivehealth. There has been a decline in thenumber of abortions in the result of theuse of modern contraceptives. Theproportion of women of reproductive ageusing contraceptives has increased fromjust 3.1% in 1990 to 30% in 1999. Thenumber of abortions in 1999 was 21,200,or 14.2 per 1,000 fertile women. Theinfant mortality rate, although declining,is still high and in 1998 was 23.4 per 1,000

There is some evidence that women manage and control their reproductive functionsand adjust them to the economic conditions in the family. Two in five women ofreproductive age reported that economic factors had impacted upon the number ofchildren in the family. 43% of rural women and 37% of urban women reported thatthey had reduced their fertility as a result of economic hardship. (SSA)

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On 2 December 1999 the President of the RT signed the National Programme for 2000-2003 on "Reproductive Health and Reproductive Rights". This programme will• improve the social policy in health care;• enhance realisation of reproductive rights and family planning.

livebirths. The maternal mortality rate isalso high, at 87.8 per 100 thousandlivebirths. According to SSA, among themain causes of maternal mortality,haemorrhages account for 38% of deaths,toxic -27%, sepsis - 11%, and abortions -8%. The high MMR reflects thedeterioration of the health of women, andthe low quality and access to ante-natalservices. The proportion of womenseeking pre-natal care has declined.According to data from the TLSS, 37%of women who were currently pregnantreported that they had had noconsultations in relation to their currentpregnancy. This is a marked departurefrom the past when pre-natal care wasuniversal and pregnant women receivedup to 15 consultations. The decline is, inpart, accounted by the decline in thequality of pre-delivery services, and thedeterioration in the infrastructure ofmaternal establishments. However, manywomen are also deterred from seekinghealth care due to the costs imposed byunofficial fees. The number of births athome has increased. A third of womensurveyed in the TLSS had given birth athome, which has implications for thelong-term health of children as firstimmunisations are given in the hospital.

Recommendation:• Promote greater representation of

women within management;• Develop leadership qualities amongst

women;• Improve the mechanisms that

promote equal access by men andwomen to land and other productiveassets;

• Carry out co-ordinated activitiesaimed at improving reproductivehealth in health and education sectors;

• Promote gender parity in education;• Strengthen offcial social protection of

women;• Enhance the legal education of

women in Tajikistan, social role andactive participation of women inmanagement through NGOs;

• Protect the economic, social, politicaland rights of women through NGOsand government organisations

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8. Governance and Local Power

8.1 The aims and tasks of the governancereformsOne of the main aims of the economic reformsis the reform of the systems of governanceand management, adjusting them to therequirements of the market economy. At thesessions of the Government of RT it waspointed out several times that existingsystem of management is outdated andoverstaffed. Ministerial and agency functionsare often duplicated and there is weak co-ordination between them - all of which serveto impede entrepreneurial initiative andhinder economic growth. The priorityactionsfor the improvement of the governingstructures are:• Transit to a modern style of management;• Simplify the management system by

intergrating or closing the duplicatingstructures;

• Increase responsibility and accountabilityof the top managers. This can be achievedby competitive recruitment for managerswithin the sector;

• Reject the command style ofmanagement. Decentralise managementof economic entities;

• Delegate essential economic tasks to theprivate sector;

• Increase payments to public employeesthrough the improv ed system ofgovernance.

On 21 June 1999, the WB extended a secondcredit to the Government of the RT forInstitutional Building and TechnicalAssistance. This project will be realised inthree components, including theimprovement of governance in the contextof the development of the market economy.

In February 1999, by the order of thePresident the working team was organisedto reform state management andgovernance. Within the first component, thecentral and local executive, legislative andjudicial branches will be reviewed with theaim to:

a) reform governance and managementstructures;

b) develop Government services formotivation and labour payment;

c) strengthen governance andmanagement structures.

The project is designed for four years andwill be carried out in a number of phases.

8.2 Local governanceThe division of responsibilities betweencentral Government and the regions in RT isset out in the Constitution of RT and in thelaws "On Local Governance" and "Self-Governing bodies in Rural Areas ". Localadministratration is responsible for the socialand economic development of the region,realisation of the Constitution, laws, andacts of Majlisi Oli and the President.

Two new laws aim to separate localrepresentative and executive power. Thesenew laws are "On Elections to Majlisi Oli ofthe RT” and "On Elections to Local Majlisi".At the level of the autonomous oblast,oblasts, towns and regions, the representativebody is the local Majlisis. The executingbody is hukumat. Both representative andexecuting functions are vested in the sameChairperson. The new laws “On Electionsto Majlisi Oli” and “On Elections to LocalMajlisi”, multi-party elections andeconomic growth envisage the division ofrepresentative and executive power anddecentralisation of local governance.

8.2.1 Representation of power at the locallevelLocal representative power is vested in theMajlis (council) of local deputies, which areelected at a local level by local residents. Thedeputy's role is to understand what localpeople want from the state and to representthese objectives to the state. Local deputiesapprove the local budget and monitor itsperformance, they set out regional social andeconomic development objectives, set localtaxes and payments and decide how to

5 6

manage common property. Local deputiesalso approve the appointment of thechairperson and the chairperson's deputiesand receive reports on their activity. TheMajlis of local deputies works in sessions,through commissions, and through theregular work of deputies. The local Majliscan instigate proceedings to impeach thechairperson. These proceedings consist of asecret ballot where a two-thirds majority isrequired for the Majlis to be able to requestthe resignation of the chair. The President ofthe the RT must endorse this decision andwould usually do so within a month of thedecision of the majlis. The main function ofthe chairperson is to convene and preparesessions, submit for approval the main plansfor economic and social development of theterritory.

Local Majlis are independent of centralgovernment. The majlisi may delegate theirfunctions to the lower majlis or carry out theirfunctions themselves. The local Majlis canenter agreements with managers in otherregions in order to manage a joint activity thathas a common goal or manage joint ventures,and coordinate activities in various sectors.

The local Majlis and chairperson of GBAO,oblasts, towns and regions ensure self-governing rights on their territories. Thereare 77 local Majlises.

8.2.2 Executive power at the local levelExecutive power in various locations is vestedin the chairperson of the Hukumat. ThePresident of the RT has the power to appointand dismiss the chairperson of GBAO,oblasts, Dushanbe, regions and towns. Thecandidacy of a nominated chairperson mustbe approved at the majlisi of people's deputies.

Hukumats consist of boards, committees anddepartments, and they function according toGovernment resolutions.

The formation of administrative units and thedefinition of their responsibilities fall withinthe jurisdiction of the Majlisi Oli. There arethree levels of local authority and self-governing bodies within the territorial andadministrative structure:• Hukumats of GBAO, KHO, LO,

Dushanbe, which are subordinate to theGovernment;

• Hukumats of the towns, oblats regions,districts in Dushanbe, and 13 RRS;

• Jamoats (rural communities) of townand villages in rural area.

8.2.3 The status of GBAOThe legal status of GBAO is defined by theconstituional law of RT "On GBAO" andalso through other laws. According to article7 of the Constitution of RT, GBAO is anintegral part of the RT and the local Majlishas the power to legislate. The Majlisi Millifrom GBAO has a permanent representativeamong the Deputies of the Chairperson ofMajlisi Milli, and one of the judges in theConstitutional Court.

Tajik is the official language. The statecreates an enabling environment for thepromotion of other languages as well.Shugnan, Rushan, Vahan, Yazgulam,Russian and Kyrgyz languages are also usedas the languages of instruction in secondaryschools and are promoted through the massmedia in GBAO.

8.2.4 Status of the capitalDushanbe is the only city with a districtdivision. As a result, the majlis of peoples'deputies and the hukumat of Dushanbe areaccorded the status of oblast according tothe law of RT "On Local Governance" .Dushanbe's role in Tajikistan is defined in thelaw of RT "On status of the capital of RT".This law defines the organisational, legal,economic and social conditions that shouldexist in Dushanbe .

The costs of Dushanbe performing thefunctions of the capital are covered by thecentral government budget. The requiredfunds are covered from payments forservices rendered by the city and paymentsof diplomatic representations in Tajikistan.

8.3 Local self-governanceJamaots are rural self-governing bodies. Thenew principles of local government are statedin the law "On Self-Governing Bodies inRural Area". Local governance is defined as"the organisation of the activities of thepopulation to solve local issues independentlyand in a way that carries responsibility".Local government bodies make decisionsdirectly or through their representatives.

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Table 1. Administrative-territorial division of RTTotal

populationOf

whichrural

territory Regions Towns Districtsin the city

Smalltowns in

rural

Ruraljamoats

RT 6,127 4,504 143,1 58 22 4 47 354GBAO 206 178 63,7 7 1 - - 42LO 1,870 1,373 26,1 14 10 - 20 93KHO 2,151 1,781 24,6 24 6 - 18 128Dushanbe 562 - 0 - 1 4 - -RRS 1,338 166 28,4 13 4 - 9 21

( SSA)

Jamoats are set up on a territorial basis.Rural self-governing bodies are legal entitiesand have their own stamp. Jamoats derivetheir financial resources from public budgetfunds allocated by town, regional Majlisi ofpeoples deputies and donations.

The law "On Self - Governing bodies in Ruralarea" does not cover such self-governancecentres, as mahalla committees , microrayoncentres, residence committees, rural centres- that is self-governing grass rootcommittees. They have their own charters,approved by the mahalla centres themselves.Legislators and lawyers have argued that aspecial law should apply to theseorganisations. However, doubts have alsobeen expressed as to whether the diversityof activity covered by these institutions, canbe covered by one or several laws.

8.3.1 Mahalla councils and other territorialself-governing centresAs was previously discussed, local grass rootactivity below Jamoats is not covered bylegislation. Nevertheless the role of themahalla is very significant in Tajikistan. Atthe most local level, mahalla centres,residence committees, and rural centres inthe Pamir such as guzars (smallcommunities) and tabags (gatherings) , allplay an essential role in the provision oforder, democracy, human rights, and thesolution of their local problems. It is throughthese local structures that RT aims to fulfillthe requirements of the European Treaty onlocal self governance of 1985 and legislationof the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly of CIScountries "On Common Principals of Self-governing bodies."

The mahalla is a community that has alwaysexisted in Tajik society. It unites the peopleliving in one territory. Mahallas have helpedto bring about peaceful conflict resolution,

and to solve some social problems.Traditionally the council of elders (Shura)headed the mahalla and the communitywould elect a chairperson for the mahalla.The chairperson would consult the councilof elders in making decisions. Mahallavalues are based on traditional Islamic ideason social justice and ethics. The mahallashelp to organise some key activities inpeople's lives. The main function of themahalla is khashar, which is the eastern styleof community assistance, where peoplewould help each other, for example, toconstruct a house. The mahalla also takescare of the elderly and orphans.

The mahalla does not have administrativefunctions. In some regions mahallascooperate closely with state institutions, andsometimes even merge with local statebodies. In such cases it is intended that thechairperson of the mahalla should get asalary from the local government institution.It is difficult to list all activities of themahallas, but it is clear that they are at thecore of Tajik local communities and the basisfor local self-governance. Local governmentis unable to exercise full control over theactivities of the mahallas.

Best experience:• Use of initiative. From mahalla to NGO.

The mahalla members of Railway

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district in Dushanbe resolved their socialproblems themselves. They suffered froma lack of fuel for cooking, and decided toconstruct a gas pipeline to connect theirhouses to the natural gas supply. Mahallamembers applied to TASIF forassistance in supply of constructionmaterials. As a result they managed toconnect their homes to natural gas.Inspired by this success, they set up acommittee for microprojects. Throughtheir collective effort they have alsoimproved access to land, waterpipes andthe electricity supply. This mahallacommittee grew to a small NGO andhelp needy families.

• Cooperation with local power. Thehukumat of Ganchi region of LO wantedthat local people reduce expenses fortraditional ceremonies. The hukumat wasguided by the decree: "On NationalHolidays and Customs in the RT " andby "Resolution on Conducting theTraditional Ceremonies". The hukumatreviewed the role of jamoats and mahallasin managing traditional ceremonies, andset up a commission to regulate them.Cooperation between the hukumats andmahallas have reduced the average familyexpenditure on ceremonies by more than100,000 TR. The hukumat in this regionhas recommended that the role of themahalla be enhanced. This could beachieved by providing remuneration forthe chairperson, making the mahal la ajuridical entity, and hearing mahallareports at the sessions of the local majlis.The conduct of mahalla's could beimproved by disseminating best practice

through mass media, issuing booklets,conducting special days for particularstreets and encouraging contests.

• Cooperation with NGOs. NGOs workwith the councils of elders and hukumatsto increase local initiatives and civilparticipation. In most mahallas thechairperson is well informed of theproblems that families face and istherefore able to work with the mahallato identify effectively the poorest groupsfor NGO aid. Data from the internationalNGO "Counterpart Consortium" indicatethat in September 1999 there were 118NGOs working in various sectors, andmany of them worked through mahallas."Parvin" is an NGO that was set up in1999 to address women's issues and tohelp a vulnerable group of the population.Its aim was to develop civil initiatives,improve living standards , promoteeconomic gender equity and expandaccess to information. NGO affiliates inKarategin zone conducted seminars on"NGO and community". The experienceof the NGO "Parvin" in Karategin valleyshowed that public awareness hadincreased through seminars and the massmedia. This was considered as a goodresult. One week before the elections aforum of three candidates to the MajlisiOli was held. One of the candidates waselected in the first round of elections. TheNGO plans to conduct a series ofseminars on human rights, violenceagainst women and civil education. Thecivil conflict ruined economy. Womensuffered most. The NGO "Parvin" aimsto involve women in economic and socialdevelopment. It closely cooperates withlocal self-governing bodies. A project togenerate employment was instigated forsixty vulnerable families in Darbandregion. They were trained in privatebusiness and how to run a farm. Thisproject was supported by the localhukumat and Eurasia foundation. ThisNGOs have also set up women's centres.

• Training. In April 2000 the NGO "CivilSociety Initiative Foundation" organiseda seminar on " Democracy throughMahalla Councils". It was conductedwith the participation of the mahallamembers, local governmentrepresentatives from the regions and

5 9

governmental officials. Such issues asrole of local government in protection ofhuman rights, role of traditionalinstitutions in civil society andpartnership with mahallas and hukumats,were discussed in the seminar.

Recommendations:• Chairperson of hukumat should be

elected and not appointed;• Draft legislation documents on territorial

self-governing bodies (mahallas, ruralcentres) to increase their the role andfunctions;

• Amend legislation on publicassociations, non-commercialorganisations so that they becomeeffective also for mahallas and ruralcentres;

• Set up associations of mahalla centres;• NGOs should coordinate with mahallas

at a local level;• Local and international NGOs should

organise training for the chairperson ofmahallas, in the areas of leadership,social partnership, market economy andcivil rights.

AKF launched a programme to supportrural development, which gave rise to self-governing bodies in rural villages, as ruralcenters. One such rural organisation iscalled "Manem", it is situated in Shugnanregion in GBAO and function for 5 years,with transparent structure. At an open localmeeting a chairperson was elected, whoworks ex-gratia. The chairpersoncoordinates the harvesting, and distributionof crops, distribution of aid andmicrocredits. The council of elders who areover 75 can ask the chairperson to reportat any time. Other members of thecommunity help the chairperson to fulfill his/her daily tasks such as taking cattle topasture. The chairperson works closely withthe chairperson of the Jamoat and theregion.

6 0

Part 2. Economic Growth9. National Poverty Reduction Strategy

Economic growth is a provision for povertyreduction. It is estimated that in order to havea significant impact on poverty reduction inTajikistan, a growth rate of 2-3% in GDPper capita will be required. It is also estimatedthat the equal distribution of growth for thelife of one generation will double the incomelevel of population. Therefore, there is a realopportunity to overcome extreme povertywithin two or three decades, and to create amore stable society. However, in order toachieve growth with equity, a number ofstructural reforms will be necessary to ensurea better distribution of productive assets.

The concept of SHD is based upon providingequal opportunities for both present andfuture generations. Economic growth shouldcontribute to the basic human capabilities,such as access to work, education and health,social protection, shelter, safe water,information and technology, etc. Equallyimportant are the capabilities to move freelyaround the country, the freedom toparticipate in wider society, and self respect.

To achieve this, the following issues need tobe addressed:• Access to productive assets, education,

food security, and social protection shouldbe expanded.

• Economic growth that takes into accountthe interests of the poor should bepromoted. A first step in this is thecreation of an enabling environment forsmall scale agriculture. The priorities ofthe public budget should also be reviewed.

• A poverty reduction strategy shouldinclude the mass participation ofpopulation.

9.1 IntroductionOver the last three and a half years Tajikistanhas made substantial progress towardsachieving macroeconomic and financialstabilization, implementing a number ofmeasures for the effective functioning of themarket economy. The Government has been

supported by the IMF agreement on the‘Mechanism for the Expanded Financing ofthe Structural Reforms’, which in 1999 wascalled “Mechanism for Poverty Reduction

and Economic Growth”, and by the WorldBank Structural Adjustment Credit. Since1997, the Government has managed toachieve positive economic growth and animprovement in the well being of thepopulation - reversing the trend of adeclining economic growth since 1992.

Despite this progress Tajikistan still remainsthe poorest country in the CIS, with thelowest income per capita. The Governmentrecognises that the main tool for improvingliving conditions of the population andpoverty reduction is rapid economic growth.Tajikistan has begun to develop acomprehensive Poverty Reduction Strategy.The Strategy will be developed through aprocess of consultations that, inter alia, willinclude the representatives of civil society,local communities, donors and poor peoplethemselves.

Poverty assessment in Tajikistan started in1999 and involved two groups of experts

The Link between HumanDevelopment and Economic Growth

Healthy, well-educated people make theeconomy productive. However,investment within the social sectorsshould not be seen solely as a way toincrease economic production. Rather itis for the development of humanpotential. For the successful progress ofhuman development, human beingsshould be put at the centre of thedevelopment process, with equaldistribution of income and assets. Theeconomy is for people, and not for thesake of the economy. Thus, economicgrowth should be aimed at theenrichment of all human beings.

6 1

working jointly with the WB. A number ofseminars were organised, involving a largegroup of local and international experts. Thefirst national program on ‘Poverty Reductionand Developing Mechanisms for SocialProtection in Tajikistan” was drafted. Thepoverty line for Tajikistan and main methodsfor conducting poverty assessmentsnt weredifined within the framework of thisprogramme. The required legal basis wasadopted , and social protection mechanismsand for poverty reduction were specified.

The issues of poverty reduction and economicgrowth of the country are the priority issuesfor the Government and are under controlof the President of the RT. The Governmentof Tajikistan will identify, through broadpublic participation, the poverty reductionobjectives to be achieved and will prioritizethe Government's actions to accomplish suchobjectives, as well as specifing the system ofpublic involvement necessary to monitor theimplementation of such actions. The povertyreduction strategy will be further improvedthrough a wide process of public involvementover the coming years.

To guarantee rapid economic growth and tostimulate private investment, theGovernment of Tajikistan has agreed withIMF and the WB on a three year programmeof macroeconomic policy and has developedactions for its realisation.

9.2 The level of poverty and its characteristicsPoverty in Tajikistan is a multidimensionalphenomenon. Various surveys have shownthat poverty, defined in terms of income andconsumption, is very high in Tajikistan. Themain reasons for this are limited employmentopportunities that ensure sufficient income,pervasive low incomes within agriculture andlack of access to productive assets. However,poverty in Tajikistan shows itself not only inlow incomes, but also in declining access to,and quality of, such basic services aseducation and health care as well as accessto safe water. This is particularly the casefor poor people who increasingly cannotafford the growing costs of services. Civilwar, and economic and social instabilityduring the transition period have weakenedthe social protection system.

Based on the Government's analysisindividuals living in poverty constitute morethan 80% of the population. A third of thepopulation is classified as "very poor", andalmost 20% are "destitute", i.e. their incomeis below $1.075 PPP per day.

The problem of poverty is not new forTajikistan. Prior to gaining independence theper capita income within the country wasthe lowest among the Soviet republics.

Economic inequality has widened. Theexpenditures of the richest households are 4times as much than those of the pooresthouseholds. The majority of households inTajikistan (78%) possess their own land plots,although the size of these plots is generallysmall. In terms of generating income, landplots are not as important for the richesthouseholds as they are for the pooresthouseholds, for whom access to land iscrucial.

In the past in Tajikistan, as in other formerUSSR countries, there was either no link atall between the household ownership ofconsumer goods and their level of income,or such a link was insignificant. Results froma recent study, however, show that there isnow a substantial connection between percapita household expenditures and ownershipof consumer durables, especially durablesmanufactured after 1991.

The results of the Tajikistan Living StandardsSurvey, undertaken in 1999, shows thatpoverty in Tajikistan is mainly ruralphenomenon, with 81.5% of those classifiedas “very poor” living in rural areas (ruralpopulation of Tajikistan is 73.5% of total).18.6% of the urban population are classifiedas being “very poor'”compared with 23.4%of the rural population.

The regional distribution of the very poor isas follows: 45.7% in KHO, 26.1% in LO,19.2% in RRS, 6.9% in GBAO and only2.1% in Dushanbe. Given that GBAOaccounts for just over 3 percent of the totalpopulation, these results suggest that the“very poor” are overrepresented in thisregion. In fact the survey results show that astrikingly high proportion of the populationof Badakhshan are “very poor” - 39.1%.

6 2

Children in Tajikistan are exposed to a higherrisk of poverty compared to adults. The riskof poverty increases rapidly depending onthe number of children under 15 years in ahousehold. As a result of civil war theproblem of street children has worsened.Another group that gives cause for concernis children under institutional care. Due tofinancial and physical constraints, theintellectual and emotional development ofsuch children is in danger. These youngpeople face difficulties as far as receivingfurther education or employmentopportunities are concerned.

Older people (aged 65 and over) face a higherrisk of being poor than other adults (22.7%are in the bottom fifth of the distribution ofper capita expenditure compared with 20.8%of those aged 16-64). However, although theyhave an elevated risk of poverty, the olderpopulation constitute only a small portion ofthe total number of the poor (4.1 percent).The risk of poverty rises with age andpercentage of the poor among the elderly(aged 75 and over) is higher than that amongchildren. Therefore, the single elderly peopleare probably the poorest. According to datafrom the Ministry of Social Protection, thereare around 9,000 single pensioners who areamongst the most vulnerable in society andin need of support.

Official statistics do not demonstrate anysignificant difference in the risk of povertyby gender. However, the economic status ofwomen in the country is much worse thanthat of men. This can in part be explained bythe fact that women are mainly employed inthe public sectors of education and health.The level of salaries in these sectors issignificantly lower than that in other spheresand this is further compounded by delays inpaying salaries.

The health care system is going through adifficult situation. Public budget expenditureshave declined significantly in real terms since1991.Female-headed households face particularproblems. The civil war has led toapproximately 25,000 households now beingheaded by women, mostly in the KHO andGarm group of rayons. Households headedby women frequently have less access to landand other agricultural resources.

As elsewhere the risk of being poor isinversely related to the level of education.Poverty is more common among those whohave no secondary or higher education. Theresults of TLSS show that the probability ofbeing classified as “very poor” (i.e. in thebottom fifth of the distribution) is two and ahalf times higher amongst people with noeducation than amongst those with highereducation.

In contrast to the level of education, there isno clear connection between poverty andlabour market status. The fact that a personhas a job is not the important factor; ratherit is whether or not a person, being employed,gets paid. It is also important to point outthat employment-generated income providesonly one third of the total income for thepoorest 20% of households, but constituteshalf of total income for the richest 20% ofhouseholds.

9.3 The existing system of social protectionThe collapse of the traditional economicrelations during transition has aggravatedthe already diminished material situation ofthe "traditionally poor" - most notablypensioners, large and single parent families.It gave rise to a new group of working poor.In parallel with the expansion of the numberof vulnerable people, the state's capacity tofinance social protection related activities hassubstantially declined.

In Tajikistan there are two types of social

6 3

(TLSS )

Chart 1. Percentage who are ' poor'by age group

1012

1416

1820

2224

26

28

0-9 10-19 20-34 35-54 55-74 75+

allowances: the cash compensationprogramme that provides social allowancesfor the poor, and pensions provided for theelderly, disabled and needy population. Tworeforms have been undertaken recently toimprove the ways to effect such payments.The objectives were to reduce operationalcosts, as well as to simplify the applicationsystem by simplifying the rules on submittingrequired documents, and to move frommonthly to quarterly payments. However,these reforms did not have significant effect.

The existing cash compensation system is noteffective as very few persons actually receivethe compensation, and because its real valueis too low. The pension system functions abit better compared to cash compensationsystem but still there are significant problemsassociated with arrears and low level ofaverage pensions.

9.4 Main directions of the Poverty ReductionStrategyPoverty in Tajikistan is multifaceted and assuch has many causes. Any povertyreduction strategy will therefore need to becomprehensive and address a diversity ofunderlying causes. The Government will relyin its poverty reduction strategy on thefollowing key directions:• Stimulation of labour intensive economic

growth;• Provision of basic social services;• Targeted help to the poorest; and• Efficient governance and security.

9.4.1 Economic growth is the principalmechanism through which Tajikistan canensure ensure decent employment forpopulation and achieve well-being. Suchgrowth can be achieved by implementing arational macroeconomic policy; restructuringof enterprises and expansion of the private

sector; development of agriculture,telecommunication, information, energy andtransport sectors infrastructures withlabour intensive employment.

Higher per capita growth requires greaterinitiative from the private sector. Therefore,the Government will implement enterpriserestructuring and create an enablingenvironment for the expansion of the privatesector.

Reform of the agricultural sector is a priorityfor poverty reduction in rural areas, and forthe country as a whole as the majority ofthe population live in rural areas. Thecountry's comparative advantages lie in itsagricultural sector, with rich waterresources, favourable agro-climaticconditions for crop production and live-stockfarming. Since land resources are limited,increasing the productivity of farms is a keyissue.

The Government will also take measures tocreate a competitive banking system, and toensure stability in the provision of financialservices both to the population and toindustry. The Government will implementpolicies to stimulate the development oftelecommunication and informationinfrastructures and to open up access tomarkets. It will act to increase Tajikistan'scompetitiveness in global trade, to improvetransparency and security and to provideefficient state services.

The Government gives high priority to theefficient functioning of the transport sectoras a vehicle for poverty reduction andeconomic growth. The development of theagricultural sector, as a key sector of theeconomy will increasingly depend on theavailability of reliable transport to ensureeffective distribution. The Governmentrealises that an efficient transport system isa pre-requisite for the development of theprivate sector.

There is a lack of capital and excess oflabour resources (real unemployment isestimated at more than 30%) in thecountry. The Government will implementlabour-intensive policies to stimulateeconomic growth. In order to create aflexible labour market the Government will

6 4

analyse and review existing legislation,regulating the labour market and labourmarket related policy and social insuranceprogrammes. Training and retrainingprogrammes consistent with current needswill continue to be implemented. TheGovernment will also conduct policies toprovide all groups, including the poor,which give equal access to a number ofindustrial assets, such as infrastructure,land and credit in addition to creatingopportunities for all citizens to realize theirown human capital.

9.4.2 Provision of basic social servicesThe poor need to have adequate humanpotential to be in a position to enjoy existingand new opportunities. Access to goodquality basic services such as education andhealth is not only a human right, but is alsoan essential component of povertyreduction. The Government will seek toimprove the quality of education and healthcare provided to the poor, and will promotethe broader participation of the poor peoplein social life.

9.4.3 Targeted assistance to the poorestThe important component of the povertyreduction strategy relates to the provision oftargeted assistance to the poorest in society,i.e. children and the elderly.

9.4.4 Efficient governance and securityThe key component of the proposed povertyreduction strategy is ensuring a safe andefficiently managed security situation wherepeople can live and take care of themselves.The Government intends to implementinstitutional reforms to ensure efficientlyprovided public services.

Poverty reduction requires strongtransparent and accountable institutions inthe public and private sectors. Medium-termFinancial Resources Spending Programmewill be implemented to ensure transparentand e fficient public expenditures. It willincrease Tajikistan's opportunities inattracting foreign investments andmobilizing international assistance.

9.5 Existing impediments for povertyreductionIn order to effectively implement the povertyreduction strategy, it is first necessary to

identify and assess existing obstacles withineach of the four key directions. Based on thisassessment medium and long-term measureswill be developed to overcome these barriers.

9.5.1 Barriers for rapid growthThe collapse of traditional economic relationswithin the former USSR, civil war, andinstability until 1997, all served to create anegative environment for both foreign anddomestic investment within Tajikistan. Withsharply declining GDP, hyperinflation andincreasing unpaid employment over a periodof time that adversely affected aggregatedemand, the volume of investmentsdramatically declined.

1997 marked a turning point, and since thenthe economy has achieved positive growth.GDP in 1997 grew by 1.7%, in 1998 by 5.3%,in 1999 by 3.7% and in first half of 2000 by6.5%. Inflation has been kept at an acceptablelevel, ranging 2.8 % to 16.6 %. Since 1997there has been a gradual increase in realwages.

Currently the Government is following itspolicy of reform, meeting benchmarks withinthe time-framework established. However,lack of investment is now an acute problem,hampering productivity growth andimprovements in the physical andinstitutional infrastructure of the country.This is a vicious circle as the poor state ofexisting infrastructure and high operationalcosts deters foreign investors whilst capitalaccumulation from domestic sources remainslow. This in turn does not enableentrepreneurs to increase employment andincome, and this restrains the growth ofsavings and reduces the level of budgetrevenues.

Productivity within industry remains low asmany enterprises have been slow to adaptto new economic conditions. In the industrialsector much industrial capacity is underused.This is due to a variety of factors: manyenterprises became economically unviableafter the shift to market prices; someenterprises, built in soviet time, are muchlarger (and so have higher capacity) than iseconomically efficient; many enterprises arestill using obsolete technologies; there hasbeen a sharp drop in both domestic andexternal demand due to falling living

6 5

standards and the collapse of trade links.Many enterprises are now working at 20-30% of their capacity, and have a significantstock of unsold products. Only some of themare managing to produce goodscompetitively. These are mainly agriculturalprocessing plants that increased productionof cotton, silk, and fruits and vegetables.Significant parts of the industrial sector arenot profitable at current price levels.Enterprises need restructuring, newtechnology and managers of high quality.

The private sector in Tajikistan remainsembryonic and is largely confined to tradeand production in a limited range of goodsand services. The growth potential of privatebusiness remains unrealised.

Despite the fact that the labour force is wellqualified, many workers are employed in lowqualified and technical positions, especiallyin agriculture. Since independence, manypeople have lost their jobs. Nevertheless, themajority of people (85.4%) employed in 1999had the same job as they had in 1997. Newentrants to the labour market face particulardifficulties in finding their first job and manyremain unemployed. New job vacanciesremain limited, despite the return to positiveeconomic growth from 1997. The publicsector is shrinking due to the lack of resourcesand is no longer able to provide employmentfor the majority of people.

In this context, the link between the labourmarket and poverty is related to the excesslabour supply and the lack of marketmechanisms to regulate this. Excess laboursupply is associated with both demographicpressures, - Tajikistan continues to have ahigh, although declining, birth rate - and lackof demand in labour force.

Limited land resources and the high share ofrural population aggravate problems withinthe labour market, despite the fact that peopleare highly educated. This has resulted in highlevel of unemployed or idle labour resources,which is mainly concentrated among youngpeople and those entering the labour marketfor the first time, as well as among womenin some regions.

9.5.2 Problems in education and healthAll levels of education are facing similar

problems resulting from the lack of resources.The provision of social services is theresponsibility of local government. However,they lack adequate funds in the form ofbudget allocations and transfers. Thus, localstate bodies are not able to finance, serve andmaintain historically high quality socialservices.

Access to education is being impeded bothfrom the demand and supply side. Schoolattendance has dropped due to the fall in thequality of education itself as well as a rise inthe number of children being kept at homedue to financial or other problems.

About 79% of children of the relevant agegroup attend primary schools. This shows adecline compared to historic universal accessto secondary education.

The perception that education has lost itsvalue and prestige, particularly secondaryeducation, is directly related to the verylimited opportunities in the labour market,and the perceived irrelevance of the currentschool curricula to the demands of the modernlabour market. Moreover many schools inrural area are currently in a state of disrepair.

There is a widening gap between the healthcare budget and the actual cost of care.Therefore the availability of care, in termsof beds etc, does not constitute accessibilityof care. Access to health care hasdeteriorated despite the fact that there is anoversupply of facilities and personnel as fiscalconstraints have led to a shortage ofequipment, supplies, and drugs. The salariesof health workers are also a particular causeof concern. The salaries of health workersare typically less than half of the averagewage in other sectors.

It should also be mentioned that not onlyhave there been sharp reductions inbudgetary allocations for health care, butthose resources allocated have very oftenbeen used inefficiently. Allocations havefavoured tertiary care above primary healthcare.

9.5.3 Institutional problemsSince the declaration of independence,Tajikistan has made a significant progress inthe creation of a market economy, and some

6 6

functions that were previously carried outby the State have now been delegated to theprivate sector. Despite this, no significantprogress has been made in reforming theState management structure and institutions.There are still duplications in some functionsbetween ministries and state agencies, andtheir role in policy making and planningremains at a low level. The managementstructure, staffing and underlying philosophyin many ministries and branches of localgovernment continues to reflect their formerfunction. The distribution of responsibilitiesbetween central and local authorities, andthe lines of accountability, still needs to beimproved.

Progress in market reforms, particularly inrural areas, has been slow. The developmentof private business and trade has enabledsome small firms to start their own businessand for farmers to sell products from theirvegetable gardens. However, informalconstraints impede this process. It is criticaltherefore that state institutions arestrengthened and reformed.

Recommendations:• It is necessary to complete discussions of

the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper onthe government level and start its gradualimplementation, coordinating theactivities of the various governmentalstructures, ministries, committees andagencies and civil society institutions;

• The national poverty reduction policyshould be linked with the policies of theinternational, economic, financial andother organizations that are workingtowards poverty reduction in thecountry;

• To increase efficiency of the wholepoverty reduction campaign, the processshould be made more transparent andaccessible for the whole population;

• An enabling environment should becreated so that the needy populationthemselves are active participants withinthe poverty reduction strategy. The poorpopulation should have the opportunityto participate in all the phases of thestrategy's implementation, having accessto information and communication;

• Urgently implement Land Reform andto give agrarian land for use to dehkanfarms;

• NGOs and civil society organisationsshould work jointly with the Governmenttowards the realisation of Governmentprogrammes for the improvement of theliving conditions of the population and theinclusion of vulnerable people within theprocess of SHD;

• Particular attention should be paid toensuring the use of resources, socialservices and the environment by women,children, elderly people, minorities andother needy people;

• NGO and community groups shouldsupport programmes aimed at securinggender equity, health rehabilitation, socialequity and ecological security.

6 7

Table 2. Performance of public budget ( mln TR and in %) in 1999Plan Actual % of plan % to result % to GDP

Total revenues 199,327.8 249,832.7 125.3 100 18.6Tax 134,556.2 139,448.3 103.6 55.9 10.4Non tax 55,420.3 57,528.7 103.8 22.9 4.3Income from operations with capital 6,000.0 16,654.8 280 6.7 1.2

Official transfers 3,351.3 36,200.9 1,008 14.5 2.6 (SSA)

10.1 Economic growthSince 1995 Tajikistan's economic reformshave aimed to facilitate transition to amarket economy. A number of steps havebeen taken. Among these are theliberalisation of prices and foreign trade,the privatisation of state property, thecreation of the right conditions for freeenterprise, the strengthening of thenational currency and the formulationand enactment of commercial and marketbased legislation. In 1997, output finallystopped declining and for the first timethere was economic growth. In 1998,GDP grew by 5.3% and in 1999 by 3.7%.

By 1999, GDP had reached TR 1,345billion. In 1999, industrial output grewby 5.6%, agricultural production grewby 3.8%, the volume of retail trade grewby 4% and foreign trade grew by 3%.According to the Ministry of Finance, in

1999 the revenue for the public budgetwas TR 213.3 billion or 107.6% of wahtwas planned. State taxes revenuesconstituted TR139.4 billion, which was103.6% of the figure in the initial budgetplan.

In 1999, inflation as measured bywholesale producer prices was 60.7%, theCPI was 30.1%. Most of the price surgewas caused by depreciation of thecurrency vis a vis the dollar, the annualaverage exchange rate in 1999 wasTR1,237 toUS $1.

The Economic Reform Programme of RTfor 1995-2000 and the Mid-TermEconomic Strategy for 1998-2001 set outRT's fiscal and monetary policies. Astable financial system is considered asa precondition for economic growth. Thenew Tax Code, introduced in 1999, anda tightening of monetary policy broughtabout the reduction in inflation and thebudget deficit.

In 1999, central government finance fromincome and officially received transferswas 15.8% of GDP, according to theMinistry of Finance. With the inclusionof international credits the revenue of thepublic budget in 1999 was 18.6% of GDP,by the data of SSA. The main sources ofgovernment income in 1999 were internallevies on goods and services, VAT,foreign trade taxes and externaloperations, and non-tax revenues.

State budget expenditure for the yearwas TR 236 billion or 92.5% of the target.

Table 1. Main macroeconomic indicators1999 As a %

of 1998GDP (billion TR) 1,345 103.7Volume of the industrialProduction (billion TR) 860 105.6Volume of the agriculturalproduction (billion TR) 418.7 103.8Producer’s prices 160.7 143.6Consumer’s prices 130.1 126.3

(SSA)

1998

18.3

20

16.59.7

25

9.5Agriculture

Other

Industry

Trade and cateringTaxesUnregistered income

25

1999

19.1

16.8

14.110.1

14.1

Chart 1. Structure of GDP (%)

10. Economic Growth and Public Budget

6 8

Table 3. The structure of taxes in 1999 (%)Type of taxes budget GDPVAT 12.5 2.3Income tax 5.7 1.1Tax from population 6.5 1.2Sale of excise 3.3 0.6Property tax 2.0 2.4Royalty tax 3.5 0.7From retail trade 19.0 3.5

(SSA)

Table 4. Public budget expenditures in 1999 ( mln TR and in %)Plan Actual % of plan % result % GDP

Total 255,566.3 236,353.4 92.5 100 17.6State management 48,560.5 44,860.6 92.4 19 3.3Foreign trade 2,754.7 1,107.0 40.2 0.5 0.1Law and Order protecting 23,503.6 22,153.8 94.3 9.4 1.6Branches of economy 60,047.0 60,096.5 100.1 25.3 4.5Social and cultural activities, of which 53,790.5 49,449.0 87.3 20.9 3.5Defence 19,986.9 19,261.3 96.4 8.2 1.4Public budget deficit and proficit -56,238.5 13,479.3 1.0

(SSA)

Chart 2. Distribution of privatised enterprisesby region

33%

31%

21%

2% 13%LOKHODushanbeGBAORRS

The percentage of actual expenditurerelative to planned expenditure fornational economy was 99,5%, for foreigntrade - 40.2% and for social and culturalactivities was 87.3%.

The extent of privatisation and theprocedures for privatising enterpriseshave become important measures ofeconomic performance in the context ofthe RT's reform programme. By 1999,1,460 enterprises had been privatised.Privatisation has been fairlyconcentrated geographically. Theregional breakdown of the total numberof privatised enterprises is 30 in GBAO,373 in LO, 590 in KHO, 201 inDushanbe, and 266 in RRS. In 1999,central government raised TR1,594million through privatisation.

Industrial production increased in 1999.Out of 80 sectors of industry, productionof 34 types of goods grew. The total costof the production of 684 reporting

enterprises was 860 billion TR.

In 1999, in the energy sector, 15,797MWH of electricity was produced andthermal energy production increased by128.6%. Electricity production increasedby 9.4 %. Last year the volume of gasextracted totalled 36.1 million m 3; thiswas an increase of 105% over the

previous year. Coal production reached19.1 thousand tons; an increase of 103%over the previous year. Production ofconstruction materials grew by 141%.

Metallurgical enterprises increasedproduction by 16.4% between 1998 and1999. In metallurgy the strategy is toextract deposits that have already beenfound, and in future, as investment fundsaccumulate, to explore for new deposits.

There is potential to rebuild productionand to put the economy on the pathtowards sustainable growth. A crucialfactor in restoring the economy is therational use of natural resources.Bringing enterprises back to the fullcapacity in a way that meets demands isthe main factor for economic growth.

Gross agricultural output in 1999 was418.7 billion TR, which was a 3.8%increase over the previous year. Output

Table 5. Number of privatised enterprises in 1999and since the inception of privat isation

1999 TotalIndustry 26 120Construction 31 73Transport and communication 16 46Trade and catering 632 2,218Everyday services 291 1,953Agriculture 198 427Other 266 721Total 1,460 5,558

(SSA)

6 9

Table 7. Foreign trade in 1999mln US$

Total 1,351.8Export 688.7Import 663.1

(SSA)

Table 6. Foreign investment in 1999(thousand US$)

Direct 6,060.5Other 518.1

(SSA)

from non-state agricultural enterprisesgrew by 114.6%. The non-state sectorcomprised 66.1% of gross agriculturalproduction. In 1999, output of grain andcereals from farms and individuals was475,100 tons, which is 5% less, than in1998.

In June 1996, the President of the RTissued a Decree "On Reorganisation ofthe Agricultural Enterprises andOrganisations" with the aim ofencouraging the development of theprivate sector in agriculture. The Decreeaims to develop the efficient and rationaluse of land and water resources, anincrease of production and developmentof agricultural products. The process oftransforming agricultural enterprisesinto what are known as "dehkan"(private) farms and other types of farmsis very active. The non-state sectoraccounts for 57.4% of grain production,of which dehkan farms account for10.1%, and individuals 47.3%.

Investment is an important factor ineconomic growth. Despite the recenteconomic stability, there is still a crisisof underinvestment and, in particular,capital investment from the public budgetis decreasing. In 1999, capitalinvestments in total amounted toTR102.9 billion or 7.7% of GDP, of whichcapital investment from the public budgetaccounted for 6.2%. Capital investmentfrom the public budget fell by 25 billionTR, which is equivalent to 1.6% of GDP.Gross fixed capital formation does not

exceed 4%. The other component ofinvestment is domestic savings. Atpresent domestic savings constitute 1.5billion TR or 0.12% of GDP.

Foreign trade is an important factor foreconomic growth. In 1999, the foreigntrade turn-over in RT was US$1,352.5million. Exports rose to US$ 688.7million, which is 15% increase over 1998.

The main exports are aluminium, cottonand cotton by- products, tobacco andtobacco products. Exports go mainly tonon-CIS foreign countries: the share ofexports to these countries constitutes54% of total exports or US $373.7 million.The country's imports are valued at US$663.1 million, which is 7% less than in1998. Imports are mainly from the CIS,the share of imports from the CIS is 78%or US$ 515 million.

RT' main foreign trade partners are CIScountries. Overall in 1999 the volume offoreign trade with CIS countriesincreased by 28%, and with non-CIScountries decreased by 21%.

Sustaining economic growth depends onthe quality and intensity of economicreform, in particular the formation andthe efficiency of market structures andinstitutions; the efficient expansion of awide range of free enterprise; theintensification of international economicco-operation, innovation, privateinvestment and friendly environment.

Recommendations:• Further expansion of privatisation

and promotion of entrepreneurship;• Creation of an enabling environment

for the expansion of the real economyand the supply of the consumptionmarket;

• Increase the export potential of thecountry;

• Improve the management of the

37%

5%29%

11%

15% 3% Heavy

Fuel-energetic complex

Metallurgy

Light

Food

Other

(SSA)

Chart 3. Structure of industrial branches

7 0

Table 8. Public budget expenditures for the social sectors, 1999 ( mln. TR)Plan Actual % of plan % of actual

Social and cultural activities, of which 53,790.5 49,449.0 87.3 20.9Education 29,760.8 27,958.4 93.9 11.8Sport 187.6 266.6 142.1 0.0Health 17,387.4 13,998.7 80.5 5.9Social protection 2,502.4 1.1Science and information 1,762.1 1,514.8 86.0 0.6

(SSA)

Table 9. Public expenditures for the social sector, 1999 and plan for 2000% 1999 budget % of GDP % 2000 budget

Education 11.8 2.1 13.5Health 6.0 1.0 6.9Social protection 1.1 0.2 1.3Cash compensation 0.6 0.1 2.3Total 19.5 3.5 24.0

(SSA)

economy;• Take steps to translate economic

growth into poverty reduction.

10. 2 Public budgetAdequate financing of the social sectoris required to promote sustainable humandevelopment.

In 1999, the public budget deficit was23.7 billion or 1.8% of GDP. The creditsfrom international financial organisationslike the WB and ADB were used to coverthe budget deficit. The main source ofcentral government revenues is taxwhich makes up 55.9% of total revenues.

Social sector spending has recentlyconstituted less than one third of allpublic expenditures. Social expenditureas a percentage of GDP in 1999 wasallocated as follows: 2.1% on education,1% on health, 1.77% on social protection,0.1% on science and 0.35% on culture.Social cash transfers were 0.1% of GDP.

It was agreed in 1999 within the

framework of an international credit forreorganisation of the social sector thatpublic budget expenditures for the socialsectors, education and health, should beto 19% of the total budget. However,actual expenditure for these two sectorswas 17.7%. One reason for the reducedspending has been through salarypayment arrears, which has caused

serious social problems. In the 2000,budget the share of governmentexpenditure on health and educationshould rise to 20.4%, but be kept below22%, as agreed in credit for social sectorrestructuring

Government expenditure on education,in the context of reduced financing ofsocial sectors, comprised 14% of thecentral government budget, which isUS$5 per capita. Actual expenditureswere 12% of the total budget or about2% of GDP. The budget for 2000 stillshows a decline in the share allocated toeducation at 13,5%. Local governmentsdo not have resources to finance schoolsand maintain a high level of socialprotection. To provide access toeducation for poor people, it is necessaryto allocate an equal share of expenditureto the education. This share should be notless than 5% of GDP.

Reduced public resources gave rise to thethe alternative ways of funding toprovide services in health and education.

Some payments for the services areinformal. Today 30% of Universitystudents pay for their tuition. Studentsare also financed by their employers andstudent numbers have increased. Chargescollected for schools are used forteachers' salaries. The effect of informalpayments on the access of the poor toschools has not been researched. Some

7 1

Table 11. Public budget for social protection (% to GDP)1998 1999 2000 % plan

Social protection fund 1.9 1.8 1.8Cash compensations 0.4 0.2 0.4Total 2.3 1.9 2.2

(WB)

Table10. Plan of the health care expenditures, 1999 (%)Local Republican State

Salaries 21.1 13.5 19.8Municipal services 14.8 4.9 13.1Meals 31.0 21.8 29.5Medicine 17.9 12.3 16.9Other 15.1 47.0 20.5

(WB )

type of payment is necessary in thepresent conditions in Tajikistan, butnevertheless it is important to ensure thatchildren from poor families can accesseducation. It is important not only tofinance education, but also to reallocateresources within the government budgetto expand access to education.

The public budget allocations to thehealth sector has dropped in transitionperiod to 1% of GDP and the declineimpacted on the capacity to providehealth care. This was caused also by lowfinancing from the local budgets. Salarieswere 30% of the budget. The capital

investments has been reduced by halfduring the last five years.

The main part of the expenses is allocatedto hospitals and policlinics. Afterindependence with the growth of thenumber of vulnerable people the capacityof the state to protect them hasweakened. The official social protectionnetwork is not efficient any more. Socialsubsidies have dropped from the 14% ofthe total revenues of households in thesoviet time to 5% in 1999. People relymore on the unofficial help fromrelatives, neighbours, communities andNGOs.

Recommendations:• It is necessary to improve the

distribution mechanism of resources;• It is necessary to increase allocation

of resources to basic education andprimary health care services;

• It is important to attract the resourcesof donors and the private sector tosupport the social sectors.

7 2

11. Rural Development

The expansion of opportunities in rural areasis important for both enhancing the qualityof people's lives and improving nationaleconomic growth. The natural environmentin Tajikistan is favourable for ruraldevelopment. More than 950 rivers irrigatethe fields and an average of 300 days ofsunshine a year allow for two harvests a year.

Tajikistan does not have abundant landresources. 93% of its territory is covered bymountains, and agrarian land - at variousaltitudes from plains to highlands - accountsfor just 7% of its territory. There are 720,000ha of arable land , that is 0.12 ha of percapita.

Today the rural population is 4.5 million (73.5% of the total population). Of these 47.9%are of working age (15-59), and 3.6% areaged from 60 to 69. According to data fromthe TLSS, about 80% of poor households livein rural areas. 65% of the labour force isemployed in agriculture. However, becauseof low salaries, the rural population sustaintheir livelihoods by informal activities andthe production of food on their private plots,as well as by trading. The priority forpoverty alleviation is the expansion of accessto land.

Dekhan farms have played an importantrole in the growth of agricultural production.The gross agricultural product of the dehkanfarms in 1999 was 273.5 billion TR. Of alldehkan farms, 39.7% are in GBAO, 6% inLO, 13.6% in KHO, and 40.6% in RRS.

11.1 Land reform in actionFollowing independence, Tajikistan startedon a programme of land privatisation.According to Article 13 of the Constitutionof the RT, land, water and other naturalwealth is state property, and the stateguarantees their rational use in the interestsof the people. At the same time, the statesupports free enterprise and protection of alltypes of property.

The main driving forces for the developmentof agriculture and the formation of marketrelations were:• Decree of the President of the RT of 1992,

which gave households the right to landand its inheritance;

• Decree of the President of the RT "OnRenting the Land" of 1992, under whichthe kolkhozes were entitled to rent the landto small farmers for periods rangingbetween 1 to 10 years. The Ministry ofAgriculture formed 80 new farms rangingin size from 500 to 1,500 ha;

• Decrees of the President of the RT of 1995and 1997 on the allotment of 75,000 hato households. Providing people withaccess to land was central in the solutionof several problems. 35 thousand new jobswere created. This increased the incomeof the rural population, helped to improveliving conditions and ensure the supplyof food. In addition, households were ableto cover not only their own needs, but alsoto expand trade in urban markets;

• Land Code of 1996, which strengthenedthe process of land reform. It became the

Table 1 Number of farms and their estimated area as of June 1999 Types of farms Number Area Share % Joint stock 43 55,000 6 Officially leasing farms 84 100,000 11 Collective farms (kolkhoz) 239 300,000 34 State farms (sovkhoz) 196 250,000 29 Dehkan farms 11,500 70,000 8 Dehkan associations 82 Lease’s associations 23 100,000 11 Total 880,000 100%

(WB)

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basis for the regulation of land relations,the rational use of land, renewal of landfertility, and the expansion of varioustypes of farming. By the law, there areno limitations on use of land, based onrace, gender, religion and nationality;

• Government Resolution of the RT "OnMeasures to Implement the Decree of thePresident as of 9 June 1999" and "On theReorganisation of the AgriculturalEnterprises", according to which thegradual reorganisation of 160agricultural enterprises is stipulated. Asof the January 1, 2000, 110 agriculturalenterprises have been reformed, creating426 farms with the total area of 271.2thousand ha. The Committee on LandResources was formed by theGovernment. Kolkhoz and sovkhoz. Thewish of their members was to reorganisethe existing institutions in to farms,collective and joint enterprises, jointstocks, and others. In 1998, there were358 kolkhoz, 345 sovkhoz, 35 rentedfarms, 33 co-operatives, and more than60 joint stock companies, and 65gardening organisations working onindustrial land. In rural areas there are68 small enterprises, where 1,431 peopleare employed, of which 155 women.

During the first stages of privatisation, smalland medium dehkan farms with an averagearea of 20 - 50 ha were set up. In the summerof 1999, the state started the process ofreforming 160 kolkhoz into larger farms.

11.2 ConstraintsSome problems continue to impede theagricultural development and aggravate thepoverty of the rural population. The slowland reform deter the efficient use of landfor agricultural production and creation ofjobs. The current management of the cottonindustry leads to the unpaid employment.Management s ystems fall behind therequirements of the market economy. Themain problems of the agricultural sector are:

Table 2 Data concerning registered dekhan farmsNumber of registered farms 9,174Cropping area (ha) 71,600Average area per farm (ha) 7.8Volume of the production, mln ofroubles

356.734

Share in the structure of GDP in % 2.6(SSA)

• Equal access to the land. Getting theright to land is a complicated procedure.Permission has to be received from thekolkhoz, jamoat, local land commission,notaries, Ministry of Justice, and the taxinspection authorities. Given this, it is nowonder that the reform of the stateagricultural enterprises to the dehkan(private) farms has been slow. To June1999, only 71,600 ha have been givenfor private use;

• Limited access to the markets. Theconstraints are unofficial high payments,and in the case of cotton: lack ofcompetition, interference of the state,payments arrears and low prices for theraw cotton;

• Lack of resources, high quality seeds andwater for irrigation;

• When the land is allotted to the people,the regional hukumats think that theirtask is fulfilled. However, it is estimatedby experts that 70% of farms do not havethe necessary technical means, such astractors and trucks. By the end of 1999,in the agricultural enterprises 46% oftractors and 65% of trucks were out ofoperation. The largest number of brokentractors are in GBAO, KHO, RRS. Dueto fuel shortages, in 1999, 47% less dieselfuel and 93% less petrol was provided toagricultural enterprises than in 1998;

• Though more than 70% of the productiveassets are in kolkhoz and sovkhoz, theyproduce only 30-35% of the grossagricultural production;

• Though there are more than 10 researchinstitutions on agriculture, their scientificresults are not implemented fully.

The other problems are such as the problemof the accumulated debts of the agriculturalenterprises, the collapse of the irrigationsystem, lack of subsidies for the water andelectricity use, deterioration of the qualityof specialists, weakened land and water useinstitutions.

11.3 Agriculture for industryThe future prospects of 80 branches ofindustry depend upon progress withinagriculture. Industries such as cottonprocessing and textile manufacturing arealmost exclusively dependent upon

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domestically produced raw materials.Thanks to recent growth in the agriculturalsector, for the first time since independencepositive growth in the national economy hasbeen achieved. According to the WB data,cotton covers more than 30% of the irrigatedland, and accounts for 30% of exports and30% of all state tax revenues. State controlover cotton production was abolished in1996. In 1999, 320 thousand tons of cottonwas harvested, mainly by hand, from 240thousand ha. The area of land devoted tocotton production has recently been reducedby 17%, with a subsequent reduction incotton production of 62%. The area undercotton was reduced in favour of cereals, inorder to address the national deficiency ofgrain.

11.4 Finance in rural areasThe official banking sector in Tajikistancurrently consists of 25 licensed commercialbanks, of which the 4 largest are responsiblefor 70% of credit and 90% of depositories.

During the period of macroeconomicinstability opportunities for creditdeteriorated. Given the complex financialsituation in many households, under aresolution passed in 1997, the Governmenttook over all debts in the mountainous areasof Tajikistan, amounting to around 4 billionTR. The debt recovery period for farms inthe plains and agricultural industrialenterprises was extended for a further 5years. This included about 2.5 billion TR.These measures provided significant financialhelp to public enterprises. However despitethis, the economic conditions of both publicand rented farms remained very poor, andin 1999 the Government converted the debts

of some enterprises into long-term loans(approx. 8 billion roubles).

By the order of the Government, over theperiod 1995-99 the National Bank ofTajikistan and commercial banks havegranted privileged (zero interest) credits toagricultural enterprises in the amount ofabout $203 million or 314 billion TR. Onaverage $180-300 has been spent per hectareunder cotton. According to agriculturalexperts, average cotton yields should bearound 25 centner (1 centner = 100 kg) perhectare. However, in reality, the averageharvest amongst most farms has been 12.8i.e. half that expected.

The main reason of the decline of theproduction is inefficient management. Thesystem of administration still is still old .There is a need to reform management at alllevels within the agricultural sector. TheDepartments in the Ministry of Agriculture,Irrigation, and in joint stock companies, oftenduplicate each other's functions. Lack ofcoordination impedes reforms. Any futurestrategy should be aimed at ensuring equaldistribution of income based on thestimulation of economic growth. In order toreduce poverty, agricultural assets should betransferred from the state to private hands.Assistance in the form of micro-credit shouldbe granted to vulnerable people for income-generating.

The public budget includes some provisionfor financing the agrarian reform. In addition,international donors are also providingsupport in this area. A joint WB project isalso being prepared to improve the efficiencyof water use and the reconstruction of theirrigation system.

International donors have also providedmicro-credits in rural settlements, targetedat vulnerable regions and groups of people(UNDP, WB, GAA, CARE, "Save theChildren/US", WFP and others). It isestimated that the livelihoods of more than90% of beneficiaries have improved - aremarkable success story. The WFP providessupport to vulnerable families by expandingaccess to land through provision of a leasecontract. Beneficiaries sign a contract for 4years for a plot of land varying in size

Tajikistan has significant potential in agriculturalscience. Within the biological sciences alone, there aremore than 10 research institutions working within theAcademy of Sciences, Academy of Agriculture, andthe Tajik Agrarian University. There are more thanone thousand highly qualified research fellows, of whomthere are 10 academicians, 20 associates, 50 doctorsof sciences, and more than 400 candidates of biology.Much useful research has been carried out, but not allof them have b een put into practice. Many types ofwheat and cotton have almost perished. The researchinstitutions should pay more attention to seedcultivation.

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between 0.5 to 1 ha. They then payapproximately 10-12% of income for rent andwater. In the period up to June 1999 about19,000 households on 12,400 ha hadparticipated in the WFP project.

11. 5 Developing high quality seedsIn 1998, the grain harvest was 500thousand tons. However, in 1999 the harvestamounted to just 475 thousand tons of grain,a decrease of 3.8 centner per hectare. Thereduction in yield is the result of poor qualityseeds, poor farming technique, lack of fuel,and delays in collecting the crops. The maintask is now to improve seed cultivation. In

order to provide farms with high qualityseeds, it is necessary to develop and organiseseed producing farms. Internationalorganisations, such as UNDP, WFP, FAO,GAA and others have provided assistancein the provision of seeds to households.

The agricultural sector presents significantopportunities for the country, but at presentthese opportunities are not being fullyexploited. The main task in agriculture is theprovision of wealth and well being to people.For this, new ways of achieving efficiency,especially in grain production, should be

examined. For the sound development of theeconomy it is necessary to change thetraditional approach to land management anduse, and to intensify the implementation ofagrarian reform. The main factorsconstraining agricultural development arepoor infrastructure, lack of inputs, markets,information and slow reforms both withinthe farms and in legislation.

Recommendations:• Ensure greater and equal access to land;• Inform share holders on their right to

land in dehkan farms and coops;• Develop flexible management practices

for the benefit of people;• Expand the freedom in choosing crops;• Strengthen the institutional capacities

for small scale production of cotton;• Improve irrigation systems;• Expand targeted forms of micro-

financing;• Develop agriculture with regard to

wider ecological factors;• Improve management, crediting and

accountability;• Include the indicators of the use of

resources for the assessment of success;• Strengthen the infrastructure and equip

farms with new technology;• Speed up the reforms.

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12. International Assistance

The Republic of Tajikistan is now recoveringfrom a period of political and socio-economiccrises. Civil war, natural calamities, and thebreakdown of the economic relationsbetween the former Soviet republics causedthe collapse of the economic system, reducedthe functional capacity of industrial andagricultural enterprises and deteriorated thecountry's infrastructure.

However, Tajikistan cannot solve thecomplex social and economic problems of thepost war period alone, and at presentinternational organisations and somenational governments are renderingsignificant and valuable assistance.

12.1 International assistanceThe main aim of humanitarian activities inTajikistan to date has been to support thepeace process through programmesfocussing on the social protection ofvulnerable people and projects on thereintegration of ex-combatants andreturnees. Humanitarian assistance toTajikistan has played a significant role insaving the lives of vulnerable people.However, with the conclusion of the peaceprocess in early 2000, the internationalcommunity is now exploring thepossibilities of addressing criticaldevelopment requirements in parallel tohumanitarian assistance.

Table 1 Humanitarian assistance in 2000Donors US$ %

ECHO 5,641,794 17.52Sweden 2,055,209 6.38Germany 1,423,922 4.42Denmark 822,281 2.55Finland 752,663 2.34USA 665,067 2.07Norway 609,989 1.89Swizerland 226,605 0.70Ireland 124,984 0.39United Kingdom 93,326 0.29Others 19,779,698 61.44Total 32,195,538 100.00 (OCHA)

Whilst external humanitarian aid renderedby international organisations to sociallyvulnerable groups of the population wouldbe needed for several years during postconflict period, relief assistance alone willnot be sufficient to ensure the sustainablerecovery of the social sector and theeconomic infrastructure. Parallel tohumanitarian needs are the criticaldevelopment requirments, which will helpthe country break from continuedeconomic decline and its collapsedinfrastructure.

In accordance with the Resolution of the54th session of the General Assembly, theSecretary General Kofi Annan presenteda Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal forHumanitarian Assistance to Tajikistan in2000. The Appeal includes a number ofprojects that promote transition from purerelief to rehabilitation and more sustainabledevelopment in the fields of food security,health, water supply, sewage, education,reintegration of former combatants andreturnees, and the rehabilitation of theurban and rural infrastructure.

The scale of rehabilitation activities thatare actually implemented will depend uponthe volume of financial resources receivedfrom the donor countries. The volume ofassistance received from donor countriesin response to the Consolidated Appeal hasfallen over time. In 2000, only $18.3 million(55.7%) of a total requirements of $34.8million was actually allocated by donorcountries in response to the UN Appeal.

In recent years the RT has used creditsfrom international financial institutions forpost conflict rehabilitation of the socialsectors and infrastructure. A credit ofUS$10 million from the World Bank hasbeen used to reconstruct damagedstructures. The rehabilitation in theKarategin zone 240 structures, as roads

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bridges, schools, hospitals, electricity lines,and water supply systems was covered bythis credit. The WB has also supportedmicro projects in other regions of Tajikistanfinanced by TACIF.

Under the leadership of the WFP, theinternational NGOs CARE, GAA, “Savethe Children/US”, Mercy Corp and othershave continued to provide targeted foodassistance to widows, elderly people livingalone, single parent families and otherdestitute and displaced. WFP distributed19,311 tons of food commodities during1999 for 373,000 beneficiaries. So, during1999 some 373,000 beneficiaries receivedfood assistance through the VulnerableGroup Feeding Programme, Food-for-Work, Land Lease and Schools Feedingprojects. From July 1999, WFP shifted itsfocus to rehabilitation and recoveryactivities. The number of beneficiaries wasreduced to 370,000 compared to 500,000.The food requirments stayed the samethough, since the Food-for-Work activitieshave been expanded. However, in 2000WFP had to focus mainly on emergencyassistance to over a million people severelyaffected by the drought.

In September 1999, the FAO conducted anassessment of food security in 110households in KHO. The results of thesurvey found that one third of thehouseholds' food needs were covered bytheir own production and croppin g. Halfwas covered by purchased products fromthe market, and the remainder was coveredby humanitarian help. According to theTLSS, 77% of households consumed foodproducts grown on their private plots athome, and 23% received humanitarian aid.Humanaitarian assistance accounted for 8%of the total household income of poorfamilies compared to 4% of rich families.More than 60% of those interviewedreported that the harvest of wheat in 1999was considerably lower than in 1998because of the poor quality of seeds and lackof fertilisers.

In 1999, assistance to agriculture mainlyfocused on supplying farms with seeds,fertilisers, tools, and techniques and on landrehabilitation. In the Karategin valley and

Khatlon oblast UNDP/UNOPS and FAOprovided the means of production toreturnees and also helped to improveveterinary services.

In the health sector a positive result wasachieved in combating malaria and typhoidthanks to international assistance fromUNICEF and WHO, along with otherNGOs. The public budget for health careis still very limited and in 1999 the level ofhealth expenditures per capita was just $1per annum. People could not afford to buymedicine to treat even infectious diseases.UNFPA has provided technical assistance,equipment and the supply ofcontraceptives. WHO technical assistancehas also strengthened the capacity buildingof the national system of health.

Major investments are needed in thereconstruction of the water supply system,as contaminated water causes water-bornintestinal diseases. The situation isparticularly acute in rural areas, whereonly 35% of people have access to safewater is 35%. Less than 17% of populationhave access to central sewage. UNDP/UNOPS has conducted the rehabilitationof the water supply for 65,000 people inKulyab. With the support of UNICEF,IFRC and NGOs, the pumps and filterswere repaired.

Between January and October 1999,UNHCR repatriated 4,000 refugees fromTurkmenistan, Kazakhstan andKyrgyzstan. The total number ofrepatriated refugees was 5,000. It isexpected that 5,000 more refugees willreturn to the country in 2000. UNHCR hasprovided assistance with the reconstructionof ruined houses.

12.2 UNDP assistance in poverty reductionUNDP is implementing through UNOPSa number of labour intensive projectsfocussed on the rehabilitation ofinfrastructure and reintegration of ex-combatants in Karategin valley and KHO.The total number of beneficiaries is about2 million people. These programmes aresupported by the Governments of the USA,Canada, Switzerland, and Japan. Withinthe framework of the programmes, the

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rehabilitation of roads, bridges, airportsand markets are being reconstructed, aswell infrastructure related to education,health, water supply, and agriculture. In1999, in the Shaartuz region, 88subprojects on the reconstruction ofinfrastructure have been completed(amounting to $1,064,204) and 87subprojects are on going ($1,170,006). Inthe Kulyab region, 86 subprojects havebeen completed ($1,609.471) and 47subprojects are on going ($968,098). In theGarm region 74 subprojects have beencompleted ($824,478) and theimplementation of 119 subprojects are ongoing ($1,955,103).

The reintegration programme in the Garmregion provides jobs for the formercombatants. In 1999, UNDP/UNOPS

“Reconstruction, Rehabilitation andDevelopment Programme” startedrealisation of 77 projects supported byUSAID ($1,570,000) and the Governmentsof Canada and Norway ($1,000,000). Theprogress in stability in this region is a markof the success of the UNDP/UNOPSactivities and participation of all groups ofpopulation in the development of theregion. This is important for the stabilityof the country. The strengthening andcontinuation of these projects is a priorityfor the Government, as any reduction inthe projects will cause unemploymentamong former ex-combatants with theassociated risk that they may take upweapons again. The FAO, WFP, GAA,PSF have also provided food and medicineaid to these communities.

People are no longer passive recipients ofthe humanitarian aid, but rather they haveactively participated in the decision makingprocesses concerning long termdevelopment, in particular: the creation ofjobs, the expansion of opportunities forwomen, the provision of micro-credits andseeds to families for agricultural products,and the expansion of access to socialservices.

UNDP development projects play animportant role in resolving conflictsituations and defending the rights ofminorities. Thus, UNDP through UNOPSoffice in Khujand has recently opened aproject in LO (Sughd oblast) ,which is alsooperating in the terrotory of Kyrgystan toease social tensions caused by the use ofthe water resources.

Table 2. Funding to the 2000 UN Consolidated Inter- Agency Appeal for Tajikistan as of 19 January 2001 (US$)AppealingAgency(Jan-Dec 2000)

Appealrequirements

Contributions Carryover Totalresourcesavailable

Unmetrequirements

Requirementscovered (%)

FAO 3,515,200 802,430 0 802,430 2,712,770 22.8IOM 1,895,000 0 0 0 1,895,000 0.0OCHA 587,968 100,000 0 100,000 487,968 17.0UNCHR 125,430 0 0 0 125,430 0.0UNDP 3,229,938 93,750 0 93,750 3,136,188 2.9UNFPA 1,325,258 0 0 0 1,325,258 0.0UNHCR 1,000,000 480,000 0 480,000 520,000 48.0UNICEF 2,235,000 473,516 0 473,516 1,761,484 21.2WFP 16,706,206 15,576,654 8,738,327 24,314,981 0 100.0WHO 4,221,820 760,821 0 760,821 3,460,999 18.0Total 34,841,820 18,287,171 8,738,327 27,025,498 15,425,097 55.7

(OCHA)

A severe drought damages the wheatand grain harvest

In 2000 Tajikistan has experienced asevere drought-the worst drought to hitthe country in 74 years. Rain-fed wheatcrops have failed in most parts of thecountry resulting in dramatic foodshortages. Obsolete irrigation systemscontribute to the gravity of the crises. Itis estimated that nearly half of thepopulation are affected by the drought.of which WFP consideres 1.2 million tobe in direct need of food assistance untilthe next harvest in July 2001. The DonorAlert requested a total US$ 76.6 million,representing the most urgentrequirments of the drought-affectedpopulation.

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UNDP's mission is to assist theGovernment in poverty reduction bytraining and the implementation of projectsaimed at poverty reduction, theempowernment of women andenvironmental protection. With thefinancial and technical support of UNDPand the WB, in May 1999 the StateStatistical Agency carried out the first"Tajik Living Standards Survey". Thissurvey filled the information gap byproviding a profile of poverty within thecountry and ensuring all the relevantMinistries have access to this information.Thus, the technical, and statistical toolswere put in place for monitoring povertyreduction.

12.3 International economic cooperationIt is worth mentioning the initiative ofESCAP in the development of the specialUN Programme for the Economies ofCentral Asian countries (SPECA).Thisprogramme is a joint activity of the CARin transition, and it is designed for 5-6years. Several meetings of the workinggroups have been organised to discuss suchof issues as transport, the simplificationof customs procedures, effective use ofwater and energy resources. Thisprogramme has also supported theorganisation of an InternationalConference on Tajikistan, within thecontext of a general strategy of regionaldevelopment and attraction of foreigninvestments.

In an environment where peace andnational accord have been achieved, nowthe priorities for Tajikistan are themobilisation of domestic opportunities torevive the economy, the creation ofincentives for foreign investments, and theattraction of resources of internationalfinancial and credit institutions, such as theIMF, EBRD, WB, ADB, IBD. All thesefinancial and credit institutions are partnersin the RT, and grant credits to theGovernment of the RT for reconstruction

and rehabilitation of priority sectors. Theother very important trend of internationaleconomic cooperation is the intensificationof Tajikistan's integration within theinternational and regional organisations.

Tajikistan is a participating member of anumber of interstate bodies including theCIS, the Central Asian EconomicCommunity, the Organisation for EconomicCooperation, and the Organisation of theIslamic Conference. Continuing co-operation within the framework of theseinternational bodies is a priority. At thesame time, the activation of Tajikistan'srelations with the counties of the EC is alsoa priority. The countries of the EC are maindonors to the international humanitarianorganisations. Tajikistan now has theopportunity to expand and deepen bilateralcooperation with the countries of Europe,who can become active partners in thecourse of the financial and credit revival ofits economy. Within Asia, the prioritypartners for Tajikistan are such states asJapan, the Republic of Korea, the ChinesePeople's Republic and some other countriesof South- Eastern Asia.

In Andarak, south of Kyrgyzstan, there are threevillages with a total population of 9.5 thousand people.In one of them, located up the river, there live 4,000Tajiks. In the rrigation season water did not alwaysreach the Kyrgyz villages, located down the river. Lackof water caused the social tension. Even the Councilof Elders could not relieve the tension. UNDP/UNOPSoffice in Khujand, having studied the system of watersupply in Andarak, opened a project for the watersupply of three villages. The project involves the layingof 16 km of pipes, construction of purification plantsand reservoirs for the irrigation. During theimplementation of the project Tajiks and Kyrgyzscooperated together in the search for a commonsolution, taking shared responsibility for the success ofthe project and its sustainability. The water supply isimproving. In the course of the joint work theconfidence and good will between two communities hasbeen strengthened. Thus, human development has beenpromoted by the equal participation of the minoritiesin the decisions concerning their lives.

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Section III.Threats to Human Security13. Morbidity and Mortality

Previously the notion of “security” wasinterpreted in the narrowest sense, meaningonly protection from nuclear extinction andother threats to the independence andterritorial integrity of a country. However,this understanding referred more to thestate, than to an individual. In accordancewith this understanding, a system ofsecurity was created so that priority wasgiven first to the security of the state andthen to the security of the society and finallythe individual.

With independence, Tajikistan experiencedreal and potential threats to its fragilesovereignty and internal stability. Weakinstitutions to enforce the observance oflaws, growing inequalities in the distributionof income, the consequences of long civilconfrontation and several natural calamitiesall combined to threaten the social, economicand political development of the country.Given these circumstances the Governmentfaced the necessity of ensuring security topeople, as well as society and the state.

In Tajikistan the most common concerns arethe problems of poverty, criminality,epidemic diseases, the ecological situation,and the lack of energy, and resources forsocial programmes on education, health andsocial protection. In the years ofconfrontation a significant proportion ofresources were allocated to the armedforces, and the needs and interests ofcommon people were overlooked. Thus,many years of civil war caused not onlythe loss of human lives, but also the growthof military expenditure. They absorbedalready scarce resources, which could have

been used for education, and other aspectsof human development.

For the majority of the people, the feelingof personal security is related to security intheir everyday life and confidence in thefuture. Will they work tomorrow and havea source of income? Will they be harassedby criminals? Do they feel protected fromhunger, disease, unemployment andecological disasters? Human securityencompasses access to social services,opportunities for free and safe choice,protection from violence, deprivations andnegative impact from environment. Thus,human security is directly linked withsustainable human development. Withoutdevelopment it is difficult to achieve alltypes of security not only human, but alsosocial and political security. At the sametime if people do not feel they are protectedin everyday life, it is difficult to achievesustainable development.

Increasing poverty slows down humandevelopment and weakens security. Thesenegative factors push people to search forother sources of income, sometimes just forsurvival, through the narcotics business,corruption, and it spreads alarm andinstability among population. The causes ofsocial instability and conflicts lie not onlyin the negative impact of external factors,but also in the horizontal inequalities anddeepening deprivations of people. In thiscontext the necessity of a new approach toboth governance and security is evident.

Such an approach should serve the interestsof people and ensure their basic needs.

“Human security will be regarded as universal, global and indivisible. Just imagineevery drug, that quietly kills, every disease that silently travels, every form of pollutionthat roams the globe, every act of terrorism that destroys life senselessly,… we shallrealise today that concerns for human security are more globalized today. Drugs, andAIDS and pollution, and terrorism stop at no national frontier today.” (Mahbub ul Haq. New Imperatives of Human Security, UNDP,1995)

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Priorities in the policy of security shouldchange:• from security of state and territory to

security of an individual;• from security through arms to security

through sustainable coherentdevelopment.

One of the most important tasks should bethe fight against human insecurity ineveryday life and the elimination of itscauses, including TB, AIDS, drugs,corruption, violation of human rights andfreedoms, lack of access to safe water andnutrition, income inequalities andenvironmental pollution. The list of thesethreats can be broken down into: economic,personal, ecological and others. Thefollowing sections deal with each of theseareas in turn and recommendations onpriority actions are proposed.

13. Morbidity and mortalityThe health of population, according toWHO, includes the overall physical, mentaland social well-being of the population. Onlyhealthy people that are full of life can bringup and educate a healthy future generationand promote sustainable humandevelopment. Life expectancy in Tajikistanis 68.4. The health of the population dependsnot only on access to health services, butalso on nutrition, living conditions ofpopulation, and ecological factors.

A negative consequence of transition hasbeen an increase in the morbidity (ill health)

of the population. The population suffersfrom chronic as well as infectious diseasessuch as TB, malaria, and STDs - diseaseswhich prior to independence were largelycontrolled, with low incidence.

Table 1 shows mortality in Tajikistan in 1998and 1999 by cause of death. Mortality fromdiseases associated with blood circulationconstituted almost half of all mortality in1999, accounting for the deaths of 10,8thousand of people. This was an increase of9% on 1998. Absolute levels of mortalityfrom diseases of the digestive system alsogrew by 2.6%, largely as a result of poornutrition and consumption of contaminatedwater and products, associated with thepoor preservation of food stuffs.

13.1 The growth of diseases associated withstress and life styleIll health can be caused by increased stressand poor nutrition, as well as life-stylefactors such as smoking and drinking. Thegrowing level of drug addiction in the RT isa matter of concern. Drug use, smoking and

Table 1. Mortality by cause, 1998-1999 ( number of people)1998 1999

Total number of deaths, of which 26,816 25,384From blood circulation disease 9,896 10,786From respiratory disease 4,847 3,166From infectious and parasitic diseases of which 2,402 1,872 TB 443 480From tumours 1,439 1,582From digestive disease 1,115 1,144From incidents, trauma, poisons 2,082 1,522

(SSA)

Table 2. Life style indicators, 1990–19971990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997

Number of cigarettes smoked percapita 1,070 962 621 1,080 1,231 1,251 1,263 1,241Average amount of calories perday per capita 2,668 2,130 2,335 2,338 2,300 2,265 2,129 n/a

(WHO, MH, 1999)

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Table 4.Causes of child mortality under 1( people)RT

Infectious 540Respiratory 636Pneumonia 14In born pathology 128In prenatal state 565Of all causes 2,220 (SSA)

Table 3. Main children diseases in 1999 ( thousand of people)Name of illness Under 14 %

childrenunder 14

Infectious 153.2 5.9Digesting 51.6 2.0Nervous system 52.1 2.0Blood circulation 31.5 1.2Respiratory 420.8 16.3Trauma and poisoning 44.2 1.9 (SSA)

alcohol consumption all impact upon thepotential of future generations. In order toreduce the health risks associated with life-style choices it is important to increase thelevel of health awareness amongst thepopulation. In 1998, a number of publichealth initiatives aimed at improving thehealth of the nation were launched, includingprogrammes on combating smoking andconsumption of alcohol. The benefits forhealth of sports clubs and other facilitieshave also been recognised and in 1999 inRT 98 sport schools offered various kindsof sport to 27,626 children and teenagers.

Inappropriate, irregular and insufficientnutrition along with frequent diseases,pregnancies and deliveries have resulted ina growth in the number of people sufferingfrom anaemia in Tajikistan. Nationalexperts estimate that 80% of pregnantwomen suffer from iron deficiency; andamongst women of fertile age prevalenceof anaemia has increased from 32% to 56%.The Government has adopted a nationalprogramme on the reduction of anaemia,with the aim of reducing the prevalence ofanaemia to 30% by 2001. The programmeincludes preventive measures such asenrichment of wheat flour with iron as wellas treatment of iron deficiency.

Living conditions also impact upon health.Lack of electricity and heating combinedwith overcrowding, particularly in ruralareas, have contributed to the increase inrespiratory infections. Frequent power cutsand electricity shortages have meant thatmore families have become dependent onorganic fuel as a source of heat and cookingfuel. Large rural families often live in oneroom, where the air pollution caused byburning wood for heating is very high.

Children in particular are suffering. Eachyear, more than 400,000 cases of acuterespiratory infections are registered amongchildren under 14. Pneumonia accounts forone in every 15 such cases. The majority ofchildren who die from respiratory infectionseither received no qualified medical help orapplied for help too late. According to datafrom OCHA, in the first nine months of 19992,500 children died from the infectiousdiseases and 400 children died from typhoid.

28% of children under the age of 5 annuallysuffer from diarrhoea.

In 1999, 5,588 people were assessed by the“medical qualifying commission” registeredas disabled. The majority (87%) were of thelowest category of disabled but ofemployable age. Just over a third werewomen (37%), three-quarters of whomwere of the lowest category. The numberof persons newly registered as disabled onthe basis of blood circulation diseasesincreased by 6.8% between 1998 and 1999,digestive disease by 1.8 times, and traumaby 1.5 times. In response to this, in 1999 theInstitute of Gastroentorology organised anumber of seminars on appropriate nutritionand the prevention of digestive diseases.

13.2 Infectious diseasesThe weakening of public health andsanitation services over the last decade hasresulted in the growth of infectious diseasessuch as dysentery, typhoid, malaria, andTB. The incidence of TB grew by 349%between 1993 and 1998, and malariaincreased 150 fold between 1990 and 1997.

Low quality drinking water is the maincause of the rise in intestinal infections.According to the data from the Republicansanitary epidemiological stations, only 55%of the population have access to cleanwater. 80% of water pipes are leaking, withthe result that water is contaminated. There

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Table 5. Morbidity of population with infectious diseases per 100,000 populationMorbidity 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999TB 39.61 30.08 11.74 15.68 32.24 28.10 35.45 40.8 42Syphilis 1.70 2.90 4.93 7.86 14.75 19.16 22.38 16.3 8.6Malaria 5.50 7.27 11.14 42.39 106.00 282.71 497.7 322.7 222Diphtheria 0.09 0.29 12.20 33.53 77.38 24.98 11.96 2.8 1.0Tetanus 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.04Poliomyelitis 2.15 0.09 0.25 0.46 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00AIDS 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

(WHO, MH, SSA, 1999)

is a lack of chlorine for water purificationand measures taken to improve the qualityof water are confined to big towns. Themajority of the rural population use waterfrom open sources. Unless the quality ofwater is improved, there remains a risk of afurther outbreak of cholera.

A number of programmes have contributedto the health care of population. Their aimsreflect global priorities and the programmesare supported by various internationalorganisations such as WHO, UNICEF,UNFPA and UNAIDS . The Ministry ofHealth, with the help of internationalorganisations as WHO and UNICEF, hasconducted national immunisation days in1998 and 1999. Polio in 1999 was reducedto 0.69 cases per 100,000 children under 15.Cases of diphtheria fell from 77.4 per100,000 in 1994 to 2.8. However, theincidence of new TB cases grew from 1,647cases in 1996 to 2,553 in 1999 and TB contolhas emerged as a priority health issue.

Another priority is control of malaria. InKHO regions, neighbouring withAfghanistan, repatriated refugees haveacted as vehicles for malaria. In 1997, therewere 30,054 cases registered in the Kurgan-Tube area, of which 16% were P. falciparumtropic malaria. As a result of the antimalariacampaign, conducted with the help ofinternational organisations, in 1998 theofficial number of malaria cases recordedfell to 19,361. During the campaign, 25million m2 of land, including both dwellingsand cattle breeding stables, were cleanedand disinfected. In just a year morbidityfrom malaria halved. The Centre forControl of Tropical Diseases was set up. In1998, an anti-malaria campaign wassupported by the Government of Japan ($1million), and in 1999 - 2000 by ECHO ($1million).

Low levels of knowledge within thepopulation on the prevention and spread ofSTDs and HIV remains a problem,

National and branch programmes onhealth protection of population

• National Presidental Programme ofHealth Care Reforms in the RT for2000-2010;

• National Programme "ReproductiveHealth and Reproductive Right for2000-2003";

• National Programme "Strategy of theRT on Health Care for 2005";

• National Programme on TB Preventionand Control for 1996-2000 ;

• National Programme on Preventionand Control of Iodine Deficiency for1997-2001;

• National Programme on AIDSPrevention and Control for 1997-1998;

• National programme on Prevetion andControl of Tropic Diseases for 1997-2005;

• National Programme on DiarrhoeaControl for 1996-2000;

• National Programme on Immuno-prophilactics for 1995-2000;

• UNFPA and Government Programmeon Reproductive Health and Access toFamily Planning;

• Joint Programme of Ministry ofHealth and UNICEF on Control ofRespiratory Infections for 1998-2000;

• Sector Programme on SupportingBreastfeeding for 1998-2005;

• Sector Programme on ReproductiveHealth and Family Planning.

The Programmes on Nutrition, Control ofSmoking and Alcohol are underpreparation.

(WHO)

8 4

been renewed since they it was established.

The main document on AIDS prevention isthe Law "On AIDS Prevention". In 1997,the National Programme was adopted for“HIV/AIDS and STD Prevention andControl”. The Thematic Group on AIDS,includes UNAIDS, UNDP, UNFPA,UNICEF, WHO, UNODCCP and theWorld Bank. The national strategy p lansto organise the workshops, include HIV/AIDS information into the school curricula,print textbooks, train clinics and diagnosis;ensure mass media coverage; organiseevents on the World UNAIDS Day,conduct survey on HIV/AIDS prevention.

13.3 Ecological factorsIndustrial pollutants are a serious problem.Recent research has highlighted the impactof the pollution produced by the TajikAluminium Plant on the environment andthe health of the population in thesurrounding area. Pregnant women andchildren in Tursun-Zade, are 28% morelikely to seek medical help than inecologically safe regions. The incidence ofrespiratory pathologies, digestive diseases,iodine deficiency, and reproductive healthdiseases have all increased.

13. 4 Reforms in the health care systemIn Soviet times the success of the health caresystem was measured on the basis of thesuccess of the whole system. The numberof doctors and beds in outpatient andinpatient medical establishments was setwithout regard to local levels of need, andthere was little emphasis on early diagnosisand prevention.

In 1999, the President adopted aProgramme on Health Care Reforms for2000-2010. The central aim of the reformsis to ensure equal access to health servicesfor the population. The main principlesunderlying the reform of the health sectorare: prioritisation and strengthening of theprimary health care services, thedistribution of resources according to needs,the provision of information necessary formanaging services efficiently, therationalisation of services, improvement inthe quality of services, staff training,strengthening systems of governance, and

especially among drug users. HIV/AIDS,along with drugs, present a real threat tofuture generations if preventive measuresare not introduced in time. The age of usersis getting younger. Surveys carried out inDushanbe showed that 22% of schoolchildren and 8.2 % of students had trieddrugs. At present, there are just 5 persons ,registered as HIV positive. They wereinfected by syringe (2 cases) and by sex(three cases). There are no infected childrenand there are no cases of full blown AIDS.However, the official data do not reflect thereal picture of the spread of HIV and STDin the country. There is no new diagnosticequipment as the equipment in thediagnostic laboratories on AIDS has not

• In the first half of 2000, TheRepublican HIV/AIDS Preventionand Control Centre, with the financialsupport of the UN Thematic Group,conducted a number of seminars onthe diagnosis and treatment of HIV/AIDS. These were attended by 25experts from health sector;

• Previously closed regional AIDScentres are again functioning;

• 20,000 copies of four types ofbooklets with information on AIDShave been published anddisseminated;

• In Dushanbe, two centres for thetreatment of drug users have been setup. The centres provide anonymousconsultations and in 2000 there havebeen over 140 visits to them.However, due to lack of testingequipment, no examination for HIVinfection was provided. (The Republican HIV/AIDS Centre)

8 5

Table 6. Health care indicators in19991999

Number of doctors (thousand ) 1,308.6Per 10 ,000 population 21.1Number of nurses (thousand ) 3,2361Per 10 ,000 population 52.8Number of medical establishments 43.3Number of beds 41,503Per 10 ,000 population 68Number of ambulatory establishments(policlinics) 998Number of attendances ( thousand) 56.7Per 10 ,000 population 92.6Number of medical houses 1,647Children policlinics and children departments 282Mortality per 1,000 people (%) 4.1

(SSA)

increasing awareness amongst the generalpopulation of their personal responsibilityfor their health.

The programme of reforms in the healthsector to 2001 includes a reduction in thenumber of hospital beds, the strengtheningof primary health care services, theeducation of family doctors, modernisationof medical technologies, adoption of thenational programmes, and the introductionof new methods of financing. The numberof hospital beds has already been cut from62,700 in 1993 to 41,000 in 1998. PHCservices will be strengthened by reallocationof the budget and training and re-trainingof family doctors, nurses, teachers andexperts. In future they will provideimmunisation services and assistance withdeliveries at home as well as carrying out

preventive work regarding infectiousdiseases and other sanitary andepidemiological work. 46 family doctorsand 11 nurses have already been trained.39% of doctors and 35% of secondary levelmedical personnel are employed in PHCcentres. It is expected that in future the shareof medical personnel in PHC will exceedthat in the hospitals.

Recommendations:• Strengthen primary health care services;• Improve medical services by high

quality training of personnel;• Strengthen the infrastructure and inputs

of medical establishments;• Ensure continuing access to health care

amongst vulnerable groups during theimplementation of health care reforms;

• Increase the salariest to medical staff;• The Ministry of Health should facilitate

the implementation of the Programmeon Health Care Reforms for 2000-2010,and the Programme on ReproductiveHealth and Reproductive Rights;

• Activites for strengthening familyplanning should be promoted;

• Improve the prevention of infectiousdiseases;

• Involve NGOs in the promotion ofhealthy life styles;

• Co-operate with the internationalorganisations.

8 6

14.1 Social protection and deprivationSocial protection enables people with specialneeds to make use of the new opportunities forpersonal development, lead a healthy anddecent life, and be socially included. However,the existing system of social protection is underpressure because of the growing number ofpeople in need in Tajikistan. The changesaccompanying economic and politicaltransition have resulted in the emergence ofnew groups of vulnerable people including ablebodied workers on low salaries i.e. the workingpoor and households with many children; butthe social protection system has yet to bereformed to cover all these new vulnerablegroups. Although a formal network of socialprotection exists, it currently provides only twokinds of benefits - pensions and targeted cashcompensation payments. The level of benefitsis often inadequate; the value of the averagepension is around 35% of the average salary,and the average salary is equivalent to aroundone-third of the consumption basket. In theseconditions, vulnerable people are increasinglyreliant on informal help from relatives and thecommunity than on the formal safety net.

Families in Tajikistan are large. In 1999, theaverage family size was 7 people; in urbanareas 5.6, and in rural areas, 7.8. Childrenunder 16 constitute 45% of the total population,whilst elderly people (aged 65 and over) makeup 7.4%. Both these groups are over-represented in vulnerable groups. Particularattention should also be paid to street childrenand orphans. In Dushanbe alone there are morethan 1,000 street and homeless children, and inthe country as a whole there are 1,342 orphansin boarding schools. It is important to facilitatethe social participation of these groups,

particularly to prevent them from becominginvolved in a life of crime.

During transition, poverty in Tajikistan hasincreased; both income poverty and alsocapability poverty in terms of health, educationand personal development. Poverty ismultidimensional, and has many facesincluding disease, low income, rising crime, anddeprivation.

According to the TLSS data, there is a regionaldimension of poverty in Tajikistan. Theprobability of being in the poorest fifth of thepopulation is 7 times higher in Badakhshan,and 4-5 times higher in LO and KHO, than inDushanbe. However, in spite of the high levelof poverty in Badakhshan, it accounts for only7% of the poorest fifth of people in the country.The task of the social protection system is toovercome extreme poverty and deprivation inbasic needs, such as clothes, food and shelter.

14.2 An objective picture of povertyIn analysis using the TLSS, the WB and theSSA presented several options regarding thechoice of what would constitute a povertyline in the RT including: the minimumconsumption basket; the international povertystandard of per capita household expendituresof less than $2.15 PPP per day; the low incomecountries standard of $1.075 PPP per day; aper capita household of 10,000 TR and 20,000TR.

The level of poverty varies depending uponwhich poverty line is chosen. However, it isfair to say that:• 96% of people live in households where the

Table 1 Poverty measures in Tajikistan ( individuals)Poverty line % poor(a) Minim al consumption basket 1999 (32,083 TR) 96(b) $2.15 PPP a day ( poverty line = 15,111 TR a month) 68(c) $1.075 PPP a day ( poverty line = 7,557 TR) 17(d) State Statistical Agency ‘ Very Poor’ ( poverty line=10,000 TR) 35.5(e) State Statistical Agency ‘ Poor’ ( poverty line=20,000 TR) 82.8

(Falkingham 2000) . Poverty is measured by per capita household expenditures

14. Low Income and Social Protection

8 7

per capita monthly household expenditureis less than the minimal consumption basket.

• Over two-thirds of households are poor usingthe international poverty standard of $2.15PPP

• 17% of people live in households where theper capita household expenditure is less than$1.075 PPP a day, or less than 7,566 TR amonth.

According to data from the TLSS, the averageincome from employment amongst the poorestfifth of the population is 6,218 TR, which is athird of that received by the richest fifth - 20,193TR. Official registered unemployment is 3%.However, if hidden and unregisteredunemployment is taken into account, the ratemay be as high as 33%.

An alternative indicator of poverty is theprevalence of acute and chronic malnutritionamong children in the society. A number ofdifferent surveys were carried out in Tajikistanbetween 1994 and 1999. The nutritional statusof children appears to have deteriorated overtime with, at the end of the 1990s, nearly halfof all Tajik children are experiencing modeststunting.

A high rate of iron and vitamin deficiency isobserved among people of reproductive age(15-49) and children under 5, reflecting the lackof good and sound nutrition. The extent ofstunting and iodine deficiency among childrenfrom 6 to 12 is higher in GBAO than in otherregions. The prevalence of stunting iswidespread in GBAO (53%), very serious inKHO (39%) and problematic in LO (20%).

14.3 Subjective perceptions of povertySubjective perceptions of poverty vary. In theTLSS respondents were asked to placethemselves on a nine-step ladder bearing inmind that the extremely poor would be at thebottom of the ladder (step 1) and the rich wouldbe at the top (step 9). The majority ofhouseholds in Tajikistan ranked themselves asbeing on the bottom half of the ladder, with11% extremely poor (rung 1), 23% on rung 2and 31% on rung 3.

When people were asked what they thoughtpoverty meant typical answers included a lackof clothing, shortage of goods, low wages, lowpensions, lack of land and cattle, as well as anumber of other indicators. Thus, the majority

of families in Tajikistan report that they feelpoor. The matching of objective and subjectiverankings was statistically significant, with themajority of households ranking themselveswithin one category of their actual objectiveranking.

The TLSS also collected other data whichprovide an indication of poverty. 65% ofrespondents were either unsatisfied or veryunsatisfied with their life at present; 77% ofhouseholds reported that they were concernedabout their ability to provide families withfoodstuff in future; and 50% of families hadreduced the number of meals that they eat in aday and/or were eating smaller proportions.This may have a damaging long term impacton the nutritional and health status of thepopulation. These findings are disturbing asthey indicate high levels of psychological stress.

14.4 The structure of income and expendituresEmployment remains the important source ofincome for the families, but it is no longer aguarantor of well being; it accounts for just athird of the total income of the poor and justover 40% of the income of the rich. Thecombined income from the sale of foodstuffsand households assets, on average, accountsfor a similar share. The majority ofhouseholds have plots of land and report

Table 2 Acute and chronic malnutrition among children aged 5 years.Survey done by Year Modest

underweight (%)Modeststunting (%)

CARE 1994 3.6 30AKF 1994 2.9 40.4AKF 1996 5.8 44.6GAA 1996 10 40.7GAA 1998 11 46AKF 1998 6.1 53.8Action against hunger 1999 6.7 41

(WB)

New indicators of inequality for Tajikistan

For the first time the Gini coefficient has been calculatedfor independent Tajikistan. The richest 10% of thepopulation receive an income almost10 times higher thanthe poorest 10%, and spend 4 times more than poor.• The Gini coefficient using expenditures per capita is

0.32;• The Gini coefficient using income per capita is 0.47In 1989 the Gini coefficient for the republic usinghousehold income was estimated as 0.308 and over thelast 10 years it has grown to 0.47.(Jane Falkingham, Poverty in Tajikistan, 2000)

8 8

Table 3. The structure of total income by households in quintiles

Poor 20% Rich 20%Salary 32 42Sale of crops and foodstuff 16 10Sale of personal assets 14 15Sale of commercial things 1 3Income from renting 1 1Withdrawal of savings 2 3Remittances 14 12Humanitarian aid 8 4Social subsidy 6 5Other 7 6Total 100% 100%

(TLSS)

that private gardening is important forsurvival. Poorer households have less area perhead; an average of 5.5 sotok per capita,

compared to 11.5 amongst the rich. Remittancesare also very important, whilst the role of thestate in providing a safely net is very small.Even amongst those households in the bottomfifth of the distribution of expenditure, socialtransfers only account for eight percent ofincome

The poorest households devote 79% of theirresources to food. Little however is spent incash terms, and they cover most of their needsfor food through subsistence farming andhumanitarian aid. Expenditures on other itemsincluding clothing, books, durable goods,vacations and marriage-associated expenses,vary strongly between the rich and poorhouseholds.

14.5 Coping strategiesThe main survival strategy in Tajikistan isaccess to land and having the ability toproduce foodstuffs. According to TLSS data,79% of households have access to plots of land.

Other coping strategies include humanitarianaid, (23%), reduction of number and quantityof hot meals per day (60%), sale of privateassets (25%), borrowing (30%). 7% of thepoorest households reported having resortedto begging in the six months prior to the survey.

The structure of nutrition has also changed. 85%of households report that they have shifted tocheaper meals, the consumption of meat andeggs also was reduced. 61% of households hadnot consumed any eggs in the seven days beforethe survey, 85% had not eaten confectionery,and 50% had had no meat. In contrast, theconsumption of bread had increased. Poornutrition will impact upon the human potentialof future generations.

14.6 Food securityIn 1999, households had on average 2.5 mealsper day; this was slightly down on 2.6 in 1997.The number of households consuming only onemeal a day increased from 10% in 1997 to 13%in 1999. The provision of foodstuff depends onthe pace of land reform. In order to submit anapplication for land and to be granted acertificate, permission is needed from about nineoffices, starting with the kolkhoz and endingwith the tax inspector. Access to micro creditsis at present limited to less than 50,000households out of a total of 600,000.Information on the legal rights of rural peopleand their opportunities is very limited and doesnot reach everyone. Moreover, the continuingerosion of land is a major concern, affecting30% of all land. At the beginning of 1999 about1.4 million of beneficiaries were in receipt offood aid.

14. 7 The Social Protection FundAccording to data from the Social ProtectionFund, 582,101 pensioners receive labour andsocial pensions, (9% of population). Of the totalnumber of pensioners, 47% (or 262,500) arewomen.

In 1999, according to the approved budget, theSocial Protection Fund was due to receive26,015 million TR. In reality it actually received24,186 million TR i.e. 92.9% of expectedrevenues. The Fund spent 24,440 million TRi.e. 94% of planned expenditures (of which253.8 million TR was carried forward fromthe previous year). In 1999, payments of socialand labour pensions were 90% of planned,payment of pension to working pensioners was

Table 4 Composition of expenditures of poor and rich householdsExpenditures Poorest

20%Richest

20%Expenditure for nutrition 48 45Íome made products 21 13Food aid 10 2Total for food 79 60Communal services 4 4Education 2 3Health 3 7Other 12 25Total 100% 100%Average expenditures in (TR) 47,450 176,370

(TLSS)

8 9

176%, payment of benefits for temporarydisability 189%, unemployment 88%, andothers 94%. Benefits for childcare were paidto 13,033 women (159% of planned).

According to the Law "On State SocialInsurance" and the Resolution of the MajlisiOli on the order of its implementation, from 1January 1999 1% of salaries have beenallocated to individual personal accounts. InFebruary 1999, the Resolution "On order ofintroduction of accumulative fees into statesocial insurance" was adopted.

The Social Protection Fund has started to

reform the social security system to move to afunded basis. Since 1999, measures have beenimplemented in the social insurance system tointroduce personal registration and individualaccounts, and 1% of salaries are accrued to theseaccounts. Initially, these reforms have beenintroduced in Dushanbe and once this has beencompleted the reforms will be graduallyimplemented throughout the Republic. Thesereforms will allow the accruement of pensionentitlements to be followed on monthly basis.It will also allow estimation of the income ofthe population, from which these fees are taken.250,000 individual accounts will be opened, aswell as 8,000 accounts of employers. A fundedsystem of social insurance and a system ofvoluntary social insurance of the populationwill be established. The ultimate aim of thereforms is to establish multi-component system

of social insurance, based on several sourcesof finance, including employers, employees andthe state.

In 1999, there was 6,000 mln TR available forthe support of the vulnerable populationthrough the programme of cash compensation.In 2000 the assignation for social protection is31,970 mln of TR, which provides all pensionerswith at least the minimum pension of 2,000 TRper month.

14.8 Ministry of Social ProtectionIn 1998, th e “S ocial Protection ReformConcept”was adopted for the period 1999-

2030, and in 1999 the programme for itsrealisation commenced. The reforms includesetting up the legal basis, makingamendments to the current laws "On pensioninsurance", "On Social Protection of Disabled","On Veterans", "On State Social Insurance",and developing such programmes, as"Targeted Social Assistance", "Protection ofElderly Population" .

The social protection bodies have expandedtheir services from the payment of pensions andsocial benefits to taking care of disabled people,including both their rehabilitation andemployment. Particular attention has beengiven to the improvement of pensions and anincrease in the value of the minimum pension.The Ministry of Social Protection, jointly withthe Ministry of Labour and Employment, has

Table 5. The value of the average pension relative to average salary1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

Average salary 40,449 785 3,116 4,975 8,590 11,609Average pension 18,032 392 876 1,062 3,019 3,533Minimum pension 11,776 256 483 483 2,000 2,000Average pension to average salary 45 50 28 21 35.1 30.4

(SSA)

The cost of eliminating poverty

• Elimination of severe poverty requires 5.5 % of GDP.• Elimination of extreme poverty requires 2% of GDP.• In order to lift everyone to the level of the minimum consumption basket the

Government would need to allocate the equivalent of total GDP for this purpose.• Expenditures for social protection should be raised to 6% of GDP.According to analysis using data from the TLSS, if in the following 5 years the countryexperiences economic growth at 5%, the level of absolute poverty (living on less than$1 PPP a day) will be reduced from 16.3% to 9%, and general poverty ($2 PPP a day)from 65.4% to 44.9%. If the distribution of income shifts in favour of the poor, povertyreduction will progress at a more rapid speed. (TLSS)

9 0

carried out an analysis of pensions for thosewho retired before 1 January 1996. As a resultof this documents have been submitted toGovernment to increase their pensions from2,500 TR to 6,000 TR.

A provision of early retirement has been addedto the law; an increase of pensions for age anddisability has been approved, and someprivileges have been stipulated for the loss ofthe breadwinner. The value of the minimumold age pension has been doubled for those who

live in the Murghab region (to 4,000 TR), andhas been payable as of January 1999. The“Concept”stipulated that the retirement age forwomen should be raised to 58 and for men - to63.

Social activities of elderly people are alsoexpanding. Older people are the creators ofmaterial and moral wealth, and conveyors ofthe experience of human values. Special pagesin journals and newspapers were devoted tothe elderly people . The President issued aDecree "On improvement the LivingStandard of Elderly People ". As part of theimplementation of this Decree, 72,341 citizensover 75 were given a one-off paymentequivalent to the value of the minimum pension(2,000TR). In total, 144,682 TR was paid fromthe Presidential Reserve Fund.

The rights of disabled and needy people arealso the focus of attention of internationalorganisations. The Government together withWB set up TASIF, which has implemented 106micro projects aimed at improving the livingconditions of the population. The localpopulation implemented the projects. Schoolsand other objects of infrastructure wererepaired. These projects target the poorpopulation.

The efficiency of poverty reduction isdetermined by the distribution of resources, thegrowth rate of the economy and stability.

Recommendations:• Expand targeted social assistance;• Develop new social programmes,

supported by the internationalorganisations;

• Realise pension insurance, stipulated inthe new legislation;

• Improve the social protection ofdisabled and elderly people;

• Train qualified social workers;• Involve local communities in the

distribution of the humanitarian aid;• Cover the payment arrears.

The Ministry of Social Protection has162 units, employing 2,800 people.

It is composed of:• Three oblast affiliations of social

protection;• 69 departments of social protection;• 29 central and regional Medical

Expert Commissions;• 55 centres for social protection

rendered at home, which serve 6,000single elderly people;

• 6 territorial centres, which serve 2,100people;

• 1 Research Rehabilitation Institute,where 517 sick pensioners wererehabilitated;

• 1 lyceum boarding house with 217handicapped children;

• 9 boarding houses with 1,350 people.In 1999, a new boarding house forsingle pensioners and mentally sickchildren was opened in Penjikent with100 places;

• 3 sanatoriums which can house 403patients;

• 7 private farms on 60 ha of land. TheMinistry has set up small ventures onprocessing agricultural produce,providing jobs for disabled people;

• The Ministry has run advancedcourses for an annual audience of 150people;

• The Ministry publishes the Journal"Hifzi Ichtimoi" (social protection).

9 1

15. Violence and Crime

Of all the aspects of human security, themost important is protection from physicalviolence. It is a particularly burning issuefor the post-conflict countries, wherehuman life was threatened to a greaterdegree than elsewhere. The source ofalarm among population is the growth ofcriminality as a threat to life, health, andto the main human rights of freedom anddignity.

15.1 Trends in crime in TajikistanTotal crimeThere has been a gradual decline in thetotal number of registered crimes over thepast 8 years. This has been achieved bythe strengthening of the systems ofgovernance and improved social stabilityin the RT, brought about by the successfulrealisation of all the terms of “General

Table 1 Trends in the number of crimes1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1998 1999 2000 I

half year214,116 21,188 11,647 11,991 10,673 13,161 14,413 7,882

(SSA)

Agreement on the Establishment of Peaceand National Accord ”, and progress inthe democratisation of society. This hascreated an enabling environment for therealisation of key human rights andfreedoms.

Types of crimeTable 2 presents data on the number andtypes of crimes registered withinTajikistan. The most common are“heinous'”offences. These includemurders, attacks on the person, and theftsincluding the use of weapons, and in 1999they accounted for nearly two-thirds ofall crimes. There has been a shift awayfrom crimes against property towardscrimes related to drugs (7% in 1998,increasing to 11% in 1999). Of the totalregistered crimes in 1999, 59% have beensolved.

The growth of economic crimes and theillegal trade in drugsIn 1999 , there were 1,646 registeredcrimes linked to the cultivation, use andsale of narcotics. This is an increase of 68%on the previous year. In the periodJanuary-June 2000, 985 such crimes hadbeen registered, a growth of 7%,compared to figures for the same periodin 1999.

There has also been an alarming growthin the number of economic crimes,including the misuse of public resources,illegal transactions . This trend representsa threat to the stable economic growth,the efficient operation of the financialstructures , and income generatingbranches of the economy.

The main sources of criminality inTajikistan are:

• The impoverishment of a significantpart of the popu lation as a result oftransition, armed conflict, economiccrises, and the lack of account ofhuman factor in the implementationof the reforms;

• Widening inequalities in the income ofpopulation, creating new groups ofrich and poor;

• Regional disparities, which causeinternal migration, and social tensions;

• High level of unemployment;• Inefficiencies in the existing structures

of those institutions responsible forlaw and order;

• Erosion of traditional moral valuesand norms as a result of increasedsocial exclusion and disappointment.

9 2

Table 3 Characteristics of those who committed crime1999 number of peoplePeople committed crime 8,464men 7,555women 92914-15 11516-17 37218-24 2,19225-29 1,67130 and over 4,134workers 1,005farmers 499Civil servants 833Higher and secondary specialeducation 1,793Secondary education 5,390

(SSA)

Table 2 Total number of registered crimes, by type of crime, 1998-19991998 1999

Registered crimes, total of which: 13,161 14,413Heinous offence 5,487 9,451Intended crimes and assaults 491 357Intended heinous corporal offence 204 181Rape and personal assault 61 60Thefts, of which: property 1,255 1,629 robberies 248 268 mugging 748 706 swindling 368 458Hooliganism 451 435Stealing of weapon 41 12Consumption, preservation, and trafficking of drug 979 1,646Bribery 40 50Kidnapping 41 27Theft of the state property, by misuse of position. 822 847

(SSA)

Terrorism, drug and arms trafficking andother forms of crime are a serious problemfor society and the state. In a globalisingworld these types have no nationalborders and represent a global threat forthe countries in the region and worldcommunities. The growth of criminalityimpacts on the prestige of the country,slows down foreign investments, economicreforms and foreign trade . Thus, theGovernment has identified the control ofcrime as a priority for national policy.

Violance against women and thefeminisation of criminalityThe most serious threats are those thatendanger the security of women. InTajikistan, as a result of tradition and thesocio-economic situation, women often donot enjoy equal security and social statuswith men. The loss of men during the civilwar, combined with labour migration toneighbouring countries, has resulted in thefact that many households are becamefemale-headed. Poverty has forced manywomen to engage in heavy and low paidagricultural work or to participate inretail trade in the markets and otherindividual income generating activities. Inthese circumstances women, as lessprotected members of society, become thevictims of violence. From year to year,levels of rape and personal assault remainhigh. According to SSA, the number ofsuch registered cases in 1998 was 61, in1999 - 60, and in first half of 2000 - 29,

an increase of 26% for the same period inthe previous year.

Over the recent past there has been a trendtowards the feminisation of criminality.Although the majority of crimes are stillcommitted by men (see Table 3 below),there has been a growth in the number ofwomen involved in crime.

The regional distribution of crimeA growth in the number of registeredcrimes between 1998 and 1999 was notedin Badakhshan (a rise of 21%), inDushanbe (15%) and in RRS (18%).

Official statistics and latent criminalityOfficial statistics do not reflect fully thereal level of criminal activity in thecountry. Many victims of crime do notreport them to the public order keepingbodies, because of the fear of violence.Lack of transparency in the context of low

9 3

Table 4 Number of crimes by regions and their solution (%)

1998 % 1999 %RT 13,161 51.1 14,413 59GBAO 484 71.5 587 76KHO 3,046 54.2 3,045 70LO 3,779 67.5 3,980 76Dushanbe 3,793 39.9 4,376 52.1RRS 1,533 36.3 1,810 44.5

(SSA)

levels of crime solution has resulted inthe weakening of the trust of thepopulation in the ability of the authoritiesto combat crime.

Alongside this, the current officialstatistical data collection on crime is datedand poor. Not all the types of criminalactivity, stipulated in the new 1998Criminal code, are included within thestatistical database.

15.2 National legislation and measures tocombat criminal activityNew legislation have recently beenadopted with the aim of strengthening thelegal basis for combating criminal activityin Tajikistan. They are: the 1998 CriminalCode of the RT, the Law "On Weapons",and the National Programme "On theIntensifed Crime Control in 1996 -1997".To implement this programme, localauthorities and the armed forces haveworked out several concrete actions . Thefollowing Committees have been formed:the Committee for the Guarding theNational Borders, the Commission forDrug Control and the Coordination CrimeControl Council. The aim of theProgramme is to strengthen the rule of lawand order by mobilising public orderbodies, ministries and agencies, localgovernment, public organisations, labourcollectives, and citizens in combatingcrime.

The President has issued Decrees , whichban carrying the weapons in public places,and discontinue the contractual m ilitaryservice in the Armed Forces of the RT.The enforcement of these Decrees hasresulted in the improved stabilisation, andcontributed to the strengthening of lawand security.

Recommendations:A number of legislative, management andeconomic reformes would enhance theefficient control of crimes.Legislation:• Review the existing legislation in the

light of recent changes in the politicaland economic life of the country, tofacilitate democratisation and marketeconomy;

• Take m easures to improve theefficiency of the judicial system as atool to protect th e dignity of thecitizens. Such measures includeensuring the true independence of thecourts, and increasing the protection ofstaff from threats of violence.

Management:• Include new statistical indicators ,

introduced by the new Criminal Codeof the RT;

• Develop an index of civil security tofacilitate regular monitoring of thestate of personal security;

• Report regularly on th e prevalence ofcriminal activity and the state ofpersonal security, in order to highlightpriority areas for future policyintervention;

• Continue practice of meetings of theGovernment with law and orderprotecting officials , and with thosebodies responsible for maintaining theborders in Tajikistan and the armedforces;

• Development of an efficient stateprogramme of legal education andtraining of citizens. This should be donein collaboration with the mass mediaand NGOs;

• Improve the procedures of staffrecruitment to crease the solution ofthe crimes;

• Set up Ombudsman Institution onHuman Rights, with wide rangingpowers and guaranteed independence .

• Establish e fficient mechanisms tocombat corruption in the public sector.

Economic sector:• Improve social protection of the o fficials

employed in the law protection bodies,ensure adequate salaries and providemodern technical equipment.

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15.3 The problem of narcoticsThe illegal drug trafficking of is a growingbusiness in Tajikistan, and constitutes oneof the most destructive threats to thesecurity of individuals, society and thestate. In 1992, there were 262 registereddrug crimes; by 1999 this figure hadincreased to 1,646. Official statisticsunderestimate the true extent of activityin this area and there is no exact data onthe number of victims of drug business.A particular cause for alarm is that alongwith an increase in the use of soft drugs,such as hemp, there is also evidence ofincreased use and trade in heroine,brought into Tajikistan from Afghanistan.

In recent years the "drugs industry" hasgrown from an illegal trade carried outby individuals to the organised groupbusiness, that damage the internationalprestige of the country and hamperattempts to attract inward investmentnecessary for rapid economic growth.

Drug trafficking

Tajikistan continues to be a key conduitfor illicit drug trafficking in the region dueto the economic instability in the country.Approximately 60% of all Afghan drugsentering Tajikistan, are trafficked throughthe relatively flat terrain of the Afghan-Tajik border in southern Tajikistan. Theremaining 40% are trafficked via themountainous GBAO. Having enteredTajikistan, the Afghan narcotics are thentransported onwards to other CIScountries and Europe. Tajikistan'sgeographic location and difficult economicsituation make it an extremely attractivetransit point for drug smugglers.

By the official data, in 1999, 91 drugcouriers who were citizens of othercountries within the CIS were arrested inTajikistan. Of particular cause for concernis the growth in involvement of womenand youth. In recent years 181 female drugcouriers have been arrested along with 586young people. During the same period,911 Tajik citizens were arrested elsewherein the CIS.

Illicit cultivationAccording to the information gathered bya survey conducted in 1999 by theODCCP less poppy cultivation wasreported than in previous years due to thegradual tightening of government controlsover the poppy cultivating areas in thenorth of the country. The greateravailability of illicit drugs entering thecountry from Afghanistan has alsocontributed to the decline in localcultivation.

However, with the strengthening ofcustoms controls with other countries,drug dealers have started to distribute thedrugs within Tajikistan itself rather thanrun the risk of trying to export it. Thisconstitutes a major threat for futuregenerations.

Growth of addictionMany factors, including geopolitical,social and economic factors, havecontributed to the spread of drugs.Relatively easy access to drugs inTajikistan has resulted in a dramaticgrowth in the number of users. Accordingto official data , in 1997 there were 1,991registered addicts. This figure grew to2,458 people in 1998 and in 1999 thefigure doubled .

The level of drug use depends on the placeof residence and is higher in urban areas.In rural areas, where moral andtraditional norms are still strong, thenumber of addicts is also low. In 1998, bythe official data 7.2 people per 10 thousandpopulation were addicted, of which 5.2consumed heroin. In 1999, these figureshad increased to 12.6 per 10,000 and 11.2.Also of concern is rise in the number ofyoung people who are registered addicts.In the past drugs were primarilyconsumed by adults. However, recentlymore and more young people arebecoming involved, either because ofcuriosity or false self realisation. Drug useis not only a medical and legal problem,but is also a social one. Drugs areconsumed by both the rich and the poor.About 67% of the registered addicted are

9 5

unemployed, and these people are oftenlured into the drug trafficking by the drugsellers.

International co-operation and nationalaction on the control of drugsTajikistan is a signatory of theInternational Conventions on the Controlof Drugs of 1961, 1971 and 1988.UNDCCP programme has been launchedin the country. On 27 April 1999 , thePresident of the RT and the DirectorGeneral of ODCCP signed a protocol onthe establishment of a Tajik Drug ControlAgency on the basis of the existing statecommission. The Drug Control Agencywas established by Presidential Decree on1 June 1999. Its functions are: lawenforcement, combating illegal drugtrafficking, prevention and treatment ofaddiction to drug, full-scale investigationcapacity in drug-related crimes.

The ODCCP Regional Office establisheda Sub-Office in Tajikistan in June 1999 withthe specific task of implementing activitiesrelated to the creation of the Tajik DrugControl Agency and expandingprogrammes activities in the country. It iscurrently implementing three projectswithin the framework of its coordinatedstrategy aimed at strengthening drugcontrol capacity in the country. Thestrategy applied by the ODCCP inTajikistan is geared towards a "SecurityBelt", approach elaborated in order to stemdrug trafficking from Afghanistan intoneighbouring Central Asian Republics.

The main objective of the ODCCPstrategic approach in Tajikistan is toconsolidate a specialised national drugcontrol entity, strengthen cooperationwith other operational drug controlagencies. The three projects are gearedtowards a) strengthening cooperationwith those countries along the traffickingroutes from Afghanistan to CIS andEurope through Tajikistan; b)strengthening cooperation with lawenforcement agencies of Westerncountries which distribute expertise in thefield of combating drug trafficking.The support provided by the International

Community, through ODCCP, has gener-ated a virtuous circle in the country witha positive influence in the whole region.Some of these effects are : druginterception, drug prevention, regionalcooperation.

Nevertheless, despite these efforts thereis more work to be done. By blocking onechannel for the transportation of thedrugs , there emerge new routes andmethods, including concealing drugswithin the body. As of today, more then80% of drug couriers swallow the drugsand hide them in their bodes in order tocross national borders. From thebeginning of this year there have been 9fatal cases.

Given the present situation Tajikistan isunable to solve the complex internalproblems linked with the drugs industryon its own. The trend to globalisation hasopened up new opportunities for this typeof criminal activity. The reduction ofbarriers to international trade, and thetransit of passengers and freight throughthe borders, has created a favourableenvironment for the drug business. Thehigh level of profitability of this businesshas pushed the narcotics traders to takeany steps, including armed attack, to keeptheir business. The main difficulties in theplanning and implementation of themeasures on drug control are: lack of co-ordinated work on the collection,processing and exchange of information,lack of modern equipment for drugdetection, and training. Staff receive lowsalaries, have poor security and face fewincentives all of which have damagedmotivation.

But the main constraint regarding thesolution of this problem in Tajikistan isthe continuing crisis in neighbouringAfghanistan. Without solving, thisproblem will remain difficult to achievesignificant results in the fight againstdrugs.

Recommendations:To tackle the problem of drug use and

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illegal trafficking it is important todevelop a national plan of action. This planshould:• Co-ordinate the efforts of all the

countries in the region and internationalorganisations illegal drug traffickingcontrol, and establish a regional centrefor drug control;

• Strengthen the Tajik-Afghan border;• Provide professional training for staff

and modern equipment for the law andorder- keeping bodies;

• Attract scientific and technicalpotential to detect the cultivation ofnarcotic containing plants and eliminatethem;

• Improve preventive measures amongstyouth and expand job opportunities;

• Use mass media to disseminatemessages on healthy life style;

• Establish, in collaboration with NGOs,a network of rehabilitation centres fordrug addicts.

The Drug Control Agency has alsocompetence in the field of prevention ofdrug abuse through the promotion ofawareness raising campaigns and thecoordination of treatment andrehabilitation policies. Currently, theDrug Control Agency has been activemainly in awareness raising. Thefollowing activities have beenimplemented so far:• Several TV and radio programmes on

prevention of drug abuse;• Several reports in the local press on

drug abuse;• Meetings with students of secondary

schools on the risk posed by drugaddiction;

• Round table meetings on " the Problemof Drug Addiction among the Youth.Ways of Solution";

• Jointly with ODCCP, a drawingcompetition among children ofDushanbe under the motto "Childrenagainst Drugs in Tajikistan". The bestdrawings have been selected anddistributed to all schools in Dushanbe;

• Several sport and music shows underthe motto "sport against drugs".

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16. Pollution and Environmental Issues

Sustainable human development assumesthe rational use of natural resources withoutdamaging the opportunities of futuregenerations. Biodiversity and thepreservation of natural resources arenecessary if future generations are tocontinue to enjoy a decent life.

By virtue of its natural resources, Tajikistanholds a unique place within Central Asia. Itis the main regulator of the climate andwater resources in the region. Tajikistan isa high mountainous country. The mountainterrain contributes to the formation ofvarious diverse climatic zones andecosystems. Within the territory ofTajikistan, there are six natural zones, fromdry subtropics to everlasting snow. Thesezones include: flat 400-500 m, foothills upto 1,000 m, low mountains between 2,000-3,000 m, middle high mountains up to 3,000- 4,000 m, high mountains 4,000- 6,000 m,and mountainous tundra 6,500-7,400 m.Inside these natural zones there are valleys,located within and locked in by mountainswith both favourable and unfavourablenatural conditions. People live in five ofthese valleys.

Tajikistan is characterised by long periodsof sunshine throughout the year, with anannual average of 2500-3000 hours. Theabundance of sunshine creates a favourableenvironment for the cultivation ofagricultural products, and the developmentof tourism and recreation. On the otherhand, the specific natural environment ofTajikistan also requires particular attentionin order to avoid pressure on the

environment by population, and by theindustrial, energy and transportinfrastructure.

16.1 Air resourcesThe particular meteorological conditions inthe Tajikistan cause low flow of air. Thepoor circulation of air within themountainous valleys contributes toconcentration of polluted air within them.In 2000, the level of air pollution increasedby 200% compared to the previous year,and was mainly caused by low rainfall. Thiswas aggravated by technological factors.The main sources of air pollution continueto be industrial enterprises and transport,accounting for 80% of air pollution.

Air pollution is concentrated in the Vakhshand Hissar valleys. The main industrialpolluters, as the Aluminium Plant, theYavan electrochemical plant, and theVakhsh nitrogen plant are located there.These industries are currently working atonly 30-40% of their capacity. In 1999, theseplants released 31.95 thousand tons ofpolluted particles into the atmosphere. Thiswas 5 kg per capita less than in 1998.

The volume of pollution from transportincreased in 1999, largely as a result of poorfuel, and now accounts for 60% of the totalvolume. There was an increase of 500% inthe gas emissions from cars with dieselengines, compared to fuel engines. Trafficinspectors need to take greater measures inorder to reduce the impact of gas emissionson environment. Over recent years,garbage and leaves has been burnt in many

Table 1 Emissions of harmful particles in 1999RT Badakhshan KHO LO RRS Dushanbe

Area thousand square km 143.1 63.7 24.5 26.1 28.4 0.14Emissions (thousand tons.) 31.9 0 4.4 2.1 24.8 1.5Particles kg per 1 sq. km 226.9 0 89.7 172.3 859.1 10,000.0Population thousand 6,187.8 210 2,178.1 1,902.7 1,384.3 512.7Particles kg per capita 17.8 0 9 18.9 32.10 22.8

(Ministry of Environment and SSA)

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towns and villages. The smoke from thiscontains harmful components of heavymetals. The rise in air pollution from all thesesources is one of the main causes of the risein the incidence of respiratory diseases inTajikistan.

16.2 Water resourcesThe main sources of water supply in the RTare surface and underground waters. Theglaciers of Tajikistan contain about 400million cubic meters of high quality freshwater. There are about 1,000 rivers. Thetotal average annual water flow in therepublic is estimated by the Ministry ofEnvironment to be 80.22 million cubicmetres of which 80.5% is good for watersupply. However, there have always beenconstraints in the distribution of these richwater resources and recently the watersupply system has begun to deteriorate.Thus, only about 55% of population haveaccess to relatively clean water, and 45%use water from open sources.

The brain drain of qualified staff, lack ofmaterials for the purification stations andnon-repair of equipment has resulted in thefact that in 1999 more than 80% of thewater supply network system did not meetsanitation norms. In the Republic in 1999,62.5% of tests did not meet the standard laiddown for microbiological indicators. Thewater supply system is now in deep crisis.Lack of finance is the main factor behindthe non-implementation of the plan for theconstruction and rehabilitation of

Table 2 Water pipe supply network in 1999 (mlm.m 3)Total volume

of water inthe network

Passedthrough

purificationstations

% to the totalvolume in the

network

Released tothe

consumers

Of whichpopulation

Loss, leakageand not

expected use

RT 415.5 122.1 29.4 305.2 128.3 110.2 (Ministry of Environment)

purification stations.

In the sewage system in 1999 there were 480damaged mains, of which 460 were in LOalone. Open water sources have becomepolluted where waste is not purified andprocessed. This has caused the outbreak ofinfectious diseases. The pollution of waterresources with municipal and industrial wasteis alarming, demanding prompt action.More than 95% of wastewater is releasedinto open channels. It is estimated by nationalexperts that bacteria from everyday wastein the rivers of Tajikistan is 40-45 timeshigher than in the rivers of industriallydeveloped countries. This is emerging as themost serious problem in the country.Industrial waste flows that exceed norms onammonium nitrogen and weighted particlesare also a problem. In 1998, the emission ofwaste into the rivers of Vakhsh was 8%, intoKofarnihan about 60%, in Syr Darya 23%.The total pollution of water resources is nowmore than 6 cub.m.per capita.

16.3 Land resourcesTajikistan is an arid country, and it has theleast arable land in the Central Asia region.Land resources in RT within theadministrative borders constitute 14,254.5thousand hectares, of which agricultureaccounts for 4,570.7 thousand ha, landreserves - 4,354.6 thousand ha, agriculturalenterprises -560.2 thousand ha, humansettlements, industry, transport, anddefence - 192.7 thousand ha, and water-32.1 thousand ha.

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Table 3 Land resources of RT in 1999 ( thous. ha)Arable land 739.9Of which irrigated 512.4Long lasting planting 102.9Deposits 26.1Straw collection 23.5Pastures 3,692.6Private gardening 173.2Of which irrigated 107.7forests 326.3Other ( inc mountains) 8,686.9Total area in RT, of which 14,254.5

(Ministry of Environment)

The degradation of land that has taken placeover the last 20-25 years is now becominga serious problem. It reduces the areaavailable for agriculture and decreases theefficiency of agriculture. In 1999 the volumeof arable land decreased by 35.5 thousandha. Over the next 20-25 years it is expectedthat the per capita land area fit foragricultural cropping will halve, and thearea of desertification and land degradationwill increase by 1.5 times. The arable areawill be reduced also because of thepopulation growth. Thus, in 1970 there was0. 15 ha of arable land per capita, at presentthis indicator is 0.12 ha, but at the presentrate of population growth in 2010 there willbe just 0.08 ha per capita.

As a result of erosion the most fertile layerof soil is washed away or blown away bywind. The soil quality deteriorates and itsfertility falls by anything from 20% to 100%.Irrigated land is often subject to erosion dueto out-dated irrigation techniques that resultin the formation of ravines. For example,the Yavan valley is covered by 350 ravines,up to 25 m in depth and 100 m in length.

At present 105 thousand ha, or 15% ofirrigated arable land, suffers fromsalination. The experts estimated, thatannually the loss of cotton alone fromsalination is more than 60-70 thousands tons,which is equivalent to the cultivation ofalmost 26 thousand ha of new land.Considerable losses were inflicted by thecivil war; secondary salination intensifiedwith the destruction of the irrigation system.In 1999, the WB extended credit torehabilitate the irrigation system and thisshould contribute to the ecologicalimprovement of the environment. It shouldbe noted that irrigated land is used more

efficiently in dehkan farms than in the publicsector.

The quality of land has also deteriorated dueto monoculture cropping and the overuseof chemicals. This has impacted upon thequality of foodstuffs, such as milk, butter,vegetables, and meat. At present the shareof land under cotton is 52%. In order toimprove fertility, the land should be farmedwith a variety of crops over the year.

Forests cover 3% of the land in all thealtitudes and include a total of 200 differenttypes of tree. Forests annually yield 15thousand cubic metres of timber.Preliminary data for the last 7 yearsindicates that the area covered by forestshas reduced by 120-130 thousand ha - toput this into perspective this is equivalentto an area ten times the size of the naturalreserve "Tigrovaya Balka". Mass cutting ofthe forests due to a lack of fuel and otherenergy resources has resulted in thedepletion of Tajikistan's natural resources.In the pastures of Pamir, 734.3 thousand haof land has been eroded because of the masscutting of plants and bushes by thepopulation for heating.

Major damage has also been caused byforest fires. In 1999, there were 6 forestsfires. Poverty has stimulated demand forwood and other traditional types of fuel. In1999, agricultural enterprises and farmsplanted trees on 832 ha of land. Accordingto national scholars over the next 20 yearsdemand for energy in Tajikistan willincrease by 35-40%. The growth of theconsumption of this form of energy willcause greater air pollution and contributeto the loss of life for many people.

16.4 Accumulation of wasteThe Ministry of Environment estimates thatin 1999, more than 30 million tons of solidwaste, 23 billion cubic meters of liquid waste(including industrial) and more than 210million tons of various types of miningwaste were accumulated in Tajikistan.There are more than 400 types of industrialwaste officially listed. The location andpreservation of solid waste is of particularconcern. More than 4 million tons of solidindustrial waste are produced annually,

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polluting the air, land and water. The firststeps in recycling waste have been carriedout at the Aluminium Plant and the Vakhshnitrogen plant. However, the system is notfully organised yet, and the potential is notbeen used efficiently. In general recyclingtechnology remains to be developed withinTajikistan. As a result the large majority ofindustrial and domestic waste is removed,potential secondary raw materials are lost,and the environment is damaged.

16.5 Natural calamitiesThe total number of emergency situationsincreased by 33.5% in 1999 compared to1998. The increase was caused bytechnological reasons. According to thedata of the SSA, in 1999, 2,994 emergencieswere registered, of which 146 were naturaland 2,848 man-made. As a result of naturalcalamities, 22,257 people suffered, of which630 died, 1,774 were injured, and 4,708 weretemporary resettled. Floods and fallsaffected 12,940 people and caused thedeaths of 37 people. In 1999 damage causedby natural calamities was estimated at208.9 billion TR.

Dangerous natural phenomena are oftenaggravated by man's behaviour, such asinappropriate irrigation and settling andirrigating landslide areas. In 1999, theMinistry of Emergency Situations was setup to assist in minimising the consequencesof natural calamities.

16.6 Ecological factors of sustainable humandevelopmentEcological crises impact upon the livingconditions of the rural population. Theysuffer from floods, poor harvests andinfectious diseases resulting from pollutionand the irrational use of water for irrigation.Three-quarters of the total population ofTajikistan live in rural areas, and 81.5% ofthe poor. 70% of the rural population aredependent upon the crops grown on theirown private plots for their nutrition. Soildegradation, morbidity caused by airpollution, contaminated water andmalnutrition, - these are all problemsconfronting rural population.

There are ecological problems that arecaused not by the growth of wealth, but by

deepening poverty. As a result of povertyand lack of alternative options, the ruralpopulation has started to cultivate land onslopes with 30-40 degrees of decline. Thishas contributed to land erosion, landslidesand other ecological phenomena. It isestimated that in 10-15 years, almost 50%of population will be at risk of ecologicalcrises, as half of the rural area is in thefoothill zone, and the rural population isincreasingly cultivating these lands.

Poverty and ecological damage are the twosides of the same coin, rolling downwards.The degradation of natural resources inagriculture, which has taken place over along time, deepens poverty today, whichslows down the reconstruction ofagricultural resources. In order to survivetoday the rural population is usinginappropriate land and farming practices.Thus, in Farhar, Moskovskiy, Vose andother southern regions, as a result of thecultivation of land without proper drainagesystems over the last 5-6 years, manyhuman settlements have been flooded. Theincrease in the level of underground waterhas caused many people to leave theirhouses. This in turn will cause furtherdegradation of the agro-system and will leadto the further impoverishment of the poorpopulation in Tajikistan.

Ecological problems - water contamination,air pollution, land degradation - impact uponthe life of the population. These factors arethe causes of morbidity within the population.They endanger not only health, but also well-being and even survival. Currently, morethan 40% of population do not have accessto safe water. As a result of landdegradation, the volume of agricultural landin the Republic is decreasing. According tonational experts, each fifth ha of the irrigatedland is damaged by salination, and each forthha is eroded.

16.7 BiodiversityBiodiversity is very important for people.It is one of the main factors in preservingthe opportunity for food supply for thepopulation. Medicines extracted from thediversity of flora and fauna in Tajikistanalso save people's lives. The extinction ofvarious types of animals and plants with the

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aim to make profits threatens the continuityof biodiversity of animals and plants in theRepublic.

With the aim of improving the use of naturalresources in RT, the maintenance of land,forests, water resources, air resources,biodiversity, and rare types of flora andfauna, as well as fostering healthimprovement, the Government has adoptedthe State Ecological Programme for 1998-2008. This document defines the mainpolicies for stable development, the rationaluse of natural resources, and the restorationof destroyed ecological space. Theecological programme is aimed at allministries, agencies, enterprises andorganisations, which have dealing with allforms of property. The Ministry ofEnvironment controls 7,012 entities andsanctioned the spending of 9,391.1 thousandTR in 1999. The Ministry also applied tothe economic court for reimbursement in theamount of 21,409.8 thousand TR forenvironmental damage.

The international community contributes tomany practical measures concerned withimprovement of the environment. At thepresent time Tajikistan has ratified a numberof UN Conventions on environmentalprotection, including:• UN Convention “ Biodiversity";• Convention Framework on“Climate

Change";• Vienna Convention on "Protection of

Ozone Layer";• Montreal Protocol on substances,

depleting ozone layer, and amendmentto it (London);

• UN Convention on “Combatingdesertification”.

Working groups have been organised toimplement the above mentioned UNConventions. UNDP is providing assistanceto the Ministry of Environment to developa sustainable mechanism to protect theenvironment. The capacity of the Ministryhas been strengthened by training, and anumber of projects aimed at protecting theenvironment have been implemented.

Tajikistan has a favourable natural climatefor development and the improvement of thequality of life for the population. Itssignificant natural potential, within severalclimatic zones, will allow the Republic todevelop the necessary branches of industry,agriculture and recreational services.

Recommendations:• The Ministries of Environment and

Irrigation should develop a set ofmeasures and incentives to ensureefficient and rational use of waterresources;

• Diverse cropping should be encouragedto improve land fertility. Ministries ofEnvironment and Agriculture shoulddisseminate information to new farms onthe rational use of land;

• Investments are needed to renovate thedrainage system and introduce modernirrigation technology;

• All ministries and agencies shoulddevelop efficient measures to improvethe living environment for thepopulation;

• The cutting of the trees and bushes shouldbe banned to avoid deforestation anddesertification;

• Committee for Forestry shouldcontribute to the natural reforestation.

Flora and fauna in Tajikistan

In Tajikistan, there are more than 400types of medical plants, 115 types ofcolouring plants, 40 types of fruits andcherries, 365 types of birds, 49 types ofterra and water types, 80 types ofmammals. Many of them are of globalsignificance, with 200 types enlisted in theRed Data Book according to data fromthe Ministry of Environment.

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Bibliography1. Academy of Sciences, Republic of Tajikistan. Report, Dushanbe, 20002. ADB. Final Report for Rural financial systems development workshop in Central Asia,

February, 20003. Constitution of the Republic of Tajikistan. Dushanbe, 19994. Falkingham, J. A profile of poverty in Tajikistan, LSE, 20005. Falkingham, J. Women in Tajikistan. ADB, 20006. Economic news, N5, 20007. Mahbub ul Haq. New Imperatives of human security, UNDP 19958. Haq, M. Reflections of human development. New York, 19959. Haq, Kh. Human Development Challenges in South Asia. First Global Forum on Human

Development, 199910. Materials of the Republican Centre for the prevention of HIV/AIDs11. Materials of the Research Centre for Gynecology and Pediatrics, 199912. National Plan of Action for Advancement of Women for the years 1998-2005, Dushanbe,

1998.13. National President Program of health care reforms in the RT, 2000-201014. ODIHR. Republic of Tajikistan. Elections to the Parliament 27 February 2000. Final Report,

Warsaw, 200015. Rakhmonov, E. Tajiks in the mirror of history, from Aryans to Samanids. Book 1, 199916. Republic of Tajikistan. Poverty Assessment. World Bank.10 April, 200017. Report on the activities of the Ministry of Culture in 1999 and main trends in 2000, Dushanbe,

199918. State Statistical Agency. Education and Culture, 2000. Dushanbe, 200019. State Statistical Agency. Social and economic situation in RT in 1999. Dushanbe, 200020. State Statistical Agency. Social and economic situation in RT in January 2000. Dushanbe,

200021. State Statistical Agency. Social and economic situation in RT in January - February 2000.

Dushanbe, 200022. Tajikistan Economics: Development Strategy ¹1, 199923. Tajikistan Economics: Development Strategy ¹1-2, 200024. UN Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal 2001. Tajikistan25. UN Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal for Tajikistan. November 200026. UN Inter-Agency Donor Alert for the Drought in Tajikistan, 15 September 2000 -31 July

200127. UNDP. Analytical Tools for Development, New York, 199528. UNDP. RBEC. Poverty Report-2000. Overcoming Human Poverty29. UNDP. RBEC. Shrinking State, 199830. UNDP. Transition 1999. Human Development Report for Europe and the CIS31. UNDP. Human Development Reports, Oxford University Press, 1994 -200032. UNDP. RBEC. Central Asia, 2010. Prospects for Human Development, 199933. UNOPS. Reports and materials34. WHO. Annual health report, 199935. WHO. We can roll back Malaria in Tajikistan. 1999

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Supplementary Tables

Human Development IndexRegions Year

Life expectancy at birth Tajikistan average 1998 68.4Dushanbe 1998 66.9LO 1998 67.1KHO 1998 68.8Gorno-Badakhshan 1998 69.7RRS 1998 70.7

Adult literacy rate (%, 15 and over) 1999 97.7Literacy index 1999 0.97Term of education 1999 16Knowledge index 1999 0.88GNP per capita (US$, PPP$) 1999 290GDP per capita (US$, PPP$) 1997 330Adjusted GDP per capita (US$) 1999 178.5Human Development Index 1999 0.601

Sources: State Statistical Agency and WB

Profile of Human DevelopmentRegions Year

Maternal mortality rate ( per 100,000 live births) Tajikistan average 1998 87.8Dushanbe 1998 119.4LO 1998 56.2KHO 1998 114.8Gorno-Badakhshan 1998 122.9RRS 1998 46.2

Population per doctor Tajikistan average 1999 469.8Dushanbe 1999 142.2LO 1999 416.3KHO 1999 918.1Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 513.7RRS 1999 901.6

Scientists and technicians ( per 1000 people) Tajikistan 1999 0.6Number of enrolled for all the levels (% age 6-23) Tajikistan average 1999 68.8

Dushanbe 1999 86.4LO 1999 62.1KHO 1999 58.6Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 67.5RRS 1999 55.9

Total education expenditure (% of public expeses) 1999 11.8Total health expenditure (% of public expenses) 1999 6.0Tertiary full time gross enrolment ratio ( thousand) 1999 17.3Female (%) of totally enrolled in tertiary education 1999 25.1Newspapers ( copies per 100 people a day) 1999 50Televisions ( per 100 families) 1999 32

Sources: State Statistical Agency and WHO

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Status of WomenRegions Year

Life expectancy at birth ( years) Tajikistan average 1998 71.3Dushanbe 1998 71.1LO 1998 69.8KHO 1998 71.0Gorno-Badakhshan 1998 73.1RRS 1998 74.0

Average age at first marriage ( years) Tajikistan average 1998 20.8Dushanbe 1998 22.3LO 1998 19.8KHO 1998 21.4Gorno-Badakhshan 1998 22.8RRS 1998 21.2

Maternal mortality rate (per 100,000 births) Tajikistan average 1998 87.8Secondary net enrolment ratio (%) ( special) 1999 53.0Upper secondary graduates (% of females) 1999 39.9Tertiary full-time gross enrolment ratio (%) 1999 26.5Tertiary natural and science enrolment (% female) 1999 15.7Women in labour force (% of total) Tajikistan average 1999 49.3

Dushanbe 1999 46.7LO 1999 49.6KHO 1999 50.1Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 48.1RRS 1999 48.7

Administrators and managers (% of female) 1999 18.1Parliament (% of seats occupied by women) 1999 13

Sources: State Statistical Agency and WB

Profile of Human DistressYear

Unemployment rate (%) total 1999 3.1Youth (15-24) unemployment rate 1999 60.8Female wages (as % of male wages) 1999 100Average monthly rate of inflation (%) 1999 2.4Injuries from road accidents (per 100,000 people) 1999 28.5Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) 1999 5.9Reported rapes (per 100,000 women age 15-59) 1999 3.8Sulphur and nitrogen emissions (kg NO2, SO2 per capita) 1999 0.4

Source: State Statistical Agency

Female-Male Gaps ( female as a percentage of males)Year

Life expectancy 1999 108.7Population 2000 98.8Years of schooling 1999 100Secondary enrolment 1999 92.0Upper-secondary graduates 1999 67.0University full-time equivalent enrolment 1999 34.3Natural and applied science enrolment 1999 27.6Labour force 1999 97.2Registered unemployment 1999 113.8Wages 1999 100

Sources: State Statistical Agency

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Health profileRegions Year

Deaths from circulatory diseases (% of total) 1999 42.5Death from malignant cancer (% of total) Tajikistan average 1999 6.3Public expenditures on health (% of total) 1999 5.9Public expenditures on health (% of GDP) 1999 1.0Private expenditures on health (% ) estimate 1999 50.0

Sources: State Statistical Agency

Demographic ProfileRegions Year

Estimated population ( millions) Tajikistan 1970 2.91999 6.12000 6.1

Dushanbe 1970 0.41999 0.52000 0.6

RRS 1970 0.61999 1.32000 1.3

LO 1970 0.91999 1.92000 1.9

KHO 1970 0.91999 2.12000 2.2

Gorno-Badakhshan 1970 0.11999 0.22000 0.2

Annual population growth rate (%) Tajikistan 1989 1995 1.91999 1.2

Dushanbe 1989 1995 1.51999 0.5

RRS 1989 1995 2.41999 1.3

LO 1989 1995 2.01999 1.4

KHO 1989 1995 2.51999 1.8

Gorno-Badakhshan 1995 2.71999 1.5

Total fertility rate 1999 3.7Contraceptive prevalence rate (%) 1999 29.0Proportion of the p opulation aged 60 and over Tajikistan average 1999 7.1

Dushanbe 1999 5.9RRS 1999 7.4LO 1999 5.4KHO 1999 6.6Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 5.1

Life expectancy at age 60 ( years) 1998 68.4Male 1999 15.1Female 1999 18.0

Sources: State Statistical Agency and WHO

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Educational ProfileRegions Year

Enrolment ratio for all levels (% age 6-23) Tajikistan average 1999 68.8Dushanbe 1999 86.4RRS 1999 55.9LO 1999 62.1KHO 1999 58.6Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 67.5

Completed secondary school ( thousands) 1999 50.3Tertiary full-time enrolment ratio (thousands) 1999 17.3Tertiary natural, applied science enrolment (% of total) 1999 15.7Total education expenditures (% of public expenditures) 1999 11.8Public expenditures on education ( as % of GDP) 1999 2.1

Sources: State Statistical Agency

Human Capital FormationYear

Mean years of schooling ( age 25+years), total 1999 17Female 1999 17Male 1999 17Scientists ( per 1000 people) 1999 0.6R and D scientists ( per 10,000 people) 1999 2.0Expenditure on research and development (% of GDP) 1999 0.1Upper secondary graduates (5 of population of age) 1999 0.9Tertiary graduates (% of population of age) 1999 2.2Science graduates (% of the total graduates) 1999 19.6

Sources: State Statistical Agency

EmploymentRegions Year

Labour force (% of total population) Tajikistan average 1999 49.4Dushanbe 1999 59.7RRS 1999 48.3LO 1999 50.7KHO 1999 47.8Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 51.2

Earnings per employee annual growth rate (%) 1999 -1.5Earnings disparity ( upper-lower half ratio) 1999 15 ðPercentage of labour force in trade unions 1999 65Weekly hours of work ( per person in manufacturing) 1999 41Expenditure on labour safety programmes (% of GDP) 1999 0.1

Sources: State Statistical Agency

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Natural Resources Balance SheetRegions Year

Land area ( thousand of km 2) Tajikistan average 1999 143.1Dushanbe 1999 0.1RRS 1999 28.4LO 1999 25.2KHO 1999 24.5Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 64.1

Population density (people per km 2) Tajikistan average 1999 42.8Dushanbe 1999 4390RRS 1999 46.6LO 1999 71.6KHO 1999 87.4Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 3.2

Arable land and permanent cropland (% of land area) 1999 9.0Permanent grass lands (as % of land area) 1999 0.1Forests and wooded land (as % of land area) 1999 3.0Irrigated land (as % of land area) 1999 88.0Renewable water resources per capita (1000 m 3 ayear)

1999 90.5

Annual freshwater withdrawals (% of total) 1999 9.0m3 per capita annual 1999 155.2

Sources: State Statistical Agency

National Income AccountsYear

Total GDP (US billion) 1999 1.1Agricultural production ( as % of GDP) 1999 16.8Industrial production ( as % of GDP) 1999 19.1Services ( as % of GDP) 1999 40.7Consumption ( as % of GDP) 1999 65.4Private 1999 55.4Government 1999 8.6Gross domestic investments ( as % of GDP) 1999 9.1Gross domestic savings ( as % of GDP) 1999 0.1Tax revenue ( as % of GDP) 1999 11.5Central Government expenditures ( as % of GDP) 1999 3.2Exports ( as % of GDP) 1999 63.3Imports ( as % of GDP) 1999 61.6

Sources: State Statistical Agency

UnemploymentYear

Unemployment persons (thousands) 1999 49.7Unemployment rate (% of registered unemployment) 1999 3.1Female (thousands) 1999 26.3Youth (aged 15-24, thousands) 1999 31.5% of unemploed who are in receipt of benefits 1999 76.4% of long term unemployment (more than 6 months) 1999 14.5% of long term unemployment (more than 12 months) 1999 14.0

Sources: State Statistical Agency

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Trends in Economic PerformanceYear

Total GDP (US billion) 1999 1.1Annual growth rate (%) 1999 3.7GDP per capita annual (US$) 1999 178.5Average monthly rate of inflation (%) 1999 2.4Exports as % of GDP (% of annual growth rate) 1999 15.0Tax revenue as % of GDP (% of annual growth rate) 1999 15.9Direct taxes (as % of total taxes) 1999 74.5Overall budget surplus deficit (as % of GDP) 1999 1.0

Sources: State Statistical Agency

Weakening Social FabricYear

Prisoners (per 100,000 people) 1999 141,4Juveniles (as % of total prisoners) 1999 5,7Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) 1999 5.9Reported rapes (per 100,000 women age 15-69) 1999 3.8Drug crimes (per 100,000 people) 1999 27.2Divorced (as % of marriages contracted) 1999 10.6Birth outside marriages (%) 1999 6,2Suicides by men (per 100,000) 1998 2.2

Sources: State Statistical Agency

Wealth, Poverty and Social InvestmentsYear

Real GDP per capita (US$) 1999 178.5GNP per capita (US$, PPP $) 1999 290Share of industrial GDP (%) 1999 19.1Social security expenditure (as % of GDP) 1999 3.9Total education expenditure (% of public expenditures) 1999 11.8Total health expenditure (% of public expenditures) 1999 6.0

Sources: State Statistical Agency and WB

1 0 9

Communication ProfileYear

Radios (per 100 people) 1999 4.1Televisions (per 100 people) 1999 4.5Annual theatre attendance (thousands) 1999 524Annual museum attendance (per 1000 people) 1999 312Registered library users (thousands) 1999 798.5Newspapers (copies per 100 people a day) 1999 50Book titles published (per 100,000 people) 1999 3.1Letters posted and wires (per capita) 1999 0.8Telephones (per 100 people) 1999 2.7International telephone calls (# of calls per capita) 1999 0.8Motor vehicle (per 100 families) 1999 2.3Motorcycles and bikes (per 100 people) 1999 3.5E-mail users (thousands) 1999 7000

Sources: State Statistical Agency and CADA

UrbanisationRegions Year

Urban population (% of total) Tajikistan average 1999 26.5Dushanbe 1999 100RRS 1999 12.4LO 1999 26.6KHO 1999 17.2Gorno-Badakhshan 1999 13.6

Urban population annual growth (%) 1999 -7Population in the biggest cities (%) Dushanbe 1999 34.6

Khojand 1999 9.1Kulab 1999 4.8

Major cities with higher population density Dushanbe 1999 4390Khojand 1999 703Kulab 1999 430

Sources: State Statistical Agency

PollutionYear

Sulphur and nitrogen emissions ( kg per capita) 1999 0.4Pesticides consumption ( kg per ha) 1999 0.3Air pollution ( kg per capita) 1999 4.3Water contamination (m 3 per capita) 1999 5.7Population served municipal waste services (%) 1998 50

Sources: State Statistical Agency

Energy ConsumptionYear

Total consumption (bln kwt/h) 1999 15.6Consumption per capita (kwt/h) 1999 2575

Sources: State Statistical Agency