Studio Arts Notes

UNIT 3: Studio production and professional art practices

AREA OF STUDY 3Professional art practices and stylesThis area of study focuses on professional art practices in relation to particular art form(s) and the development of distinctive styles in artworks. Students investigate the ways in which artists have interpreted subject matter, influences, and cultural contexts, and communicated ideas and meaning in making artworks. The use of materials and techniques by artists in making artworks and the ways in which artists have developed aesthetic qualities and distinctive styles in artworks are also considered. Students analyse considerations arising from the use made of the work of other artists in the making of new artwork. Research is undertaken and appropriate art terminology applied throughout this study of art practice and art making.

In this area of study, students must develop an understanding of the selected art form(s) in more than one historical and/or cultural context(s); for example, artists and artworks in an art form in different historical contexts, or artists and artworks in an art form in different cultural contexts, which may have taken place at the same historical time.

• art practices related to particular art form(s) in more than one historical and/or cultural context(s);

Art practices: How and where various artists conduct their workHistorical/Cultural contexts: The historical periods of various artists and their work, the nationality or ethnic background of an artist and the cultural environment in which the artwork was createdArt forms: The type of media/medium the artwork has been created in

Some artists will use new technology in the production of artworks, often as a response to changes in society and changes in art making. Many contemporary artists are embracing techniques emerging from computers and digital media applications. In these times of rapid change, technology is constantly being superseded and many artists enjoy pushing the boundaries.

The influence of new technology may also affect how a viewer engages with artworks. For example, some modern artworks require viewers to interact with a screen or monitor to gain meaning from the work.

The term ‘new technology’ is not limited to the innovations of the late 20th and early 21st century. New technology may also be discussed in relation to any culture of historical period. For example, the new technology of producing oil pants in ready-to-use tubes has a significant impact on the work practices of the Impressionists and consequently the development of Western Art. As a result of this new technology, the Impressionists were free to leave their dark studios to work outdoors in natural light. This fresh approach to art-making inspired by new technology provided a major turning point in art history.

Reference: The Leading Edge Studio Arts1

• ways in which artworks reflect artists’ interpretations of subject matter, influences, cultural contexts and communication of ideas and meaning;

Subject matter: The images and concrete forms that you can see, which are the subject of the work. Influences: Influence is the power to affect others. Influences may be things that have affected the artists work such as people, places and life experiences. Other influences include particular artists, art styles and art movements. Interpretation: The way artists convey meaning or their perception of the subject.

To interpret an artwork you need to identify and explain its parts and their significance in the composition and its relationship with the subject matter.

Ask yourself: - How has the subject been created by the artist? What visual components (e.g. symbols) have been used?- What materials and techniques have been used to create the subject of the artwork? How do they relate to the subject matter? Do materials and techniques help to create emotion in the work?

When determining the subject matter of an artwork you may need to ask yourself questions life: - Is the artwork figurative?- What is the focal point of the artwork?- Is it a landscape, a seascape or cityscape?- Is it a portrait or a still life?

Subject matter may not always fit into categories such as those mentioned above.

It is important to remember that an artists interpretation of subject matter will depend on many factors, including the artists values, beliefs, culture, historical factors, traditions, political interests and concerns. ‘Interpretation of subject matter’ is the phrase used to discuss the moods, emotions and feelings about the subject that the artist has create in the artwork. When answering exam questions about unseen artworks, use speculative language in your answer as you are not necessarily expected to know all of the facts about every artist and artwork. For example, begin a sentence with ‘The artist appears to ….’ Or ‘The artist seems to ….’ To indicate that you are stating a theory or personal opinion.


• ways in which artists have employed materials, techniques and processes in the production of artworks;

Materials: What the artist used to make the artwork, e.g. linoleum, ink, paintTechniques: How the artist has used these materials to create particular effects, e.g. block printingMedium/media: The art form used by the artist, e.g. printmaking

- Select images that uses materials and techniques that you are familiar with

• ways in which aesthetic qualities and distinctive styles are developed in artworks by artists; for example, use of formal elements, signs, symbols and images;

Aesthetic qualities: The art elements and principles that the artist has used to create a beautiful or visually powerful artwork – the visual qualities of the artwork. Distinctive styles: How artists use materials and techniques to create a unique look that is identifiable to them and/or to a particular period in art history

The style of an artwork may be describes as the general ‘look’ and ‘feel’ of the work, which is determined by the way artists use the materials and techniques at their disposal. The word style may also imply the influence of particular historical art movements (e.g. expressionism, fauvism) or more general styles (e.g. realism, abstraction).

PRACTICAL HINT: Take time to revise specific art movements and styles in art history and the features that unique to each, e.g. abstraction, surrealism, expressionism.

Aesthetic qualities may be described as the characteristic elements and principles that are manipulated by the artist to form a beautiful, challenging or confronting artwork.

Communication of ideas and meaning: An artist will employ strategies to convey ideas and meaning. These strategies may not always be explicit and will be open to interpretation based on factors such as the knowledge, experience and cultural context of the viewer.

To communicate ideas and meaning the artist may:- use a particular style (e.g. abstraction)- create links with a particular historical art movement- use symbolism/signs- manipulate materials and techniques- manipulate art elements and principles- consider the ways the artwork may be interpreted by the audience


• considerations involved in the use made of the work of other artists in the making of new artwork, such as appropriation and originality, copyright law, licensing agreements and the moral rights of artists.

Appropriation: The practice of borrowing from another visual source to create a new artworkOriginality: The unique way the artists work may be new and different to that of any other artist. Copyright law: Legislation that exists to protect the legal rights of the artist or copyright owner in relation to the publication, reproduction or sale of an artworkLicensing agreements: An agreement between the owner of the copyright and the licensee permitting to use an artwork (or parts thereof) and stating that agreed terms including cost, duration and purpose of the artworks use. Moral rights: Rights that protect artists’ reputations and prevent work from being altered or damaged without permission, even after work has been sold.

Art forgery is when artworks are copied directly and presented as original. Art fraud involves criminals deceiving people into believing that a reproduction or exact copy of an artwork is the valuable original. Sometimes the forgery is so skilful that experts may also be misled.

A reproduction may differ from a print of a famous work. Printmakers will often make a number of prints, called an edition, of their original image. Each print of numbered and signed and is therefore considered to be valuable due to the limited number of prints available.

Plagiarism is similar to art fraud. The plagiarist deceives the public by claiming to have created imagery that has actually been created by another artist.

Art traditions and conventionsImages, ideas and ways of doing things that are passed down through the generations are known as traditions or conventions.

Traditions in art include narratives or story-paintings of myths, legends, historical and cultural events and religious beliefs. Throughout history, traditional subject matter included areas such as landscapes, portraiture and still life.

Some modernists and post-modern artists have challenged the notions of originality and tradition art. Established traditions and ideas about what art can be are confronted by artists who will often borrow or appropriate existing images and ideas, changing the original context to create new meanings and perspectives. For example, Marcel Duchamp, a modernist of the Dada movement, added a moustache to Leonardo da Vinci’s famous Mona Lisa. A post-modern example would be Gordon Bennett’s use of imagery by various post-modern artists, including van Gough, Mondrian and Basquiat, in several of his works. Some post-modern artists really enjoy playing with traditional notions of originality by unashamedly recycling the ideas of other artists.

It can be traditional practice for artists to copy existing artworks in order to learn from them. You will often see student artists reproducing artworks at famous galleries around the world. For example, at the Louvre in Paris art students obtain special permission to set up their easels alongside specific artworks to create a copy. By copying the techniques and styles of masterpieces, the students hope to improve their


own techniques.

Appropriation is the practice of openly borrowing existing imagery or the style of an artist for use in a new artistic context; however, there is more to appropriation than mere copying.

Some artists have used the technique of appropriation to: - transform an image or idea into a new context to create new meaning- question the concept of originality and other artistic influences- critique established views about the nature of art

Some artists may be honoured to have their work appropriated by another artist. Other artists may be offended, particularly if they feel that the artist has misrepresented their work or implied a contentious mention, and may sue for breach of moral rights or copyright.

Examples of artists who use appropriation:- Gordon Bennet: Notes to Basquiat, Home Décor- Lindy Lee: First Light

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Copyright is the legal right of artists to protect their work from being plagiarised or reproduced without permission. The unique way the artist has expressed an idea, not the idea itself, is known as ‘intellectual property’ and is protected by the legal right of copyright. Where copyright exists in an artwork, it may not be reproduced in any way without permission.

In Australia, the Copyright Act (1968) protects the work of the original creator (photographer, director, composer or writer) from being copied without consent for the term of the creator’s life plus an additional 70 years after the creator’s death.

Some artworks that include appropriation are covered by more than one copyright because they contain images or objects borrowed from other sources.

Copyright, can however, be assigned to another party or individual under various circumstances. Copyright is like property in that it can be sold or assigned to another person or party.

Artists or copyright owners can take legal action if proof exists of a breach of copyright, e.g. their original image have been filmed, broadcast, scanned or photographed and published in books, magazines or on the internet without permission. Many artists may not bother taking legal action due to the anticipated costs involved; however, if large sums of money have been made as a result of the infringement, it may be worthwhile for the owner of the copyright to sue for damages.

If artists create artwork as part of their regular employment, their employer will own the copyright. For example, if a graphic artist designs a logo during work hours, the employer will own the copyright of the logo unless a prior agreement has been established.


Public displays such as sculptures and architectural features may be photographed, filmed or sketched/painted without consent; however, exceptions may apply to temporary sculptures and installations, human sculptures, murals and public artworks.

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A licensing agreement is an agreement whereby an artist or lawful copyright owner can grant permission to another party to use material for a particular period of time. Details of how the material will be used form part of the agreement.

Sometimes musicians, filmmakers, poets, writers or artists may be happy to provide permission for their work to be used, in whole or in part, in a specific instance such as a recital, a film festival, charity function or magazine article. This may benefit artists by providing publicity for their work through increased exposure and recognition. In such cases there may be no formal licensing agreement; however, the party using the original work must present it in a way that is sensitive to the artist’s intention and reputation, i.e. considering the moral rights of the artist.

How do you obtain consent from the copyright holders?For artworks, you should first contact Visual Arts Copyright Collecting Agency (VISCOPY, established 1995) to see if the artist is among the 250,000 or so represented by VISCOPY. In some cases, the artist may be difficult to locate, dead or not represented by VISCOPY, making it very difficult for the person trying to obtain consent to use the work.

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Since December 2000, Australian artists have received moral rights protection. As with copyright, these rights last for the lifetime of the artist plus 70 years.

If the artist chooses to sell artwork to a buyer, the buyer does not automatically own the copyright unless this has been specifically negotiated.

Moral right are made up of:

- The right of integrity: If the artwork is treated in a derogatory manner that may affect the reputation of the artist (the artists integrity), then a breach of the artists moral rights can be claimed.

- The right of attribution: The right of attribution is the artists right to be known as the original maker or designer of the artwork.


UNIT 4: Studio production and art industry contexts

AREA OF STUDY 3Art industry contextsThis area of study focuses on the presentation of artworks and current art industry issue(s). Students develop an awareness of issues and processes in the conservation and displaying of artworks. The conservation of artwork is a concern of both artists and art spaces where the work is placed. In exhibiting or displaying work the artist enters the realm of the art industry where galleries, curators and designers play various roles in the promotion of artworks. Students become aware of public critique and discussion about art industry issues related to the production, presentation, public perception, promotion and marketing of art. Differing points of view about artists, their practices and artworks are raised by critics, writers and members of the public, providing a context for students to substantiate their points of view about current art industry issue(s). ‘Current industry issues’ are defined as occurring in the current and/or previous year. When similar issues have arisen in previous years they may be used for the purposes of informing an understanding of the current issue.

• the role of public galleries, commercial galleries and other art spaces (such as theatres, virtual exhibition spaces, artist run spaces and auction houses);

Public art galleries:The aim of a public gallery is to educate and promote art to the public. Public galleries are devoted to collecting, conserving and presenting to the public an array of Australian and International artworks, including various art forms such as sculpture, painting ceramics and new media. Some examples of public art galleries include: Bendigo Art Gallery, Geelong Art Gallery and the National Gallery of Victoria.

Public art galleries are funded, owned and established by the government. They do not rely on the sale of artworks to finance the gallery as they receive funding from state, federal and/or local government and both corporate and private sponsors.

Public galleries run education programs for schools, universities and the public. They offer professional development programs for educators and guided tours of exhibitions to the public.

The preservation and conservation of artworks is a high priority for public art galleries as they house valuable artworks that are either on loan from another gallery or form part of a galleries permanent collection. A permanent collection contributes to the cultural wealth of the state and country and the collection may develop an international reputation.

In order to be exhibited in a public art gallery, an artist needs to be very well established with an excellent reputation in the art world and the public domain.

The aim of public art galleries is to educate and promote art to the public. Public art galleries are funded, owned and established by the government. They do not rely o the sale of artworks to finance the gallery as they receive

funding from state, federal and/or local government and corporate and private sponsors.


They are devoted to collecting, conserving and presenting to the public an array of Australian and international artworks, including various art forms such as sculpture, painting and ceramics.

Commercial art galleries:The aim of a commercial art gallery is to sell and/or lend contemporary and historical artworks to art collectors and the public. Commercial art galleries operate as businesses to make a profit for the owners of the business. Funds are generated for the gallery from the commissions charged on the sale of artworks, together with hiring and general exhibition fees. Some commercial galleries require the artist to contribute to costs involved in an exhibition such as advertising, printing invitations and catering costs for the opening.

Commercial art galleries promote and market the artist. Commercial galleries are responsible for some aspects of conservation while the artwork is being exhibited, and some commercial gallery spaces are set up specifically to deal with these factors.

If an artist wishes to exhibit their work in a commercial art gallery, the artist needs to submit to the gallery a CV outlining previous exhibitions, qualifications and experience in art making and exhibiting. If successful, the artist will be asked to come into the gallery for a meeting with the directors (the owners) to discuss marketing strategies for the artists work. To sustain a viable business, the commercial gallery owner relies primarily on the income from the sales of artworks. By necessity, directors must be very selective in their choices regarding the stable of artists they represent as their artworks need to sell for the gallery to make money and stay in business.

The aim of commercial art galleries is to sell and lend contemporary and historical artworks to art collectors and the public.

Commercial art galleries operate as businesses to make a profit for the owners of the business. Money is generated from the commissions charged on sales of artworks and the exhibition hire fees charged by the gallery.

Commercial art galleries promote and market a number of artists and offer ongoing support and promotion for artists whose artworks sell and make money for the gallery.

Alternative art spaces:An alternative art space is not a traditional, stereotypical gallery space. Some examples of alternative art spaces include cafes, bars and restaurants. Cyberspace is also viewed as an alternative art space, including the internet and the websites that sell and illustrate artworks on line. In some cases there are no charges for artists exhibiting their artwork in an alternate art space as there would be in a commercial gallery, and often no commission fee is charged on the sale of artworks. Artists, however, are usually responsible for the hanging and dismantling of the exhibition. Alternative art spaces offer a unique way to of exposing artwork to audiences that may not necessarily visit an art gallery. Any artists can exhibit work in most alternative art spaces as there are often no specific requirements regarding the artists education and experience in the art industry.

Alternative art spaces are not traditional, stereotypical gallery spaces. Some examples of alternative art spaces include cafes, bars and restaurants. Cyberspace is also viewed as an alternative art space. Any artist who can exhibit work in an alternative art space.


• curatorial, exhibition design and promotional methods and considerations involved in preparing and presenting an exhibition and/or displaying artworks;

Curator: Manages a galley’s permanent collection and is responsible for planning, coordinating, researching exhibitions and writing catalogues.Exhibition designer: Responsible for the organisation of the gallery space and the layout and presentation of artworks within the exhibition space.Director: Responsible for financial decisions and the general running of the gallery.Sponsor: Donates money and services for gallery acquisitions and other costs involved in putting together and running an exhibition.Publicity officer: Responsible for promoting exhibitionsEducation officer: Aims to expand the public’s understanding of art.

Curator: One, who manages, oversees or organises an exhibition, sets the agenda for it and chooses the participating artists.

Curators manage the gallery’s permanent collection. Curators are responsible for planning, coordinating and researching current and future exhibitions. Their position may also require them to give lectures and assist with education programs. Curators are responsible for cataloguing works of art and researching artists and artworks that the gallery is planning to acquire or exhibit. Curators maintain detailed records of the gallery’s permanent collection and artworks on loan. Curators liaise with artists web working on exhibitions and have an awareness of conservation and preservation factors in the gallery environment. They may also contribute to the writing of catalogues or other print material relating to exhibitions or collections.

The role of curator varies depending on the type of gallery: A large public art gallery like the NVG will have a team of curators, but smaller,

regional public art galleries like the Bendigo Art Gallery may only have one or two.

In a commercial art gallery the owner will generally take on a curatorial role. In most alternative art spaces there is no need for curator. A contact person from

the alternative art space will generally liaise with the artist to discuss any points of relevance.


Exhibition designer:Exhibition designers are responsible for the organisation of the gallery space and the layout of artworks in exhibitions. Exhibition designers put together layouts and floor plans for exhibitions, which sometimes include creating a three-dimensional scale model of the exhibition space to work from. They take care of the special needs of the exhibition: for example, the panting of walls and printing of information in the gallery space. Exhibition designers offer advice on framing, mounting and general presentation of artworks. Exhibition designers help curators to determine the placement of artworks in the space, deciding the level at which artworks will be hung, the distance between artworks and the placement of free-standing installation pieces.

The role of an exhibition design varies depending on the type of gallery. A public art gallery may have a team of exhibition designers who work on a

number of different exhibitions simultaneously. Permanent exhibition spaces will also be reassessed from time to time.

In most commercial art galleries, the owners will, in collaboration with the exhibiting artists, act as exhibition designer.

In most cases there is no need for an exhibition designer in alternative spaces as the artist is totally responsible for handing and dismantling the exhibition.

Director: The role of director is the lead ole in an art gallery. Directors are responsible for financial decisions, gallery budgeting, acquiring artworks, marketing strategies and allocating gallery staff and resources. Directors must also create a long-term vision for a gallery’s collection. Directors work collaboratively with all the gallery staff, especially the curators.

The role of a director varies depending on the type of gallery: Smaller public galleries have one director who works with a specialised board.

Larger public galleries may have an artistic director and an administrative director who both contribute to final decisions.

In a commercial art gallery the owner(s) of the gallery would act as directors. The director of an alternative art space may be the owner of the business or a

person nominated by the owner, particularly if the work is to be displayed in a café or bar. This person would not be an official director, but would most likely be a liaison person between the artist and the alternative art space.

Sponsors: Sponsors donate money and services to help with the costs of gallery acquisitions and exhibitions’ assembly and running costs. The different types of sponsors include: government, corporate, philanthropic and support sponsors who provide services and materials so their logos are associated with the exhibition.

The role of a sponsor varies depending on the type of gallery: Public art galleries rely heavily on sponsors to support exhibitions and gallery

programs. Commercial art galleries may have sponsors for certain exhibitions


Alternative art spaces do not have sponsors. They may have support sponsors, e.g. wine companies that provide wine at an opening, and they may also receive local government assistance, such as cultural grants.

Publicity officer:Publicity officers are in charge of promoting an exhibition. The aim of a publicity officer is to increase awareness and the number of visitors who attend the gallery. In order to do this publicity officers need to make sure current exhibitions are advertised in publications such as the following:

- gallery websites- art magazines- radio and television promotions and discussions

Publicity officers take care of mailing lists, publish newsletters featuring the exhibition, organise invitations for the opening night and arrange press releases. For big-budget exhibitions such as the Impressionists, publicity officers may organise larger advertising campaigns including signs and posters that are placed in appropriate areas around Melbourne. They may also network with other organisations to promote exhibitions, previews, openings and promotional events. After the exhibition preview, critics and art journalists will often write reviews that will feature in art magazines and newspapers such as The Age and The Herald Sun.

The role of a publicity officer varies depending on the type of gallery: In big public art galleries, publicity officers have a large budget to promote

blockbuster international exhibitions that are likely to attract large audiences. In a commercial art gallery, the gallery owners would act as publicity officers

unless they employed someone to perform this role. Commercial galleries need great publicity to increase gallery attendance and the sale of artworks.

In most alternative art spaces artists would act as their own publicity officer.

Education officer: The aim of an education officer is to expand the public’s understanding of art. Education officers develop programs about current exhibitions and a gallery’s permanent collection for students and the public.

The role of an education officer varies depending on the type of gallery: Public art galleries education officers run a number of education programs,

particularly professional development classes for teachers that inform them about current exhibitions.

In commercial art galleries and alternative art spaces, education is not a main aim.


• methods and considerations involved in the conservation of artworks by artists and art spaces including materials, lighting, temperature, storage and, where appropriate, the intention of the artist(s) about the permanence of the work;

Conservation: The preservation of artworks.

Conservator:Conservators are people who take care of artworks. Conservators repair damage, stabilise the deterioration process and ensure the survival of artworks. Conservators learn about artworks to help determine the best way to conserve them. They keep detailed records of conservation treatments for future reference. Conservators improve the mounting and framing of artworks to ensure art is protected from the natural elements. All conservation work that is carried out aims to leave the artwork in its original state.

Large public galleries such as the NGV have a team of conservators caring for the artworks. The conservators ensure that artworks on loan do not change or deteriorate while they are on show at the gallery. Smaller public galleries may outsource their conservation to organisations such as the University of Melbourne Conservation Service.

Commercial art gallery owners would have some knowledge concerning conservation. They may employ a freelance conservator to ensure works are looked after.

In alternative art spaces, artists are generally responsible for the conservation of their own artworks. When hanging an exhibition in the alternative art space, artists will take into account relevant conservation issues including the safe transportation of the work.

Lighting:Light damages works of art. Specific museums or galleries will be designed to minimise natural light. These sections are generally areas that house very old or delicate works, such as photographs, works on paper and ancient art objects, paintings and artefacts. Lighting causes the bleaching, fading, yellowing and aging of particular artworks. In most galleries, artworks are lit by artificial light at the lowest possible intensity. The light energy is measured by a lux meter. Low wattage is achieved by using tungsten bulbs. In some cases, spotlights are not place to close to artworks on display as they cause heat damage and can sometimes change the colour of the pigments in the artwork and cause fading.

Pest control:Pests and rodents are a major concern to art galleries aiming to conserve and preserve artworks. Insects and rodents feed on artworks and their droppings stain and corrode some surfaces of artworks. Pests and rodents are attracted to musty, dirt environments with high relative humidity. Galleries deal with the control of pests and rodents through fumigation, vacuuming, keeping storage areas clean and setting traps. Storage areas in art galleries are regularly and closely monitored and all information regarding the types of insects and rodents found is reported and documented. All new


artworks that come into the gallery are checked for insects. Some galleries even have specialised doors that help prevent insects, rodents, dust and pollution entering the art gallery.

Storage:The standard storage areas in art galleries is an important factor in the conservation and preservation of artworks.

Art form: Storage procedures:Paintings Metal racks

Steel casesSculptures and ceramics Shelving

CabinetsSpecialised vaults

Works on paper Solander boxesMounting artworks in acid-free mount board and wrapping them in acid-free tissue paper

All artworks are stored above floor level in case of flooding. Security systems, video monitoring and security guards are used to protect artworks from the public and criminals. Artworks in storage receive regular check-ups by conservators and other gallery staff. When handling artworks in storage, staff wear cotton gloves to avoid contact with surfaces. Hands contain harmful acids that will damage the surface of some artworks and corrode the surfaces of some metal objects.

Temperature and humidity: Temperature and humidity in art galleries can affect artworks in a number of ways depending on the type of material(s) the artwork is made of. The recommended temperature of an art gallery is 20-22°C.

Artworks are made from organic and/or inorganic materials:

- Organic: living things include: paper, feathers, wool, leather, cotton- Inorganic: non-living things include: stone, plastic, metal

Depending on a gallery’s temperature and relative humidity (the amount of moisture in the air), the effects on these materials vary.

High Humidity Low HumidityOrganic Object swells

Mould growthStainingDistortion

Objects become brittle and dry outShrinkageDistortion

Inorganic Object may swell and melt ShrinkageDistortion


• current art industry issue(s) arising from the production, presentation, public perception, promotion and/or marketing of art.


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