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PLANS AND PURPOSES
HOW VIDEOGAME GOALS SHAPE PLAYER BEHAVIOUR
PhD DEFENCE7 DECEMBER 2006
JONAS HEIDE [email protected]
PLANS AND PURPOSES
2
What is a game?A social experience
An aesthetic experience
A virtual training ground
A part of the media ecology
An arena for decision making
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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There are competing
theories/models of the player
(and the most dominant is the Rational Player
Model)
How can the Rational Player
Model be used
analytically?
What are the behavioral predictions
of the model?
(and how well do they
explain actual play?)
THESIS STRUCTURE
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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The player is an entity optimizing his/her outcome within the game as defined by the objective goals.
"…in every game [the player] responds in a fashion calculated to help him achieve his objectives."
- game designer Greg Costikyan
THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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Bridges the gap between game and player (behavior)
Explains behaviour in terms of individual/selfish reasoning
Makes it closely related to Economic Man (the Beliefs/Preferences/Constraints Model)
But the Rational Player Model is bolder (or more reckless): It assumes preferences
THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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Can be operationalized through economic game theory: The formal study of conflict (between agents whose choices are interrelated)
THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODELAlice
Swerves Does not swerve
BobSwerves Bob: 2 points
Alice: 2 pointsBob: 1 point
Alice: 3 points
Does not swerve Bob: 3 pointsAlice: 1 point
Bob: 0 pointsAlice: 0 points
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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Example 1: Three degrees of cooperation
THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL
Competitive Semi-cooperative Cooperative
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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Example 1: Three degrees of cooperation
THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL
Competitive Semi-cooperative Cooperative
Constant sum games (the total payoff is
fixed). In two-player competitive games, no
incentives for cooperation exist at all. For games with more
players, such incentives may occur transitorily.
Non-zero sum games which reward team-
work over mutual non-cooperation but provide
temptations for individuals to act
selfishly.
Non-zero sum games which reward players for coordinating their strategies; i.e. they
reward team-work and provide no temptation
for selfish play.
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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Example 2: Strategicness
A measure of the degree to which other players matter and the degree to which one can do anything about it
THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL
Strategicness Strategicness Strategicness
Time Time Time
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL may open games for formal analysis…
But does it accurately portray reality?
THE RATIONAL PLAYER MODEL
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDY
Mashed (PS2) Champions of Norrath (PS2) Fifa 2004 (Xbox)
CompetitiveNo formal incentives to
cooperate
CooperativeNo formal incentives
to act non-cooperatively
Semi-cooperativeCooperation necessary but with temptations to
be selfish
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDY19 test subjects in 6 groups played all three games
Sessions were videotaped from two angles
All verbal statements (~ 8500) were transcribed
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDYData analysisAll statements were coded
August [CoN]: Just distribute them all [Albert is distributing points]. Dexterity and intelligence are probably the most important things.
§ ORDER, REQUEST OR SUGGEST ACTION
§ ADVICE, INFORMATION, OR HELP GIVEN
Ask advice (interface)4%
Ask advice10%
Laughter18%
Give advice18%
Annoyance7%
Critique1%
Game criticism2%
Advice given (interface)6%
Order action8%
Apology for self1%
Other22%
Suggest injustice1%
Order action (interface)2%
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDYData analysis
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDYExample 1: Skill inequityPlayer 4 wins round1: I really think I’m pointing, I’m just crashing
4: Hey, look at what’s on my roof!
3: [laughs]
1: Yaayy!
3: It’s completely insane
2: This is the weirdest car game I’ve ever played
3: No!
1: Then you just explode because you don’t move
2: I’m trying to shoot now, but I can’t
1: [laughs]
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDYExample 2: Tension2: I think I heard the whistle
3: Who did that?
2: I did
1: No-body’s doing anything. And red is just looking while they score.
2: Am I the keeper or what?
1: No, I am the keeper. You just have to watch for your colors.
3: Okay, let’s pull ourselves together… We need a goal.
2: I’m running deep
3: I’m with you over here.
1: No!
3: Come on, ahh he’s really slow this one
4: [laughs]
3: Stop him!
1: Nobody’s doing anything. The defence is completely gone. Yellow.
2: Well, two of us have never tried Fifa 2004 before.
1: Well I haven’t tried it either
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDYObservationsPlayers only redefined game goals jokingly, and often in order to alleviate embarrassment over collective defeat
Taunts were rare, quite polite and only occurred during Mashed (competitive play)
Serious criticism of other players was practically non-existent
Apologies were used to acknowledge that one’s actions hurt the team
Lars: I had the most unforced errors. That was me.
Daniel: Where are you going? [The other players fall behind] [Laughs]
Simon: No, you click through before you [read the dialogue]. I have no idea what we need to do, I’m just following.
Simon: Oh, sorry. That was my mistake.
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDYBut was the model supported?
YESWithin the gamespace
players acted in (apparent) alignment
with the model
NOIn the sofa, players did
not confirm the predictions (e.g. they
were helpful when playing Mashed)
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDYInterpretationPlayers seek to win but this desire is subjugated by social norms defining appropriate play.
Outside the gamespace, the players mitigate and modify their “rational” behavior to satisfy the social norm of fairness: Performance in the game should not be a consequence of inferior knowledge about game mechanics.
Most multi-player gaming is in fact cooperative.
PLANS AND PURPOSES
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PLAYER STUDYA purposeful blindnessA model gives focus and precision
It does not, in any simple form, grant us access to the Truth
But it helps us see if we are on the right track
And…