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10Rocks to Robots: Concepts for Initial Robotic Lunar Resource Development*

Lee MorinAstronaut Office, NASA Johnson Space CenterHouston, Texas

Sandra MagnusAstronaut Office, NASA Johnson Space CenterHouston, Texas

Stanley LoveAstronaut Office, NASA Johnson Space CenterHouston, Texas

Donald PettitAstronaut Office, NASA Johnson Space CenterHouston, Texas

Mary Lynne DittmarDittmar Associates, Inc.Houston, Texas

Lee Morin, M.D., PhD, received a BS degree in mathematical/electrical science from the University of New Hampshire in 1974; an MS degree in biochemistry from New York University in 1978; doctorate of medi-cine and microbiology degrees from New York University in 1981 and 1982, respectively; a master of public health degree from the University of Alabama at Birmingham in 1988; and an MS degree in physics from the University of Houston–Clear Lake in 2009. His space flight experi-ence is STS-110 Atlantis (April 8−19, 2002), the 13th Shuttle mission to visit the International Space Station, during which the crew delivered and installed the S-Zero Truss.

Sandra Magnus, PhD, NASA Astronaut received a BS in physics and an MS in electrical engineering from the University of Missouri-Rolla in 1986

*The opinions expressed are the personal views of the authors, and do not reflect current official NASA or U.S. Government policies or programs.

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and 1990, respectively, and a doctorate from the School of Material Science and Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1996. Selected by NASA in April 1996, Dr. Magnus reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1996. Her space flight experience includes STS-112 Atlantis (October 7−18, 2002), an International Space Station assembly mission during which the crew delivered and installed the S-One Truss. On her second mission, she served as a flight engineer and NASA Space Station science officer for International Space Station Expedition 18 (November 2008−March 2009).

Stanley Love, PhD, NASA Astronaut earned a BS in physics from Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, California, in 1987. He attended the University of Washington in Seattle, receiving an MS in 1989 and a doctor of philosophy degree in 1993. Selected by NASA in June 1998, he reported for training in August 1998. His space flight experience is STS-122 Atlantis (February 7−20, 2008), the 24th Shuttle mission to visit the International Space Station, during which the crew delivered and installed the European Columbus Orbiting Facility.

Donald Pettit, PhD, NASA Astronaut received a Bachelor of Science degree in chemical engineering from Oregon State University in 1978 and a doctor-ate in chemical engineering from the University of Arizona in 1983. Selected by NASA in April 1996, Dr. Pettit reported to the Johnson Space Center in August 1996. His space flight experience is as follows. He completed his first space flight as Expedition 6 NASA Space Station Science Officer aboard the International Space Station (November 2002–May 2003). His second mission was aboard STS-126 Endeavour (November 14−30, 2008), the 27th Shuttle/Station assembly mission.

Mary Lynne Dittmar, PhD, is president and CEO of Dittmar Associates, Inc. She received a BA in psychology and an MS in human factors psychol-ogy in 1980 and 1985, and a joint doctorate in experimental psychology and human factors engineering, 1989, all from the University of Cincinnati. Dr. Dittmar worked as NASA consultant in Human Factors between 1989 and 1995, while a faculty member at the University of Alabama in Huntsville. She managed Boeing Mission Operations and Astronaut/Cosmonaut Training Integration for the International Space Station Program between 1995 and 2001, and carried out long range strategic planning for Boeing Space Systems between 2002 and 2004. She founded Dittmar Associates, Inc. in 2004, specializing in strategic planning, sys-tems engineering, communications planning, training, and evaluation of emerging technologies. She has published more than 50 articles in science, aerospace, engineering, business, and the humanities, and is the author of The Market Study for Space Exploration (paperback; 2004, Dittmar Associates, Inc., Houston, Texas).

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Introduction

Despite epochal exploration achievements a generation ago, lunar devel-opment has not yet materialized, and the vision of sustained coloniza-tion of other worlds has remained out of reach. In this paper, we propose a step-wise approach to the planning, design, development, building, and expansion of human/robotic presence on the Moon. The key concept under-lying this approach is the use of bootstrapping—creating building blocks that in turn lead to more capability to make more building blocks—using local lunar resources to the greatest possible extent. We believe that this approach will yield lower-cost missions with high return—a productive materials processing capability that simultaneously generates increasingly more materials and more processing ability, leading to the rapid accumula-tion of construction materials and industrial manufacturing capacity. One of the main obstacles of reaching and re-supplying an off-world presence is the immense transportation cost, which is largely driven by the need to use impulsive chemical rockets to leave the Earth’s gravity well. The problem is neatly described by the rocket equation, which determines the propor-tion of payload achievable given a desired velocity change. Contained in the equation is an exponential term which behaves in the same manner as com-pounded interest. At the high velocities required to establish and maintain an Earth orbit, the rocket equation dictates that vehicles consist of almost nine-tenths propellant, leaving only a small amount of up-mass possible for payloads. This fact, together with the need for precision machinery con-structed of high grade metals and other exotic materials have contributed to the extreme costs of spaceflight.

The historical success of attempts to establish remote outposts has largely depended on the willingness and ability of explorers to utilize local resources and adapt to local conditions. The degree of dependence on distant mother-lands inversely determined the long term viability of the outpost. Despite abundant or even lavish initial outfitting, expeditions not adapting to local conditions and optimizing the use of available resources have failed.

Today lunar exploration has become of prime interest to the increasing number of space-faring nations of the world.1,2 The establishment of lunar outposts is just one of several goals planned or proposed by the United States,3 as well as by other government and privately-held organizations.4,5,6 Such remote outposts will provide many challenges, not only in technology, but also in sustainability and development. One hundred percent reliance on Earth resources will not only be prohibitively expensive, but will also ignore the historical outcomes outlined above. For a complex enterprise in such a remote location to be successful, lunar resources must be utilized.

With the abundant raw materials and sunlight available on the surface of the Moon,7,8 exponential growth rates in materials and processing capacity

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can be attained. Done efficiently, development of the Moon will largely become an enterprise of transporting information rather than mass. By mainly using matter already on the Moon and developing infrastructure exponentially, we can overcome the limitations imposed by the unfavor-able exponential of the rocket equation and eventually realize sustainable off-Earth presence.

We propose a series of low cost, unmanned, lunar robotic missions using standard expendable launch vehicles. We must carefully select material pro-cessing payloads and strategies that are scaled to be within the capabilities of the modest initial missions. Selected processes will be on a kilowatt-kilogram scale at most. They must utilize immediately-available materials and energy sources, and must immediately produce apparatus and knowledge that directly furthers the enterprise. The objective is to bootstrap our way to con-siderable lunar infrastructure and industrial capability without requiring new heavy Earth launch capability or waiting until manned outposts are established.

Some of the advantages to our proposal are:

It results in permanent infrastructure on a stable platform (the •Moon) that accumulates with “compound interest”—unlike facilities in Earth orbit, which are lost when orbits decay.It can be started quickly, and significant results can be obtained •within the span of a few years.The technical risk is low. All the technical ingredients are well •understood; it does not require a breakthrough invention.It can utilize existing expendable launch vehicles. No new launch •vehicles are required.It offers tremendous near-term outreach, inspirational, and educa-•tional benefits.9

It will stimulate graduate scientific and engineering education by •providing ready access to the space environment for solving prob-lems and developing technology for immediate space application.As the project develops it promises to make space very tangible to •the public at large, increasing public appreciation of the value and relevance of our national investment in space.10

Eventually many people will have a chance to experience lunar tele-•presence, which “puts you there.”11,12

It is affordable and is “pay as you go.” Each mission is independent, •and the cost of each is mainly that of an expendable launch vehicle.It is open ended. The more you do, the easier it is to do more.•It fosters entrepreneurial and commercial space activity. The robots •are on the Moon, but the business activity, knowledge and jobs are here on Earth.

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It opens a vast frontier the size of the continent of Africa. (The Moon •has been called the “Eighth Continent.”) People, especially children, will see a role for themselves there.

Establishing Robotic Telepresence

The first step in our approach is to establish robotic telepresence.13 Dexterous robots controlled from Earth will be landed on the lunar surface and used to develop material science processes applicable to abundant lunar materials, particularly the lunar regolith.14 Essentially we will be establishing a “lunar glovebox”—with the box on the Earth and the gloves on Moon.

Space-based robotics have been widely used.15,16,17 Not only have we sent robots to distant worlds to explore and transmit data, but we also utilize dex-terous, human-in-the-loop robots18 as an integral part of the manned space program. By exploiting the experience gained over the many years of NASA robotic exploration and development and capitalizing on ever-advancing robotic technology, we plan on operating robots on the Moon by controlling them from Earth. Furthermore, the robots need not be as complex as top-of-the-line space or surgical robots, or previous NASA models. A simpler class of robots similar to industrial assembly robots, radioactive or explosive material remote handlers, or even a backhoe would be extremely useful on the Moon if operated by telepresence.

The operator, who sits in a control room on Earth, can view images down-linked in near real time, with a delay of only ~3 seconds required to transmit a signal round-trip from the Moon. Using virtual reality and feedback techniques the operator will feel immersed in the lunar environ-ment; in essence be a “telepresence” on the lunar surface. This approach permits direct application of the full adaptive capability of the human mind to the remote task. Such a system allows for a much more adaptable and capable robot compared to one that is preprogrammed to execute tasks autonomously.

When complex robotic processes are required, telepresence robotic tech-nology is currently highly advanced and capable of extreme dexterity.19 Surgical robots are an excellent example of the ability to perform delicate tasks.20 Medical systems are being developed that do not require the human controller, the surgeon, to be in the same room as the patient and robot.21,22

Of particular concern in such systems is the problem of latency. Studies are underway to understand the effects. In one case a mock vascular sur-gery has been performed remotely with latencies of nearly one second, with great interest in exploring even higher time delays.23 Dexterity and toler-ance of latency are relevant to our application. We seek to provide functional dexterity comparable to a human hand in a space-suit glove and to learn

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to work efficiently despite the ~3 second lunar latency. Techniques such as using graphical predictors of robotic motions displayed as images, together with tools and interfaces designed with latency in mind can optimize robotic control.

Robotic telepresence is central to the proposed plan. The use of telepresence robots will allow set-up, assembly, configuration change, and maintenance to be done remotely from Earth. With each subsequent mission additional telepresence robots will be commissioned. As the robotic presence on the moon increases, the cadre of experienced operators will also increase. Each phase will build on the previous phase as the inventory of tools, parts, stock, and know-how grows.

Applying Robotic Telepresence

The robotic telepresence will be applied to begin utilizing lunar resources to build a self-sustaining system. There are several key objectives that must be met in order to realize the concept of “exponential growth” in materials and materials processing. These include studying and understanding the bulk material properties of regolith in the lunar environment, developing appro-priate processing techniques, and establishing a source of energy. Each goal builds on the previous one allowing development to proceed in an increas-ingly efficient and effective manner.

First, we must understand and learn to exploit the mechanical properties of bulk regolith in the lunar environment. We must be able to manipulate rego-lith mechanically. Key capabilities include digging, grading, piling, entrenching, and tunneling. We must devise techniques for digging into the hard packed material that is found below the first few centimeters of the lunar surface. In addition, we must be able to sort the regolith into components based on size and other properties.

We must also learn to exploit the electrical and magnetic properties of regolith so processes using these properties can be designed. For example, due to the presence of nanophase iron, the magnetic properties of regolith will be very useful. Regolith also exhibits similarities to abrasive materials used on Earth for grinding and polishing ceramics, glass, and other surfaces, and should find similar applications on the Moon. Finally, and of particular importance for ongoing operations, we must also create strategies to control the finest component of regolith, the lunar dust.

Although we have gaps in our knowledge, a great deal of information on the physical properties of regolith is already available as a result of Apollo and other programs. Using this information, various relevant material pro-cesses have already been developed. For example, if regolith is heated it melts and will fuse to form an opaque obsidian-like glass.24,25,26,27 A key process

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that weakens glass is interaction with water molecules. However, because the Moon is so dry, lunar glass is expected to be much stronger than glass formed on Earth.28,29

Examples such as the one above demonstrate that the properties of rego-lith, in combination with the unique environmental characteristics of the Moon, offer tremendous potential for developing and testing technologies, materials and industrial processes leading to permanent habitation on the lunar surface. We have developed a series of key objectives—which may be thought of as milestones—to be accomplished early in the development of the program.

Key Objective 1: Melting the Regolith Using a Solar Furnace and Learning to Manipulate the Melt to Form Bricks, Bars, and Other Structural Elements

Because of the excellent vacuum on the Moon a very simple solar furnace can be built. It could consist of a light, metallized Mylar-type parabolic reflec-tor focused on a crucible of regolith, or perhaps even a parabolic pit on the ground with a similar focusing method.

Key Objective 2: Sintering Regolith with Microwaves to Form Objects, and Characterizing Their Properties

Regolith contains nanophase iron which couples well with microwave energy, therefore microwaves can also be used to heat regolith efficiently.30,31 If heated enough, regolith can be sintered with microwaves to form a solid.32,33,34 This presents many possible applications including forming shaped objects, pav-ing surfaces, perhaps even creating monuments of commercial value. It could also be the basis for a stereolithography-type process to form detailed objects.

Key Objective 3: Demonstration of Vapor Deposition Capability

The superb lunar vacuum allows vapor deposition to be a straightforward process. On the Moon, deposition can be performed without the overhead of vacuum pumps and chambers required on Earth. The reagents are heated and vaporized, and the plume is directly deposited on the substrate. Small quantities of reagents brought from Earth, such as aluminum, can be vapor-ized and deposited as thin films on surfaces to form coatings. Mirrors made in this manner can be used to concentrate solar energy or build additional solar furnaces. Likewise, metal deposition onto a spherical bowl-shaped exca-vation on the lunar surface can create an antenna dish, useful for enhancing communication with Earth. (The dish can be aimed without moving it, by positioning a feed horn like a miniature Arecibo.35) Vapor deposition of met-als and thin films is an important industrial process for lunar development.

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Key Objective 4: Demonstrate In-Situ Solar Cell Production Using Robotic Telepresence

Energy is a critical requirement. By applying semiconductor reagents (brought from Earth) as thin films on ceramic substrates, solar cells can be produced in-situ. Technical processes to produce solar cells in-situ from lunar materi-als have already been demonstrated in the laboratory on Earth.36,37,38,39,40,41 Concentrated sunlight is used to melt and fuse the regolith in place, forming in place an eggshell-thin crust of glass on the lunar surface. This glass layer serves as the substrate for thin-film deposition of the semiconductor materi-als, forming solar cells. Thin film layers of only a few microns are adequate. Cells made in this manner yield efficiencies in the range of 6-10%. Even though these efficiencies are at the low end of what is technically feasible for photocells,42 we have the vast surface of the Moon at our disposal, and in principle the solar cell area necessary to attain any desired power level can be achieved. The portion of such solar cells that must be brought from the Earth is small.

Key Objective 5: Demonstrate an Iron Producing Capability and Begin Scaling This Capability to Production Levels

One of the uses for an abundant source of energy is metal production. Iron is the metal most readily extractable from regolith. It is also the most useful single metal to have as a raw material due to its mechanical stiffness, mag-netic properties, and the number of versatile alloys which can be made with it. The main drawback of iron, its tendency to corrode, will not be of concern in the dry, oxygen-free environment of the Moon.

Some iron (a fraction of one percent) is already present in regolith as reduced metal, namely as nanophase iron. Additional iron can be extracted from fer-rous oxide (FeO) in the regolith. In the laboratory, FeO has been reduced to oxygen and iron by electrolysis at high temperatures, using a mixture of aluminum, calcium, and silicon oxides as a solvent—essentially the main components of regolith itself.43,44,45,46,47,48 One drawback of this method is the corrosion of the anode caused by the hot oxygen created by the process. Since we are much more interested in producing iron than oxygen at this stage, we propose to redirect the hot oxygen to oxidize more FeO into Fe3O4. This disproportionation reaction, where FeO is simultaneously oxidized to Fe3O4 and reduced to iron, is well known.49,50 The Fe3O4 produced is a potential feed stock for other uses including abrasive, magnetic and ferrite technology. In addition, bulk Fe3O4 provides for a very stable and compact form of oxy-gen storage. The oxygen can be recovered as water by heating with hydrogen in a reaction very similar to the well-known ilmenite process.

Once iron can be extracted at production levels, the stage is set for a broad array of follow-on technology including alloys, forming and machining techniques, powder metallurgy, electromagnetic machinery, and microwave

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and “vacuum-tube” electronic devices to name a few. As extraction activities scale up, additional regolith trace elements will become increasingly avail-able, providing expanding opportunities for material applications.

Another process requiring energy that will eventually be developed is oxygen extraction from the regolith. However, handling oxygen as a com-pressed gas or cryogenic liquid is very difficult and requires complex preci-sion machinery as well as strong, gas-tight vessels, seals, and plumbing to collect, compress, handle, and store the oxygen. While oxygen extraction is well beyond the initial capability of the proposed robotic development plan, a rudimentary demonstration may be possible during an early mission.

Key Objective 6: Set the Stage so Additional Telepresence Capability Can Be Produced In Situ

This is a longer term objective, but is the key to achieving the “compound interest” at the heart of this proposal. The energy and materials produced by the methods above are used first to supplement, and then gradually replace Earth content in subsequent telepresence facilities. By learning to turn rego-lith into telepresence workstations, or “Rocks to Robots”, we close the circle to exponentially grow the most important commodity of our budding lunar information industry—lunar telepresence itself.

Early Construction

As the key objectives described above are progressively met, a source of building materials manufactured from local resources (regolith) will have been obtained. The development of basic construction techniques can begin. A series of key objectives concerns construction, including the creation of structures such as work surfaces, foundations, pathways, and fundamental architectural structures such as arches. These form the next “plateau” in our bootstrapping approach; once the mastery of rudimentary construction techniques is achieved, more complex projects can be undertaken.

One example of an early project might be the construction of a prototype lunar shelter, perhaps similar in shape to a miniature hanger based on a trench with paved walls. Once built, such a structure can be characterized for radiation shielding, thermal stability and other properties important for eventual human habitation. Additional regolith can be used on the outside of the structure to enhance desired characteristics such as radiation shielding and micrometeorite protection.

Another goal will be to learn how to build pressure vessels. To use pres-sure vessels we must also be able to produce and manipulate gases. Pressure

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vessels will be useful as prototypes for structures such as tanks, green-houses, and, of course, human habitats. Ideally before the first human lunar landing, we could have a decade of experience with lunar construction.

The First Mission51

The first mission will be a demonstration of fundamental technical capability. There are two main objectives. The first will establish a dexterous telepres-ence that can dig and manipulate regolith, assemble and operate apparatus, and process various samples. The second is creation of a regolith material processing lab that includes a solar furnace to bake and fuse regolith. This telepresence lab will also be able to characterize and analyze samples, micro-wave regolith, perform vapor and thin film deposition, make experimen-tal solar cells, and perform experimental iron oxide reduction. Subsequent missions will build on these successes and extend these initial telepresence capabilities.

Summary

This proposal outlines a plan for the development toward a self-sustaining outpost on the Moon, and provides several key objectives that, if met, would see us well on our way to that goal. Starting with the creation of a telerobotic presence on the Moon and utilizing that capability to develop material pro-cessing techniques, the expansion of a lunar outpost will occur exponentially with minimal costs associated with transportation of materials from Earth. In addition, the missions can be scaled to fit within the available launch sys-tems, thereby minimizing start up costs normally associated with new space projects.

Much of the technology proposed for use on the Moon is well understood and has been in use on Earth for decades; the challenge will lie in estab-lishing and controlling our “lunar glove box” to apply these already mature techniques. With each success comes knowledge, experience, and materials useful in facilitating and accelerating the development and success of the next phase. We believe that such a modular approach, building on the success of previous missions, and utilizing the lunar resources is the most efficient and cost effective manner to establish and develop a permanent lunar presence. With Earth-to-Moon transportation costing many tens of thousands of dol-lars per pound, the value-add of lunar manufacturing is immense.

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