Social InequalityChapter 7 – Racial and Ethnic Inequality

Dr. Roderick GrahamFordham University

The Meaning and Creation of Race As social, economic, and cultural positions of groups

changed, so did their race (in this way, class can predict race) Irish, Italian, and Jewish Immigrants were considered non-

white in the United States until their class position changed.

Racial classifications are also a function of historical conditions and social context. Chinese and Japanese added to the census because of their

increased population Octoroon and Quadroon added to census when US concerned

with racial purity In modern society, “biracial” and “multiracial” more common

The Meaning and Creation of Race White is not really seen as a race by whites,

but more not being a minority. Minorities are members of racial groups, whites are not.

A person’s racial self-identification may not be congruent with society’s view of them Multi-racial people, while often considered “black”

by society, often see themselves as between races, or white.

Hispanic-Americans often do not identify as racially white or racially black…thus the census presents the option of “ethnicity”.

The Meaning and Creation of RaceRace is a social construction Created through the interaction of dominant

(those higher in the class, status, and political hierarchy) and subordinate groups in society

The categories (who) and content (what they do) of races change as society changes and power differentials change

Also, the content of racial categories change as values in society change

The Meaning and Creation of RaceRace is a social construction Racial categories are invariably constructed to

benefit the dominant groups in society Categories help group maintain their positions Race is used to justify immoral acts against

another group

In other words, our understanding of racial groups is not grounded in reality. The content of racial categories is “made” and then we use the created content to structure our actions.

History of Racial and Ethnic RelationsNative-Americans In the beginning of U.S. history, religion and

ethnicity was used to separate groups into inferior and superior

Early relations peaceful, but the desire for land by white farmers made it necessary to categorize Native-Americans as the “evil other”

Native Americans were categorized as irreligious savages. This made it easier for whites to see them as not human and it justified the taking of land.

History of Racial and Ethnic RelationsAfrican-Americans Africans were brought to the U.S. in order to

supply labor for the agricultural areas of the country.

Whites believes that blacks were inferior intellectually and physically - this justified using them as slave labor and alleviate any moral misgivings.

History of Racial and Ethnic RelationsAfrican-Americans Blacks frequently interacted with whites at the same

time their population was increasing. Laws were passed to maintain social distance and retain economic, status, and political positions. Blacks could not…

1. Intermarry with whites

2. Vote

3. Testify against whites

4. Own firearms

5. Use abusive language against whites

6. Own property unless permitted by whites

7. Leave a plantation without permission or disobey a curfew

8. Learn how to read or write

History of Racial and Ethnic RelationsAfrican-Americans Blacks and whites were two castes in American

society After the civil war, many of the restrictions

against blacks were banned legally, but they were enforced in other ways: Blacks could vote, but voting requirements or

physical intimidation made voting unlikely in many southern states

Intermarriage was still illegal, and the sexual and physical separation of black and white was enforced through custom, norms, and outside groups (KKK)

History of Racial and Ethnic RelationsOther Minority Groups Most other minority groups were placed into

the “other” category, and their labor was exploited

Mexicans are imported and used as cheap labor until demand drops…then they are seen as intruders, and are sent back

Japanese immigrants settled heavily in California and Hawaii. During WWII Japanese-Americans were rounded up and placed into internment camps.

Racial and Ethnic Inequality Today

Dangerous Areas

Likeable Ethnic Groups (somewhat

competent)

Competent Ethnic Groups (Not

likeable)

“Somewhat” Likeable Ethnic Groups (not as

competent)

Racial and Ethnic Inequality TodayWealth Inequality Inequality persists between white income/wealth

and the income/wealth of blacks and Hispanics.

Differences in wealth are perpetuated because wealth is inherited/passed down through generations (See “The Hidden Cost of Being African-American”)

Blacks have been discriminated against in the housing market exacerbating inequality between black and white

Racial and Ethnic Inequality TodayIncome Inequality Income differences are not as large as wealth

differences The income gap was steadily decreasing until

the 2000’s, but the gap is rising again The decrease in income inequality was related

to the amount of hours worked (blacks work more hours for the same incomes)

Racial and Ethnic Inequality Today

Racial and Ethnic InequalityEarnings and Occupations Blacks and Hispanics have lower weekly earnings

and hourly wages Minorities are more hurt by losses in the

manufacturing sector (lack of education makes it more difficult to move into white collar jobs)

Immigration has hurt Hispanic earnings and occupations (newer immigrants compete with second generation Hispanics for jobs, and are willing to work for lower wages)

Differences in earnings are tied to differences in occupational distribution

Racial and Ethnic Inequality Blacks and Hispanics are overrepresented in certain

occupations These occupations have relatively lower incomes and

prestige (there is a causal relationship between racial composition and wages)

However, over the past thirty years, blacks have become more distributed throughout the occupational structure

Blacks are in service and working class white collar positions

Hispanics are in labor and construction positions

Required Reading The Hidden Cost of Being African American

, Ch. 3 – “Inheritance – ‘That Parent Thing’”

This reading explores how wealth perpetuates inequality. White Americans tend to have more resources to draw on when buying homes or paying for college. While the income gap between blacks and whites has decreased, the disparity in wealth allows whites to purchase homes more quickly, save more, and spend more freely than African-Americans with similar incomes.

Key Concepts for this reading: Head-Start Assets Transformative Assets

END of Part I