Session Objectives — Communications

Module 3 Session 3.3 Visual 1

Module 3

Building the Team

Session 3.3 Communication and Motivation: Fundamentals of Communication


Session Objectives — Communications

At the end of the session, learners should be able to:

Explain why communication is important in a project setting

Describe the classical sender-receiver model of communication

Identify possible sources of miscommunication

Identify their personal communication styles

Use the communication model to improve communications on a project


Session Objectives — Motivation

At the end of the session, learners should be able to:

Explain why motivation is important in a project setting

Describe at least 3 theories of motivation

Explain the importance of linking rewards with

desired consequences

Apply one or more theories of motivation to project situations


• An iterative process for developing shared meaning and mutual understanding

Communication

expressPerson Ainterpret

interpretPerson B

express

A BShared Meaning

Idea2

Idea1

Idea3

Idea4

and then...


Topmanagement

Personnel assigned to project

Line managers, other projects

StakeholdersProjectmanager

Company policy and resources

Project direction and messages

Reports and messages

Progress reports and messages

Progress reports

•Concerns•Requirements•Advice

Project Direction/Leadership

Reports and Messages

The project manager’s communication links for developing common understanding and commitment


Project Manager’s Communication Roles

Effective Communicator/Presenter

Communication Strategist

Communication Coach


Classical Sender-Receiver Model

Message

Feedback

Receiver(B)(2 WAY MODEL)

A B

Sender (A)

?

Idea A

SharedMeaning

Idea B


Types of CommunicationMessage

Feedback

Message

• Synchronous (real time)• Face-to-face conversation• Telephone call • Video

• Asynchronous (delay)• Computer• Voice mail messaging• Letter writing

Mass media

• Telephone messages

• Videotapes / announcements

• Posting on the Internet

• Written memos and reports

1-Way2-Way


Complex Sender-Receiver Model—with barriers

MEANINGIdeaKnowledgeInformationFeeling

1. Sender has

2. Sender encodes meaning into

MESSAGEWordsSoundsPicturesOrganization

3. Sender transmitsmessage using

TECHNOLOGYStorageMediaChannel(s)

4. Receiver getsmessage anddecodes

MESSAGEWordsSoundsPicturesOrganization

5. Receiverinterpretsmeaning

6. Receiver creates & sends feedback message

REPEAT PROCESS Formulate meaningEncode into message and transmit via media and channel(s)

7. Sender gets feedback message.

REPEAT PROCESSRepeat until a mutually shared meaning develops or parties stop communicating. Each transition is a possible barrier or filter that can result in faulty communication

MEANINGIdeaKnowledgeInformationFeeling


Barriers and Distorting Filters

Sending

Transmission

Receiving

• Personality style

• Technical expertise

• Organizational affiliation

• Status

• Gender

• Ethnicity

• Social class

• Religion

• Culture

Human Barriers


Thought Problem

The Project: A health care project involving facilities construction, medical services, and

outreach aimed at prenatal women

The Team: Engineering, Accounting, and Human Services (equal numbers of men and women with much diversity)

The Challenge: Minimize communication barriers and build strong teams

Your Task: Identify potential communication barriers


Some Potential Barriers to Communication Gender

communication styles

life experiences

Religion

Technical expertise

Organizational affiliation

• Native language

• Semantics / language usage

• Culture / geography

• Personality / communication styles


Communication Rules for Project Managers

Rule 1 - Recognize the potential for error when communicating

Rule 2 - Know your audience: Sender/receiver differences increase the likelihood of miscommunication

Rule 3 - The chance of miscommunication increases as the number of people in the process increases

Rule 4 - Match media /channels to content and purpose. Use two-way channels for ambiguous or emotion-laden content

Rule 5 - Know your own communication style and adapt to the situation


Four Styles of Communication

Action-oriented

Process-oriented

People-oriented

Idea-oriented


Styles

Everyone has 4 styles to some degree

Most people have a dominant style

Style can adapt to a situation (not fixed)

All 4 styles needed on a project team


Uses in Project Management

Know own style for better communication

Understand where people are “coming from”

Anticipate conflict when styles clash

Build needed strengths into your team

Use team members’ strengths in jobs


Summary

Communication is essential to project leadership and team building

Process of creating shared meaning and mutual understanding

Error-prone process (barriers and filters)

Classical sender-receiver model

Five “Rules” for Project Managers


Module 3

Building the Team

Session 3.3 Communication and Motivation: Fundamentals of Motivation


Motivation

Motus = to move

Why people do what they do

Reasons people act

Amount of energy or effort expended


MOTIVATION = Pursuit of a Goal or Objective

Achieve Objective


Some Theories of Motivation

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Goal Setting Theory (Locke)

Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)

Equity Theory (Adams)

Expectancy Theory (Vroom)


Hierarchy of Needs

Behavior is driven by needs

Needs are internal states within an individual

Unmet needs cause a state of tension

Unmet needs cause behavior that seeks to reduce tension and satisfy needs

Individuals have a common set of hierarchical needs


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

5 Self Actualization: sense of maximizing potential

4 Esteem: responsibility, self-respect, recognition

3 Social: companionship, affection, affiliation

2 Safety: security, protection from pain and discomfort

1 Physiological: hunger, thirst, sex

“Higher Level”

“Lower Level”


Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and the Elements of Job Design

Self-Actualization

NeedsReaching your

potentialIndependence

CreativitySelf-Expression

Social/Affiliation NeedsCompanionship

AcceptanceLove and AffectionGroup Membership

Esteem NeedsResponsibilitySelf-RespectRecognition

Sense of AccomplishmentSense of Competence

Sense of Equity

Safety/Security NeedsSecurity for Self and Possessions

Avoidance of RisksAvoidance of HarmAvoidance of Pain

Physiological NeedsFood

ClothingShelterComfort

Self-preservation

• Involvement in planning your work• Opportunities for growth and development• Creative work

• Freedom to make decisions• Status symbols• Recognition, awards• Challenging work• Opportunity for advancement• Sharing decision making

• Opportunities to interact/network• Team-based work• Friendly co-workers

• Fringe benefits• Job security• Sound policies and practices• Proper supervision• Safe working conditions

• Adequate compensation • Rest periods• Labor-saving devices• Efficient work methods

Self-actualization is not an endpointbut a self-renewing need/drive.

How the Workplace CanMeet These Needs

(Adapted from Vijay K. Verma, Human Resource Skills for the Project Manager, Volume 2, 1996, Project Management Institute, Upper Darby, PA, Figure 2.2)


Goal Setting Theory

Developed by Edwin Locke

Well supported by research

Intention (goals) drive behavior

Motivation Influenced by: Specificity of Goal or Objective

Degree of Challenge

Acceptance of Goal

Feedback


Goal Setting Theory (continued)

Findings:

Specific goals are more motivating than general ones

Challenging goals are more motivating than less challenging goals

People must “accept” a goal for it to be motivational

Feedback, especially self-generated, improves motivation

Participation in goal setting affects motivation


“SMART” Objectives or Goals Specific - one specific (observable)

accomplishment

Measurable - attainment can be easilyassessed

Attainable - achievement is possible giventime, resources, and

person’s level of knowledge and skills

Rewarding - attainment satisfies personalneed or objective

Time-bound - realistic start /finish dates (timeline) are established


Influences on Goal Setting Theory

Availability of Feedback

Commitment (acceptance of goals)

Self-efficacy

National Culture


The Course’s 12-Step Planning Process

Framework for group and individual goal setting

Participatory — Team can collectively set SMART goals (objectives)

Provides feedback on team performance


Reinforcement Theory

Primary advocate: B.F. Skinner

Behavior is determined by the consequences it produces

Reinforcers increase likelihood a behavior will reoccur

Neutral or punishing consequences decrease likelihood behavior will reoccur

Feedback is key element in reinforcement theory

Extinction - Unrewarded behaviors “go away” over time


Rewards• Satisfy Needs

• Intrinsic: Usually intangible and inherent to the behavior being performed

• examples: joy of a low golf score; feeling of achievement from goal attainment

• Extrinsic: External to the behavior being performed, usually tangible

• examples: pay, promotion, certificates

• useful when a performing behavior is not intrinsically rewarding

• Extrinsic rewards can negate Intrinsic rewards


Rules for Modifying Behavior

Reward the behavior as soon as possible after it occurs. Timing is important! The shorter the delay between the behavior and the reward, the better.

To maintain an established (desired) behavior

Reward intermittently at random intervals

To stop an undesired behavior

1. Ignore it — do not reinforce it! It will gradually “extinguish itself” (slow process)

2. Punish it (fast process)

To establish a new (desired) behavior

Reward every occurrence of the behavior(or approximation of the behavior)


The Power of Contingency: IF-THEN

Rewards Should Be Contingent on Performance!

Reinforce desired performance — say “thanks”

Don’t ignore desired performance

Don’t reward undesired performance

Use Rewards to Recognize and Strengthen Positive Behaviors


Thought Problem

How Would You Use Reinforcement Theoryin This Situation?

To Encourage Team Members to bring potential

problems to the group for resolution and not wait

for problems to develop


Possible Strategies for Thought Problems

Using Reinforcement Theory Don’t punish people who bring potential

problems to group Yourself

Other team members

Other managers

Reward team members who bring potential problems into the open

Yourself

Other team members

Reward team members who support others


Limitations of Reinforcement Theory

Rewards and punishments are “subjective” and vary

Project manager has limited control over consequences


Equity Theory

Developed by Adams

Absolute and Relative value of a reward influences motivation

People compare themselves to referents (4 types)

People want to feel fairly treated


Four Types of Referents

1. Self - Inside:Comparison to own previous experiences within the organization

2. Self - Outside:Comparison to own previous experiences outside the organization

3. Other - Inside:Comparison to others’ experiences in the organization

4. Other - Outside:Comparison to others’ experiences outside the organization


Factors Influencing Comparisons

Gender

Length of service

Level of organization

Professional experience & training


Implications of Equity Theory

Rewards should be perceived as fair in both absolute and relative terms

Reward process is as important as reward itself

understood by team

viewed as fair

consistently administered


Expectancy Theory

Developed by Victor Vroom

Well-Researched Theory

Motivation depends on three expectancies Perceived ability to do a job Perceived likelihood of being rewarded Perceived attractiveness of the reward


Motivation Is Situation Specific

Motivation =

PerceivedAbilityto doa Job

or Task

xPerceivedLikelihood

ofBeing

Rewarded

PerceivedValue

ofReward

x


Implications of Expectancy Theory Motivation is influenced by individual

perceptions

I can do the job

I will be rewarded

I want the reward

The project manager must understand team members and stakeholders and deal with them as individuals as much as possible


Thought Problem

New Assignment High Value Reward

Low Likelihood

Moderate Ability


Solution to Thought Problem

Motivation = Ability x Likelihood x Value = Total Value(0 – 1000)

Situation A = 5 x 0 x 10 = 0

Situation B = 5 x 8 x 10 = 400

Situation C = 9 x 8 x 10 = 720


Multiple Sources of Rewards

6. P r o j e c t T e a m

4. Formal Rewards

5. Leadership(Informal)

7. Job orTask

3. Project Manager

TeamMember

1. The Parent Organization

2. Functional Departments


Opportunity AbilityJob

DesignAppraisalSystem

EquityComparison

IndividualEffort

IndividualPerformance

OrganizationalRewards

PersonalGoals

ExpectanciesPerceptions

of Reward

PersonalNeeds

Personal Goals

Intrinsic ExtrinsicReinforcement

(Rewards)

Integrating Model of MotivationBased on Robbins (1998)

1 4 5 6 8

3 10 7 2

7 7 9

2


Sample Questions

1. What are an individual’s personal goals and objectives?

2. What opportunities (for performance) can I offer a person?

3. Does the person have the knowledge/skills necessary to perform, or is training needed?

4. Does a person believe he or she can perform (regardless of his or her competence)?

5. Is the performance evaluation objective? Is it perceived as objective?


Sample Questions (continued)

6. Am I rewarding desired behaviors and not undesired behaviors?

7. Are the rewards at my disposal perceived asdesirable by the individual?

8. Am I perceived as giving rewards fairly and for performance?

9. Do the rewards satisfy the individual’s personal goals, objectives, needs, and so forth?


CAUTION!

Research has a United States orientation

Research focuses on individual motivation

Rewards can vary from culture to culture

Definitions of equity are culturally dependent

Team motivation is also important


Do’s and Don’ts Performance depends on more than

motivation selection, training, and job design are also important

(Robbins)

Team members must expect valued rewards will result from high performance (Expectancy Theory and Reinforcement Theory)

Both extrinsic (pay) and intrinsic (achievement) rewards may reinforce desired behavior (Reinforcement Theory)


Do’s and Don’ts (continued)

Praise and recognition are powerful rewards and should be contingent on the behavior

(Hierarchy and Reinforcement Theory)

Try to structure roles and rewards to meet individual needs

(Reinforcement Theory)

Specific, challenging goals that are accepted by the team member are motivating, especially when members are able to provide themselves with internal feedback

(Goals, Expectancy Theory, and Reinforcement Theory)



The 12-Step planning process provides participation in goal setting (Hierarchy, Goals, and Reinforcement Theory)

Try to have a fair and open reward process(Equity Theory, Reinforcement Theory, and

ExpectancyTheory)

Avoid rewarding inappropriate behaviors. Reward desired ones and don’t extinguish desired behaviors(Reinforcement Theory and Expectancy Theory)



Remember that people are different and reinforcements are idiosyncratic! (Hierarchy and Reinforcement)

Parties for team members when the team meets key milestones serve several functions (Hierarchy, Equity, Goals, Reinforcement, and

Expectancy)


Conclusions Theories are useful tools for managers for developing

and maintaining commitment and for rewarding performance

Motivation = intent + energy

Performance = job execution

Five theories were summarized Hierarchy of Needs Goal Setting Reinforcement Equity Expectancy

The project manager must motivate individuals and the group

Session Objectives — Communications

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