SM - MANUAL[1]
Transcript of SM - MANUAL[1]
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STRENGTH OF
MATERIALS LAB
MANUAL
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STRENGHT OF MATERIALS LABORATORY
As per Syllabus R 2008
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Tension test on MS bar and HYSD bars
2. Torsion test on MS / CI specimens andshear test on MS
3. Test on Timber beam Bending test - compression test on timber
specimens
4. Test on brickcrushing, water absorption
5. a. Hardness test onmetals
b. Impact test.
6. a. CrushingTest onconcretecubes
b. Split Tension test onconcretecylinder.
7. Test on Springs forstiffness
8. Test ofcement fineness,normal consistency,setting times
9. Test on fine aggregate - sieves analysis test bulking - fineness
modulus
10. Test oncourse aggregatecrushingvalue & impact value
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BEYOND THE SYLLABUS
1. Deflection test on Mildsteel
2. Deflection test on Aluminum beam
3. Verificationof Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem
4. Effect of Hardening - Improvement inhardness andimpact resistanceofsteels
5. Tempering Improvement of Mechanical propertiescomparisonof Unhardened,
Quenched andTemperedspecimen.
.
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Ex. No. TENSION TEST ( Mild Steel ) Date :
Aim :
Todetermine tensilestrength, Youngsmodulus,percentageofelongationetc. ofmildsteel rod.
Apparatus required:
y Universal testingmachiney Extensometery Verniercalipery Scaley Mildsteel specimen
Procedure:
1. Thediameterof thespecimenismeasured at top,middle and bottom, and the
averageisdetermined.
2. Gauge lengthismarked by leavingsuitable length at both theends.
3. The load range in the UTM ischosen appropriately to thegivendiameterof
the rod, and to the ultimatestress assumed.4. The rodis rigidly fixedin between thegrips and the test pieceshould beheld
insuch a way that the loadis applied as axially aspossible.
5. Theextensometeris fixed formeasuringelongationofgauge length.
6. The load is applied and the extensometer reading is noted for uniform
increment of loads.
7. Theextensometeris removed before theyieldpoint.
8. Theyield loadshown by the backwardmovement of thepointerisnoted.
9. The loadis further applied and the ultimate loadisnoted.
10.The breaking loadisnoted at which thespecimen breaks.
11.Thespecimenis released from thegrips.
12.Final dimensions ( i.e.,increment ingauge length and reductionindiameter at
neck)of thespecimen aremeasured.
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Formula:
Yield load
Yield stress = --------------------------------------
Cross sectional area
Ultimate load
Ultimate stress = ------------------------------------
Cross sectional area
Breaking load
Breaking stress =--------------------------------------
Neck area
Increase in length
% of elongation = -------------------------------------
Original length
Decrease in c/s area
% of decrease in c/s area =-----------------------------
Original area
Tension test ( Mild Steel )
Lengthof rod ( gauge) =
Diameterof rod =
Area of rod =
Yield load =
Ultimate load =
Breaking load =
Final gauge length =
Increasein length =Final diameter ( neck) =
Neckarea =
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Calculation:
Graph:
Deflection ( X-axis)vs Load ( Y axis)
Result :
Yieldstress =
Ultimatestress =
Breakingstress =
% ofelongation =
% ofdecreaseinc/s area =
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Ex. No. DOUBLE SHEAR TEST Date :
Introduction:
Structural fastenings such as rivets, bolts, weds and springs are very often
Selected tosheardue toexternal loads andmoments. Furthermachineparts likeshafts,areetc., are alsosubjected toshearstressesdue to rotation. It is therefore,essential to the
steel also to be testedinshear to finditssuitabilityinpractice.
Aim :
Todetermine thedoubleshearstrengthof themildsteel.
Apparatus required:
y UTMy Doubleshearset upy Specimen
Procedure
1. Thespecimenisplacedin to the rectangulardevicepresent in thedoubleshear
set up.
2. The aboveset up isplaced in the bottomportionof the UTM. Themoving
headof the UTM isplacedin the topof the rectangulardevice.
3. Now thehydraulicpressureis appliedin the rod by turning theknob present in
the hydraulic machine. The maximum load at which the specimen fails is
noted. The final diameterof the rodismeasured.
4. Thedoubleshearstressiscalculated using the formula.
Result :
Thedoubleshearstressof thegivenspecimenis = _______________________
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Double shear test :
Diameterof the rod, d ` =
C.S. area of the rod, A =
Load at failure, W =
Doubleshearstress = Load at failure / 2A
Ex. No. TORSION TEST Date :
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Aim :
Todetermine theshearstress and rigiditymodulusof thegivenspecimen.
Apparatus required :
y Torsion testingmachine
y Verniercaliper
y Scale
y Specimen
Procedure:
1. Before testing, themeasuring range is adjusted according to thecapacityofthe test piececounter weight of thependulumis adjustedcorrectly.
2. Thespecimenis thenheldin thedrivingchuckanddrivenchuckwith theheld
ofhandles. The angle- measuringdial is also adjusted to zeroposition.
3. Blackpointer is adjusted at thestartingposition the thread from thedriving
chuckpulleyis takenoversmall pulleys.
4. Themachineisstarted and thespecimenissubjected to torsion.
5. The torqueismeasured at a suitableinterval of angle twist.
6. Angleof twist and the torque aremeasured at the failureof thespecimen.
Result :
Plasticshearstrengthis = ----------------------------------------------
Angleof twist at the failureof thespecimenis =---------------------------
Modulusof rigidityis =----------------------------
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Ex. No. IMPACT TEST ( Izod ) Date :
Aim :
Todetermine theimpact strengthofmildsteel squarespecimen using Izod test.
Apparatus required :
y Impact testingmachine
y Verniercaliper
y Guideplate
Procedure:
1. Thespecimen iskept trulyvertical in thenotchviceso that thecentreof the
notch is in level with the top of the vice so that the notch is facing the
direction of the blow. The one- thirdportion of the specimen ( 25mm )should beprojected above thevice and remainingportion ( 50mm)should lie
inside thevice.
2. Thepointerisset at maximumof thedial.
3. The leveris released and thependulumhammeris allowed toswing.
4. Thepointerin thedial gives theenergy absorbedin frictiondown.
5. Thependulumis lockedinitsoriginal position.
6. The batchis released and thependulumis allowed tostrike thespecimen.
7. Theenergyspent is breakingor bending thespecimenisnoteddown form the
dial.
8. Theimpact strengthiscalculated using the formula.
Formula:
Impact strengthofspecimen = ( Energy absorbed byspecimen) /
(Crosssectional area of thespecimen)
Result :
Theimpact strengthis -------------------------------------- N/mm.
Impact test ( Izod)
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Specimen DimensionsMSR
(mm)
VSR
( div)
Total reading (inmm)
= MSR + ( VSR x LC)Area ,mm
2
1Breadth
Width
2Breadth
Width
3Breadth
Width
Sl.
No.
Frictional energy absorbed by
friction without specimen,
Nm ( A)
Energyspent in
bending the
specimen,
Nm (B)
Energy
absorbed by
specimen,
Nm ( B-A)
Impact strengthof the
specimen, N/mm
= ( B-A)/ Area
1
2
3
Impact strength = Energy absorbed by specimen / Cross sectional area
Average =
Ex. No. IMPACT TEST ( Charpy ) Date :
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Aim :
Todetermine theimpact strengthofmildsteel squarespecimen using Charpy
test.
Apparatus required :
y Impact testingmachine
y Verniercalipery Guideplate
Procedure:
1. Thehammeris raised and locked .
2. Thepointerisset at themaximumgraduatedenergy rangeof thedial.
3. The triggeris released and thependulumhammeris allowed toswing. This
actuates thepointer tomovein thedial.
4. Thepointershows theenergy absorbed by the bearing without specimen and
it isnoted .
5. Thehammeris again raised and locked.
6. Thespecimen isplaced in between thesimple anvil support keeping the 45
degrees V- notch in the opposite direction to the striking edge of the
hammer.
7. Thespecimenis adjustedsuch that thestrikingedgeofhammer and V-notch
coincidesin thesame alignment.
8. Thepointerisset to read themaximumenergy rangemarkedin thedial.
9. The lever is released and thependulum is allowed tostrike thespecimen at
itsmidpoint.
10.Theenergyspent in breakingor bending thespecimenisobserved.
11.The results are tabulated and the impact strength is calculated using the
formula.
Formula:
Impact strengthofspecimen = Energy absorbed / Cross Sectional area
Result : Theimpact strengthis N/mm
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Impact test ( Charpy)
Specimen DimensionsMSR
(mm)
VSR
( div)
Total reading (inmm)
= MSR + ( VSR x LC)Area ,mm
2
1Breadth
Width
2Breadth
Width
3Breadth
Width
Sl.
No.
Frictional energy absorbed by
friction without specimen,
Nm ( A)
Energyspent in
bending the
specimen,
Nm (B)
Energy
absorbed by
specimen,
Nm ( B-A)
Impact strengthof the
specimen, N/mm
= ( B-A)/ Area
1
2
3
Impact strength = Energy absorbed byspecimen / Crosssectional area
Average =
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Ex. No. HARDNESS TEST ( Rockwell Diamond Cone ) Date :
Introduction :
The termhardnessingeneral means the resistanceof thematerial toindentation.
The hardness value obtained in a particular test serves only as a comparison betweenmaterials or treatments. Hardness tests are widely used for inspection and quality
control. Heat treatment or working usually resultsinchangeinhardness. Hardness test
affords a rapid andsimplemeansofinspection andcontrol for theparticularmaterial and
process.
An indentor or fixed and known geometry makes an impression with the
specimen under a known static load applied ( either directly or by means of a lever
system.) . thehardnessis thenexpressed as a number that iseitherinverselyproportional
to thedepthofindentationorproportional to a mean loadover the area ofindentation.
Aim :
Todetermine the Rockwell hardnessnumberof thegivenspecimen using
diamondcone.
Apparatus required:
y Rockwell hardness testingmachine
y Diamondcone
y Test specimen
Procedure :
1. In the Rockwell hardness testingmachineis a direct readinginstrument based
on theprincipleofdifferent depthmeasurement is usedin this test. The
penetratororindicatorscale load for theparticularmaterial to be testedis
chosen from the table.Material Penetrator Load Scale
Relativelysoft material Diamondcone 60 kgfA
Fairlyhardmaterial 1/16 ballpointer 100 kgf B
Hardmaterial Diamondcone 150 kgf C
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2. Thesurfaceof thespecimeniscleaned byemerysheet. Thespecimeniskept
on the testingplatform.
3. Theplatform is raised until thesmall pointerin thedial reads against the red
markand the lengthypointer against theset position.
4. The loadis appliedgradually andmaintained till the lengthypointercomes to
rest. The loadis releasedgradually.
5. After releasing the load the dial reading is observed. This is Rockwell
hardnessnumberof thespecimen.
6. Thesameprocedureis repeated for at least six times.
7. The averagevalueof the Rockwell hardnessnumberisobtained.
Result :
The Rockwell hardnessnumber for thegivenstainlesssteel material is
( HRA / HRB / HRC )
The Rockwell hardnessnumber for thegiven EN8 materialsis
( HRA / HRB / HRC )
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Sl
No.Material
Load
(kgf)Penetrator Scale
Hardness
Number
1 Stainless steel Diamond cone
2 Stainless steel Diamond cone
3 Stainless steel Diamond cone
4 Stainless steel Diamond cone
5 Stainless steel Diamond cone
Average =
Sl
No.Material Load( kgf) Penetrator Scale
Hardness
Number
1 EN -8 Diamond cone
2 EN -8 Diamond cone
3 EN -8 Diamond cone
4 EN -8 Diamond cone
5 EN -8 Diamond cone
Average =
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Ex. No. HARDNESS TEST ( Rockwell Ball intender ) Date :
Aim :
Todetermine the Rockwell hardnessnumberof thegivenspecimen using
diamondcone.
Apparatus required:o Rockwell hardness testingmachine
o Intenders
o Test specimen
Procedure :
1. In the Rockwell hardness testingmachine is a direct reading instrument
basedon theprincipleofdifferent depthmeasurement is used in this test.
Thepenetrator or indicator scale load for theparticular material to be
testedischosen from the table.
Material Penetrator Load Scale
Relativelysoft material Diamondcone 60 kgfA
Fairlyhardmaterial 1/16 ballpointer 100 kgf B
Hardmaterial Diamondcone 150 kgf C
2. Thesurfaceof thespecimeniscleaned byemerysheet. Thespecimeniskept
on the testingplatform.
3. Theplatformis raised until thesmall pointerin thedial reads against the red
markand the lengthypointer against theset position.
4. The loadis appliedgradually andmaintained till the lengthypointercomes to
rest. The loadis releasedgradually.
5. After releasing the load thedial readingisobserved. Thisis Rockwell
hardness numberof thespecimen.
6. Thesameprocedureis repeated for at least six times.7. The averagevalueof the Rockwell hardnessnumberisobtained.
Result :
The Rockwell hardnessnumber for thegivenstainlesssteel material is
( HRA / HRB / HRC )
The Rockwell hardnessnumber for thegiven EN8 materialsis
( HRA / HRB / HRC )
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Sl
No.Material
Load ,
kgfPenetrator Scale
Hardness
Number
1 Cast iron Ball intender
2 Cast iron Ball intender
3 Cast iron Ball intender
4 Cast iron Ball intender
5 Cast iron Ball intender
Average =
Sl
No.Material Load ( kgf ) Penetrator Scale
Hardness
Number
1 Mild Steel Ball intender
2 Mild Steel Ball intender
3 Mild Steel Ball intender
4 Mild Steel Ball intender
5 Mild Steel Ball intender
Average =
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Ex. No. SPRING TEST ( Closed coiled spring ) Date :
Aim :
Todetermine themodulusof rigidityof thegivenclosed coiledhelical springunderTension.
Apparatus required :
y Tensile testingmachine
y Spring testing assembly
y Closed- coiledhelical spring
y Verniercaliper
Procedure:
1. Thediameterof the wire, radius,pitch andnumberof turnsof thespring are
measured using Verniercaliper.
2. Thehelix angleiscalculated using thepitchof thespring.
3. Thespringisplacedin the test set up
4. Initial readingin thescaleisnoted.
5. Thedeformations are recorded for thecorresponding applied load.
6. Similarly thedeformations are recorded while unloading.
7. Thedeformationof thespringiscalculated using the formula.
Formula :
64 W R3
n
= ----------------Cd4
Springindex = D / dStiffness = W /
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Where Deflection,mm
W load, N
R mean radiusofspring,mm [ = ( D-d) / 2 ]
n no. of turns
C Rigiditymodulus, N/mm2
D diameterofcoil ,mm
d - diameterof wire,mm
Graph:
Deflection ( X- axis)vs Load ( Y axis)
Result :
Modulusof rigidityof thespringis ..
Modulusof rigidityof thespringis .. ( fromgraph)
Stiffnessof thespringis
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Spring test ( close coiled spring )
Diameterof the wire (d) =
Mean radiusof thespring (R) =
Numberof turns ( n) =
Pitchof thecoil (p) =
Sl. No. Load KN
Deflection (mm) Mean
deflection,
mm
Rigidity
modulus,
N/mm2
Stiffness
N/ mmLoading Unloading
1
23
4
5
6
Average =
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Ex. No. SPRING TEST (Open -coiled spring ) Date :
Aim :
Todetermine themodulusof rigidityof thegiven Open Coiledhelical spring
undercompression.
Apparatus required :
y Compression testingmachine
y Spring testing assembly
y Open Coiledhelical spring
y Verniercaliper
Procedure :
1. Thediameterof the wire, radius,pitch andnumberof turnsof thespring are
measured using Verniercaliper.
2. Thehelix angleiscalculated using thepitchof thespring.
3. Thespringisplacedin the test set up.
4. Initial readingin thescaleisnoted.
5. Thedeformations are recorded for thecorresponding applied load.
6. Similarly thedeformations are recorded while unloading.
7. Thedeformationof thespringiscalculated using the formula.
Formula:
cos2 sin
2
= WR3n.sec.2[ ------- + -------- ]Clp El
Springindex = D/dStiffness = W/
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Where
Deflection ( mm)
W load ( N)
R mean radiusofspring (mm) [ = ( D/d) /2]
n - no. of turns
- helix angle
C Rigiditymodulus ( N/mm2)
Ip- Polar Moment ofinertia ( mm4 )
E - Youngsmodulus, ( N/mm2)
I - Moment ofinertia of beam about which the bendingoccurs ( mm4)
D - diameterofcoil ( mm)
d - diameterof wire (mm)
Graph :
Deflection ( X- axis)vs load ( Y axis)
Result :
Modulusof rigidityof thespringis --------------------------
Modulusof rigidityof thespringis -------------------------- ( fromgraph)
Stiffnessof thespringis ----------------------------------------
`
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Spring test ( Open Coiled spring )
Diameterof the wire ( d) =
Mean radiusof thespring ( R) =
Numberof turns ( n) =
Pitchof thecoil ( p) =
Helix angle () = tan-1 ( P / 2R)
Sl. No. Load KN
Deflection (mm) Mean
deflection
(mm)
Rigidity
modulus
(N/mm2)
Stiffness
(N/ mm)Loading Unloading
1
2
3
4
5
6
Average =
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Ex. No. COMPRESSSION TEST ( Brick ) Date :
Introduction:
Bricksconstitute anold andimportant classof buildingmaterial. It isextensively
used for constructions because of its ease and relatively low cost of manufacture,durability andmoderatestrength. Bricks are usednot only for buildingconstruction but
als0 to a limited extent for other kinds ofconstruction such as veering walls, curtain
walls, low piers andshort span arches.
Aim :
Todetermine the ultimatecompressivestrengthofgivenmaterial ( Brickor
concretecube)
Apparatus required :
y Compression testingmachine - 1KN capacity
y Verniercaliper / linearmeasuringscale
Procedure :
1. Thedimensionsof thespecimen aremeasured.
2. Thespecimenisplacedcentrally between the bearingplatesof the
compression testingmachine
3. The load releasevalveof thehydraulic loading tankerisclosedso that it will
prevent the returnof thecompressedoil fromcompression testingmachine.
If the load releasevalveisinopenposition, the load will not be applied to the
specimen.
4. The loadis applied to thespecimen uniformly till thespecimen fails .
5. The reversingof the blackpointerof thedial indicates the failureof the
specimen. Then the loadisstopped.
6. The load at failureisnoteddown from the redpointerof thedial .
7. The load releaseisopenedslowly to remove theoil from thecompression
testingmachine.
8. The results are tabulated and thecompressivestrengthiscalculated using the
formula.
Result :
The Compressivestrengthis ------------------------
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Formula :
Compressivestrength = Ultimate load / surface area
Significance of the test :
Strengthof bricksdependson thenatureof availablesoil used for bricks
manufacturing and technique adopted formolding and burning .
Thecompressivestrengthof brickranges from 45kg/cm2
to 100kg/cm2
for the
bricksmanufactured bycommonlyknownmethods.
Machine-made bricksgive thecompressivestrengthvarying between 175kg/cm2
to 200 kg/cm2
Compression Test on Brick :
Sl.No.Dimensions
Surface area
( mm2)
Ultimate load
( KN)
Ultimatestrength
( N/mm2)
Length (mm) Breadth (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
Average =
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Significance of the test:
The average water absorptionshall not bemore than 20 percent by weight upto
the brickshavingcompressivestrengthof 125kg/cm2
and 15 percent by weight for bricks
having thecompressivestrengthmore than 125 kg/cm2
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Sl.No. Size (cm)Dry weight
( W1)
Wet Weight
( W2)
Weight of
water
( W2-W
1)
Water
absorption
( %)
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Ex. No. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST Date :
Introduction:
Brinell hardness number is the ratioof the applied loadon the specimen to the
spherical area ofimpression by thepenetrator.
The test consistsin forcing a steel ball into the test piece andmeasuring themeandiameterof the indentation left over thesurface after removal of the load. The brinell
hardness HB is obtained by dividing the test load by the curved surface area of the
indentation. Thiscurvedsurfaceis assumed to be a portionof thesphere.
Aim :
Todetermine the Brinell Hardness test numberof thegivenspecimen
Apparatus required:
y Brinell hardness testingmachine
y Test specimen
y Brinell Microscope
Procedure :
1. Keep theoperating leverinhorizontal position.
2. Place thespecimenon testing table.
3. Turn thehandwheel inclockwisedirectionso that thespecimen willpush the
indentor.
4. Lift theoperating lever fromhorizontal position upwardsslightly after which
it rotates automatically.
5. Wait till the lever becomesstandstill.
6. Bring the lever backtohorizontal position.
7. Turn backthehandwheel and remove thespecimen,carry thesameprocedure
for furtherspecimen.
8. Measure thediameterofimpression by Brinell Microscope and findoutBrinell hardnessnumber.
Result :
The Brinell Hardness Numberofgivensampleis = --------------------------
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Significance of the test :
Brinell hardness test is best for measuring hardness of grey iron castings
consistingofsoft flakegraphite, iron andhard ironcarbide. Brinell hardness test are
conductedon structural steel and other rolled sections, steel, cast iron and aluminium
castings andinmost forgings.
OBSERVATION :
MaterialDiameter of Indentor Mean Brinell
Kgf /mm2First (mm) Second (mm)
Calculation :
2P
Brinell Hardness Number = ----------------------------------
D ( D D2 d2 )
Where
P = Load
D = Original diameter
d = Diameterof the removing load
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Ex. No. DEFLECTION TEST ( Mild Steel ) Date :
Aim :
Todetermine the Youngsmodulusofmildsteel simplysupported beam by
conductingdeflection test.
Apparatus required :y Kinfe edgesupports
y Verniercaliper / linearmeasuringscale
y Deflectometer
y Weight withhanger
Procedure:
1. Thedimensionof thespecimenismeasured using Vernier Caliper
2. Thepositionof thespecimen, load anddeflectometer are fixed aspergiven
valuesof l, x and a.
3. Theinitial readingsofdeflectometer readings arenoteddown.
4. The loadis applied and thecorrespondingdeflectometer readings are
recorded. Thesameprocedureisdone foreveryincrement as well as
decrement of loading.
5. The results are tabulated.
Formula :
Wax
E = ------------( L2 a2 x2)
61 L
Where
E Youngsmodulus ( N/mm2)
W- Load (N)
a Distanceof load from left support ( mm).
x Distanceofdeflectometer from right support (mm)I Moment ofinertia of beam about which the bendingoccurs ( mm
4)
L Span betweenknife edgesupports (mm)
Deflection ( mm)
Result :
The Youngsmodulusis --------------------------------
The Youngsmodulusis --------------------------------( Fromgraph)
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Graph
Deflection ( X- axis)vs Load ( Y- axis)
Deflection test ( Mild steel )
Sl.
No. Load ( kg)
Deflection reading . div. Mean
deflection
(mm)
Youngs
modulus
( N/mm2)
Loading Unloading Mean
1
2
3
4
5
Average =
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Ex. No. DEFLECTION TEST ( Aluminium ) Date :
Aim :
Todetermine the Youngsmodulusof Aluminiumsimplysupported beam by
conductingdeflection test.
Apparatus required :y Kinfe edgesupports
y Verniercaliper / linearmeasuringscale
y Deflectometer
y Weight withhanger
Procedure:
1. Thedimensionof thespecimenismeasured using Vernier Caliper
2. Thepositionof thespecimen, load anddeflectometer are fixed aspergiven
valuesof l, x and a.
3. Theinitial readingsofdeflectometer readings arenoteddown.
4. The loadis applied and thecorrespondingdeflectometer readings are recorded.
Thesameprocedureisdone foreveryincrement as well asdecrement of
Loading.
5. The results are tabulated.
Formula :
Wax
E = ------------( L2 a2 x2)
61 L
Where
E Youngsmodulus ( N/mm2)
W- Load (N)
a Distanceof load from left support ( mm).
x Distanceofdeflectometer from right support (mm)I Moment ofinertia of beam about which the bendingoccurs ( mm
4)
L Span betweenknife edgesupports (mm)
Deflection ( mm)
Result :
The Youngsmodulusis --------------------------------
The Youngsmodulusis --------------------------------( Fromgraph)
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Graph
Deflection ( X- axis)vs Load ( Y- axis)
Deflection test ( Aluminium )
Sl.
No. Load ( kg)
Deflection reading . div. Mean
deflection
(mm)
Youngs
modulus
( N/mm2)
Loading Unloading Mean
1
2
3
4
5
Average =
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Ex. No. VERIFICATION OF MAXWELLS LAW OF
RECIPROCAL DEFLECTION
Date :
Aim :
Toverify Maxwell law of reciprocal deflection byconducting a deflection test on
simplysupported beam.
Theorem :
Maxwells law of reciprocal deflectionstates that thedeflection at point N due to
force P at point M issymmetricallyequal to thedeflection at thepoint M due to force P
applied at point N.
Apparatus required :
y Knifeedgesupport weights withhanger
y Verniercaliper
y Dial gauge
y Specimen.
Procedure :
1. The breadth anddepthof the beamismeasured.
2. Thepositionof thespanis fixed at twopoints M and N asper thesketch.3. Thedeflectionisset first at point N and the loadisplaced at thepoint M
4. Theinitial readingof thedial gaugeisobserved.
5. The loadis applied at suitableincrement at M and thecorresponding
deflection at N isobserved at everyset of load.
6. The loadisdecreased uniformly at thesame rate and thecorresponding
deflectionisobserved foreveryset of load.
7. Thedeflection and the load aremeasured. Thedeflectionisset at thepoint M
and the loadis applied at thepoint N
8. Thesameprocedureis repeatedkeeping thedeflectometer at thepoint M and
the load at thepoint N.
9. All thedeflections are recordedin the tabulation.
Result:
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Least count : 0.01mm
Sl.
No.
Load Deflectometer reading Mean deflection
AtpointM
(gm)
AtpointN
(gm)
At point N due
to loading at
point M
At point M due to
loading at point N
AtpointNdueto
loadatpointM(m
m)
AtpointMdueto
loadatpointN(m
m)
Loading
(div)
Unloading
(div)
Loading
(div)
Unloading
(div)
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Ex. No. EFFECT OF HARDENING Date :
Aim :
Todetermine thehardness andimpact resistanceof thegivenhardenedmaterialandcompare them with unhardenedmaterial.
Apparatus required :
y Muffle furnace
y Hardness testingmachine
y Impact testingmachine
y Specimen
Procedure :
Hardening: It isdefined as a heat treatment processin which thesteel isheated
to a temperature within or above its critical range, and held at this temperature for a
considerable time toensure thoroughpenetrationof the temperatureinside thecomponent
and allowed tocool by quenchingin water,oil or brinesolution.
1. Thespecimenishardened asstated above.
2. Now thespecimenispolished usingemerypapersofvariousgrades.
3. Hardnessnumberof the hardened specimen is found by Rockwell hardness
testingmachine.
4. Thesamespecimen is used fordeterminationofimpact strength from impact
testingmachine.
5. Thecalculatedhardnessnumbers andimpact strength are tabulatedseparately.
Result :
Thehardnessnumber andimpact strengthof thehardenedspecimen arecompared
with the unhardenedspecimen.
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Effect of hardening :
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Improvement of Mechanical Properties :
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Ex. No. COMPRESIVE STRENGTH OF TIMBER Date :
Aim :
Todetermine thecompressivestrengthof the timberperpendicular / parallel toGrain.
Apparatus required :
y Universal wood testingmachine
y Scale
y Test specimenetc.
Procedure:
1. Thespecimenisplacedsuch that the load will be applied through the bearing
plate to the radial surface ( Perpendicular / Parallel tograin)
2. The load iscontinuously appliedsuch that thehydraulicallymovableheadof
the testingmachine travels at an uniform rate until thespecimen fails.
3. Themaximum load at failureisnotedown.
4. The ultimatecompressivestressiscalculated.
Result :
The ultimatecompressivestressof timber Perpendicular / Parallel tograin = ------------
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Size of the
Specimen ( mm)Area ( mm
2)
Ultimate load
( KN)
Ultimate
Compressive
Strength N/mm2
Calculation :
Ultimate load
Ultimatecompressivestrengthof timber Perpendicular / Parallel tograin = -----------------
Area ofcrosssection
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Ex. No. FINENESS TEST FOR CEMENT Date :
Aim :
To determine the fineness modulus of cement
Apparatusrequired :
Balance - A balance sensitive to 0.5 percent of the weight of the sample
to be weighed.
IS Sieve No. 9 ( 90 microns ) , Stopwatch .
Procedure :
The sample shall be weighed accurately to 100gms and taken it on a IS
Sieve No.9
The air set lumps in the sample shall be broken with fingers
The sieve shall then be continuously sieved giving circular and vertical
motion for a period of 15 minutes.
The weight of the residue left on the sieve shall be weighed.
The weight shall not exceed 10% for ordinary cement.
Result :
Finenessof thecement = ----------------------------------------%
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Observations and Calculations:
Weight ofcement taken = 100g
Weight ofcement retained ( N)on IS Sieve No. 9 ( 90 micron) =------------------
N
Percentageofcement retained = ------ x 100
100
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Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE CRUSHING
VALUE
Date :
Introduction:
Aggregate issubjected to a gradually increasingspecified rateof loading and itscrushingvalueisdetermined. The aggregatecrushingvaluegives relativemeasureof the
substanceof an aggregate tocrush under a gradually appliedcompressive load ( Static).
Aim:
Todetermine thecrushingvalueof thegiven aggregate.
Appratus required:
Aggregatecrushing test mouldof 5kgcapacity, balance, IS sievesofsizes
12.5mm and 2.36mm. compression testingmachineofcapacity 50t,etc.
Procedure:
1. Find the weight of thecylinder and the baseplate ( W1)
2. Then add the test samplein three layersin thecylinder,subjectingeach layer
to 25 stokes using the tamping rod.
3. Level carefully thesurfaceof the aggregate and weigh thesample along with
thecylinder and baseplate ( W2)
4. Insert theplunger to rest horizontallyon thesurfaceof the aggregate
5. Place the apparatus with the test sample andplungerinposition between the
platesof thecompression testingmachine and loadit so that it reaches 40
tonnesin 10 minutes at a uniform rateof loading .
6. Release the load and take the test apparatusout of the testingmachine.
7. Remove the aggregate from thecylinder andsieveit on a 2.36mm IS sieve
and weigh the fractionpassing thesieve ( W3) takingcare to avoid lossof the
fines.
Result :
Average aggregatecrushingvalueof thesample = --------------------------------------
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Significance of the test :
Asper IS code thecrushingstrengthof aggregate used inconcrete worksother
wearingsurfaceshouldnot exceed 45% and for aggregate usedinconcrete forsmoothing
surfacesshould not exceed 30%
Observations:
Sl.
No.Details Test I (kg) Test II ( kg)
1 Wt ofcylinder with baseplate ( W1 )
2Wt. ofcylinder with baseplate + sample
( W2)
3 Wt. ifsample ( W2 W1)
4Wt. of finespassing 2.36mm IS Sieve
( W3)
5 Wt. ofmaterials retained ( W4)
Calculations:
W3
Aggregatecrushingvalue =------------ x 100 = -------------------------(W2 W1)
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Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF AGGREGATE IMPACT
VALUE
Date :
Introduction:
Aggregatemay be used along with a binder like bitumen for roadsorit may also
used in concrete for pavements, roads and runways. The wearing surface of thepavement issubject toheavystatic anddynamic loads resultingincrushingof aggregate.
Since aggregateshould be testedincrushingdue tostatic anddynamic loads.
In theimpact test the aggregateissubjected to a givenimpact load (dynamic) by
specifiednumberof fallsofstandardhammer from a givenheight and its impact value
determined.
Aim:
Todetermine the aggregateimpact valueofcoarse aggregate.
Apparatus required :
Aggregateimpact testingmachine, IS Sieve 2.36mm, a cylindrical measure, rodand balance,etc.,
Procedure :
1. Fill themeasure about one third full with aggregate and using the roundendof a rod, tamp the aggregate with twenty fivestrokes.
2. Repeat theprocedure twice for the remaining two-thirdportion, addingeach
timeone thirdof thevolume and tamping it. Notedown the weight of the
sample ( say A)
3. Transfer the sample to thecylinder in three layersofone thirdvolume and
tampit as usual.
4. Place thecylinderinitspositionin theimpact testingmachine firmly.
5. Allow the load to fall 15 times at one blow persecond at constant rate.
6. Take thesampleout of thecylindercarefully.
7. Sieve the sampleon 2.36mm sieve. Weigh theportionpassing through the
2.36mmsieve.
8. Calculate the aggregateimpact value. Repeat this for remaining twosamples.
Result :
Average aggregateimpact valueof thesampleis -------------------------- %
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Significance of the test :
IS codespecifies that the aggregate impact valueshouldnot bemore than 45%
weight for aggregate used forconcreteother than wearingsurfaces and 30% by weight
concrete used as wearingsurfacessuch as roads,pavements and runways
Observations :
Sl.
No.Description Sample - I Sample - II
1.Weight of theemptycup
( W1 )
2.Weight of the empty cup and
aggregate ( W2)
3 Weight of aggregate ( A)
4Weight of aggregate passing
through IS sieve 2.6mm ( B)
5 Weight of aggregate retained
6.
Aggregateimpact value
( B/A x 100 )
Calculations:
Aggregateimpact valueof the
Ist sample = B/A x 100 = ---------------------------------
IIndsample = B/A x 100 = ---------------------------------
Averageimpact valueof thesamples = ---------------------------------
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Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF BULKING OF SAND Date :
Introduction :
The word Bulkingmeans increaseofvolume. Sand is an integral part of a
concrete. Whenever a small quantityof wateris added togivenvolumeofperfectlydryitsvolumeincreasesinitially. Thisisdue to the fact that eachparticleofsandis rounded
by a filmofsurfaceeater which tends tohold thesurroundingparticles used by a similar
film at a distance bysurface tension. Ifmore wateris added little bottle ( sayin theorder
of 2 % of we3ight at every time)it will benoted that itsvolume anincreasinggradually
and after reaching a particularvalue, thevolumedimities usually and finally reaching the
zero value. Thus the total volume ofperfectly dry sand ----------------same as that of
saturatedsand.
Aim:
Todetermine thepercentage bulkingofsand and toplot the Bulkingcurve.
Apparatus required :
A cylindrical largemeasuring jarof 1000cccap,scale, balance,etc .,
Procedure:
1. Take a cleanempty jarof 1000ccvolume anddetermineits weight.2. Fill it carefully with theperfectly dried sand ( dried upto 110C ) without
tampingordisturbing thesand, layers upto 500cc.
3. Weigh up the jar again together with thesand filled todetermine the weight of
sand alone.
4. Pouroff thesand into a pan without losingeven a singleparticleof thesand
and add water at 2% by weight ofdrysand andmix it thoroughly byhand.
5. Refill the wet sandinto thesame jar loosely. It will be found that a portionof
sandisexcess andit iscalled Bulkedexcesssand.
6. Determine thepercentageof bulkedsand as below. If Vis total volume and
U thevolumeof bulkedsand, then thepercentageof bulking = U/V x 100
7. Repeat theexperiment byincreasing thepercent ofmoisturecontents at every
time inorderofsay 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%, etc., till there be any bulked
excesssand.
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8. Plot a graph moisture content versuspercentage of bulking , taking % of
moisturecontent is X- axis and % of bulkingin Y-axis.
9. Notedown themaximum bulking andcorrespondingmoisturecontent.
Result :
Maximum % of bulking = --------------------------------------
Correspondingmoisturecontent = --------------------------------------
Significance of the test :
Normallyconcrete isprepared bymixingcement,sand and aggregate isvolume
portion. When thesand is in wet condition, it will be less than the actual quantitydry
sand. The concrete mix then becomes deficient in sand and concrete may be use to
segregation. Theyieldofconcreteis also reduced. Therefore, while adding aggregate
( sand) to theconcretemix byvolume , the specifiedvolumeofsand isproposnately
increasedif thesandismoist. The finer thesand, thegreateris the bulking.
Observations:
Sl.
No. Description
Moisturecontent added
2 % 4 % 6% 8% 10%
1.Weight ofdrysand
( grams)
2 Volumeofdrysand (cc)
3Volumeof water added
( cc)
4Volume of bulked sand
(cc)
5Increaseinvolume
( cc)
6 % of bulking
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Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF INITIAL SETTING TIME
AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT
Date :
Introduction :
The termsetting is used todescribe thestiffeningof thecement paste. It refers
change from a fluid to a rigidstate. Althoughduringsetting, thepaste acquiresstrength,
the termhardeningis used todenote thegainofstrengthof a set at paste.
The settingofcement is caused by a selectivehydrationofcement compounds
fullyTricalcium Silicate andTricalcium Aluminate). The termsinitial set and final used
todescribe arbitrarilychosenstageofsetting.
Initial setting timeisdefined as the timeelapsed between themoment the wateris
to thecement to the time thepastestarts loosingitsplasticity. In actual construction with
concrete,certain time is required formixing, transporting andplacing. During time the
cement product should remaininplasticstate. Normally a minimumofminutesisgiven
formixing andhandlingoperations.
Final setting timeis the timeelapsed between themoment the wateris added the
cement and the time when thepaste has completely lost itsplasticity and has used
sufficient firmness to resist certaindefinitepressure.
Aim :
Todetermine theinitial and final setting timesofcement .
Apparatus required:
Vicats apparatus with 1mm square needle with and without attachement for
collar,stopwatch,measuring jar,etc.,
Procedure:
Initial setting time:
1. Take 500gofcement sample andmix it with 0.85 times the water required to
producecement pasteofnormal consistency.
2. Fill the Vicat mould with thepaste, within 5 minutes. Start thestopwatch the
moment wateris added to thecement.
3. Lower theneedleof 1mmdeepgently and bringit incontact with thesurface
4. In the beginning, the needle will completelypierce through thepaste. But,
after sometime, when thepaste starts loosing itsplasticity, the needle may
penetrate todepthof 33mm to 35mm from the top.
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5. Take theperiodelapsing between the time when wateris added to thecement
and the time which theneedlepenetrates themould to a depthequal to 33mm
to 35mm from the topor when reading in the Vicats scale between 5 and
7mm as theinitial setting time.
Final setting time:
1. Replace the needle of 1mm square by a circular attachment with amular
coller.
2. Theperiodelapsing between the time when wateris added to thecement and
the time at which theneedlemakes impressionon thesurfaceof themould
while the attachment fails todosois the final setting time.
3. In other words, thepaste has attained such hardness that the centre of the
needledoesnot piercemore than 0.5mm through thepaste.
Result :
Initial setting timeof thecement = ------------------------------------- minutes .
Final setting timeof thecement = ---------------------------------------hours.
Significance of the test :
Asper IS theminimuminitial setting time forordinary Portlandcement and rapid
hardeningcement shall not be less than 30 minutes and 60minutes for low cost cement.
Themaximum time for final setting for all typesofcement shall not bemore than
10 hours.
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Observations :
Weight ofcement taken = -----------------------------------------------------
Quantityof water added =------------------------------------------------------
Initial setting time =------------------------------------------------------
Final setting time =------------------------------------------------------
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Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF NORMAL CONSISTENCY OF
CEMENT PASTE
Date :
Introduction:
Thenormal consistencyof a cement paste isdefined as that percentageof water
which will permit a Vicat plunger topenetrate a depthof 33-35mm from the topof the
Vicat mould. The apparatus used todeterminednormal consistencyofcement paste is
called Vicat apparatus .
Aim:
Todetermine the Normal consistencyofcement paste.
Apparatus required:
Vicats apparatus withplunger, trowel ,measuring jar, Vicat mould,stopwatch,
glassplate,etc.,
Procedure:
1. Take about 400gmsofpuredrycement andmix with about 25% of water ( by
weight ofdrycement) to form a neat cement pasteon a non-porousplate.
2. Fill the Vicat mould with thepaste andshakeit toexpel anyentrapped air.
3. Place themould under a standardplungerof 10mmdiameter and 15mm long
to touch thesurfaceof thepaste and allow it todropinto thepaste byitsown
weight.
4. Take the reading bynoting thedepthof thepenetrationof theplungerinto the
pasteon thevertical scaleof the Vicats apparatus.
5. Start thestopwatch assoon as the water is added to thedrysample and take
care that thepasteismoulded within 5 minutes.
6. Mould the trial paste withdifferent percentageof waterstaring with 25% by
weight ofcement.
7. Repeat theprocessofmoulding and filling again and again by adding 2% of
extra watereach time.
8. Continue till thepointer in the scale of Vicats apparatus reaches 5mm to
7mm
9. Thiscorresponding quantityof waterexpressed as a percentage by weight of
cement iscalled the Normal consistency.
Result :
Normal consistencyof thecement pasteis found to be -----------------------------%
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Significance of the test :
Normal consistency isessential todetermine the initial setting time, final setting
time andsoundnessofcement.
Trial
No.
Weight of
sample taken(g)
Water addedin
( %)
Weight of water
added
( g)
Non penetration
distance (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
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Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF SPLITTING TENSILE
STRENGTH OF CONCRETE CYLINDERS
Date :
Aim:
Todetermine thesplitting tensilestrengthofconcretecylinders.
Apparatus required :
Compression testing machine,packing strips ( plywood 12mm wide and 3mm
thick), Scale,etc.,
Procedure :
1. Prepare theconcretecylinders 150mm x 300mmofmix ratio 1 : 2 : 4 , W/ C
ratio 0.6 , Material required forpreparingonecylinderis 2kgofcement , 4 kg
ofsand, 8kgof 20mm aggregate, 1200ml of water.
2. Tests shall be made at the recognized ages of the test specimen, the most
useful being 7 and 28days. The agesshall becalculated from the timeof the
additionof water to thedry ingredients,. At least threespecimens shall be
tested foreach ageof the test.
3. Measure thediameter and lengthofspecimen.
4. Draw thediameteral lineson the twoendsof thespecimen.
5. Wipeoff the bearingsurfacesof the testingmachine andof thepackingstrips
clean.
6. Placeoneof theplywoodstripscentrally along thecentreof the lowerplateof
the testingmachine.
7. Place the specimen on the plywood strip and align and centre over the
plywood strips so that the diameteral lines marked on the ends of the
specimen arevertical andcenteredover theplywoodstrip.
8. Place the secondplywood strip lengthwise on the cylinder , centred on the
linesmarkedon theendsof thecylinders.
9. Apply the loadcontinuously at the rateof 99KN / min. without shock until
the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no
greater loadcan besustained.
10.Notedown the load at failure.
11.Calculate thesplit tensilestrength from the formula
2P
sp= --------
dl
Result : Split tensilestrength = ---------------------------------N/ mm2
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Observations and Calculations :
Diameterof thespecimen =-------------------------------------------------
Lengthof thespecimen =-------------------------------------------------
Maximum load at failure =-------------------------------------------------
Thesplit tensilestrengthshall becalculated from the formula
2P
sp= -------- in which
dl
sp =
Measured splitting tensile strength
P = Maximum load in N.
D = Diameter of the specimen in mm
l = Measured length of the specimen in mm.
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Ex. No. DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
OF CONCRETE CUBE
Date :
Introduction:
Themost commonof all testsonhardenedconcreteis thecompressivestrengthof
the intrinsic importanceof thecompressivestrengthofconcrete inconstruction. Asper
IS 456 , 150mmconcretecubes are testedincompression to find their length at 7 daysor
28 days. There test specimensshall bemade fromeachsample for testing at 28 days.
Additional cubesmay be required forvariouspurposessuch as todetermine thestrength
concrete at 7 daysor at the timeofstriking the form workor tocheck the testingerror.
The test strength of sample shall be the average of the strength of three specimens.
Individual variationshouldnot bemore than 15 percent of the average.
Aim:
Todetermine the ultimatecompressive strengthof theconcretecube.
Apparatus required :
Compression testingmachineofcapacity 100 T, Scale,etc.
Procedure:
1. Note thedateofcasting.
2. Measure thedimensionsof theconcretecube.
3. Place theconcretecube,in thecompression testingmachine.
4. Apply the load to thespecimen uniformly.
5. Apply further load until thespecimen fails. Notedown the load at failure.
6. This loadis the ultimatecompressive load.
7. Repeat theprocedure for remainingspecimens.
8. Strike off the compacted excess concrete above the top of the cylinder
carefully and weigh thecylinder withcompactedconcrete.
9. Take this weight as fullycompactedconcrete.
(Wp) Weight ofpartiallycompactedconcrete
Compaction factor =-----------------------------------------------------------
( Wf) Weight of fullycompactedconcrete.
10.Repeat the test for W/C ratiosof 0.60 , 0.65 and 0.70
Result : Compaction factor for thegivenmix ofconcrete = ---------------------------
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Observations:
Sl. No Description Batch - I Batch - II
1 Weight of Cement (g)
2 Weight of Coarse Aggregate ( g)
3 Weight of fine Aggregate ( g)
4 Weight of Water added ( g)
5 Weight of Emptymould ( g)
6
Weight of Emptymould andpartially
compactedconcrete (g)
7
Weight ofemptymould and fullycompacted
concrete ( g)
8 Weight ofpartiallycompactedconcrete (g)
9 Weight of fullycompactedconcrete (g)
10 Compaction factor = Wp/Wf
11 Water Cement ratio ( %)
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Ex. No. SIEVE ANALYSIS Date :
Aim:
Todetermine thegrainsizedistributionof thegivensand bysieve analysis.
Introduction:
Sand havingparticles larger than 0.075 mm sieve are termed as coarsegrained sands.
Coarsegrainedsoils areclassifiedmainly bysieve analysis. Thegrain sizedistribution
curvegives an idea regarding thegradationofsoil; whether the soil is well gradedor
poorlygraded. Inmechanical sandstabilization themainprincipleis tomix a few soilsin
such a proportion that a desiredgrain size distribution isobtained for thedesignmix.
Hence forproportioning theselectedsands, thegrainsizedistributionofeachsandshould
beknown.
Apparatus:
A set ofspecifiedsieves,sieveshaker, balance.
Procedure:
1. Takesuitable quantity (1000gms)ofovendriedsoil retainedin 75Qsieve.
2. Sieve thesand through 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 1.70 mm, 1.18 mm, 600Q, 425Q,300Q,
150Q and 75Q, using a mechanical shaker for 5 minutes.
3. Weigh to 0.1 gmseachsieve andpan withsoil retainedon them.
4. Thesumof the retainedsandischecked against theoriginal massofsand taken.
5. All theobservations areenteredin thedata sheet and thecalculations aremade.
Graph:
Plot theparticlesizedistributioncurve between theparticledia in (mm) and % Finerin
semi logsheet.
Calculations:
1. Effectivesizeof the Sand = D10
2. Uniformitycoefficient (Cu) = D60 / D10
3. Coefficient ofcurvature (Cc) = (D30)2
/ D10 x D60
4. Finenessmodulus =Total sumof thecumulative % retained / 1000
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Observations:
Sl.No.
I.S.Sieves
Weight retained (gms)
Cumulative
weight
retained
(gms)
Cumulative
% retained
(gms)
% Finer
Empty
weight of
sieve
Retained
weight of
sieve
Retained
weight of
soil
1. 4. 75mm
2. 2.36mm
3. 1. 70mm
4. 1.18mm
5. 600Q
6. 425Q
7. 300Q
8. 150Q
9. 75Q
10. Pan
RESULTS:
1. Theparticlesizedistributioncurveisdrawn..
2. Effective Size D10 (inmm) =
D60
3. Uniformity Coefficient = ------- =D104. Fineness Modulus =
5. Percentageof Gravel (> 2mm) =
6. Percentageof Sand ( < 2mm and upto 0.06 mm) =
7. Percentageof Silt and Clay ( < 0.06 mm) =
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SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEST:
The result ofparticle size analysis have importance in classifying sand into various
groups byseveral classificationsystems. Thedata obtained fromgrainsizedistribution
curves is used in thedesignof filters forearthdams and todetermine thesuitabilityof
sand for roadconstruction.
A sand having a Uniformity Co-efficient smaller then about 2 would be considered
uniform .Forgravels the Cu must begreater than 4. Finenessmodulus forsandvaries
from 2 to 4.
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