SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH ON SELF-CONCEPT

T heories about self-understand ing have ranged from romantic, holistic ideas expressed through

the fine arts, to highly analytic state ments emerging from psychological research on specific aspects of per sonality. Theorists disagree about whether the environment or the indi vidual is more influential in their formulation. At present comprehen sive statements about the self must remain somewhat speculative, but an examination of theory and research does offer some important informa tion about how people perceive themselves C James, 1890; Mead, 1934; Rogers, 1962; Jourard, 1971; Hamacheck, 1965; Gergen, 1971; Rosenberg. 1979).

Self-perception seems to function at three levels: specific situation, categorical, and general. First, in our daily lives each of us is involved in, many specific situations in which we exercise and develop ideas about our knowledge, skills, beliefs, attitudes, and the like. Second, as a function of experience and desire, each of us has perceptions about ourselves based on various roles we play (learner, family member; and attributes which we be lieve we possess. Third, each of us seems to have a genera! sense of self, perhaps based on decisions about our situation experiences and categorical perceptions.

Self-perception appears to involve three dimensions: self-concept, self- esteem, and values (Beane and Lipka, 1980). Self-concept refers to the description we hold of ourselves based on the roles we play and per-

Jatnes A. Beane is Associate Professor, Richard P. Lipka is Associate Professor, and Joan W. Ludewig is Graduate As sistant: a/I at St. Bonaventure Univer sity, St. Bonaventure, New York.

JAMES A. BEANE,RICHARD P. LIPKA,

AND JOAN W. LUDEWIG

sonal attributes we believe we pos sess. Self-esteem refers to the level of satisfaction we attach to that descrip tion or parts of it. Self-esteem deci sions, in turn, are made on the basis of what is important to us or, more specifically, our value';. This distinc tion is important for educators con cerned about learner self-perceptions for two reasons. First, our values may not be the same as those of students, so we cannot infer that they have positive self-esteem regarding partic ular aspects of their own lives just because we would. Second, when try ing to enhance self-perceptions we must be sure which aspect of the self we are dealing with. For example, because of peer pressure, high achiev ing students may be unhappy with that aspect of themselves and public reinforcement may be a misguided technique.

As self-perception becomes more general, the individual appears to seek stability and consistency (Pur- key, 1970). For example, if a person believes that he/she is generally so cially inept, convincing that person otherwise would probably be very difficult. One or two specific social situations where positive feedback is received would make little difference as would generally supportive state ments like, "You shouldn't feel that way; you're a good person." In order to make a difference in the self-per ceptions of young persons, we appar ently need to construct a consistent and continuing series of specific situa tions in which certain feedback is received and in which we help young persons to clarify their concepts of

self and the values upon which their personal self-esteem judgments are made (Raths, 1972).

Finally, it appears that self-percep tions are to some extent age-related. Self-perceptions are largely influenced by our environment and particularly by persons whom we perceive as "significant others." In childhood, parents serve as the most significant others and thus have the most influ ence on self-perceptions. Further, children tend to view themselves in criterion-referenced ways; that is, they judge their competence in situa tions on the basis of how well they do on tasks. Adolescents, on the other hand, tend to view peers as the most significant others; their self- judgments seem to be norm-refer enced. Questions of self take on major importance in adolescence as that age group confronts the classic identity crisis (Erikson, 1968). Fur thermore, as people get older their roles become more numerous, their awareness of the environment be comes more acute, and their self- perceptions become more complex. Apparently, then, the longer we delay efforts to enhance self-perceptions or perhaps continue to hinder them, the more difficult our supportive role be comes (Morse, 1964; Yamamoto, Thomas, and Karncs, 1969).

The Self and Ihe SchoolIt is generally accepted that schools ought to and do develop learning in a variety of areas, including personal and social development. In fact, in trinsic to the notion of the "hidden" curriculum is the idea that the self and social outcomes of schooling are at least as, if not more powerful than, academic outcomes (Overly, 1970). Typically, lists of school goals include

84 EDUCATIONAL LF.Anr-.RSiup

statements of intent to help students develop a positive sense of self-worth, independence. self-confidence in learning, and internal locus of control (that is, self rather than external direction).

In the hundreds of studies that have been done, a persistent relation ship has been found between various aspects of self-perception and a wide variety of school-related variables (Wylie. 1979). Among the variables which have been found to be related to self-concept are school achieve ment, perceived social status among peers, participation in class discus sions, completion of school, percep tions of peers and teachers of the individual, pro-social behavior, and self-direction in learning.

Students carry images of the self in several areas as well as the potential for developing many more. These might include the self as person, as learner, as academic achiever, as peer, and others. Each experience in school can affect self-concept, per sonally held values, and/or the sub sequent self-esteem of the learner. For this reason, an understanding of self-concept and esteem in general, how they function in youth, and how the schools might enhance or hinder them must be a major concern of those responsible for curriculum planning and implementation.

Using the broad definition of cur riculum as all of the experiences of the learner (both in and out of class) under the auspices of the school, we may now turn to an examination of the interaction between the self and the institutional features of the school.

From Custodial Climate to Human istic Climate. D iscussions of school climate generally distinguish between two types, custodial and humanistic. Dcibert and Hoy (1977) found that students in humanistic schools demonstrated higher degrees of self- actualization than those in schools with a custodial orientation. This cor relational research has obvious im plications for schools when one examines the qualities associated with each type of climate. The cus todial climate is characterized by con cern for maintenance of order, prefer ence for autocratic procedures, student stereotyping, punitive sanc tions, and impersonalness. The humanistic climate is characterized

by democratic procedures, student participation in decision making, personalness, respect, fairness, self- discipline, interaction, and flexibility. In other words, it appears that the custodial climate may be a debilitat ing factor in the concept of self while the humanistic climate might be con sidered facilitating (Licata and Wildes, 1980; Estep, Willower, and Licata, 1980).

From Accepting Failure to Ex- peeling and Ensuring Success. In some schools, it is expected that many learners will fail. Further, it is ex pected that some will do so consis tently. Thus failure has a kind of cumulative effect for the learner (Purkey, 1970) and also becomes embedded in teacher expectations (Rosenthal. 1970; Kash and Borich, 1978). Within this framework, one may find interaction effects (Bloom. 1980; Purkey. 1970) between self- concept as learner and school achievement (for example, correla tions for academic achievement ap pear to range up to .76).

The general id.ea that "one success may lead to another" is supported experimentally by the work of Bailiffe (1978) who suggests the use of teacher-guided tutoring sessions, in which a successful outcome is en sured, followed by discussion of how it feels to succeed. Another useful technique is that of team learning, particularly in relation to cooperative reward structures (Slavin and De Vries, 1979).

At a more general level, teachers as significant others must consistently- signal learners that they can success fully pursue the academic, social. and personal goals of school experi ence. It should be noted that self- concept and esteem appear to be necessary but not sufficient for success (Purkey. 1970), particularly if the task at hand is completely beyond the grasp of the learner. Thus, planned activities should not be beyond the grasp of the learner if feared or actual failure is to be avoided. In any event, self-concept and esteem as learner may account to a large degree for school success and may be enhanced by teacher action.

From A ttrihute Grouping to Vari able Grouping. Teachers often label groups, and then attach to individuals the general characteristics of the group, even though the individual

may vary from the group (Purkey, 1978). In other words, homogeneous grouping based on an attribute such as ability may lead not only to aca demic disadvantage (Esposito. 1973). but to labeling of students. In this way the school may introduce to the learner confusing self-descriptors and negative self-esteem suggestions. The emphasis on ability is unfortunate considering the wide array of options available for grouping. Self-concept would probably be facilitated by use of a variety of grouping patterns de pending upon the task to be accom plished.

From Age-isolation to Multi-age Interactions. Schools isolate one age group from another and youth from adults as well as from other youth. Efforts need to be made to help young people understand the age levels from which they have emerged, as well as those toward which they are headed. In the case of the former, multi-age tutorial and discussion ses sions with younger persons appear to be particularly useful in facilitating the sense of self (Lippitt and Lippitt, 1968. 1970). With regard to later life, clear and constructive views may be facilitated when students are en couraged to interact with adults of all ages. One particularly interesting variation concerns interaction with elderly people for the purpose of encouraging positive views of that group as well as life at that age (Tice, 1979). In this case, schools that in volve elderly people in daily activities within the schools and which provide opportunities for young people to do community service projects for and with this age group are probably en hancing one dimension of self-percep tion, the self as potential adult.

From Avoiding Parents to Work ing With Parents. To enhance self- perceptions, the school must make attempts to influence parent/child in teraction since parents continue even through adolescence as significant others. Three strategies seem promis ing. Through parenting workshops, parents may learn the interaction pat terns necessary to develop self-con cept and self-esteem (Brookover, 1965; Bilby. 1973). A second stra tegy is the use of conferences in which, under the guidance of the teacher, the parent, teacher, and stu dent discuss the learner's life in school and define ways in which all

OrroBFR 1 980 85

three might work cooperatively toward improvement. A third strategy involves attempts to promote the "teaching home" (Tacco and Bridges, 1971). Academic achievement and thus self-concept as learner appear to be enhanced when parents teach their youngsters (Bloom, 1977; Hess and Shipman, 1965, 1968). For example, cooperative planning sessions or par enting workshops can initiate in stances of "homework" which call for parents and learners to work to gether to solve problems, find infor mation, or discuss issues. These and similar strategies have great potential for overcoming home-school separa tion.

From Institutionally Imposed Rules to Cooperatively Made Rules. One of the key issues in developing a positive sense of self-worth is the degree to which the individual per ceives control over his/her life. As an institution, schools typically have a set of rules that govern student life. Further, these regulations are tradi tional and mostly non-negotiable. This feature of custodial climate un doubtedly contributes to a sense of external rather than internal locus of control (Lefcourt, 1976) as well as the related possibility of learned help lessness (Ames, 1978). In other words, the school's impositions can debilitate self-perception and must be

HIGHLIGHTS FROM RESEARCH ON SELF-CONCEPT

Self-concept i s the way people describe themselves based on the roles they play and the personal at tributes they think they possess. Self-esteem i s the level of satisfaction they attach to those descrip tions, based on their values.

Educators need to be aware that:

Students may not see themselves the way, others see them because their values may be different.

General perceptions of self are quite stable, so continuing, consistent, positive feedback will have more ef fect than a few random compliments.

It may be easier for adults to influence self-perceptions of younger children than older ones because children are more apt to consider adults "significant others," while adolescents are more concerned with opinions of their peers.

Schools can contribute to student self-esteem by:

Creating a climate characterized by democratic procedures, student participation in decision making, per- sonalness, respect, fairness, self-dis cipline, interaction, and flexibility.

Minimizing failure and empha sizing success experiences through such practices as team learning.

Using a variety of grouping pat terns rather than always grouping stu dents by ability.

RESEARCHINFORMATION

SERVICE

Providing for inter action with younger and older people by arranging for cross-age tutoring and involving elderly people in school activities.

Assisting parents to enhance their children's self-perceptions by con ducting workshops for

them, holding parent/student/teacher conferences, and encouraging parents to take an active role in their chil dren's learning.

Permitting students some control over their own lives by having them participate in formulating school rules and in teacher-student planning.

Including curriculum that gives direct attention to personal and social development.

Teaching students to evaluate their own progress.

Reference

Beane, James A.; Lipka, Richard P.: and Ludewig, Joan W. "Interpret ing the. Research on Self-Concept." Educational Leaders/tip 3 8 (October 1980): 84-89.

For sources of information about topics of current interest to ASCD members, write to:

Research Information Service Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development 225 N. Washington St. Alexandria, VA 22314

revised to enhance a sense of self- control.

This might be accomplished by the use of town meeting-type activities or committees on a classroom and/or schoolwide basis. Teachers can use teacher-student planning. Such ef forts must, however, be open and honest (Combs, 1962), not simply a means to make students think they have a decision-making role in the school. In both learning and behav ior, schools ought to provide con tinually expanding opportunities for self-responsibility (Delia-Dora and Blanchard, 1979).

From Subject Approaches to Life- Centered Approaches. Educators have Iqng recognized the lack of con nection between the completely sub ject-centered curriculum and the personal needs of youth (Hopkins, 1941; Aiken, 1941; Alberty and Al- berty, 1953; Krug, 1957; Hanna and others, 1963). Proponents of the sub ject-centered organization would cer tainly support the idea that if one wants students to learn subject mat ter, the school must teach it. For some reason, however, it is presumed that personal and social development do not need direct attention.

One way, then, of enhancing self- concept and esteem in the school is to provide a curriculum specifically designed for that purpose. Through such units as "Developing My Per sonal Values," "Getting Along With Others," "Living in Our School," or other interest/need-centcrcd topics, learners have the opportunity to ex plore directly the personal issues and environmental forces involved in thinking about and making decisions related to self-perceptions. Learning would then move away from text books and tests toward problems and projects. The passive learner whose school activities consist of studying someone else's concerns, by their method, is hardlv developing a per sonal sense of self as learner. On the other hand, studying personally im portant problems and creating or con structing related projects offers a tre mendous opportunity to develop a sense of self as an ongoing and cap able learner.

From A dull-Exclusive Evaluation to More Self-Evaluation I t has been said that "in our society we grade meat, eggs, and kids." In most cases the kids have about as much say in

EDUCATIONAL I,rAi>rRsnn>

that procedure as do the others. A clear and accurate self-concept de pends upon the learned skill of self- evaluating (Barrett, 1968). Each day, week, and so on. learners ought to be encouraged to evaluate them selves. Through the use of logs, jour nals, and diaries young people may keep a personal record of how they do in various activities in and out of school and look back at their devel oping skills and growing insights in all domains of learning and develop ment. Further, each report on school progress ought to have a written statement by the student as to what he/she has learned, what problems have been encountered, how they have been overcome, and what is planned next. These procedures aim directly at self-perceptions of learn ers and their use is imperative for en hancing the sense of self through the school (Coons and McEachern, 1967; Marston and Smith, 1968).

Beyond the Status QuoThe correlational studies reviewed to this point are interesting, perhaps enlightening, possibly helpful, but also probably suspect. By "suspect" we do not moan to question the competence of individual researchers; the work is suspect because of grow ing pains in the field. Until very re cently two issues loomed large in the field of self-perception research; the imprecision of definitions in the field and the related concern of inappro priate instrumentation.

For almost 20 years, reviews have noted that the imprecision and vari ation in definitions and constraints have hindered the interpretation and generalizabilily of self-perception re search (Wylie, 1961; Shavelson and others, 1976; McGuire and others, 1979; Beane and Lipka. 1980). Most noteworthy was the lack of distinc tion between self-description and self-evaluation, a condition which has led to the interchangeable use of the te.rms self-concept and self- esteem. As noted earlier, while these terms are conceptually related within the framework of self-perceptions, they are distinctly different dimen sions. The problem which arises if they are not differentiated is illus trated with an example from Cooper- smith's Sell-Esteem Inventory ( 1967). When a child says, "I would rather play with children younger than me,"

the response is interpreted as indic ative of negative self-esteem since conventional thinking suggests that such a child feels rejected by age- mates. While this may be the case with the child who is consistently rejected by age-mates, what of the oldest child in a several-sibling, closely-knit family who feels positive playing with younger siblings, or the child who has equal success with children of the same age and with older children, so does not regard age as important? Research that infers self-esteem from self-concept data must be considered questionable.

A second issue is that the field has historically relied on instrumentation which is of a reactive nature (Cooper- smith. 1967; Fills, 1964; Piers and Harris. 1964). Such instruments re quire individuals to indicate how they feel about themselves with regard to various attributes or situations im posed by the instrument. However, this methodology leaves two ques tions unanswered. First, apart from the research setting, do the respond ents even think of themselves in terms of the attributes or situations presented? Second, which dimensions do they think in terms of?

To date one of the clearest at tempts to resolve these issues can be found in McGuire's (1976. 1978. 1979) work on spontaneous self- concept of children. By asking chil dren a question like "tell me about yourself." the child is allowed to gen erate his her own list of self-concept descriptors based on personal sali ence. In McGuire's (1979) research which involved use of the spon taneous technique in interviews with 560 children from grades one. three, seven, and eleven school topics oc cupied 1 1 percent of their self-con cept content. This placed the school fifth, behind, family (17 percent), recreation (14 percent), daily life and demography (13 percent), and friends and social relations (11 + percent). There were clear age trends in the data, with mentions of school constituting about 5 percent of first graders' self-concepts compared to 15 percent of those of eleventh grad ers. In fact, by the eleventh grade school is the largest single category while the family was mentioned less than 5 percent of the time. Analyzing the mentions of school led McGuire to conclude that a student's sense of

self is tied to academic performance and the quality of the relationships he she has with fellow students and teachers.

Our recent research (Lipka. Beane. and Ludewig. 1980) employed the spontaneous self-concept method but added the dimensions of self-esteem and value indicators by asking stu dents whether they wanted to keep or change each item in their self-con cept description and why they would want to keep or change items refer ring to school (at no time were prompting questions like "tell me about yourself in school" or "how about friends" asked). In interviews with 1.102 kindergarten through twelfth-grade students the subjects generated a total of 8.955 self-con cept mentions of which 1.524 or 17 percent were related to school. As was the case with McGuire's work, age trends were noted with .58 school mentions per kindergarten student as compared to 2.31 per twelfth grader.

The analysis of school mentions in terms of self-concept content, self- concept qualifiers, self-esteem, and value indicators has revealed some in teresting and useful results. First, it is safe to say that about a fifth of a child's sense of self is derived from the school experience and that "self within the institution" and "self as engaged learner" are the most salient categories within that experience. As students move upward through the institution, thev describe themselves within the institution in increasingly harsh terms. Finally, elementary and secondary students have different value bases for their self-esteem. Elementary students value positive instructional activities, with an eye to learning as fun. under the guidance of teachers with positive personality characteristics. Secondary students value a concern for life plans within a structure that encourages positive interactions with peers.

The work reviewed herein demon strates that school looms large in the self-perceptions of children and youth. It follows that schools have the opportunity and responsibility to en-

'hance the development of individuals beyond the acquisition of facts.

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OCTOBPR 1980 87

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Coopersmith, Stanley. The Anteced ents of Self Esteem. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1967.

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Esposito, Dominick. "Homogenous and Heterogenous Ability Grouping: Principal Findings and Implication for Evaluating and Designing More Effec tive Educational Environments." R e view of Educational Research 4 2 (Spring 1973): 163-179.

Estep, Linda E; Willower, Donald J.; and Licata, Joseph W. "Teacher Pupil Control Ideology and Behavior as Predictors of Classroom Robustness." High School Journal 6 2 (January 1980): 155-159.

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Yamamoto. Kaoru: Thomas. Eliza beth C .'. a nd Karnes. Edward A. "School Related Attitudes in Middle-School Age Students." A merican Educational Re search Journal 6 (1969): 191-206.

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