Sugars Functional Roles

A H A N D B O O K P R O V I D E D B Y

Sugar’s Functional Roles in Cooking & Food Preparation

Beyond Sweetening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Types of Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Sugar in Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Sugar in Bakery Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Sugar in Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Sugar in Candy Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Sugar in Jellies & Preserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Sugar in Canning & Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Sugar in Frozen Desserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Sugar in Non-sweet Foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Table of Contents

Sugar’s Functional Roles 1 The Sugar Association, Inc.

W hether you teach, give demonstrations, test recipesor write about food, questions concerning sugar’sphysical and chemical functions in food are almost

certain to arise. This handbook is intended to help explain theanswers to such questions as “What gives bread its crispybrown crust?”… “Why did the custard curdle and weep?”…“What gives the angel food cake and pound cake such tendertexture?”… “Why is the lemon pie filling lumpy, and themeringue flat and pale?”… “Why are the yeast-leavenedrolls taking so long to rise?”… “Why did the strawberriesfrozen two weeks ago, defrost limp and faded?” and “Whatgives barbequed ribs a crispy, brown texture?” Thishandbook is a quick and concise reference on the functionalroles sugar plays in foods. It discusses how sugar reacts infood preparation and why it reacts as it does.

Sugar is the disaccharide sucrose (C12H22O11), acarbohydrate found in every fruit and vegetable. All greenplants manufacture sugar through photosynthesis, theprocess by which plants transform sunlight and soilnutrients into their food and energy supply. Sugar cane andsugar beets contain sucrose in large quantities; that’s whythey are used as the source of the sugar we use. The sugarremoved from sugar cane and sugar beets is exactly thesame as the sugar found in all fruits and vegetables. Fullyprocessed beet sugar and cane sugar are identical productsand may be used interchangeably for all purposes.

Beyond Sweetening...

Sugar: The natural sweetener...15 calories per teaspoon!


B ecause of its diverse functionalcharacteristics, sugar is used in many typesof food preparation. Although this handbook

focuses on the functions of “regular” sugar, themost common type used in the home, sugar isavailable in many other forms.

Granulated SugarsThere are many different types of granulatedsugar. Some of these are used only by the foodindustry and professional bakers and are notavailable in the supermarket. The types ofgranulated sugars differ in crystal size. Eachcrystal size provides unique functionalcharacteristics that make the sugar appropriatefor a specific food’s special need.

“Regular” sugar, extra fine or fine sugar“Regular” sugar, as it is known to consumers, isthe sugar found in every home’s sugar bowl andmost commonly used in home food preparation. Itis the white sugar called for in most cookbookrecipes. The food industry describes “regular”sugar as extra fine or fine sugar and is the sugarmost used because its fine crystals are ideal forbulk handling and are not susceptible to caking.

Fruit sugar Fruit sugar is slightly finer than “regular” sugarand is used in dry mixes such as gelatin desserts,pudding mixes, and drink mixes. Fruit sugar hasmore uniform crystal size than “regular” sugar.The uniformity of crystal size prevents separationor settling of smaller crystals to the bottom of thebox, an important quality in dry mixes and drinkmixes.

Bakers Special Bakers Special’s crystal size is even finer thanthat of fruit sugar. As its name suggests, it wasdeveloped specially for the baking industry.Bakers special is used for sugaring doughnutsand cookies as well as in some commercial cakesand produces fine crumb texture.

Superfine, ultrafine, or bar sugar This sugar’s crystal size is the finest of all thetypes of granulated sugar. It is ideal for extra-finetextured cakes and meringues, as well as forsweetening fruits and iced-drinks since itdissolves easily. In England, a sugar very similar

to superfine sugar is known as caster or castor,named after the type of shaker in which it isoften packaged.

Confectioners or powdered sugar This sugar is granulated sugar ground to asmooth powder and then sifted. It contains about3% cornstarch to prevent caking. Confectionerssugar is available in three grades ground todifferent degrees of fineness. The confectionerssugar available in supermarkets is the finest ofthe three and is used in icings, confections andwhipping cream. The other two types of powderedsugar are used by industrial bakers.

Coarse sugar The crystal size of coarse sugar is larger thanthat of “regular” sugar. Coarse sugar is recoveredwhen sugar syrups high in sucrose are allowed tocrystallize, thereby making it highly resistant tocolor change or inversion (natural breakdown tofructose and glucose) at high temperatures. Thesecharacteristics are important in making fondants,confections and liquors.

Sanding sugar Another large crystal sugar, sanding sugar, isused mainly in the baking and confectioneryindustries to sprinkle on top of baked goods. Thelarge crystals reflect light and give the product asparkling appearance.

Types of Sugar


Brown SugarsTurbinado sugar This sugar is raw sugar which has been onlypartially processed, removing the surfacemolasses. It is a blond color with a mild brownsugar flavor and is often used in tea.

Brown sugar (light and dark) Brown sugar retains some of the molasses syrup,which imparts a pleasant flavor. Brown sugartends to clump because it contains more moisturethan white sugar. Dark brown sugar has morecolor and a stronger molasses flavor than lightbrown sugar. Lighter types are generally used inbaking and making butterscotch, condiments andglazes. Dark brown sugar has a rich flavor that isgood for gingerbread, mincemeat, baked beans,and other full flavored foods.

Muscovado or Barbados sugar Muscovado sugar, a British specialty brownsugar, is very dark brown and has a particularlystrong molasses flavor. The crystals are slightlycoarser and stickier in texture than “regular”brown sugar.

Free-flowing brown sugars These sugars are specialty products produced bya cocrystallization process. The process yieldsfine, powder-like brown sugar that is less moistthan “regular” brown sugar. Since it is less moist,it does not clump and is free-flowing like whitesugar.

Demerara sugar Popular in England, Demerara sugar is a lightbrown sugar with large golden crystals, which areslightly sticky. It is often used in tea, coffee, or ontop of hot cereals.

Liquid SugarsLiquid sugars There are several types of liquid sugar. Liquidsucrose (sugar) is essentially liquid white sugarand can be used in products wherever dissolvedsugar might be used. Amber liquid sucrose(sugar) is darker in color and can be used wherecolor is not a problem in the product.

Invert sugar Inversion of sucrose results in invert sugar, anequal mixture of glucose and fructose. Availablecommercially only in liquid form, invert sugar issweeter than white sugar. Some liquid inverts areactually part invert sugar combined with partdissolved white sugar. Another type, named totalinvert sugar syrup, is almost completely invertsugar. It is used mainly in food products to retardcrystallization of sugar and retain moisture.


The cook who once discovered—by accidentperhaps—that pound cake could be vastlyimproved by creaming the sugar with the

shortening probably never knew why thisinnovation worked so well. The fact that jams andpreserves rarely spoil must have delighted homecooks without their ever having the faintest ideawhy this is so.

Understanding the reason why is asimportant as the fact itself. In the followingpages, the reasons for sugar’s use in foodpreparation are reviewed in sections on bakeryfoods, cooking, jellies and preserves, canning andfreezing, candy making, frozen desserts and non-sweet foods.

Sugar in Action

Beyond its contributions as a sweetener and flavor-enhancer, sugar: 1. Interacts with molecules of protein or starch during baking and cooking process.

2. Acts as a tenderizer by absorbing water and inhibiting flour gluten development, as well as delaying starch gelatinization

3. Incorporates air into shortening in the creaming process.

4. Caramelizes under heat, to provide cooked and baked foods with pleasing color and aroma.

5. Speeds the growth of yeast by providing nourishment.

6. Serves as a whipping aid to stabilize beaten egg foams.

7. Delays coagulation of egg proteins in custards.

8. Regulates the gelling of fruit jellies and preserves.

9. Helps to prevent spoilage of jellies and preserves.

10. Improves the appearance and tenderness of canned fruits.

11. Delays discoloration of the surface of frozen fresh fruits.

12. Enables a wide variety of candies through varying degrees of recrystallization.

13. Controls the reformation of crystals through inversion (breakdown to fructose and glucose).

14. Enhances the smoothness and flavor of ice cream.


C akes, cookies, quick breads and yeastbreads require sugar for flavor, pleasingcolor, tender texture, evenness of grain,

moisture retention, improved shelf life, and yeastfermentation. Because these are keys to qualityin baked goods, it is important to know howsugar works in batters and doughs and how itrelates to other ingredients in recipes. Andalthough a number of other sweeteners may beused in baked products, none is as versatile assugar or can perform all of its importantfunctions.

Flour, shortening, eggs, liquids, leaveningagents and sugar are the basic ingredients.Working together, these ingredients function toform the final structure of the baked good. Theamount and nature of these ingredients in therecipe determine the structural and sensorycharacteristics of the baked product.

Basic Functional RolesSugar Plays in BakedProducts Gluten DevelopmentDuring the mixing process, sugar acts as atenderizing agent by absorbing water and slowinggluten development.

During the mixing of batters and doughs,flour proteins are hydrated (surrounded withwater) forming gluten strands. The gluten formsthousands of small, balloon-like pockets that trapthe gases produced during leavening. Thesegluten strands are highly elastic and allow thebatter to stretch under expansion of gases.However, if too much gluten develops, the doughor batter becomes rigid and tough.

Sugar competes with these gluten-formingproteins for water in the batter and prevents fullhydration of the proteins during mixing. As aconsequence, less gluten is allowed to “develop,”preventing the elastic dough or batter frombecoming rigid. With the correct proportion ofsugar in the recipe, the gluten maintainsoptimum elasticity, which allows for gases to beheld within the dough matrix. These gases, from

leavening agents and mixing, expand and allowthe batter or dough to rise. By preventing thegluten development, sugar helps give the finalbaked product tender crumb texture and goodvolume.

LeaveningSugar increases the effectiveness of yeast byproviding an immediate, more utilizable source ofnourishment for its growth.

Under recipe conditions of moisture andwarmth, sugar is broken down by the yeast cells,and carbon dioxide gas is released at a faster ratethan if only the carbohydrates of flour werepresent. The leavening process is hastened and thedough rises at a faster and more consistent rate.

CreamingSugar crystals become interspersed among theshortening molecules when shortening and sugarare creamed together.

In cakes and cookies, sugar helps promotelightness by incorporating air into the shortening.Air is trapped on the face of sugar’s irregularcrystals. When sugar is mixed with shortening,this air becomes incorporated as very small aircells. During baking, these air cells expand whenfilled with carbon dioxide and other gases fromthe leavening agent.

Egg FoamsSugar serves as a whipping aid to stabilizebeaten egg foams.

In foam-type cakes, sugar interacts with eggproteins to stabilize the whipped foam structure.In doing so, sugar makes the egg foam moreelastic so that air cells can expand and take upgases from the leavening agent.

Sugar in Bakery Foods


Egg Protein CoagulationIn unshortened cakes, sugar molecules disperseamong egg proteins and delay coagulation of theegg proteins during baking.

As the temperature rises, egg proteinscoagulate, or form bonds among each other. Thesugar molecules raise the temperature at whichbonds form between these egg proteins bysurrounding the egg proteins and interfering withbond formations. Once the egg proteins coagulate,the cake “sets,” forming the solid mesh-likestructure of the cake.

GelatinizationDuring baking, sugar tenderizes by absorbingliquid and delaying gelatinization.

In cakes, the heat of baking causes the starchin flour to absorb liquid and swell. This process iscalled gelatinization. As more liquid is absorbedby the starch, the batter goes from a fluid to asolid state, “setting” the cake. Sugar acts to slowgelatinization by competing with the starch forliquid. By absorbing part of the liquid, sugarmaintains the viscosity of the batter. As a result,the temperature at which the cake “sets” (turningfrom liquid to solid state) is delayed until theoptimum amount of gases are produced by theleavening agents. Carbon dioxide, air and steamproduced from leavening agents, heated waterand air become entrapped and expand in the aircells. The result is a fine, uniformly-grained cakewith a soft, smooth crumb texture.

As described above, sugar is effective indelaying starch gelatinization in cakes andprovides good texture and volume. Little data isavailable concerning sugar’s function in delayinggelatinization in breads; therefore its influence ongelatinization in yeast-leavened breads is lessclear. In theory, as breads with higher sugarcontent bake, gelatinization is delayed by thesame mechanism described above in cakes. Abread with more tender crumb texture results.

CaramelizationSugar caramelizes when heated above its meltingpoint, adding flavor and leading to surfacebrowning which improves moisture retention inbaked products.

At about 175°C (or 347°F), melted dry sugartakes on an amber color and develops anappealing flavor and aroma. This amorphoussubstance resulting from the breakdown of sugaris known as caramel. In baking a batter or doughcontaining sugar, caramelization takes placeunder the influence of oven heat, and is one oftwo ways in which surface browning occurs. Thegolden-brown, flavorful and slightly crisp surfaceof breads, cakes, and cookies not only tastes goodbut helps retain moisture in the baked product.

Maillard ReactionsAt oven temperatures, sugar chemically reactswith proteins in the baking product, contributingto the food’s browned surface.

These Maillard reactions are the second wayin which bread crusts, cakes, and cookies gettheir familiar brown surfaces. During baking ofbreads, cakes, and cookies, Maillard reactionsoccur among sugar and the amino acids, peptidesor proteins from other ingredients in the bakedproducts, causing browning. These reactions alsoresult in the aroma associated with the bakedgood. The higher the sugar content of the bakedgood, the darker golden brown the surfaceappears. As described above, these brownedsurfaces not only taste good but help retainmoisture in the baked product, prolongingfreshness.

Surface CrackingSugar helps produce the desirable surfacecracking of some cookies. Because of therelatively high concentration of sugar and the lowwater content in cookies, sugar crystallizes on thesurface. As sugar crystallizes, it gives off heatthat evaporates the water it absorbed duringmixing and baking. At the same time, leaveninggases expand and cause cracking of the drysurface.


Bakery Products Yeast BreadsBreads leavened with yeast initially requiresugar to accelerate the production of carbondioxide. During the mixing phase, sugar absorbsa high proportion of water, delaying the glutenformation. Delayed gluten formation makes thebread dough’s elasticity ideal for trapping gasesand forming a good structure.

Sugar in the Maillard reaction contributes tothe brown crust and delicious aromatic odor ofbread. Also, some of the yeast fermentation by-products and proteins from the flour react withsugar contributing to bread’s color and flavor.

Shortened CakesIn shortened cakes, sugar aids during creamingto incorporate air into the shortening of thesecakes. Sugar helps produce fine crumb textureand good volume during mixing and baking.During mixing, sugar tenderizes cakes byabsorbing liquid and preventing completehydration of gluten strands. During baking, sugartenderizes shortened cakes by absorbing waterand delaying gelatinization. In addition, sugarcontributes pleasing, sweet flavors and tenderbrowned surfaces to shortened cakes.

CookiesCookies, like cakes, are leavened with bakingsoda or baking powder. Cookies, however, havemore sugar and shortening and less waterproportionately. In cookies, sugar introduces airinto the batter during the creaming process.Approximately half the sugar remainsundissolved at the end of mixing. When thecookie dough enters the oven, the temperaturecauses the shortening to melt and the dough tobecome more fluid. The undissolved sugardissolves as the temperature increases and thesugar solution increases in volume. This leads toa more fluid dough, allowing the cookies tospread during baking.

Sugar also helps produce the appealingsurface cracking of some cookies, such asgingersnaps. Additionally, sugar serves as aflavorant, caramelizing while the cookies bake.

Pound CakePound cakes, although prepared with shortening,usually contain no leavening agent other than air.The air is incorporated into the batter through arelatively large quantity of beaten eggs. Creamingthe sugar with the shortening contributesfluffiness to the shortening by providing tiny airpockets that undergo heat expansion duringbaking. Sugar also acts as a tenderizing agentduring mixing by inhibiting gluten developmentand during baking by delaying gelatinization.Thus, sugar helps produce pound cakes of finegrain and good volume.

Unshortened CakesUnshortened cakes such as sponge and angel foodcake contain no fat, but include a largeproportion of eggs or egg whites. Much of thecellular structure of the cake is derived from eggprotein. Air is the leavening agent that has beenbeaten into the eggs. Sugar serves as a whippingaid to stabilize the beaten foam. Part of the sugaralso is combined with flour before it is folded intothe foam mixture. This sugar dispersesthroughout the flour, separating the flour’s starchparticles and keeping them from lumping whenthe flour is folded into the foam mixture.

By raising the temperature at which eggproteins set, sugar delays coagulation longenough to permit entrapment of optimum air. Theresulting cakes have tender texture and excellentvolume.

Quick BreadsQuick breads, such as biscuits or scones, areprepared with leavening agents that act morerapidly than yeast. Since some quick breadscontain relatively small amounts of shorteningand little to no sugar, they require special care inmixing to obtain a tender product.

In preparing quick breads, the chance ofoverdeveloping gluten because of the lack ofsugar is a constant risk. With sugar scant orabsent, the flour and liquid must be combinedgently and stirred only enough to just moistenthe dry ingredients. Overmixing results inmuffins with large air tunnels and tough cellwalls. As the amount of sugar increases, the riskof coarse, uneven grain and chewy texture causedby overmixing decreases.


Sugar In Cooking

I n the preparation of custards, puddings, piefillings and meringues, sugar is a keyingredient. The recipes for these foods depend

on sugar to perform vital chemical and physicalfunctions in addition to its role as a sweetener.

CustardSugar delays coagulation of egg proteins incustards and similar cooked egg dishes. Just asmost baked products are essentially flour proteinstructures, custards are egg protein structures. Ifthe egg white solidifies too soon from the heat inthe cooking process, the liquid ingredients in thecustard will be squeezed out in droplets. This isknown as syneresis or “weeping.”

Sugar in a custard mixture breaks up theclumps of protein molecules so that they arefinely dispersed in the liquid mixture. Thetemperature at which the custard sets is thusraised, permitting the egg proteins to coagulateslowly and enmesh the other ingredients,resulting in a smooth, stable consistency.

Puddings, Sauces and Pie FillingsSugar disperses among the starch particles offlour, cornstarch, or similar thickeningingredients used for pudding, sauce or pie filling.When dry starch is added directly to a hot liquid,the particles on the outside tend to cook first,enclosing raw starch particles in the interior.These lumps are unsightly and unpalatable, andthey prevent proper thickening. When mixed withsugar before adding to the hot liquid, the starchparticles disperse evenly into the mixture. Eachparticle comes in contact with the hot liquid atthe same time, and all cook at the same rate.

So vital is the dispersion of starch that unlessthe amount of sugar used in the recipe is twicethe amount of the starch, a small amount of coldliquid should be blended with the sugar-starchmixture to further disperse the particles beforeadding to a hot liquid. Raw cocoa, which is aboutone-third starch, should also be combined withsugar before adding hot water. Dessert sauces,chocolate pudding, and lemon, butterscotch andother pie fillings all benefit in body andsmoothness from this function of sugar.

MeringuesSugar stabilizes foams such as meringues. Beatenegg whites or a meringue hold air bubblesbecause the mechanical action of the beaterspartially coagulates the egg protein. When sugaris added, often with another stabilizer such assalt or cream of tartar, the protein film becomesmore adhesive and its ability to hold air bubblesis increased. This results in a stiffer, higher andmore stable foam.

The amount of sugar added per egg whitedetermines the nature of the meringue. For ameringue tart or pie shell that is to be filled withice cream, fruit or other soft mixtures, fourtablespoons of sugar are used for each egg white.The stiff, shaped meringue is then baked in avery slow oven to ensure even setting andthorough drying throughout. The baked meringuewill be very crisp and dry, and there will be little,if any, browning.

For the meringue topping that is to be usedon a pie or pudding, only two tablespoons ofsugar are required per egg white, and themixture may be baked in a hotter oven. Thisproduces a softer meringue with a slightly crispcrust and a golden-brown color due to thecaramelization of the sugar. If no sugar is addedto the beaten egg white topping, considerable airshrinkage occurs during baking, and theresulting product is flat, pale, and gummy.


Tips for Cooking with Sugar To minimize the starch flavor in corn, carrot and pea preparations, add sugar to the cooking liquid.

To balance salty, sour or acidic flavors in dressings, marinades, brines and sauces, add sugar.

To boost browning and add a delicious caramelized sugar flavor to pot roast, stews or braised meats, sprinkle

meats with sugar before searing.

To preserve the quality of frozen fruit, pack fruits in sugar syrup or dry sugar before freezing.

To prepare most preserves, jams and jellies, use 1 part sugar to 1 part fruit. In recipes that incorporate

commercial pectin, the proportion of sugar may be slightly higher or lower than the 1 to 1 ratio. High fructose

corn syrup is sometimes used in commercial jellies. However, it may contain as much as 29% water. The extra

water may be evaporated in the final stage of production, which can result in the loss of volatile fruit flavors.

To enhance the flavor of any protein, cover it with a dry rub. As a base recipe, start with 6 parts sugar (half

white sugar and half brown sugar) and 1 part salt, and then add herbs and spices as desired. A general rule of

thumb is 1 to 2 tablespoons of dry rub per pound of meat.

To make quick pickled vegetables, follow these specific guidelines:

•For shiitake mushrooms, steep in sweet pickling juice 1 hour.

•For baby eggplants, bring sweet pickling juice to a simmer, add eggplants, turn off the heat and let the

eggplants pickle at room temperature 2 hours in juice. Refrigerate.

•For cooked beets, add to pickling juice and refrigerate 2 hours.

•For red onion rings, simmer with pickling juice 5 minutes. Let steep 20 minutes off heat. Store in the juice up

to 1 week in the refrigerator.

To coat vegetables with a shiny, savory glaze, place vegetables (pearl onions, for example) with liquid (stock or

water), sugar and butter in a partially covered pan or in a pan topped with a foil round or parchment round

placed directly on the vegetables. Cook over medium-low heat until the vegetables release their juices. Reduce

the liquid until it’s thick and coats the vegetables.


S ugar, as the principal ingredient of candy,displays a wide range of physical andchemical properties. By controlling sugar

concentration, type and degree of heat, agitationand addition of other ingredients, an assortmentof candy types can be produced. None of today’sother sweeteners are a suitable substitute forsugar in candy making. Other sweeteners do notexhibit the unique sweetening, bulking andmanufacturing properties of sugar.

Basic Candy Making MethodIn candy making, sugar is first dissolved in waterat room temperature to the point at which nomore sugar will dissolve (approximately onepound of sugar to every cup of water). The resultis a saturated solution. This saturated solution isplaced over heat and stirred continuously,allowing more sugar to dissolve into solution. Thesolution is then heated to boiling, at which pointno more sugar will dissolve into solution, creatinga supersaturated solution. The supersaturatedsugar solution is then heated to above boilingpoint forcing more and more water to evaporateand the solution to become even moreconcentrated.

Here is one of the keys to candy making: thedegree of sugar concentration of thesupersaturated solution can determine thecandy’s final consistency. By monitoring thestages of the supersaturated solution with acandy thermometer and by testing a smallsample of the sugar syrup in cold water, one candetermine the specific concentration of the sugarsyrup. The temperatures and stages of candyhardness are shown for each type of candy inTable 1.

These concentrated, supersaturated solutionsare very unstable since the sugar molecules areprone to prematurely recrystallize as the solutionbecomes increasingly concentrated. Duringheating of the solution, care must be taken not toagitate or to introduce foreign particles into thesolution, both of which can cause prematurerecrystallization. The secret to making differenttypes of candy lies in attaining the correctconcentration of the supersaturated solution andthen controlling the recrystallization of the sugarcrystals.

Candy types can be divided into twocategories: a) candies in which sugar is present inthe form of crystals, and b) candies in which thesugar is present in an uncrystallized form.

Crystalline CandiesCrystalline candies can be subdivided into twogroups: a) candies with perceptible crystals suchas rock candy, and b) cream candies in whichcrystals are too small to be detected by thetongue, such as fondant and fudge.

Rock candy is prepared simply by immersinga string in a supersaturated sugar solution,heating the solution to the hardball stage andthen allowing it to cool. Left to cool, sugar fromthe solution will recrystallize on the string. Withno stirring or other interfering agents, sugarmolecules will continue to clump and the crystalswill increase in size as long as the mass isimmersed. The resulting product is pure sugarsince only pure sucrose will recrystallize.

Aside from rock candy and certain types ofsugar crystal coatings desirable on candies suchas bon bons and gumdrops, the cream form ofcrystallized candies is generally more popular.Cream candies are created through controllingthe size of crystals and forming small,imperceptible crystals. A candy thermometerand/or the cold water sample test are used toheat the supersaturated sugar solution to aspecific concentration (Table 1). The solution isthen cooled and beaten to bring about theformation of very small homogenous crystals.During this step, the candy “creams.”

Creaming is largely dependent on interferingagents which prevent sugar molecules fromclumping and growing into large crystals. Fatand protein in candy ingredients, such as milk,butter, egg, cream, chocolate, and cold gelatin,are all interfering agents which inhibitrecrystallization and facilitate creaming. The fatand protein coat the sucrose molecules andprevent the molecules from sticking together andforming large crystals.

Invert sugar, another type of interferingagent, also helps prevent recrystallization. Invertsugar is the result of the breakdown, or theinversion, of the sucrose into fructose andglucose. This process takes place when sucrose is

Sugar In Candy Making


Table 1: Stages of Sugar Syrup in Candy Making

Boiling Point (oF) Candy Cold Water Test

230-234 Syrups Thread: Pulls into a thread but will not form a ball

235-240 Fudge, Fondant Soft ball: Forms a soft ball that will flatten when removed from water

244-248 Caramel Firm ball: Forms a firm ball that will not flatten when removed

from water

250-266 Nougat, Divinity, Rock Hard ball: Forms a hard ball that will not flatten when removed

from water but is still plastic

270-290 Taffy, Butterscotch Soft crack: Separates into threads that are not brittle

300-310 Brittle Hard crack: Separates into threads that are hard and brittle

320 Clear liquid: Sugar liquifies and turns light amber in color

338 Brown liquid: the liquified sugar turns brown in color

NOTE: To do a cold-water test, use a teaspoon to portion a few drops of the concentrated syrup into a small amount

of ice water. Use fingers to form a thread or ball.

heated with moist heat or, as in candy making,when the water and sugar solution is heated. Theamount of water used and the length andintensity of the cooking of the supersaturatedsolution both control how much of the sucrose isinverted. The process may be accelerated byadded acid from candy ingredients such as creamof tartar, fruit, brown sugar, molasses, honey orchocolate. While it is highly undesirable for toomuch sucrose in the cream candy to invert, aconsiderable proportion of invert sugar isessential to keep the candy moist and topreventing graininess (due to the formation oftoo-large crystals).

Non-crystalline candiesNon-crystalline or amorphous candies are muchsimpler to make. The sugar solution must simplycontain sufficient interfering agents or cook to ahigh enough temperature to preventrecrystallization. In taffies, butterscotch, brittlesand caramels, invert sugar in the form ofmolasses, acid that will produce invert sugar, orcorn syrup are added to the mixture to preventthe formation of crystals in the candy. These

candies are cooked to a higher temperature thancrystallized candies so as to reduce the watercontent to 2% or less, which also preventsrecrystallization.

Non-crystalline candy can be cooked by dryheat as well as moist heat. Some peanut brittles,for example, are made by melting dry sugar. Thebrittle does not recrystallize because lack ofwater during the cooling period causes it to takethe form of a non-crystalline, glassy solid.

Sugar’s ability to recrystallize and to controlrecrystallization through development of invertsugar provides a delightful variety of textures incandies and confections.

IcingsSugar’s role in icings are similar to those incandies. Its versatility contributes to the manytempting frostings that may be prepared forcakes. Icings enhance the flavor of baked goods aswell as function as a barrier to moisture,extending freshness of the baked good. Sugar isthe most important ingredient in icing, providingsweetness, flavor, bulk and structure.


I n jellies, marmalades, jams, and preserves,sugar helps to capture and preserveindefinitely the flavor, aroma, color and

qualities of the various fruits. The fruit flavorsare concentrated and intensified, resulting inunique texture and pleasing appearance of jelliesand preserves.

The Food and Drug Administration hasestablished Standards of Identity (standardrecipes) for commercial preserves, jams andjellies. Cookbook recipes use approximately thesame ratio of one part fruit to one part sugar.Jellies, jams and preserves differ by the form ofthe fruit used in the recipes. Transparent jelliesare made with fruit juice squeezed or pressedfrom the whole fruit. While jams and preservesare considered equal by the Standards of Identity,preserves traditionally are made with whole orlarge pieces of fruit, whereas jams are made withcrushed or smaller pieces of fruit. Whether usedin preparation of preserves, jams or jellies, sugarplays important roles.

GellingSugar is essential in the gelling process of jams,preserves and jellies to obtain the desiredconsistency and firmness. This gel-formingprocess is called gelation, where the fruit juicesare enmeshed in a network of fibers. Pectin, anatural component of fruits, has the ability toform this gel only in the presence of sugar andacid. Sugar is essential because it attracts andholds water during the gelling process. Inaddition, acid must be present in the properproportions and at an optimum pH between 3.0and 3.5. Some recipes include lemon juice or citricacid to achieve this proper acidity.

The amount of gel-forming pectin in a fruitvaries with the ripeness (less ripe fruit has morepectin) and the variety (apples, cranberries andgrapes are considerably richer in pectin thancherries and strawberries). In the case of a fruit toolow in pectin, some commercial pectin may beadded to produce the gelling, especially in jellies. Inrecipes that use commercial pectin, the proportionsof sugar may be slightly higher or lower than theone part fruit to one part sugar ratio.

Sugar In Jellies & Preserves

Volume Equivalents3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon4 tablespoons = 1/4 cup5 1/3 tablespoons = 1/3 cup8 tablespoons = 1/2 cup or 4 ounces16 tablespoons = 1 cup or 8 ounces

Approximate Weight Equivalents1 pound granulated sugar = 2 to 2 1/4 cups1 pound confectioners sugar = 4 to 4 1/2 cups1 pound brown sugar = 2 1/4 to 2 1/2 cups

(packed)1 cup honey = 1 to 1 1/4 cups sugar plus 1/4

cup liquid


PreservingSugar prevents spoilage of jams, jellies, andpreserves after the jar is opened. Properlyprepared and packaged preserves and jellies arefree from bacteria and yeast cells until the lid isopened and exposed to air. Once the jar is opened,sugar incapacitates any microorganisms by itsability to attract water. This is accomplishedthrough osmosis (the process whereby water willflow from a weaker solution to a moreconcentrated solution when they are separated bya semi-permeable membrane). In the case ofjellies and preserves, the water is withdrawnfrom these microorganisms toward theconcentrated sugar syrup. The microorganismsbecome dehydrated and incapacitated, and areunable to multiply and bring about food spoilage.In jellies, jams and preserves, a concentratedsugar solution of at least 65% is necessary toperform this function. Since the sugar contentnaturally present in fruits and their juices is lessthan 65%, it is essential to add sugar to raise itto this concentration in jellies and preserves.

Color RetentionSugar helps retain the color of the fruit throughits capacity to attract and hold water. Sugarabsorbs water more readily than othercomponents, such as fruit, in preserves andjellies. Thus, sugar prevents the fruit fromabsorbing water which would cause its color tofade through dilution.

Commercial ProductsSugar is the main sweetener in home-made jelliesand jams. The preserve and jelly industry uses anumber of alternate sweeteners, in addition tosugar, for economic and marketing reasons. Highfructose corn syrup (HFCS) is used in manycommercial jellies and is comparable in sweetnessto sugar. The major disadvantage of HFCS is thatit is a liquid and may contain as much as 29percent water. The extra water maybe evaporatedin the final stage of production, a process thatcauses part of the volatile fruit flavors to be lost.

Other products use concentrated fruit juicesas their sweetening ingredient. These productshave the same caloric content as sugar sweetenedproducts, since concentrated fruit juices aresimilar in composition to sugar syrups.


Sugar is used in the canning and freezing offruits to improve flavor and texture, and topreserve natural color and shape. Through

osmosis, sugar replaces some of the water in thefruit. This natural process preserves the fruit’sinherent color, texture and shape by preventingthe fruit’s remaining water from leaving itscellular structures. As a result, the fruit’s textureis protected against weakening during freezingand canning. In addition, sugar, upon enteringthe cells, also helps minimize oxidation, andprevents the fruit’s firm texture from becomingmushy. Sugar both enhances flavor and preservesthe color of the fruit which makes it moreappealing to eat.

Canning FruitFruit to be canned is placed in a syrup of greatersugar concentration than that of the fruit itself.The dissolved sugar in the syrup diffuses into thefruit (osmosis) and improves its flavor. As thefruit cooks in the syrup, the cell wall becomesmore permeable, the fruit texture grows moretender, and the retention of the sugar renders thefruit plump and attractive. Whole fruits withtough skins, such as Kieffer pears and kumquats,are impermeable to the sugar syrup unlessprecooked or unless the skins are pierced.

Freezing FruitFruits to be frozen benefit from either a drysugar pack or from freezing in a sugar syrup. Fora dry sugar pack, the fruit is gently mixed withsugar, in a given proportion, so that each piece iscoated. The choice of dry or syrup pack generallydepends on the use to which the frozen fruit is tobe put. Fruits packed in syrup are usually chosenfor dessert, while fruits packed in dry sugar arepreferred for cooking purposes.

Some fruits such as blueberries, cranberries,raspberries, rhubarb may be frozen in a dry packwithout sugar. However, these and all other fruitsbenefit greatly from the sugar pack regardless ofthe type used (dry or syrup).

Sugar helps protect the surfaces of frozenfresh fruit from contact with air which producesenzymatic browning—discoloration due tooxidation. In some cases, such as with peaches,nectarines and apricots frozen in a syrup pack,ascorbic acid is also added to help preventdarkening. The presence of sugar also lessensflavor change by retarding possible fermentation.In addition, texture, fresh fruit aroma andnormal size are retained upon thawing whensugar is used in freezing fruit.

Sugar In Canning & Freezing


S ugar functions to enhance the creamytexture and pleasing taste of frozen dessertssuch as ice cream, ice milk, frozen custard

and sherbet.

Freezing PointFrozen desserts are made by freezing a liquidmixture of sugar with cream, milk, fruit juices orpurees. In the liquid mixture, the dissolvedsugar’s ability to attract and hold waterdiminishes the water available for watercrystallization during freezing. As a result, thefreezing point of the liquid mixture is lowered.Since less “free” water is available, the icecrystals that form tend to be smaller.

As part of the liquid mixture begins to freeze,the sugar in the remaining unfrozen solutionbecomes more concentrated, further lowering thefreezing point of the remaining unfrozen solution.Therefore, a temperature much lower than thefreezing point of the liquid mixture is used toensure rapid, consistent cooling. The combinationof a lower freezing point provided by thedissolved sugar and a colder than freezingtemperature environment produces a frozenproduct with tiny ice crystals. Tiny ice crystalsgive the frozen dessert its smooth, creamytexture. Large crystals are undesirable becausethey impart a “gritty” or “sandy” texture in thefrozen dessert. Closely following the recipeprocedures during hardening and storing offrozen desserts are the final steps to achieving ahigh quality frozen dessert.

Though other sweeteners can be used forfrozen desserts, sugar is preferable because of itsfunctional characteristics. A major disadvantageof substituting high fructose corn syrup (HFCS)is that it lowers the freezing point twice as muchas sugar does, producing an icy texture.

Flavors and MouthfeelIn frozen desserts, sugar also functions to balanceflavors and mouthfeel. Since low temperaturestend to numb the taste buds, sugar acts toenhance flavors, thereby eliminating the need foradditional flavor ingredients. Sugar alsoincreases the viscosity (thickness) of frozendesserts, which helps impart a thick, creamymouthfeel. It provides a clean, sweet tastepreferable to the “syrupy” taste produced by corn-derived sweeteners. Corn-derived sweeteners alsomay mask or alter the flavor of other ingredientsadded to the frozen dessert. In frozen dessertsflavored with added fruit, sugar also acts tobalance their acidity.

About 16% sugar by weight is recommendedfor ice cream. Somewhat higher proportions ofsugar are used for lower fat deserts, such as icemilk and sherbet, in order to counterbalance thereduced amount of butterfat. When cream isreplaced with lower fat ingredients, such as milkor fruit puree, additional sugar is necessary toensure a smooth, creamy mouthfeel and balancedflavor.

Sugar In Frozen Desserts


Sugar In Non-sweet Foods

Caramelization of Meats andVegetablesSugar enhances browning and flavor developmentin sautéed vegetables and meats. Caramelizationis the process of cooking sugar to the browningstage. During sautéing, sugar helps brownvegetables and enhances their flavor. Sugar alsoincreases the browning of meats, adding a depthof flavor to stew dishes featuring well-brownedmeat. Add sugar judiciously to sautéed vegetablesand meats. Sucrose begins to brown at 338ºF.Most foods will brown only on the outside andonly through dry-heat methods (sautéing,roasting, grilling or broiling), which reach thehigh temperatures at which browning occurs.Foods cooked with moist-heat methods alone, asin some poached and braised recipes, do notbecome hot enough to brown or caramelize.

Barbecue SaucesSugar enhances or brings out the flavors that arealready in the barbecue sauce. It enhances thetomato, vinegar or lime flavors that may bepresent in the sauces. Through its ability tocaramelize, sugar also contributes to thebrowning process, which an artificial sweetenercan’t do.

Sugar has an optimum taste between 100ºFand 125ºF and tastes better when heated.Because sugar can withstand high temperatures,it is a good choice for barbecue sauces.Additionally, sugar provides superior taste,consistency and performance over othersweeteners in barbecue sauce applications.

Glazing VegetablesSugar creates a shiny, savory glaze on cookedvegetables. Glazing refers to cooking vegetablesin a small amount of liquid (stock or water,usually with a little sugar and butter) overmedium-low heat until the vegetables releasejuices, then reducing the liquid until it’s thick.Sugar tenderizes the vegetables and helps createa shiny, savory glaze.

Sauces and Salad DressingsSugar balances sour, bitter and spicy componentsin hot and cold applications. Sour sensationscome from acids such as lemon or lime juice,tomato products and vinegars. Salty sensationscome from sodium chloride and other salts.Bitterness is a reaction to alkaloids such asquinine and caffeine. The body is more tolerant ofsweet sensations than sour, bitter or salty ones.The addition of sweetness to sour, salty and bitterfoods can make them taste better. That’s whysugar is added to acidic dressings, salty brinesolutions and coffee.

The interaction of taste and temperatureproduces various flavor sensations. Sucrose hasan optimum taste between 100º F and 125º F.Fructose, the major component of honey, exhibitspoor sweetening ability when hot, yet tastes verysweet in cold preparations.

BriningSugar softens and balances the flavor of delicatefish, poultry or meat in brine solutions. A brine isa very salty marinade that tenderizes foods, addsflavor and moisture, and reduces cooking time.Most brines have approximately 20% salinity, or1 pound salt per gallon water. Brines oftencontain sugar, herbs and spices. Other additionscan include wine, beer, fruit juices and vinegar.

The chemistry behind brining is simple: Meatnaturally contains salt water. By immersing meatin a liquid with a higher concentration of salt, theliquid (and its flavorings) is absorbed into themeat. The sugar in a brine also draws out some


blood remaining in raw fish, beef and poultry.The longer a food is brined, the stronger theflavor will be. Poultry and seafood do not need tobe brined as long as denser meats. After brining,the meat (or fish or poultry) contains extramoisture which will remain after cooking,producing a moist finished product.

Salt CuringSugar adds flavor to salt-cured raw foods. Saltcuring is the process of surrounding a food withsalt or a mixture of salt, sugar, curing salt, herbsand spices. Salt curing dehydrates the raw food,inhibits the growth of bacteria and adds flavor. Itpreserves meats such as ham and makes it safeto consume raw. Sugar adds a sweet flavor tocured foods and balances the salt flavor. Mostoften used with pork or fish, salt curing is NOT aquick procedure and must be carefully managedto meet food safety regulations.

Dry RubsSugar enhances flavor, browning, and crusting ofmeat, fish, and poultry, and contributes toosmosis during the smoking step in the barbecueprocess. A dry rub or dry marinade is a mixture ofsugar (often white and brown), salt, and crushedherbs or spices that is applied to a protein’ssurface prior to cooking. Other additions such asminced garlic, onion and grated citrus zest can beadded to form a paste which will adhere well tomeat, fish or poultry. Unlike a wet marinade, adry rub remains on the food during cooking.

A dry rub is an important flavor-buildingcomponent of smoking, which is the first step intraditional barbecue. Through osmosis, the salt inthe rub draws moisture from the surface of themeat. The dry surface, combined with the savoryrub, create a crust that adds flavor, texture andeye-appeal to the cooked meat. Sugar contributesto osmosis and so to the creation of the crust aswell as caramelization and flavor enhancement.

Dry rubs are recommended over marinatingfor large pieces of meat such as briskets and porkbutts because a dry rub will not sear or burn onthe grill the way marinades can during the long,slow cooking required for these large cuts.Marinades primarily flavor the surface of meats,and that’s sufficient for small cuts, which havelarge surface areas; but large meat cuts, withtheir smaller surface-to-interior ratios, benefitfrom the deeper flavor penetration of rubs.

PicklingSugar balances acid flavor and helps maintainthe texture of pickled vegetables. Pickling meanspreserving food in a brine or vinegar solution. Itis one of the oldest methods of food preservation,perhaps starting with the Chinese in the 3rdcentury.

Pickled vegetables can be brined (fermented),which involves curing at room temperature forseveral weeks. Or pickles can be “quick”(unfermented), made in a day or two by addingvinegar to the brine solution. It’s critical to addenough vinegar to prevent bacterial growth.

Sugar is an important component in pickling.Besides balancing the flavor of the vinegar, sugarhelps strengthen vegetable cell structures andmakes vegetable fibers firmer. Either brown orwhite sugar can be used. Brown sugar produces adarker brine.

Bread CoatingsSugar speeds browning in bread coatings. Acombination of sugar and protein in a coatingspurs browning. However, sugar must becarefully incorporated into a breading formula.Too much sugar can cause an onion ring coating,for example, to become overly brown before theonion has cooked.

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Sugars Functional Roles

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