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R E V I E WS

AAn c i e n t a n d Me d i e v a l / L ' An t i q u i t e t l e Mo y e n Ag e

Su bv e r s i v e Vi r t u e : As c e t i c i s m a n d Au t h or i t y i n t h e Se c o nd - Ce n t u r y

P a g a n Wo r l d , b y J a me s A. F r a n c i s . Un i v e r s i t y P a r k , P e n n s y l v a n i a ,

P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e Un i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 9 5 . x v i i i , 2 2 2 p p . $ 32 . 5 0 U. S .

As c e t i c i s m i s a q ua l i t y wh i c h we g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e wi t h t h e " h o l y me n " of

C h r i s t i a n i t y . There i s good r e a s on f or t h a t . I t was Chr i s t i a ni t y wh i ch t o ok o v e r t hea s c e t i c t r a di t i o n and t r a ns f o r me d i t i n t o a mas s move me nt . P agan ho l y men , byc o n t r a s t , t ended t o be i s ol a t e d f i g u r e s , and not we l l s e r v ed by t h e i r bi o gr a p he r s . The

Cy n i c phi l os o phe r , Pe r e gr i nus , f or i ns t a nc e , i s b es t kn own t o us nowt h r o ug h t hes k e t c h of t he s a t i r i c a l wr i t e r , Luc i a n o fSamosa t a, who c o n s i d e r e d h i m ane x h i b i t i o n i s t , t hough n o t , we s h o u l d n o t e , e nt i r e l y a f r a u d. Pe r e gr i nus , a f t e rs a mp l i n g C h r i s t i a n i t y , or r a t h er , i fwe ar e t o be l i e ve Lu c i a n , i mp os i n g upon t h eC h r i s t i a n s , r e conve r t e d t o Cy ni c i s m and f i n a l l y , l i k e He r a c l e s , whom t h e C y n i c s

ma de t he i r h e r o , c r emat ed hi ms e l f . He chose an Ol ympi c f e s t i v a l f o r h i s we l l -a d v e r t i s e d a ut o- da - f , a nd i t i s c l e ar even f r om Lu ci a n' s a s t r i nge nt acc ount t ha t hea t t r a c t e d a l a r g e , d e vo t e d f o l l o wi n g. No ne t h e l e s s he wa s not a mas s move ment . TheC h r i s t i a n a s ce t i c s number ed t hous a nds .

S t u d e n t s o f a s c e t i c i s m i n t he Roma n wo r l d ge ne r a l l y pass o v e r t he s econdc e n t u r y . The An t o ni n e p e r i o d h a s never q u i t e r e c o ve r e d f r o m b e i n g chosen byEdwar d Gi bbon as t he h ap pi e s t age i n t he huma n h i s t o r y , a nd a s ce t i c i s m i s as ympt om o f s t r e s s i n s o c i e t y . Tha t , I t h i nk , i s a be t t er e xe ge s i s o f i t t ha n Fr a nc i s ' sa t t empt t o connec t i t wi t h s ub ve r s i on : i t i s no t i n i t s e l f s u bv er s i v e, he g r a n t s , bu t i t

acc ompani e s a nd ma ni f e s t s s u bv e r s i o n. Bu t t he f i gur e s whom Fr a nc i s chooses t o

exa mi ne s howno s i g ns of s u b v e r s i o n . They ar e t he St o i c emper or Ma r c us Au r e l i u s ,Lu ci a n' s t wo v i c t i ms , P e r e g r i n u s and Al e x a n d e r of Ab on ut e i c h o s , Ap ol l o ni u s ofTyana, a nd f i n a l l y , Ce l s u s , an odd f e l l ow t r a ve l l e r i n t h i s g roup . They a r e St o i c sa n d Cy n i c s , a nd t he l a s t o f t hem, Ce l s u s , i s an i nt e l l i g ent d e f e n de r o fpagani s m

a g a i n s t t he i nr oa ds o f Chr i s t i a ni t y . None oft he m ar e even compani ons o fs u bv e r s i o n. The t i t l e o f t h i s book, " Su bv e r s i v e Vi r t ue , " mi s s t a t e s i t s t h r us t .

Ma r c us Au r e l i u s i s a c a s e i n p oi nt . We have hi s Me d i t a t i o ns , a nd because o ft h e mwe ma y f e e l t h a t we know h i s mi nd a s we l l as we know any i n t he Roma nwo r l d . Whe t he r o r not we s h o u l d admi r e h i mi s a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n . Hi s l e g a lenac t ment s s how l i t t l e s i gn o f humani t y. Hi s e di c t s on s l a ve r y a r e c h i l l i n g : Mar cusAu r e l i u s not onl y pr e s c r i be d h a r s h t r e a t me n t f or r unaway s l a v e s , but he a l s oi n s i s t e d t h a t Roma n c i t i z e n s c o - o p e r a t e wi t h s l a ve c at c he r s t o a degr ee t hat

c i r c ums c r i b ed c i t i z e n r i g h t s . Fr a n c i s r e c ogni z e s t h i s . Li k e wi s e , Ma r c us Au r e l i u s

wa s f i e r ce l y a nt i - Chr i s t i a n. F r a n c i s no t e s S o r d i ' s t h e s i s t ha t Ce l s us ' s True Do c t r i n ewa s i n s p i r e d by hi m and a r t i c ul a t e d h i s a nt i - Chr i s t i a n mi n ds e t . Fo r Mar cus , t h emos t h e i n ou s s i n was a nt i s oc i a l be h a vi o ur . The man who f l e d f r o m t he r a t i ona l l a wo f s oc i e t y was a f ug i t i ve ; t he r e be l who cut hi ms e l f o f f f r om t he r e a s o n o f o u r

c ommon na t ur e because he was di s p l e a s e d wi t h i t , was " an a b s c e s s on t he u ni v er s e "( Me d. 4. 29) . Th e s t a t u s qu o h a d n ot h i n g t o f e a r f r oms u c h a man.

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4XX Canadian Journal of Hi sl oryIAnnales canadiennes d' hist oi re XXX, Deceniber/dcembre 1995

P e r e g r i n u s be l onged t o t he Cy ni c s c h o ol , a nd t he Cy ni c s d i d c ha l l e nge s o c i a l

nor ms . I t i s unf o r t una t e t ha t Lu c i a n i s o ur maj or s o ur c e f or Pe r e g r i nus ' s l i f e , f or as c r a p o f e vi d e nc e f r omAu l u s Ge l l i u s i s mor e f a vo ur a bl e . Cy ni c s c o ul d t hr e a t e n t hes t a t u s quo , t hough t he r e i s no r e a s on t o t hi nk t hat Pe r e g r i nus , or Al e x a n d e r o fAb o nu t e i c h o s wi t h h i s snake go d, Gl y c o n , wer e muc h o f a menace. Cy n i c pr e a c he r sd i d a r t i c u l a t e p op ul a r di s c ont e nt , but t h e y ha d no s ys t e m t o r e pl a c e t he one t h e ya t t a c k e d . As p o l i t i c a l t h i n k e r s t h e y wer e a n a r c h i s t s t r o ub l e s o me but notdangerous s ubve r s i ve s .

Wi t h Ap ol l o ni u s o f Tya na we c ome t o a d i f f e r ent f i gu r e . I t i s c l e a r t ha t by t het i me P h i l os t r a t u s wr o t e h i s b i o gr a p hy , Ap o l l o n i u s wa s r e g a r d e d by s ome as a paganr i v a l o f J e s u s Ch r i s t . Fr a n c i s c a l l s h i m a "genui ne a s c e t i c . " He a b s t a i n e d f r omb a t h i n g , as d i d s ome Ch r i s t i a n a s c e t i c s ; he wa s a ve ge t a r i a n; he r e j e c t e d s e x a nd

ma r r i a g e a l i k e . Ph i l os t r a t us p u t s h i s emphas i s on t he sweet and l i g h t a s p e c t s of

Ap ol l o ni u s , bu t i t i s c l e a r t ha t even b y l a t e r Chr i s t i a n s t a nda r d s , h i s a s c e t i c i s mwass e v e r e . I t wa s not f or t he l ayman: Ap ol l o ni u s di d not c ha l l e nge p r o pe r t y r i g h t s orp r e s c r i b e a s c et i c pove r t y f o r t h e g e ne r a l po pu l a c e . He u nd ou bt e d l y p o s s e s s e da u t h o r i t y , and here Fr a nc i s i s on s t r o ng grounds: Ap ol l o ni u s i s a p r e c ur s o r o f t he

C h r i s t i a n h o l y me n and s t yl i t e s a i n t s who a dmoni s hed emper or s a nd a c t e d asombu ds me n i n t he i r communi t i es . F r a n c i s ar gues t ha t Ph i l o s t r a t us r e f a s hi one d t hel e g e n d o f Ap ol l o ni u s t o ma ke h i m a "pa r agon and exempl ar " o f c ul t u r e a nd s oc i e t y .

Ce l s u s pr ov i d e s a l i nk wi t h C h r i s t i a n i t y . Be f o r e h i m, no pagan a s f a r as weknow h a d t a ke n C h i i s t i a n i t y s e r i o u s l y enough t o e xami ne i t s doc t r i ne s c r i t i c a l l y .

P a g a n s oc i e t y i n t he second c e n t u r y wa s awar e of t h e s ubv er s i ve power o f t hea s c e t i c , Fr a n ci s a r g u e s , and t hus t he y c o nc e pt ua l i z e d J e s u s i n f a mi l i a r t e r ms . Pagant h i n k e r s i n s t i n c t i v e l y r e c o g n i z e d t he menace of Chr i s t i a ni t y because t h e y

r e c o g n i z e d a s c e t i c b e hi n d t he Chr i s t i a n s ai n t .Th i s i s a d i s c u r s i v e book, f u l l o f i n s i ght s . The r eade r i s l i k e l y t o pu t i t down,

u n c o nv i n c e d . A s t u d y t hat l o ok s at s u bve r s i ve c h a r i s ma a mong s e c o n d - c e n t u r yp h i l o s o p h e r s who r ange f r om an emper or wi t h a c o ns e r v a t i ve mi ndse t t o a c r i t i c o f

C h r i s t i a n i t y mus t s t r e t c h and c ons t a nt l y r ewor k i t s t h e s i s . There i s not muc hs u b v e r s i o n among t he s e c on d- c e nt ur y ph i l o s oph er s : l e s s t ha n i n t he c e nt u r y e a r l i e r .But t h i s i s a book wo r t h r e a d i n g by t he h i s t o r i a n of i mp e r i a l Rome .

Un i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Co l u mb i a J A. S. E v a n s

Th e Ge r n i a n i z a t i o n o f Ea r l y Me d i e v a l Ch r i s t i a n i t y : A So c i o - h i s t o r i -

c a l Ap p r o a c h t o R e l i g i o u s T r a n s f o r ma t i o n , b y J a me s C. Ru s s e l l . Do n

Mi l l s , On t a r i o , Ox f o r d Un i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 9 4 . x i v , 2 5 8 p p . $ 5 9 . 5 0 .

Th e a u t h o r h a s r e a d wi d e l y a n d h a s f i l l e d h i s p a g e s wi t h qu ot a t i o ns f r o ma n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , s o c i o l o g i s t s , h i s t o r i a n s , and p r o f e s s o r s o f l i t e r a t u r e , chosen

a c c o r d i n g t o t he i r a da pt a bi l i t y t o h i s t he s i s . He f i t s t hos e quot a t i ons t oge t h e r onea f t e r a n ot h e r i n a s o r t o fc a t e na wh i ch i s t o o di s o r g ani z e d t o c a l l a f l o r i l e gi u m butt oo l o ng f or a r un- on s e nt e nc e.

Fo r exa mpl e on pages 202-3 : " Mc Ki t t e r i c k de s c r i be s t he f undament a l p r obl emof Ger mani c awar enes s o f t h e scope . . . , " f o l l o we d by a shor t quot a t i on; " Th i s l a ck