Stories, Shadows and Dust - A filmmaker’s experience of documenting the stories of SADF veterans...

31 August 2012

MSc Program: African Studies, University of Edinburgh

Year: 2011-12

Word Count: 9925

Stories, Shadows and DustA filmmaker’s experience of documenting the stories

of SADF veterans of the Southern African Bush War.

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Abstract

The purpose of this dissertation is to ask questions on subjective experience and Constructed

Memory. How do the two relate and in what way do they relate to social media spheres and

especially for those of the filmmaker and the film documentary? Specifically, how do these

dimensions play out when the subjective experience pertains to the experiences of former

South African Defence Force (SADF) soldiers who fought in the Southern African Bush War

(1966 – 1989)? The experiential narratives contained in Constructed Memory can provide a

different explorative avenue for historical events, that is to say, different views of the same

war in this case. The accompanying documentary Stories, Shadows and Dust showcases the

experiences of five former SADF soldiers, allowing the audience to share in their experiences

and draw their own conclusions. This dissertation then seeks to explore the concept of their

memory constructions against the backdrop of emotional contextual experience with specific

focus on film media representations of the Bush War.

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Contents:

1. Introduction Pg 3

1.1. Research Question Pg 4

1.2. Theoretical Approach/Model Pg 5

1.3. Video Source Pg 6

2. Historical Context of the Bush War Pg 7

3. Literature and Film Review Pg 11

4. Treatment Pg 15

5. Veteran Social Networking Pg 19

6. Constructed Memories Pg 22

7. Conclusion Pg 26

Appendix I – Stories, Shadows and Dust Documentary Link Pg 28

Appendix I – Interest Justification Pg 29

Appendix II – Stories, Shadows and Dust De Facto Script Pg 31

Bibliography Pg 39

Further Reading Pg 43

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Chapter 1

“The most dangerous moment comes with victory.” –Napoleon Bonaparte

1. Introduction

They found his body washed up on the stony shores of Trondheim, Norway. He was dressed

in the uniform of Her Majesty’s Royal Air Force, Scottish regiment, but also had South

African Air Force insignia on the tattered remains of his clothing. They found no other

identifiers on his person, apart from the name stitched on to the chest of his shirt: G. B.

Callaghan, and the stripes on his shoulder signifying the rank of lieutenant. Despite this, his

death would remain a mystery, not only for those who chose to honour him by burying him in

the frozen ground of a melancholy Norwegian graveyard, alongside other fallen World War II

soldiers, but also for his family back in then Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe) for many years to

come.

Being 1943, it was not a simple matter of using the internet to seek out the relatives of

the young pilot, and so it was not until the early 90s when a Norwegian civil engineer and his

son decided to attempt to track down the family of the mysterious Lt. G. B. Callaghan, who

had never been claimed and whose grave had never been visited except by the locals who had

buried him.

This is how my family learnt of the fate of our missing great grandfather, through the

dedication to uncover the story of a complete stranger for the base purpose of curiosity, to be

sure, but also for the far nobler cause of bringing peace to a suffering family and to honour

someone who fought, and died, for what they believed in. It is with this story in my mind and

in my heart, if an academic work would allow me such literary flourishes, that I perform this

research, and I feel it is important that the reader understand that this work is equal parts

academic interest and personal sentiment.

A popular saying, of unknown origin, is that war is a “young man’s game”, certainly

this was true in World War II, and in most, if not all, wars, wherein many young men were

sent to die for “God, King and Country”, or the “Fatherland”, depending on whose side you

were on. Much like the young allies being sent to fight the evils of the Nazi regime, so too

were young South Africans, South-West Africans, Rhodesians and Angolans sent to fight the

terrorist and communist threat encroaching upon their homes; or, so too were young

Namibians, Angolans, Zimbabweans, Cubans and Russians taking up arms to fight for

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freedom and liberation (again, depending on which side you were on)1. This is not to say that

older men and women did not fight as well, simply that one of the many tragedies of war is

that the young who survive are left to live with scars that they are completely unprepared for.

Harold Goddard once said: “The destiny of the world is determined less by the battles that are

lost and won than by the stories it loves and believes in” and I have found, through my

interactions with soldiers of the so-called “Unpopular War”2, that it is the stories, the people,

that create the history, not the history which creates the stories.

1.1. Research Question

“South Africa has a well-documented history, however the Southern African Bush War is not

as well explored as it could be. The experiential narratives of the South African Defence

Force (SADF) soldiers who fought in this war opens new avenues of understanding South

Africa’s turbulent past. In documenting their experiences, what does the filmmaker learn

about Constructed Memories and the act of storytelling itself?”

When I created my first documentary and thesis in 2010, entitled Forged in Flames: The

SADF experience of The Battles of Cuito Cuanavale 1987 – 1988; the entire research project

was met with equal parts disdain and enthusiasm from the South African Defence Force

(SADF) community at large. This disdain seemed to stem from the overall feeling many of

the veterans expressed that over the years their stories, experiences and contributions had

either been ignored utterly or warped into propagandist narratives with the “evil” Apartheid

and its attack dog, the SADF, losing to the “good” ANC, SWAPO and their supporters, thus

colouring their own experiences in the light of being an “evil, racist” military force, at least as

far as the rest of the world was concerned. This entire process pushed me into the field of

Constructed Memories (dealt with in the next section) and how the memories of these

soldiers create the history they are so diligent in defending and exploring.

This was especially reflected in the responses to the fact that I wanted to make a

documentary film about one of the most controversial conflicts of the entire war, as per the

above title. Luckily, the project was a success in that the resulting documentary was met with

mostly positive responses from the SADF community as well as a few former Cuban and

1 Note: South-West Africa (SWA) is now Namibia, however the soldiers drafted from SWA identified themselves as young men from SWA at the time, as did liberation fighters identify themselves as Namibians. The same is true for Rhodesians and Zimbabweans.2 Thompson, J.H. (2007) An Unpopular War.

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Russian soldiers, and hopefully encouraged a few interested parties to seek out knowledge on

the war of their own accord.

I wished to replicate and build on that success with this new documentary, however

this time I decided to analyse the actual story-telling process itself and determine why it is

important and in what way does the relating of experience from the teller to the audience

change when there is a camera involved, and in what way specifically does this affect

veterans of the Southern African Bush War, who have had ill-dealings with the media, for the

most part, in the past? How does this affect the filmmaker and what can be learnt from this?

This would also involve analysing the eventual audience; trying to discern who they would

be, how they would react and how one would interpret these reactions.

1.2. Theoretical Approach/Model

The main approach to this research will be on the theme of Constructed Memories:

specifically, how South African veterans of the Southern African Bush War deal with,

construct and represent their experiences in the public domain and how they express their

experiences to a perceived audience3 via the lens of a film camera and the medium of a

documentary film. The fact that I, a mere historian whose only direct dealings with the

military have been through research or interactions with the military base in my hometown,

am the one filming and constructing the presented narratives based on the information they

give me, also adds an element to this model which shall be addressed further on.

The theme of Constructed memories also means one will have to delve into the

differences between the constructions of personal experiences and what are regarded as

historical accounts, and how these constructions conflict with, or support each other in the

public knowledge sphere and personal dioramas4 constructed in their own lives and social

networks.

1.3. Video Source

3 See Chapter 64 I use the term “diorama” to illustrate the way in which these memory constructions are created and viewed. Much like how an area of staged military operations is referred to as a “theatre of battle” so too are memories constructed by these veterans displayed in a manner for others to see, where prior battles and events can be explored and probed, whether that be via an internet group or forum, a memorial wall or monument or a documentary film.

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I have created my own 36 minute documentary film for this paper. This self-created source is

my primary reference material for a significant portion of this paper and is also the subject of

the research in question. In it, I interview former SADF war veterans whom I have contacted

within the UK and South Africa, and have formed a documentary based on their personal,

subjective experiences. I will use this to also explore how they relate those experiences to

myself as the interviewer and their perceived audience. The video production will be

explored in further detail in Chapter 4.

The documentary Stories, Shadows and Dust is available to view at:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EFQylqrQfDg

Chapter 2


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“A country without a memory is a country of madmen.” –George Santayana

2. Historical Context of the Bush War

South Africa had humble beginnings as a refreshment station, founded by Jan van Riebeeck

in 1652 in the Cape of Good Hope on behalf of the Dutch East India Company. The

refreshment station would later grow to become Cape Town, the country’s current legislative

capital.5 In 1806, the Cape Colony was seized by Britain, causing the great Boer migration of

the 1830s, as many wanted to escape British rule in the colony.6 The First Anglo-Boer War

lasted from 1880 to 1881 and saw the Boer’s successfully fending off encroaching British

expansion and rule through early South Africa (which had yet to be founded officially). Yet

The Second Anglo-Boer War, from 1899 to 1902, saw the Boer’s defeated by an

overwhelming British force and in 1909 saw the formation of the Union of South Africa, now

a British domain.7

As a British colony, many South Africans were called up to serve under British

command in World War I, 1914 to 1918, and after the German defeat, their colonies were

subsequently divided amongst the victors. German South-West Africa (today Namibia) was

founded in 1884, but was soon invaded and occupied by South Africa in 1915 as part of the

war effort. In 1919, the German colony was officially mandated by the League of Nations

(the precursor to the United Nations) to South Africa who proceeded to run it as a fifth

province, despite it never officially becoming one.8

In 1931, the Union was officially granted independence from the United Kingdom

and in 1939 the newly formed United Party, a political party formed to reconcile positions

between white English and Afrikaans South Africans, split over the decision to join the UK in

World War II against the Axis powers. The split saw most Afrikaners shifting their allegiance

strongly towards the National Party (NP)9 whilst many South Africans went to fight

regardless.10

In 1946, the League of Nations was succeeded by the United Nations who requested

South Africa yield the mandate of control over South-West Africa (SWA) with the intention

5 Thompson, L. (2001) A History of South Africa. Pp 316 Fremont-Barnes, G. (2003) The Boer War 1899-1902. Pp 137 Ibid, pp 358 Thompson, L. (2001) A History of South Africa. Pp 1289 The NP was the preeminent Afrikaans/Boer political party of 20th century South Africa, eventually morphing into the preeminent party for white South Africans, and remained in power until the free elections of 1994 that saw the ANC elected to power for the first time.10 Ibid, pp 177

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that the country would stay under South African stewardship, with UN supervision, for a

short while longer with the eventual aim of actual independence after appropriate dialogue

with and support of the local ethnic population. The Union refused and in1948 the NP came

to power and with it the many legislations which gave birth to the infamous institutionalised

racism known as Apartheid.11

The 1950s saw the Herero Chief’s Council of Namibia petitioning the UN for

Namibian independence12, the 1960s saw many European colonies in Africa being granted

their own independence, which placed mounting pressure on South Africa to do likewise13,

and in 1966 the International Court of Justice declared South Africa’s continued occupation

of SWA illegal. In the meantime, the Union of South Africa officially became a Republic in

1961 and left the UK Commonwealth. The newly formed republic found itself under

immense pressure from the 60s onwards to rescind Apartheid and install a majority

government, in SA and SWA, which meant that the ethnic populations would be given due

democratic rights as well as access to land etc. However, South Africa stubbornly refused,

even in the face of mounting international boycotts and protests.14

The South-West Africa People’s Organisation (SWAPO) was founded in 1960 and in

1966 their military wing, the People’s Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), began armed

operations against the occupying South African government, following their refusal to grant

Namibian independence that same year.15 SWAPO had already established bases in

neighbouring Zambia and began a guerrilla campaign in and on the border of SWA. Local

units of the South African Police (SAP) were struggling to contain the guerrilla fighters and

so the South African Defence Force (SADF) was called in to assist.16

On 26 August 1966, elements of the SAP, SADF and South African Air Force

(SAAF) attacked a known PLAN training base in the settlement of Omugulugwombashe,

near the northern border of Namibia. This was the first official exchange of fire between the

two sides, and is considered simultaneously to be the official start of the South African

Border War as well as that of the Namibian War of Independence.17 To this day, it is

celebrated in Namibia as Hero’s Day and is recognised by the UN as Namibia Day. Attacks

11 Thompson, L. (2001) A History of South Africa. Pp 17812 Abbink, J., De Bruijn, M., Van Walraven, K. (2003) Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and Violence in African History. Pp 29013 Chan, S. (2011) Southern Africa: Old Treacheries and New Deceits. Pp 714 Ibid, pp 815 Quaye, C. (1991) Liberation Struggles in International Law. Pp 31316 Chan, S. (2011) Southern Africa: Old Treacheries and New Deceits. Pp 3617 South Africa, Truth and Reconciliation Commission. (1998) Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa report, Volume 2. Pp 14

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and skirmishes between South African and SWAPO forces began to escalate and across the

border in Botswana the African National Congress’ (ANC) military wing, Umkhonto we

Sizwe (MK) – The Spear of the Nation - began operations of their own against, thus ensuring

the conflict remain regional.18

Across the northern border of Namibia, tension had been brewing in Angola where

liberation movements were waging their own independence struggle against Portuguese

colonial rule. The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) in the

south, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) in the north and the Popular

Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the central regions, were locked in heated

battles with Portuguese colonial authorities, who were refusing independence for their

colony.19 In 1967, SAAF helicopters were sent in to Angola to assist the Portuguese against

UNITA, it was not long before it became apparent that South Africa would become quite

involved in this region for many years to come.20

Between 1966 and 1974, operations were mostly limited to counter-insurgency

activities against SWAPO and MK in the northern regions of SWA and the southern regions

of Angola, although clandestine operations also took place in various areas of Angola by

early members of what would become South Africa’s Special Forces.21

A military coup in Portugal in 1974 saw the ruling dictatorship overthrown and a new

democracy installed. A year later, in November 1975, the new government granted Angola its

independence and soon Angola descended into a bloody civil war as the MPLA, FNLA and

UNITA all began vying for power.22 In August the same year, South Africa sent forces into

Angola to secure the Ruacana-Calueque hydro-electric scheme, an important project being

financed by South Africa that had been captured by UNITA soldiers who were holding the

engineers captive. This was the first official military action into Angola and saw an armoured

column recapture the pump station and also provided the SADF justification for a permanent

protection force inside Angola.23

At this point, the MPLA began to ask for outside assistance in combatting its foes and

it was not long before Cuba, and subsequently the USSR, became interested in helping the

immerging nation. The price for their help was the spread of communist doctrine into Angola

and the continued presence of Cuba and the USSR in the name of the freedom from the

18 Dale, R. (1995) Botswana's Search for Autonomy in Southern Africa. Pp 18219 Chan, S. (2011) Southern Africa: Old Treacheries and New Deceits. Pp 820 http://www.saairforce.co.za/the-airforce/history/saaf/the-border-war21 Geldenhuys, J. (2009) At The Front: A General's Account of South Africa's Border War. Pp 12222 Chan, S. (2011) Southern Africa: Old Treacheries and New Deceits. Pp 1023 Geldenhuys, J. (2009) At The Front: A General's Account of South Africa's Border War. Pp 263

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calueque

http://www.saairforce.co.za/the-airforce/history/saaf/the-border-war

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capitalist West and liberation for oppressed black Africans.24 As this was also the height of

the Cold War, the USA became concerned with the communist support base forming in

Africa. The Apartheid regime also found it was being backed into a corner, as it was slowly

losing its buffer between itself and a hostile black Africa which could easily house the

militant liberation movements already baying at their doorstep.

The Apartheid regime soon found itself in bed with the USA’s CIA in an attempt to

prevent the “Red Danger” (Communism) from gaining a foothold in Africa, and also with the

intention of preventing the “Swart Gevaar” (Afrikaans for Black Danger/Threat – referring to

security threat of militant black Africans to the white governments) from reaching South

Africa, by putting into power friendly or neutral parties.25 As South Africa was still under

international pressure, embargoes and boycotts, the support from the US was done in the

utmost secret, as they could not be seen to be openly supporting the Apartheid regime.

Angola was set to become another proxy war in the overall snafu that was the Cold War.26

Support was immediately given to UNITA and the FNLA to combat the MPLA, who

had also begun lending support to SWAPO, although the FNLA eventually became a non-

entity in the overall conflict, thus leaving the two sides neatly divided into East and West

blocs, with South Africa, the USA and UNITA representing the West, and the MPLA, Cuba,

the USSR and SWAPO representing the East. Although this analogy may be simplifying the

situation somewhat, many people at the time felt that this was indeed the case.

The conflict continued for well over ten years, until 1988, when UN Resolution 435

was implemented, ten years after it was originally written up, granting Namibia independence

and enforcing the withdrawal of South African troops from Namibia and Angola.27 These ten

years of conflict are worthy of a dissertation in themselves, however space limitations forces

this author to recommend further reading28 on the part of the reader if they feel so inclined to

learn more.

Chapter 3

24 Cock, J., Laurie, N., (1989) War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa. Pp 12325 Chan, S. (2011) Southern Africa: Old Treacheries and New Deceits. Pp 1126 Cock, J., Laurie, N., (1989) War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa. Pp 12227 Saul, J. (2008) Namibia's liberation struggle: the two-edged sword. Pp 3728 Further reading suggestions can be found on page 38

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“You still think it's beautiful to die for your country. The first bombardment

taught us better. When it comes to dying for country, it's better not to die at

all.” – All Quiet on the Western Front (1930)

3. Film and Literature Review

South Africa has had a somewhat troubled past with literature and film for several decades

now. During the Apartheid regime, the government exercised excessive control over

newspapers and broadcasts, as well as strictly limiting what literature and film it deemed

acceptable to enter or leave the country. Some South Africans decided to smuggle in

bootlegged tapes of films or novels they had heard about overseas, but were denied within the

borders of the country, however being discovered with contraband could lead to a fine or

prison time, depending on how serious the contraband was considered.

All information was the domain of the oppressive government and news of the Border

War was suppressed in a similar manner. Much propaganda was toted about and many films

or pieces of literature made in South Africa had to be approved by the government before

being disseminated to the general public.29 Of course there were underground publications

and films, but for the average person it was a very controlled existence. The past two decades

have seen South Africa often hailed for its approach to allowing freedom of speech and

expression, however, at the time of writing, a new bill, The Protection of State Information

Bill (nicknamed the Secrecy Bill30) is threatening to return South Africa to those times of

information oppression and punishment.

The Border War has often been called “South Africa’s Vietnam”31 and I often wonder

if veterans of the Vietnam War, both the Americans and Vietnamese, have had to deal with

similar issues regarding how their war is portrayed in the media and literature as Border War

veterans have. For many years American soldiers were demonised in a manner similar to

SADF veterans, however eventually the war itself was studied further and was better

understood, which led to a better understanding and public acceptance of the soldiers

themselves. This was assisted by the soldiers experiences becoming more accessible to the

public through films such as Francis Coppolas Apocalypse Now (1979), Stanley Kubrick’s

29 Baines, G., Vale, P. (eds) (2008) Beyond the Border War: New Perspectives on Southern Africa’s Late-Cold War Conflicts. Pp 20430 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-1582210531 Baines, G. (2004) “South Africa’s Vietnam?” Safundi. 5:3, 1-21

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15822105

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Full Metal Jacket (1987), Barry Leinson’s Good Morning Vietnam (1987) and Michael

Cimino’s The Deer Hunter (1978), to name but a few.

Some of these films were based on novels, some fictional and some fact, but the tale

of the soldier and his experience is the common theme. Apocalypse Now was based on Joseph

Conrad’s 1899 novella Heart of Darkness, only the deep, dark jungles of Africa are replaced

with the humid, enemy-filled Vietnamese jungle. Full Metal Jacket and Good Morning

Vietnam were both based on semi-autobiographical novels or retellings of personal

experiences of the main character of their respective films, both journalists of one kind

(newspaper for Full Metal) or another (radio for Good Morning). Whereas the previous films

mentioned are set in Vietnam itself, The Deer Hunter is set after the war, where a traumatised

soldier attempts to reintegrate into civilian life. The film follows his slow descent to madness

and highlights the plight of many soldiers who returned home and received no psychological

support and who were often demonised by the very country that sent them to war in the first

place. Many of the former SADF soldiers I have interviewed identify strongly with this film

and have mentioned it on several separate occasions to me.

South Africa’s film industry is still young and so it will probably be some time before

a Hollywoodesque film is made on war, if at all, and at the time of writing, there have been

no major film productions on the Border War, however there is a film, student film and

documentary series worth analysis. Regardt van der Bergh’s Boetie Gaan Border Toe

(translated directly from Afrikaans to “ Little Brother32 goes to the Border”) is a 1984 South

African comedy that centres around the experiences of Sonny “Boetie” van Tonder, played

by Arnold Vosloo of The Mummy (1999) fame, who joins the SADF, makes friends, falls in

love, goes through his SADF training (called “basics”) and is eventually deployed on the

border, where he experiences the horror of a battle with “terrorists” and learns valuable

lessons that change him from a spoiled rich kid to a honourable man and decent leader. This

film is mostly in Afrikaans, so foreign audiences may have trouble understanding the

subtitles of it; however it is an interesting film to analyse.

Some reviews online paint it as a propaganda film33, espousing the position that a film

that shows such an event as the Border War in a comedic light must be supporting it,

however, I found it to be the exact opposite, as we are witnesses to Boetie’s inner struggle

with himself over whether the war is just and if killing so-called “terrorists” is really his duty.

Clearly the Apartheid stranglehold on media must have been slipping when they allowed that

32 Although “Boetie” is considered a standard Afrikaans nickname rather than meaning an actual brother.33 http://ccms.ukzn.ac.za/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=412&Itemid=47

http://ccms.ukzn.ac.za/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=412&Itemid=47

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film through as it certainly asks some very difficult questions on the psyche of the soldier,

training indoctrination, the old adage of “one man’s terrorist is another’s freedom fighter”

etc. The film was popular enough to warrant a sequel by the same director and with Vosloo

once again in the lead in 1986: Boetie op Manoeuvres (Little Brother on Manoeuvres) was

produced, which was more about Boetie attempting to win his girlfriend back than about the

on-going war. It should also be noted that Boetie op Manoeuvres was dubbed in English with

American voice actors and sold overseas as Wild Manoeuvres, apparently the storyline being

general enough that a re-dubbing was all that was needed to provide international appeal.

At Thy Call (2008), written and directed by Christopher-Lee dos Santos, is loosely

based on Clive Holt’s 2005 autobiography At Thy Call We Did Not Falter34, and follows a

young conscript making his way through training and eventually leading to his questioning of

the system that sent him there when he is almost forced to kill a captured enemy combatant.

This film was very badly received by the veteran community, with the general complaints

being that the film was inaccurate in many ways or simply went out of its way to demonstrate

the SADF as monsters or Afrikaners as racist against non-whites and non-Afrikaners alike. At

Thy Call won several international awards and is still being featured at many international

film festivals, much to the ire of some veterans.

When dealing with a community as volatile as war veterans, one must take into

account how one’s production will affect them. Of course you cannot please everybody, as

the saying goes, but one can take effort to not distort the story for the sake of effect. This is

not to say that we must treat the veteran community like emotional children, simply that this

conflict was a very real aspect of their lives and to them a film is like holding up a mirror and

asking them to look at themselves and what they have done in the past. It is an emotional

issue and care must be taken, in research and execution.

In 2009, a documentary series called Grensoorlog (Border War), produced by MNET

(a local broadcaster) and “Kyknet” (Afrikaans for Just Watch), an Afrikaans television

channel, was released in South Africa. Initially only broadcast in Afrikaans with no subtitles

(other than Afrikaans ones during non-English or non-Afrikaans interviews) and only

occasional English interview subjects. The series proved so popular, it was recently re-

released with new English narration, and subtitles during non-English interviews, after much

public demand, as Bush War. The series is mostly from a South African perspective, but

34 The title is a section from “Die Stem van Suid-Afrika” (The Call of South Africa), South Africa’s national anthem from 1957 to 1994. The full line reads: “At thy call we shall not falter, firm and steadfast we shall stand, at thy will, to live or perish, oh South Africa dear land.”

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makes an effort to include perspectives from former SWAPO, USSR and Cuban soldiers.

Overall it is a decent series and makes the South African side, at least, available to the

general and international public. The series fails to ask any really difficult questions though,

rather choosing to allow the story to tell itself. This is not necessarily a criticism however, as

my own documentaries follow the same line, it is simply an observation into the style with

which they chose to create it.

The fact that it was initially produced in Afrikaans for an Afrikaans public and

channel also speaks of the cultural affinity that the Grensoorlog has for Afrikaans South

Africans. It is possible that it is this affinity, and perhaps sympathy, that also stayed the hand

of critical journalism entering the production and led to the option of telling the overall story

with the soldier’s experiences and opinions highlighting the events focused on during a

particular episode. This also harkens to the constant stream of World War II documentaries

created for American, and international, audiences wherein the stories of Allied soldiers are

constantly told or celebrated and never criticised, nor are the Axis stories ever truly explored

except from the perspective of their “evil-doing”. Perhaps there is an underlying fear of what

such criticism would provoke from the World War II veterans and their supporters, such

criticism could also have political implications? With the Border War having very heavy

political implications, especially considering that the founding myths generated by the ruling

ANC and the ruling parties in Namibia require that very little critical thinking be levelled at

them, opening the door to such questions could easily open up a floodgate of tension which

seems to still be bubbling over in South Africa, especially amongst veterans from all sides.35

Chapter 4

35 In this section, I chose to highlight Border War film media in lieu of written accounts, as the written accounts have some work already done on them, but very little work has been done on the actual films. Further reading suggestions for the literature component of this section can be found on page 38

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“No plan survives first contact with the enemy.” –Helmuth von Moltke the Elder

4. Treatment:

No plan survives first contact with the enemy. This is a truth all filmmakers must embrace

when embarking on their projects. The fact is that no matter how prepared one is, how

researched or determined, ones plans will always be diverted in some manner. This is

especially true for documentary makers, or at least those who document people (or animals)

and their experiences, as there is rarely an adequate script, and even if there were one, this

does not mean the subject you are filming will cooperate. Sun Tzu, father of modern warfare

theory, once said “…just as water retains no constant shape, so in warfare there are no

constant conditions”, a good filmmaker knows to “go with the flow”, as it were, to make the

best of an opportunity.

In the most general of terms, a documentary is an attempt to document reality in a

film medium. It is an attempt to provide an active portrait of a real event, or set of events, in a

manner in which the audience can interpret it effectively without being required to have

physically been there to experience it themselves. The idea is that the filmmaker wishes to

impart knowledge to an audience in a framed manner, that is to say through the lens of the

camera, which has a way of focusing one’s concentration. In other words, the camera allows

one to focus the audience’s attention on certain key aspects that the filmmaker deems are

important.

As this is the second documentary I have created, the first being Forged in Flames:

The SADF Experience of the Battles of Cuito Cuanavale 1987-1988 which focused on a

specific and highly controversial series of battles centred around the Angolan town of Cuito

Cuanavale, I applied the lessons I had learnt from the previous filmmaking experience to this

new film. I had many similar problems with this process as I did with the previous one,

although it was more compounded as I was filming in a foreign country I knew very little

about and had to still accomplish my goals. There were many of the usual technical issues,

but I shall leave those to the reader’s imagination and instead focus on two areas that gave me

the most pleasure and pain, namely the script and the research for the film.

My first film had a basic script that I ran by in order to focus the interviews further

and allow myself some breathing space for editing, however it soon became apparent during

filming that my script could not hope to cope with or do justice to the information I was

receiving from my interview subjects. I ended up abandoning the script completely after all

P a g e | 16

the interviews were completed and rather constructed a new script based on the information I

had received.

It is a lot simpler creating a documentary on a historical event with historically

verified sources and information, however when creating a film on human experience one

cannot quantify the results as easily. I first became interested in the qualitative experiences of

war veterans thanks to a combination of my psychology and history lecturers presenting

simultaneous lectures on war, experience and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) with a

South African focus. This led to research on the subject of PTSD in general and then to the

South African focus. I asked the question: “why do we have soldiers who have PTSD?” I was

vaguely aware at this point that my father had been in the Navy, but I had never really asked

why, I assumed it was simply something young people did during his time. Even though I had

grown up in a military town, the Border War was never spoken about. I only heard about it

properly for the first time from my history lecturer in 2009, it had never been taught to us or

even hinted at in school and it certainly was not explored in any journalistic sense on

television or in print. There were some academic articles, but they were few and far between

and would hardly fall into one’s possession without actually seeking them out.

When I first began developing an idea for exploring aspects of the Border War, I

decided I wanted to create a video game based on it, but this idea fell apart as soon as I

discovered how few resources I had to create such a thing, thus I turned to the idea of film. I

had always enjoyed informative documentaries, and I find that they are the easiest way to

impart information to a willing viewer, provided the visuals and information are interesting

enough to warrant attention. I realised that most people, especially with regard to war

documentaries, responded really well to veterans telling their tales. The emotion with which

they spoke seemed to draw people in and gave them reason to stay invested. As a story-

telling culture, humanity has ever enjoyed tales of valour and sorrow and naturally war-

stories are some of the most revered and sought after. It was not a hard leap to figure that my

documentary would receive a better response if it was focused on individuals telling the story

of their experiences with an overall narrative to tie it together.

Prompting from my lecturer led me to focus on the Battles of Cuito Cuanavale, as

they were events in the Border War that had been seldom explored in such a manner, and the

focus on one battle would provide a better narrative. I wanted to expand my focus for this

documentary to the entire Border War which turned out to be far more ambitious than I

initially thought it would be. I had definite ideas on how I wanted the film to proceed and I

drew up a mock script for it, however after contacting and securing my interview subjects I

P a g e | 17

ended up abandoning the script entirely, rather choosing to see where the interview would

lead me as experience had taught me that what the interview subjects would say would most

likely render my pre-conceived script moot. I still had a basic idea of how I wanted the

documentary to proceed, but that was altered during editing quite drastically based on the

footage I had acquired.

There are many Bush War veteran groups on social forums scattered around the

internet and not just of SADF veterans, although they are certainly the most prevalent within

the grouping of Bush War veterans, but also of Cubans and Russians, however I have yet to

find any Angolan groups. It was a simple matter of creating a post in a few chosen groups

explaining what I was writing and filming about and asking for volunteers to email me. When

I did this for my first documentary, I was met with veterans who were very supportive and

interested, but also with many who were suspicious, uninterested or outright hostile. I

received a few death threats, and some even believed I was a spy for the current government,

and whereas this was a bit unexpected, I simply explained myself as sincerely and honestly as

I could and hoped for the best.

After the documentary was made, I did receive a few criticisms, but most were good-

natured and thanked me for my work. This time around I did not receive any death threats

and the messages from suspicious or uninterested members were few and far between,

however I found many who were very helpful and provided me with contact details for many

others who assisted me in my research and eventually led me to my current interview

subjects. I believe the hostility I have occasionally faced is a reaction to the notion, perceived

or real, that they are being treated as embarrassing curiosities at best and as reminders of the

Apartheid eras atrocities at worst, which has led to a general suspicion of any journalist or

researcher they do not know or trust personally. Luckily, my prior work had left me in good

stead with the veteran communities and I was able to work freely as needed.

The interviews gained from the five veterans required that a certain part of the

documentary be about Cuito, as the operations surrounding it seem to have been a

coincidental narrative that most of the interviewees shared, however I believe I managed to

use the footage in such a manner as to be general enough to give a general impression of the

Border War, but focused enough that the stories still weave together. Before completing this

written component I uploaded the documentary to the internet and presented it to the

communities to gauge their reaction. The responses were overwhelmingly positive, and I did

receive critiques, such as one or two factual errors that I had overlooked, which I promptly

took note of and used to alter the first version and create a final version with fewer errors.

P a g e | 18

No work is ever error-free, however and I intend to create a longer version in the

future which will allow me to correct a few issues as well as go more in-depth into the Border

War. As it stands, the viewer would either already have to be familiar with the material or be

willing to read up on the history of the Border War to gain context for the soldier’s stories.

That being said, feedback I have received from those unfamiliar with the history still feel they

can connect with the interviewed former soldiers on a personal level that I believe all people

can, regardless of culture or creed; that is to say, the basic need to connect with another

human being and hear their story.

Chapter 5

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“I must follow them. I am their leader.” –Andrew Bonar Law

5. Veteran social networking:

The origin of the internet can be traced back to the 1950s; however the internet that we

understand and use today began in 1989.36 The first email was sent in 1971, but the first

social networking sites only took root in 1994.37 From there many similar sites began to crop

up until we reached the incredible power and versatility contained in today’s social

networking and media sites such as “YouTube”, “Twitter” and “facebook”. The power of

these sites became readily apparent during the “Arab Spring” uprisings in the Middle East

which began in December of 2010 and are still continuing at the time of writing. 38

Governments and various other institutions have begun taking these social networking

sites seriously,39 as their power to amass group support and speed in coordinating events is

fast becoming unparalleled. Never before have so many people from so many different areas

of the world been able to communicate so efficiently and in such volume; the implications of

which are only just beginning to be studied. How this new networking strata has been utilised

by war veterans to communicate is worthy of a study in and of itself, and this small section

will hardly do it justice, but I shall endeavour to impart my experiences of this collective.

Veterans who have been fighting in the War in Afghanistan have, for the most part,

grown up in a media-conscious world, where social networking sites were the norm, and even

from within their deployment zones they would make an effort to stay connected with

friends, family and the worlds events through such sites.40 Those who fought in the Southern

African Bush War had no such luxuries; communication was primarily through written letters

or the rare phone call. Sometimes it would take weeks, months or years for families to hear

from their loved ones,41 or they would receive news from the dreaded military visit, wherein a

uniformed officer would arrive to impart the worst news a family would hear: your son has

died fighting on the front lines. In South Africa, often the families would not even know how

or why their child died, many would only discover the truth years later once the conflict

ended and documents were declassified or from testimonials during the Truth and

Reconciliation Commission hearings.42

36 http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html37 Ibid38 Schattle, H. (2012) Globalization and Citizenship. Pp 3839 http://socialcapital.wordpress.com/2011/01/26/twitter-facebook-and-youtubes-role-in-tunisia-uprising/40 http://www.usatoday.com/news/military/2010-11-22-vetsocialmedia22_ST_N.htm41 http://www.archivalplatform.org/blog/entry/battle_scarred/42 Baines, G. Breaking rank: Secrets, silences and stories of South Africa’s Border War. Pp 3

http://www.archivalplatform.org/blog/entry/battle_scarred/

http://www.usatoday.com/news/military/2010-11-22-vetsocialmedia22_ST_N.htm

http://socialcapital.wordpress.com/2011/01/26/twitter-facebook-and-youtubes-role-in-tunisia-uprising/

http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html

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The reason social networking sites are so successful is that they gather people from

around the world with similar interests and experiences and provide them with a platform to

share their information, connect with others, tell stories, organise meetings etc. It comes as no

surprise that men and women who had some interest or experience in the Border War would

gravitate towards such a platform, and the results are encouraging as well as cause for

concern. On one hand, many of the former soldiers never received adequate psychological

support after their experiences, and so use the forums to vent; the other veterans act as buffers

and supports for those who wish to talk and share their experiences in a mutual group

dynamic of “I was there too, I understand what you’re going through” where they share their

thoughts in a way that only those who went through the same event can relate. This is also a

great resource for people wanting to get in touch with former comrades-in-arms that they lost

touch with, or a place to lament fallen friends and family.43

However, on the other hand one has the double-edged sword of clandestine elitism.

This is a danger with all groups, but it makes itself unfortunately far too apparent in such

veteran groups as they feel very little need to hide their anger or true opinions. In South

Africa especially, many of the veterans feel they were betrayed by their former government

and now discriminated against by the current government, as with the US Vietnam War

veterans receiving something of a mixed welcome of love and disgust upon their return to

their native home, so too are the South Africans still feeling a similar atmosphere in their

home country.44 This feeling of discrimination forces the group to close in on itself, which in

turn ensures that they do not allow new information in, rather sticking to their group norm,

retelling the same tales, arguing over the same arguments and creating a circular vacuum

from which they dare not stray. This is not necessarily the case with every group, or indeed

this is not to say this is always the case, simply that this is an observation I have noted on my

occasional forays into these groups, especially when they are upset with a journalist for

getting their facts wrong.45

Within the social media sphere, sites such as YouTube and facebook have become

indispensable for veterans exploring aspects of their past experiences. The versatility and

accessibility of these platforms means that anyone could upload images or videos and share

them with their peers. To this end, a documentary such as mine can be spread through the

groups rather quickly and can invite discussion where it appears. In the documentary, Lyle

43 Baines, G. A Virtual Community? SADF veterans’ digital memories and dissenting discourses. 44 As per conversations and interviews held with veterans.45 http://dailymaverick.co.za/article/2012-06-06-hatebook-sa-border-war-vets-outraged-by-soldiers-story

http://dailymaverick.co.za/article/2012-06-06-hatebook-sa-border-war-vets-outraged-by-soldiers-story

P a g e | 21

Hancke says: “We never spoke about it… [T]his is probably, well, this is the first time I’ve

spoken about it since the end.” This sentiment was reflected by some of the interviewed

veterans, but not all. Hancke does not make use of the Border War groups and so a project

like this provided an outlet for his experience and hopefully will provide him with another

perspective on the war.

For Dennis Morton, it was an opportunity to share his feelings on the conflict,

expressing his anti-war sentiment and his horror at what he was forced to participate in, the

responses to his interview in some of the groups were especially strong, with some saying the

film “could have done without the hippie” and similar sentiments. I recall warning Morton

before the interview that there was a possibility he might receive some hate mail for his views

and to his credit he decided to speak anyway, strong in his belief. Overall the people I

interviewed were proud of their participation, even if it left some of them physically or

emotionally scarred. It was refreshing to interview someone of a dissenting opinion, however,

dissenting opinions are something of a taboo in the military social sphere. This is evident in

the many arguments that break out in the comments section of some YouTube videos that

hold anti-war, or specifically anti-SADF, content. However, to be fair, sometimes the content

is belligerent on purpose in an effort to incite anger in the military communities, and

especially given the politically charged nature of the Border War’s history.

The interviews with Danie Crowther, Johann Lehman and Roderick van der

Westhuizen left me in awe to a degree. Even though I could not fit it all into the

documentary, especially in Crowther’s case, each man had shown extreme bravery in the face

of danger and I could not help but feel the desire to make the entire documentary simply

about their deeds. However, I could not fall into the trap of turning this film from a

documentary into a SADF-tribute, something it could easily have become had I gotten too

involved in their stories. In the military social media sphere, these tributes are commonplace,

especially as social networks have become a big influence in South Africa over the recent

years with the most obvious example being that of the Remembrance Wall and Freedom Park

debacles which will be discussed in the next chapter on Constructed Memory.

Chapter 6

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“I fought for three reasons. I can't remember what they were. The first reason

gets you in, and the reason when you are in is staying alive. I won’t know the

reason they find afterwards, but it will be a very good one for why it was

fought. I'm sure I’ll be glad.” –How I Won the War (1967)

6. Constructed Memory

Freedom Park was constructed in 2009 in Salvokop, Pretoria, South Africa. It is a monument

dedicated to “struggle heroes” and features a “name wall” which lists the names of people

who died fighting in the Anglo-Boer War, World War I and II as well as during the struggle

against apartheid. However, it specifically leaves out members of the SADF who died in

service but rather chooses to name Cubans, Angolans, Russians and MK members who

fought against the SADF. This decision elicited an outcry from many groups, most notably

the Veterans Association, but seeing as the park was privately owned, there was not much

that could be done. Partly in retaliation for the dishonour they felt they had been done, a

consortium of concerned veterans and interest groups decided to erect a wall of names at the

nearby Voortrekker Monument46 that features the names of fallen SADF, Navy and Air force

soldiers and civilians who had been fatally involved. Yet again race and cultural politics had

been sparked with this sudden polar positioning of monuments, and it did not help the

situation that the Voortrekker Monument had for years been seen as a monument to

oppression of the ethnic African population by the invading Boers. For a while, this issue

made the news, however it has calmed down in recent years, with both sides respecting a

truce, especially when either is hosting a memorial day.

The term “Constructed Memory” (also called Cultural Memory47) can be interpreted

in a myriad of ways, for example it could be argued that the actual memorial walls and

monuments themselves are literal memory constructions, designed to be physical

representations of the memories they hold; a physical place in (relatively48) neutral territory

where others can pay their respects or share memories. Constructed Memories can also come

in the form of photographs, video footage, such as documentaries, songs, war diaries, letters

from soldiers etc. In the case of this work’s accompanying documentary, the documentary

itself became a constructed memory and this is a point to dissect itself.

46 The Voortrekker Monument was erected just outside of Pretoria, South Africa, to commemorate the Boers who left the Cape Colony to colonise the rest of the country between 1835 and 1854.47 Baines, G. (2004) “South Africa’s Vietnam?” Safundi. 5:3, 1-2148 I say relatively as there is no true neutral territory for something such as this.

P a g e | 23

I, as the filmmaker, choose to show specific parts of their stories to you as the

audience in order to illicit specific responses or share specific knowledge. I did not seek out

the most emotive of stories, rather letting whomever volunteered for the interview tell their

story, however in constructing my film narrative I ended up choosing the most emotive of

stories, or stories which would support prior emotive cues, for example a piece of text which

might have a heartfelt quote with equally poignant music playing in the background. The

intention of the film was to impart knowledge of the Bush War to the audience in the hopes

that relating to the soldier’s stories and emotions would encourage them to learn more about

the history behind their stories.

The film opens with a dramatic and violent scene of soldiers yelling and firing

weapons whilst running through the bush in order to catch the audience’s attention which

would form the foundation of the construction of the film. By securing interest with

something shocking and out of the norm, the scene and emotion would be set for the stories

from the five veterans. Stringing together their experiences into a coherent narrative proved a

challenge, however their link was their shared experience of the Battle of Lomba River, as

well as their experiences of becoming civilians once again. The stock footage was used to

contextualise and highlight certain sections of their story, for example Johann Lehman speaks

of the SAM SA-8, something which most people have never even heard of, let alone seen,

and thus the provided image allows the audience to understand and relate further. The

interviewed veterans constructed their memories in specific ways, relating them to the

interviewer (myself) and the camera in such a way as to allow the film to contextualise their

experiences and thus construct a social memory platform from which others may access these

memories and extrapolate collected experience in a way that only story-telling can: through

emotional context.

The audience is often an important factor in considering the creation of the film.

When demonstrating these constructed memories to the audience I have to ask: “who am I

showing them to? Who shall watch and do I account for that in what I am making?” Thanks

to the internet, my film can reach almost everyone who has a connection, should they be so

inclined to watch it. Already at the time of writing this, the film has around 500 views in the

week since it was uploaded. Most of the views come from South Africa, the UK and the US,

where most of the former SADF soldiers seem to be scattered if information from the forums

are to be believed. I do know that for my previous film, even former Cuban soldiers and some

Russians managed a viewing, although they had to get an English-speaking friend to translate

for them. Even though the film was from the SADF perspective, they still related and

P a g e | 24

contacted me thanking me for my work. Thus, the audience became an agglomeration, in my

mind, of anyone who would be willing to watch. If I attempted to make it specifically for one

audience, for example only SADF, I believe it would lose some of its impact and human

appeal. Thus, this film is a constructed memory which combines other memories to create a

universal narrative; a diorama of subjective experience which cuts across objective reality

and provides it with emotional context.

When creating something like this the issue of objective and subjective knowledge is

often raised and worked with. True objectivity obviously cannot exist, as every person has

their own life experiences which colour their perceptions of reality. It is also a fact that

historical accounts are not only more often than not written by the victor (or those in power),

and thus already coloured, but also that the only source of history is that of the person

providing the information, and thus the actual source of the information is always secondary

and subjective no matter the situation.

A documentary shows a certain version of events, in this case the qualitative

experience of SADF veterans, which only correlates with written historical accounts in some

cases. For example, Cuba made all efforts to enact a propaganda campaign against South

Africa during the war.49 Their campaign was incredibly effective and to this day much of

what they purported to have happened has made it into historical accounts as, at the time, the

Apartheid government was still attempting to prevent the information from leaking out to the

general populace of South Africa, and as much as possible to the rest of the world.50 This left

them vulnerable to such propaganda campaigns, and once they were ordered to pull out of

Angola, following UN Resolution 435, the propaganda claims were only strengthened. SADF

veterans and their supporters still contend many historical “facts” they have encountered over

the years, and this is in part why they have such an intense distrust of the media.

This brings to light the question of subjective experiences reliability as the veterans

were no doubt indoctrinated to some degree to fight their enemy without fear or hesitation.

From personal interaction with veterans it would appear that they do not like being told that

they were indoctrinated; however my experience is that during their training they were

constantly told what they were fighting for and who they were fighting and thus it became a

form of indoctrination. This is not to say that the soldiers were blank slates who had all their

beliefs and feelings overridden with some monstrous urge to become killing machines,

49 Turner, J. W. (1998) Continent Ablaze: The Insurgency Wars in Africa 1960 to the Present. Pp 12450 Ibid, pp 125

P a g e | 25

simply that a military has a vested interest in ensuring its soldiers believe in what they are

fighting for and thus they are taught to believe in what their superiors tell them to believe.

Objective information can also be questioned thusly as the author of the information,

for example a Wikipedia article on the Border War, will have their own agenda and the

information they impart might appear factually correct, however it will still have certain

elements omitted or highlighted according to what the author believes is important. Thus,

constructed memories exist as a result of and according to the conflict that exist between

subjective and objective reality, relying on the individual to process and decide on what

reality to accept and impart to the world. A documentary film is this conflict given form and

altered in a way that the audience, that is to say any interested party, can access the memory

constructions of another person through the construction of the film itself and in the visual

space it provides.

P a g e | 26

Chapter 7

“If we don't end war, war will end us.” –H.G. Wells

7. Conclusion

This work did not attempt to answer any questions, that is not what it or the documentary set

out to achieve. Like the documentary, this dissertation was an attempt to not only ask

questions about the nature of qualitative experience and subjective reality, but also to

highlight how subjective roles shape historical accounts. Shortly after the production of the

documentary, a colleague commented on how the film inspired him to learn more about the

war that the veterans had spoken of. He was intrigued by their experience and sought to

understand further by researching historical accounts. This is precisely the reaction I hoped to

illicit the most, as the more something is understood in its historical context, the more the

subjective experiences can be accepted and explored.

The Southern African Bush War, The South African Border War, Die Grensoorlog;

all names for the same conflict, but each a representation of its own context. A documentary

such as Stories, Shadows and Dust can only provide access to a limited scope of experience,

much like a photograph of an event can only show what the camera’s field of vision can

encompass. The emotional context of this film was created from the constructed memories of

the men who chose to be interviewed for it, allowing their experiences to enter into the social

media consciousness of the online veteran communities. The clandestine elitism of such

social groups would not be accessible to outsiders without such a platform. In short, films

such as these allow not only the audience to experience an event that they could not

otherwise, but also allowed the interviewer and the veterans being interviewed the

opportunity to explore the contextualised spaces of the constructed memory that is their

experience of the Border War. The accessibility of social media spheres will also allow

parties from other camps, such as former Soviet and Angolan soldiers etc. the opportunity of

engaging with contexts they could not previously, the mind of the former enemy, as it were.

In the closing minutes of the documentary, Roderick van der Westhuizen says: “[I]t

was important and it needed to happen...[T]he guys that died you can live with that, you

know, because that’s final. But the guys that’s wounded, you know, we were eighteen,

nineteen years old at that stage. Um, that used to stick with us, you know, that…it took your

mind….” It is with those words in mind that a documentary such as this enters the social

media spheres and works to shed light on why not only telling stories is important, but why

P a g e | 27

their emotional context provides the human element; the element which allows one to

connect and understand, the element which constructs the memory and relives the story,

passing it on to the next group or generation until it becomes a part of the collected social

consciousness of the story-telling world that is human society.

P a g e | 28

Appendix I

Stories, Shadows and Dust

Experiences of the SADF Soldier in the Southern African Bush War

Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EFQylqrQfDg


P a g e | 29

Appendix II

Interest Justification

Not a lot of work is being done on the Southern African Bush War, but for at least three

generations of South Africans, Namibians, Zimbabweans, Angolans, Cubans and Russians, it

is still a very real and relevant topic in their lives. It was a conflict that spanned over 30

years, 1966-1989, and has only had true academic work started on it in the last ten or so

years. I believe this sudden upsurge in interest is mostly driven by the former veterans

themselves deciding to publish their stories and analyse former operations and such

themselves.51 This also encourages academics, journalists and the like to begin their own

research into this suddenly popular topic. Its direct links to the height and decline of the Cold

War, and all that that implies, cannot be overstated and are thoroughly relevant to the

understanding of present-day Africa as well as our understanding of the Cold War itself.

One must note that there was much interest in the war when it was actually occurring,

and quite a few films, documentaries, news broadcasts, books, novels, academic and

journalistic articles can still be accessed today, if one knows where to look. Some of these

writers and film makers were foreign, however many were actively serving, having been

conscripted or volunteered, or were involved in the End Conscription Campaign (ECC) or

had their lives affected in other ways, such as being forced to leave the country to avoid jail

time, or having had family members who served or who were injured or killed. The reasoning

behind doing research in this conflict for the individual is about as varied and multi-faceted

as the issues in the conflict itself.

However, the recent interest is moving in a different stream and thus deserves work of

its own accord. 1994 was the year in South Africa when the first free, democratic elections

were held and South Africa received its first black President: Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela,

thus putting the ANC into official power for the first time. With this regime change, not to

mention the ending of the war a few years earlier, the tension in South Africa was palpable,

and open discussion of anything that could flare the tensions were considered taboo in polite

company. Apartheid South Africa also saw a heavily censored media, and so publishing

critical journals and the like was particularly difficult, if not outright impossible, not to

mention one might have gotten a visit from the Secret Police, which rarely ended well. Thus,

51 This belief is supported by G. Baines in his 2007 work: Breaking Rank: Secrets, Silences and Stories of South Africa’s Border War

P a g e | 30

with South Africa’s recent emphasis on freedom of speech, the path has never been clearer

for former soldiers and the like to express themselves and tell their stories or analyse their

past, or for others to do likewise.

Much like with many traumatic events, it takes time for people to process them before

they can deal with them in whatever manner they are predisposed to. We have examples of

storytelling being the process whereby some deal with war trauma from many eras of human

history, for example: Homer’s Iliad, poems and stories from World War I and II, films and

documentaries on the terrorist attacks of 9/11, etc. The trauma of Apartheid is still being dealt

with, as is the trauma of the Bush War, therefore it is only natural that the gap in between the

actual war and the upsurge in interest would be accounted for by taking into cognisance the

idea that people need time to deal with trauma, especially one as politically charged as this

war.

Another interesting aspect of dealing with this research is the language and cultural

barriers. Even though I grew up in an Afrikaans town, I spoke English and had a

Scottish/English heritage. Those familiar with South African history know that, culturally and

historically speaking, some Afrikaners have a dislike of the English, or indeed English-

speakers, and it was often the case that English-speakers were targeted for abuse during

training for the SADF.52 However, this was not always the case, and I often found that people

spoke to me regardless of what my home language was, although I have no doubt that more

doors would have opened up to me had I approached these veterans speaking Afrikaans.

Although likewise if I had approached veterans on the other side of the conflict speaking

Afrikaans, I may have had a tougher time finding anyone to speak to me, as Afrikaans was

definitely seen as the “language of the SADF”, Apartheid and thus oppression, much like

how German is still often associated with Nazi’s.

52 This dislike can be traced back to the Anglo-Boer Wars wherein the original Afrikaans settlers, the Boers (old Dutch/Afrikaans for Farmers), fought the English for control of their newly conquered territories. The Second Anglo-Boer War saw the English forces interring many woman and children in concentration camps, with the intention of using this tactic to force the Boers to surrender. This atrocity is often cited as one of the reasons why some Afrikaans people today still harbour a dislike, or even outright hatred, of the English and English speakers.

P a g e | 31

Appendix III



De Facto Script

17 August 2012

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[Film Begins.

Black screen, silent.

00:02: Rushing sound quickly builds up to sudden cut of first-person clip of soldiers running

through Angolan bush.

Soldiers are shouting and shooting whilst running to position, all the while radio chatter is

overlaid, making the scene chaotic and noisy.

00:34: Clip suddenly blacks out, sound still continues. Soldiers yelling fades away and only

radio chatter is left whilst text flashes.

00:40: White text centred on black background53 fades in and out between each slide54 as

sound of soldiers yelling fades:]

The Southern African Bush War raged from 1966 to 1989

Many young men were conscripted into the South African Defence Force to defend

South African and South-West Africa (today Namibia) from the threat of terrorists and

communists

Angola was considered the staging area for these threats

And so, the young conscripts were sent to perform their duty in the Bush of Angola

What follows are selected stories of five former South African Defence Force soldiers on

their time at The Border

[Text fades to black and radio chatter fades to silence.

01:25: Cut to clip of soldiers jumping from a helicopter onto the ground below. Sound is

helicopter noise and general noise of soldiers leaving helicopter.

53 All text will be white centred on black background54 This text is for exposition purposes

P a g e | 33

Sound cross-fades after a few seconds to “Iggy Pop: Passenger”.

01:40: Clip cuts to black and white text on black appears:]



[“Passenger” plays for next minute as clips of the Border War from various archives play

through.

Clips fade to black as “Passenger” fades to “Saving Private Ryan: The Last Battle” (TLB).

03:11: White text on black background fades in and out between slides:]

From 1987 to 1988 an obscure Angolan town named Cuito Cuanavale became the focus

of a series of heated conflicts between SADF/UNITA and FAPLA/Cuban forces

The SADF responded to a call for support from UNITA, who were under attack by

FAPLA troops advancing towards nearby Mavinga (UNITA’s HQ), with the intent to

destroy it

The SADF, acting upon intercepted intelligence, proceeded to lay an ambush for

FAPLA’s advancing 47th armoured brigade in a manoeuvre that would come to be

known as The Battle of Lomba River

47th was all but destroyed. The remaining forces fled, abandoning much of their

equipment and vehicles, including the SAM SA-8 missile system; a highly coveted piece

of Soviet technology which had never before been seen outside of Russia

[Text fades to black and music fades out as first interview clip fades in.

03:51: Interview with Johann Lehman talking of capture of SA-8 in Angola after destruction

of 47th brigade.

P a g e | 34

Identifying text fades in and out:]

Lt. Col. Johann Lehman

SAAF Intelligence Liaison Offcier (Ret.)

[At 05:06, 05:30, 06:05 and 07:41 mark, clips are played / pictures shown to emphasise

Lehman’s words.

Lehman interview fades out and second interview clip fades in.

09:32: Interview with Roderick van der Westhuizen talking of his experiences with a Mig

bombing run on 61 Mech.


Cpl. Roderick van der Westhuizen

SADF 61 Mechanised Battalion (Ret.)

[At 10:19 and 13:07 mark, clips are played / pictures shown to emphasise van der

Westhuizen’s words.

Van der Westhuizen interview fades out as text fades in and TLB music begins to play again.


Gallows Humour:

“Comedy that still manages to be funny in the face of, and in response to, a horrible,

deathly, tragic, dramatic, perfectly hopeless situation.”

“You see, a laugh and a smile, and all of a sudden the job doesn’t seem quite so bad

after all, does it sir?”

~Edmund Blackadder’s firing squad.

P a g e | 35

[Text fades to black and music fades out as third interview clip fades in.

15:58: Interview with Lyle Hancke talking of comedic incidents during battle and of how they

viewed “the enemy”.


AMN. Lyle Hancke

SAAF (Ret.)

[Hancke interview fades out and fourth interview clip fades in.

17:43: Interview with Danie Crowther talking of comedic experience of outwitting enemy

tank manoeuvres.


Lt. Col. Danie Crowther

SADF Military Intelligence Offcier (Ret.)

[Crowther interview fades out as text fades in and TLB music begins to play again.


After their tours of duty, also called Camps, many soldiers returned home and

attempted to reintegrate into civilian life

However, due to the tight hold the Apartheid government had on information flow in

South Africa, many people simply did not know why or where their men had been

fighting

[Text fades to black and music fades out as fifth interview clip fades in.

P a g e | 36

20:04: Interview with Lyle Hancke talking of experiences as a civilian in SA after returning

from active duty.

Hancke interview fades out as text fades in and TLB music begins to play again.


In July 1985, a State of Emergency was declared in South Africa and many soldiers

were called in to assist police in combating the new enemy: the black population of

South Africa

[Text fades to black and music fades out as sixth interview clip fades in.

22:35: Interview with Dennis Morton talking of experiences as deployed soldier in South

Africa and atrocity he witnessed.


LCpl. Dennis Morton

Fire Command Controller (Ret.)

[Morton interview fades out and seventh interview clip fades in.

27:09: Interview with Roderick van der Westhuizen talking of general soldiers feeling

regarding the war, training, politics etc.

Van der Westhuizen interview fades out as text fades in and TLB music begins to play again.


The Southern African Bush War claimed many lives; Cuban, Angolan, Russian,

Namibian and South African, leaving scars in the landscape of the conflict zones and the

hearts and minds of those involved

P a g e | 37

Regardless of what was fought for, stories are what have been left behind

It is our duty to know these stories, lest our actions become nothing more than shadows

and dust

[Text fades to black and music fades out as ending music video fades in.

29:22: Subtitled “Bok van Blerk: Die Kaplyn” music video fades in and begins playing.

Muisc video fades to black and end credits and music begin playing.

34:23: “Bastion: The Pantheon” begins playing and credits scroll across screen:]



Directed, filmed and edited by:

Garrett Eriksen

Special Thanks to:

Lyle Hancke

Dennis Morton

Danie Crowther

Johann Leham

Roderick van der Westhuizen

Cameron Kinnear

My supervisors:

Dr L Bisschoff

Prof P Nugent

Edinburgh University Centre of African Studies

Andrew & Glenn Eriksen

MNET & SABC

All those serving in the armed forces (serving and retired) who assisted me in my

research

P a g e | 38

All those who assisted me on my journey and provided me with open homes, hearts and

minds

Stock footage courtesy of

MNET and the SABC

Music Used:

Iggy Pop

“The Passenger”

Bok van Blerk

“Die Kaplyn”

Bastion OST

“The Pantheon”

Saving Private Ryan OST

“The Last Battle”

All video footage and audio data included in this film are the licence and property of

their respective owners. This is purely a non-profit, academic work.

“War stories aren’t always about war, per se. They aren’t about bombs and bullets

and military manoeuvres. They aren’t about tactics, they aren’t about foxholes and

canteens. A war story, like any good story, is finally about the human heart.”

~Tim O’Brien

[Credits roll off.

Music fades.

Black screen.

End of film.]

P a g e | 39

Bibliography

Abbink, J., De Bruijn, M., Van Walraven, K. (2003) Rethinking Resistance: Revolt and

Violence in African History. BRILL.

Baines, G. (2004) “South Africa’s Vietnam?” Safundi. 5:3, 1-21

Baines, G., Vale, P. (eds) (2008) Beyond the Border War: New Perspectives on Southern

Africa’s Late-Cold War Conflicts. Unisa Press.

Chan, S. (2011) Southern Africa: Old Treacheries and New Deceits. Yale University Press

Cock, J., Laurie, N., (1989) War and Society: The Militarisation of South Africa. New Africa

Books

Dale, R. (1995) Botswana's Search for Autonomy in Southern Africa. Greenwood Publishing

Group

Fremont-Barnes, G. (2003) The Boer War 1899-1902. Osprey Publishing

Geldenhuys, J. (2009) At The Front: A General's Account of South Africa's Border War.

Jonathan Ball

Holt, C. (2005) At Thy Call We Did Not Falter. Zebra

Quaye, C. (1991) Liberation Struggles in International Law. Temple University Press

Thompson, J.H. (2007) An Unpopular War. Struik Publishers

Thompson, L. (2001) A History of South Africa. Yale University Press

Turner, J. W. (1998) Continent Ablaze: The Insurgency Wars in Africa 1960 to the Present.

Arms and Armour Press

P a g e | 40

Saul, J. (2008) Namibia's liberation struggle: the two-edged sword. J. Curry

Schattle, H. (2012) Globalization and Citizenship. Rowman & Littlefield

South Africa, Truth and Reconciliation Commission. (1998) Truth and Reconciliation

Commission of South Africa report, Volume 2. The Commission.

Online Sources:

Baines, G. (2007) Breaking rank: Secrets, silences and stories of South Africa’s Border War.

http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/ptb/wvw/wvw4/baines%20paper.pdf

Last accessed 31 August 2012

Baines, G. (2012) A Virtual Community? SADF veterans’ digital memories and dissenting

discourses.

http://rhodes-za.academia.edu/GaryBaines/Papers/1537319/A_Virtual_Community_SADF_V

eterans_Digital_Memories_and_Dissenting_Discourses


Review of “Battle Scarred: The Hidden Costs of The Border War” at:



BBC News article on “Secrecy Bill” at:



Article on propaganda elements of “Boetie Gaan Border Toe” at:






http://rhodes-za.academia.edu/GaryBaines/Papers/1537319/A_Virtual_Community_SADF_Veterans_Digital_Memories_and_Dissenting_Discourses

http://rhodes-za.academia.edu/GaryBaines/Papers/1537319/A_Virtual_Community_SADF_Veterans_Digital_Memories_and_Dissenting_Discourses

http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/ptb/wvw/wvw4/baines%20paper.pdf

P a g e | 41

Daily Maverick news article on Border War veteran facebook group reaction at:

http://dailymaverick.co.za/article/2012-06-06-hatebook-sa-border-war-vets-outraged-by-

soldiers-story


Article on History of the Internet at:



Article on South African Air Force (SAAF) involvement in Border War at:



Blog article on “Arab Sping” protests and social netowrkign media at:

http://socialcapital.wordpress.com/2011/01/26/twitter-facebook-and-youtubes-role-in-tunisia-

uprising/


USA Today news article on US Afghanistan War veterans and social networking media at:



Film Sources:

Apocalypse Now, directed by Francis Coppola, Zoetrope Studios, 1979.

At Thy Call, directed by Christopher-Lee dos Santos, DS Studios, 2008.

Boetie Gaan Border Toe, directed by Regardt van den Bergh, 1984.

Boetie op Manoeuvres / Wild Manoeuvres, directed by Regardt van den Bergh, 1985.

Bush War / Grensoorlog, directed by Linda de Jager, M-NET, 2011 / 2009.








P a g e | 42

The Deer Hunter, directed by Michael Cimino, Universal Pictures, 1978.

Forged in Flames: The SADF Experience of the Battles of Cuito Cuanavale 1987-1988,

directed by Garrett Eriksen, 2009.

Full Metal Jacket, directed by Stanley Kubrick, Warner Brothers, 1987.

Good Morning Vietnam, directed by Barry Leinson, Touchstone Pictures, 1987.

P a g e | 43

Further Reading Suggestions

Alker, H. Gurr, T. Rupesinghe, K. (eds) (2001) Journeys through conflict: narratives and

lessons. Rowman & Littlefield.

Baines, G. (2008) ‘Blame, Shame or Reaffirmation? White Conscripts Reassess the Meaning

of the “Border War” in Post-Apartheid South Africa.’, InterCulture 5.3.

Bandeira, M. (2008) Restoring Dignity. Current Psychosocial Interventions with Ex-

combatants in South Africa: A Review, Discussion and Policy Dialogue Project. Centre for

the Study of Violence and Reconciliation: Johannesburg

Burton, J. (2007) Film, History and Cultural Memory: Cinematic Representations of

Vietnam-Era America During the Culture Wars, 1987-1995. University of Nottingham

Escandon, J. (2009) Bush War: The Use of Surrogates in Southern Africa (1975-1989).

School of Advanced Military Studies.

George, E. (2005) The Cuban Intervention In Angola, 1965-1991: From Che Guevara To

Cuito Cuanavale. Routledge.

Matthew, G., (2010) ‘Cold War in Southern Africa’, Africa Spectrum, vol. 45, no. 1, pp 131-

139

Metsola, L. (2006) ‘Reintegration’ of Ex-combatants and Former Fighters: a lens into state

formation and citizenship in Namibia. Routledge

Morillo, S., Pavkovic, M. (2006) What is military history? Polity Press.

Steenkamp, W. (1989) South Africa’s Border War – 1966-1989. Ashanti Publishing.

Williams, D. (2008) On the Border: The White South African Military Experience, 1965-

1990. Tafelberg

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