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Theseparationofchurchandstateisadescriptionforthedistanceintherelationshipbetweenorganizedreligionandthenationstate.Itmayrefertocreatingasecularstate,withorwithoutexplicitreferencetosuchseparation,ortochanginganexistingrelationshipofchurchinvolvementinastate(disestablishment).Somesourcesusethephrase"separationofmosqueandstate"torefertoseparationbetweenIslamandpolitics.[1]

Althoughtheconceptofseparationhasbeenadoptedinanumberofcountries,therearevaryingdegreesofseparationdependingontheapplicablelegalstructuresandprevalentviewstowardtheproperrelationshipbetweenreligionandpolitics.Whileacountry'spolicymaybetohaveadefinitedistinctioninchurchandstate,theremaybean"arm'slengthdistance"relationshipinwhichthetwoentitiesinteractasindependentorganizations.AsimilarbuttypicallystricterprincipleoflacithasbeenappliedinFranceandTurkey,whilesomesociallysecularizedcountriessuchasDenmarkandtheUnitedKingdomhavemaintainedconstitutionalrecognitionofanofficialstatereligion.[2]Theconceptparallelsvariousotherinternationalsocialandpoliticalideas,includingsecularism,disestablishmentarianism,religiousliberty,andreligiouspluralism.Whitman(2009)observesthatinmanyEuropeancountries,thestatehas,overthecenturies,takenoverthesocialrolesofthechurch,leadingtoagenerallysecularizedpublicsphere.[3]

Thedegreeofseparationvariesfromtotalseparationmandatedbyaconstitution,asinIndiaandSingaporetoanofficialreligionwithtotalprohibitionofthepracticeofanyotherreligion,asintheMaldives.

Contents

1Historyoftheconceptandterm1.1Ancienthistory1.2Lateantiquity1.3MedievalEurope1.4Reformation1.5Enlightenment1.6JeffersonandtheBillofRights

2Invariouscountries2.1Australia2.2Brazil2.3China2.4France2.5Germany2.6India2.7Italy2.8Japan2.9SouthKorea2.10Mexico

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2.11Norway2.12Philippines2.13SaudiArabia2.14Singapore2.15Spain2.16Sweden2.17Turkey2.18UnitedKingdom2.19UnitedStates

2.19.1TheTreatyofTripoli2.19.2Useofthephrase

3Religiousviews3.1Ahmadiyya3.2RomanCatholicism

4Friendlyandhostileseparation5Seealso6References7Furtherreading8Externallinks

Historyoftheconceptandterm

Ancienthistory

Manysocietiesinantiquityhadimperialcultswhereheadsofstatewereworshippedasmessiahs,demigodsordeities.Ancienthistoryisrepletewithexamplesofpoliticalleaderswhoderivedlegitimacythroughreligioustitles.SargonofAkkadwasreferredtoasthe"deputyofIshtar"[4]andmanyancientKingsofJudahclaimedtorulewithamandatefromHeaven.JuliusCaesarwaselectedasPontifexMaximus,thechiefpriestoftheRomanstatereligionbeforehebecametheconsulofRome.[5]CaligulareferredtohimselfasagodwhenmeetingwithpoliticiansandhewasreferredtoasJupiteronoccasioninpublicdocuments.[6][7]

Themixingofreligionandstatecanbeseenthroughoutantiquity,includingintheEdictofThessalonica,wherebyNiceneChristianitywasmadethestatereligionoftheRomanEmpire,andintheexecutionofSocrates,sentencedtodeathbytheAthenianstateforamongotherthings,"notbelievinginthegodsofthestate"[8]

Amongancientphilosophies,EpicureanismisinfavorofanearlyversionoftheseparationofreligionandstateascanbeseeninthewritingsofLucretiusandEpicurus.

Lateantiquity

AnimportantcontributortothediscussionconcerningtheproperrelationshipbetweenChurchandstatewasSt.Augustine,whoinTheCityofGod,BookXIX,Chapter17,begananexaminationoftheidealrelationshipbetweenthe"earthlycity"andthe"cityofGod".Inthiswork,Augustinepositedthatmajorpointsofoverlapweretobe

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foundbetweenthe"earthlycity"andthe"cityofGod",especiallyaspeopleneedtolivetogetherandgetalongonearth.ThusAugustineheldthatitwastheworkofthe"temporalcity"tomakeitpossiblefora"heavenlycity"tobeestablishedonearth.[9]

MedievalEurope

Forcenturies,monarchsruledbytheideaofdivineright.SometimesthisbegantobeusedbyamonarchtosupportthenotionthatthekingruledbothhisownkingdomandChurchwithinitsboundaries,atheoryknownascaesaropapism.OntheothersidewastheCatholicdoctrinethatthePope,astheVicarofChristonearth,shouldhavetheultimateauthorityovertheChurch,andindirectlyoverthestate.Moreover,throughouttheMiddleAgesthePopeclaimedtherighttodeposetheCatholickingsofWesternEuropeandtriedtoexerciseit,sometimessuccessfully(seetheinvestiturecontroversy,below),sometimesnot,suchaswasthecasewithHenryVIIIofEnglandandHenryIIIofNavarre.[10]

IntheWesttheissueoftheseparationofchurchandstateduringthemedievalperiodcenteredonmonarchswhoruledinthesecularspherebutencroachedontheChurch'sruleofthespiritualsphere.ThisunresolvedcontradictioninultimatecontroloftheChurchledtopowerstrugglesandcrisesofleadership,notablyintheInvestitureControversy,whichwasresolvedintheConcordatofWormsin1122.Bythisconcordat,theEmperorrenouncedtherighttoinvestecclesiasticswithringandcrosier,thesymbolsoftheirspiritualpower,andguaranteedelectionbythecanonsofcathedralorabbeyandfreeconsecration.[11]

Reformation

AtthebeginningoftheProtestantReformation,MartinLutherarticulatedadoctrineofthetwokingdoms.AccordingtoJamesMadison,perhapsoneofthemostimportantmodernproponentsoftheseparationofchurchandstate,Luther'sdoctrineofthetwokingdomsmarkedthebeginningofthemodernconceptionofseparationofchurchandstate.[12]

Inthe1530s,HenryVIII,angeredbytheCatholicChurch'srefusal(PopeClementVII)toannulhismarriagewithhiswifeCatherineofAragon,decidedtobreakwiththeChurchandsethimselfasrulerofthenewChurchofEngland,theAnglicanChurch,endingtheseparationthathadexistedbetweenChurchandStateinEngland.[13]ThemonarchsofGreatBritainhaveretainedecclesiasticalauthorityintheChurchofEnglandsinceHenryVIII,havingthecurrenttitle,SupremeGovernoroftheChurchofEngland.England'secclesiasticalintermixingdidnotspreadwidely,however,duetotheextensivepersecutionofCatholicsthatresultedfromHenry'spowergrab.ThiseventuallyledtoNonconformism,EnglishDissenters,andtheantiCatholicismofOliverCromwell,theCommonwealthofEngland,andthePenalLawsagainstCatholicsandotherswhodidnotadheretotheChurchofEngland.

OneoftheresultsofthepersecutioninEnglandwasthatsomepeoplefledGreatBritaininthehopesofreligiousfreedom.SomeofthesepeoplevoluntarilysailedtotheAmericanColoniesspecificallyforthispurpose.AftertheAmericanColoniesfamouslyrevoltedagainstKingGeorgeIIIoftheUnitedKingdom,theConstitutionofUnitedStateswasspecificallyamendedtobantheestablishmentofreligionbyCongress.

Enlightenment

TheconceptofseparatingchurchandstateisoftencreditedtothewritingsofEnglishphilosopherJohnLocke(16321704).[14]Accordingtohisprincipleofthesocialcontract,Lockearguedthatthegovernmentlackedauthorityintherealmofindividualconscience,asthiswassomethingrationalpeoplecouldnotcedetothegovernmentforitorotherstocontrol.ForLocke,thiscreatedanaturalrightinthelibertyofconscience,whichhe

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JohnLocke,Englishpoliticalphilosopherarguedforindividualconscience,freefromstatecontrol

ThomasJefferson,thethirdPresidentoftheUnitedStates,whoselettertotheDanburyBaptistsAssociationisoftenquotedindebatesregardingtheseparationofchurchandstate.

arguedmustthereforeremainprotectedfromanygovernmentauthority.Theseviewsonreligioustoleranceandtheimportanceofindividualconscience,alongwithhissocialcontract,becameparticularlyinfluentialintheAmericancoloniesandthedraftingoftheUnitedStatesConstitution.[15]

Atthesameperiodofthe17thcentury,PierreBayleandsomefideistswereforerunnersoftheseparationofChurchandState,maintainingthatfaithwasindependentofreason.[16][17]Duringthe18thcentury,theideasofLockeandBayle,inparticulartheseparationofChurchandState,becamemorecommon,promotedbythephilosophersoftheAgeofEnlightenment.Montesquieualreadywrotein1721aboutreligioustoleranceandadegreeofseparationbetweenreligionandgovernment.[18]VoltairedefendedsomelevelofseparationbutultimatelysubordinatedtheChurchtotheneedsoftheState[19]whileDenisDiderot,forinstance,wasapartisanofastrictseparationofChurchandState,saying"thedistancebetweenthethroneandthealtarcanneverbetoogreat".[20]

JeffersonandtheBillofRights

InEnglish,theexacttermisanoffshootofthephrase,"wallofseparationbetweenchurchandstate",aswritteninThomasJefferson'slettertotheDanburyBaptistAssociationin1802.Inthatletter,referencingtheFirstAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,Jeffersonwrites:

BelievingwithyouthatreligionisamatterwhichliessolelybetweenMan&hisGod,thatheowesaccounttononeotherforhisfaithorhisworship,thatthelegitimatepowersofgovernmentreachactionsonly,&notopinions,IcontemplatewithsovereignreverencethatactofthewholeAmericanpeoplewhichdeclaredthattheirlegislatureshould'makenolawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof,'thusbuildingawallofseparationbetweenChurchandState.[21]

JeffersonwasdescribingtotheBaptiststhattheUnitedStatesBillofRightspreventstheestablishmentofanationalchurch,andinsodoingtheydidnothavetofeargovernmentinterferenceintheirmannerofworship.TheBillofRightswasoneoftheearliestexamplesintheworldofcompletereligiousfreedom(adoptedin1791,onlyprecededbytheDeclarationoftheRightsofManandoftheCitizenin1789).

Invariouscountries

Countrieshavevaryingdegreesofseparationbetweengovernmentandreligiousinstitutions.Sincethe1780sanumberofcountrieshavesetupexplicitbarriersbetweenchurchandstate.Thedegreeofactualseparationbetweengovernmentandreligionorreligiousinstitutionsvarieswidely.Insomecountriesthetwoinstitutionsremainheavilyinterconnected.TherearenewconflictsinthepostCommunistworld.[22]

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Themanyvariationsonseparationcanbeseeninsomecountrieswithhighdegreesofreligiousfreedomandtolerancecombinedwithstronglysecularpoliticalcultureswhichhavestillmaintainedstatechurchesorfinancialtieswithcertainreligiousorganizationsintothe21stcentury.InEngland,thereisaconstitutionallyestablishedstatereligionbutotherfaithsaretolerated.[23]TheBritishmonarchistheSupremeGovernoroftheChurchofEngland,and26bishops(LordsSpiritual)sitintheupperhouseofgovernment,theHouseofLords.

Inotherkingdomstheheadofgovernmentorheadofstateorotherhighrankingofficialfiguresmaybelegallyrequiredtobeamemberofagivenfaith.Powerstoappointhighrankingmembersofthestatechurchesarealsooftenstillvestedintheworldlygovernments.Thesepowersmaybeslightlyanachronisticorsuperficial,however,anddisguisethetruelevelofreligiousfreedomthenationpossesses.InthecaseofAndorratherearetwoheadsofstate,neitherofthemnativeAndorrans.OneistheRomanCatholicBishopofSeudeUrgell,atownlocatedinnorthernSpain.HehasthetitleofEpiscopalianCoprince(theotherCoprincebeingtheFrenchHeadofState).Coprincesenjoypoliticalpowerintermsoflawratificationandconstitutionalcourtdesignation,amongothers.

Australia

TheConstitutionofAustraliapreventstheCommonwealthfromestablishinganyreligionorrequiringareligioustestforanyoffice:

Ch5116TheCommonwealthshallnotmakeanylawforestablishinganyreligion,orforimposinganyreligiousobservance,orforprohibitingthefreeexerciseofanyreligion,andnoreligioustestshallberequiredasaqualificationforanyofficeorpublictrustundertheCommonwealth.

ThelanguageisderivedfromtheUnitedStates'constitution,buthasbeenaltered.FollowingtheusualpracticeoftheHighCourt,ithasbeeninterpretedfarmorenarrowlythantheequivalentUSsectionsandnolawhaseverbeenstruckdownforcontraveningthesection.Today,theCommonwealthGovernmentprovidesbroadbasedfundingtoreligiousschoolsandalsofundsschoolchaplainsforpublicandprivateschools.AllAustralianparliamentsareopenedwithaChristianprayer,andthepreambletotheAustralianConstitutionreferstoa"humbl[e]rel[iance]ontheblessingofAlmightyGod."[24]

AlthoughtheAustralianmonarchisQueenElizabethII,alsoBritishmonarchandGovernoroftheChurchofEngland,herAustraliantitleisunrelatedtoherreligiousofficeandshehasnoroleintheAnglicanChurchofAustralia.TheprohibitionagainstreligioustestshasallowedformerAnglicanArchbishopofBrisbanePeterHollingworthtobeappointedGovernorGeneralofAustralia,thehighestdomesticconstitutionalofficerhowever,thiswascriticized.[25]

Despiteinclusioninthe"States"chapter,Section116doesnotapplytostatesbecauseofchangesduringdrafting,andtheyarefreetoestablishtheirownreligions.Althoughnostatehaseverintroducedastatechurch(NSWrestrictedreligiousgroupsduringtheearlycolonialperiod),thelegalbodycorrespondingtomanyreligiousorganisationsisestablishedbystatelegislation.[26][27]TherehavebeentworeferendatoextendSection116tostates,butbothfailed.Ineachcasethechangesweregroupedwithotherchangesandvotersdidnothavetheopportunitytoexpresslyacceptonlyonechange.Moststatespermitbroadexemptionstoreligiousgroupsfromantidiscriminationlegislationforexample,theNSWactallowingsamesexcouplestoadoptpermitsreligiousadoptionagenciestorefusethem.[28][29]

Thecurrentsituation,describedasa"principleofstateneutrality"ratherthan"separationofchurchandstate",[25]hasbeencriticisedbybothsecularistsandreligiousgroups.Ontheonehand,secularistshavearguedthatgovernmentneutralitytoreligionsleadstoa"flaweddemocrac[y]"[30]orevena"pluralistictheocracy"[31]asthe

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governmentcannotbeneutraltowardsthereligionofpeoplewhodonothaveone.Ontheotherhand,religiousgroupsandothershavebeenconcernedthatstategovernmentsarerestrictingthemfromexercisingtheirreligionbypreventingthemfromcriticisingothergroupsandforcingthemtodounconscionableacts.[32]

Brazil

BrazilwasacolonyofthePortugueseEmpirefrom1500untilthenation'sindependencefromPortugal,in1822,duringwhichtimeRomanCatholicismwastheofficialstatereligion.WiththeriseoftheEmpireofBrazil,althoughCatholicismretaineditsstatusastheofficialcreed,subsidizedbythestate,otherreligionswereallowedtoflourish,asthe1824Constitutionsecuredreligiousfreedom.ThefalloftheEmpire,in1889,gavewaytoaRepublicanregime,andaConstitutionwasenactedin1891,whichseveredthetiesbetweenchurchandstateRepublicanideologuessuchasBenjaminConstantandRuyBarbosawereinfluencedbylacitinFranceandtheUnitedStates.The1891ConstitutionalseparationofChurchandStatehasbeenmaintainedeversince.ThecurrentConstitutionofBrazil,inforcesince1988,ensurestherighttoreligiousfreedom,banstheestablishmentofstatechurchesandanyrelationshipof"dependenceoralliance"ofofficialswithreligiousleaders,exceptfor"collaborationinthepublicinterest,definedbylaw".

China

China,duringtheeraoftheHanDynasty,hadestablishedConfucianismastheofficialstateideologyoverthatofLegalismoftheprecedingQinDynastyovertwomillenniumago.[33]Inpost1949moderndayChina,owingtosuchhistoricexperiencesastheTaipingRebellion,theChineseCommunistPartyhadnodiplomaticrelationswiththeVaticanforoverhalfacentury,andmaintainedseparationofthechurchfromstateaffairs,[34]andalthoughtheChinesegovernment'smethodsaredisputedbytheVatican,[35]PopeBenedicthadacceptedtheordinationofabishopwhowaspreselectedbythegovernmentfortheChinesePatrioticCatholicAssociationin2007.However,anewordinationofaCatholicbishopinNovember2010,accordingtoBBCNews,hasthreatenedto"damageties"betweenChinaandtheVatican.[36]

France

Lacit,aproductofFrenchhistoryandphilosophy,wasformalizedina1905lawprovidingfortheseparationofchurchandstate,thatis,theseparationofreligionfrompoliticalpower.

TheFrenchversionofseparationiscalledlacit.Thismodelofaseculariststateprotectsthereligiousinstitutionsfromstateinterference,butwithpublicreligiousexpressionalsotosomeextentlimited.Thisaimstoprotectthepublicpowerfromtheinfluencesofreligiousinstitutions,especiallyinpublicoffice.Religiousviewswhichcontainnoideaofpublicresponsibility,orwhichconsiderreligiousopinionirrelevanttopolitics,arelessimpingeduponbythistypeofsecularizationofpublicdiscourse.

FormerPresidentNicolasSarkozycriticised"negativelaicite"andtalkedabouta"positivelaicite"thatrecognizesthecontributionoffaithtoFrenchculture,historyandsociety,allowsforfaithinthepublicdiscourseandforgovernmentsubsidiesforfaithbasedgroups.[37]HevisitedthePopeinDecember2007andpubliclyemphasizedFrance'sChristianroots,whilehighlightingtheimportanceoffreedomofthought,[38]advocatingthatfaithshouldcomebackintothepublicsphere.FranoisHollandetookaverydifferentpositionduringthe2012presidentialelection,promisingtoinserttheconceptoflacitintotheconstitution(theFrenchconstitutionalreadysaysthattheFrenchRepublicis"laque"butthereisnoarticleoftheconstitutionaboutlacit).[39]

Nevertheless,therearecertainentanglementsinFrancewhichinclude:

Themostsignificantexampleconsistsintwoareas,AlsaceandMoselle(seehereforfurtherdetail),where

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theConcordatbetweenFranceandtheHolySeestillprevailsbecausetheareawasunderGermancontrolwhenthe1905FrenchlawontheSeparationoftheChurchesandtheStatewaspassed.Catholicpriestsaswellastheclergyofthreeotherreligions(Lutheran,Calvinist,andJewish)arepaidbythestate,andschoolshavereligioncourses.Moreover,theCatholicbishopsofMetzandStrasburgarenamed(orrather,formallyappointed)bytheFrenchHeadofStateonpropositionofthePope,whichinterestinglymakestheFrenchPresidenttheonlytemporalpowerintheworldtoformallyhaveretainedtherighttoappointCatholicbishops,allothercatholicbishopsbeingappointedbythePope.TheFrenchPresidentisexofficioacoprinceofAndorra,whereRomanCatholicismhasastatusofstatereligion(theothercoprincebeingtheCatholicRomanBishopofSeudeUrgell,Spain).Moreover,FrenchheadsofstatesaretraditionallyofferedanhonorarytitleofCanonofthePapalArchbasilicaofSt.JohnLateran,CathedralofRome.Oncethishonourhasbeenawardedtoanewlyelectedpresident,Francepaysforachoirvicar,apriestwhooccupiestheseatinthecanonialchapteroftheCathedralinlieuofthepresident(allFrenchpresidentshavebeenmaleandatleastformallyRomanCatholic,butifonewerenot,thishonourcouldmostprobablynotbeawardedtohimorher.)TheFrenchPresidentalsoholdsaseatinafewothercanonialchaptersinFrance.AnotherexampleofthecomplextiesbetweenFranceandtheCatholicChurchconsistsinthePieuxtablissementsdelaFranceRomeetLorette:fivechurchesinRome(TrinitdeiMonti,St.LouisoftheFrench,St.IvooftheBretons,St.ClaudeoftheFreeCountyofBurgundy,andSt.NicholasoftheLorrains)aswellasachapelinLoretobelongtoFrance,andareadministeredandpaidforbyaspecialfoundationlinkedtotheFrenchembassytotheHolySee.InWallisandFutuna,aFrenchoverseasterritory,nationaleducationisconcededtothediocese,whichgetspaidforitbytheState.

Germany

TheGermanconstitutionguaranteesfreedomofreligion,[40]butthereisnotacompleteseparationofchurchandstateinGermany.OfficiallyrecognizedchurchesoperateasKrperschaftdesffentlichenRechts(corporationsofpublic,asopposedtoprivatelaw).Forrecognizedreligiouscommunities,sometaxesarecollectedbythestate[41]

thisisattherequestofthereligiouscommunityandafeeischargedfortheservice.[42]ReligiousinstructionisanormalschoolsubjectinGermany.[40]TheGermanStateunderstandsitselfasneutralinmattersofreligiousbeliefs,[43]sonoteachercanbeforcedtoteachreligion.Butontheotherhand,allwhodoteachreligiousinstructionneedanofficialpermissionbytheirreligiouscommunity.[44]ThetreatieswiththeHolySeearereferredtoasconcordats.TheyarethelegalframeworkforcooperationbetweentheRomanCatholicChurchandtheGermanState.[45]

India

Indiaisnominallyasecularcountryandtherearenospecialprovisionsfavouringspecificreligionsinitsconstitution.However,numerouslaws(familylaw,forexample)differentiateordiscriminateonthebasisofreligion.Inaddition,manystategovernments,forexampletheTamilNaduStategovernment(http://www.tnhrce.org/),exerciseextensivecontroloverreligiousorganizations.

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Asaresultofsuchgovernmentpoweroverreligion,politiciansaresometimesaccusedofplayingvotebankpolitics,i.e.ofgivingpoliticalsupporttoissuesforthesolepurposeofgainingthevotesofmembersofaparticularcommunity,includingreligiouscommunities.BoththeIndianNationalCongresspartyandtheBharitiyaJanataParty(BJP)havebeenaccusedofexploitingthepeoplebyindulginginvotebankpolitics.TheShahBanocase,adivorcelawsuit,generatedmuchcontroversywhentheCongresswasaccusedofappeasingtheMuslimorthodoxybybringinginaparliamentaryamendmenttonegatetheSupremeCourt'sdecision.Afterthe2002Gujaratviolence,therewereallegationsofpoliticalpartiesindulginginvotebankpolitics.[46]

Italy

InItalytheprincipleofseparationofchurchandstateisenshrinedinArticle7oftheConstitution,whichstates:[47]

"TheStateandtheCatholicChurchareindependentandsovereign,eachwithinitsownsphere.TheirrelationsareregulatedbytheLateranpacts.AmendmentstosuchPactswhichareacceptedbybothpartiesshallnotrequiretheprocedureofconstitutionalamendments."

Japan

Japanseparatedallofitsreligionsfromstateinfluencein1868.[48]UndertheAmericanmilitaryoccupation(194552)thiswasdeemedimproperanda"StateShinto"narrativewasconstructedinordertoimposeAmericanideasofchurchandstateontoJapan.Articles20and89oftheJapaneseconstitutionprotectfreedomofreligion,andpreventthegovernmentfromcompellingreligiousobservancesorusingpublicmoneytobenefitreligiousinstitutions.[48]

SouthKorea

FreedomofreligioninSouthKoreaisprovidedforintheSouthKoreanconstitution,whichmandatestheseparationofreligionandstate,andprohibitsdiscriminationonthebasisofreligiousbeliefs[49]

Mexico

TheissueoftheroleoftheCatholicChurchinMexicohasbeenhighlydivisivesincethe1820s.Itslargelandholdingswereespeciallyapointofcontention.MexicowasguidedtowardwhatwasproclaimedaseparationofchurchandstatebyBenitoJurezwho,in1859,attemptedtoeliminatetheroleoftheRomanCatholicChurchinthenationbyappropriatingitslandandprerogatives.[50][51]In1859theLeyLerdowasissuedpurportedlyseparatingchurchandstate,butactuallyinvolvingstateinterventioninChurchmattersbyabolishingmonasticorders,andnationalizingchurchproperty.In1926,afterseveralyearsoftherevolutionarywarandinsecurity,PresidentPlutarcoElasCalles,anatheist,enactedtheCallesLaw,whicheradicatedallthepersonalpropertyofthechurches,closedchurchesthatwerenotregisteredwiththeState,andprohibitedclericsfromholdingapublicoffice.Thelawwasunpopularandseveralprotestersfromruralareas,foughtagainstfederaltroopsinwhatbecameknownastheCristeroWar.Afterthewar'sendin1929,PresidentEmilioPortesGilupheldaprevioustrucewherethelawwouldremainenacted,butnotenforced,inexchangeforthehostilitiestoend.Eversince,theCatholicChurchhasremainedactivethroughtheNationalActionParty(Mexico).Thepartygainedamajorfootholdin2000whenPresidentVicenteFoxwaselected,ending70yearsofunbrokenrulefromtheInstitutionalRevolutionaryParty.

Norway

On21May2012,theNorwegianParliamentpassedaconstitutionalamendmentthatgrantedtheChurchofNorwayincreasedautonomy,andstatesthat"theChurchofNorway,anEvangelicalLutheranchurch,remainsNorway'speople'schurch,andissupportedbytheStateassuch"("people'schurch"orfolkekirkeisalsothenameofthe

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Danishstatechurch,Folkekirken),replacingtheearlierexpressionwhichstatedthat"theEvangelicalLutheranreligionremainsthepublicreligionoftheState."Thefinalamendmentpassedbyavoteof1623.ThethreedissentingvoteswereallfromtheCentreParty.

Toformagovernment,theNorwegianPMmusthavemorethanhalfthemembersofCabinetbemembersoftheChurchofNorway.Currently,thismeansatleasttenoutofthe19ministries.TheissueofseparationofchurchandstateinNorwayhasbeenincreasinglycontroversial,asmanypeoplebelieveitistimetochangethis,toreflectthegrowingdiversityinthepopulation.

TheconstitutionalsosaysthatNorway'svaluesarebasedonitsChristianandhumanistheritage,andaccordingtotheConstitution,theKingisrequiredtobeLutheran.Thegovernmentwillstillprovidefundingforthechurchasitdoeswithotherfaithbasedinstitutions,buttheresponsibilityforappointingbishopsandprovostswillnowrestwiththechurchinsteadofthegovernment.Priorto1997,theappointmentsofparishpriestsandresidingchaplainswasalsotheresponsibilityofthegovernment,butthechurchwasgrantedtherighttohiresuchclergydirectlywiththenewChurchLawof1997.Nevertheless,evenafterthechangesin1997and2012,allclergyremaincivilservants(stateemployees),thecentralandregionalchurchadministrationsremainapartofthestateadministration,theChurchofNorwayisregulatedbyitsownlaw(kirkeloven)andallmunicipalitiesarerequiredbylawtosupporttheactivitiesoftheChurchofNorwayandmunicipalauthoritiesarerepresentedinitslocalbodies.[52]

Philippines

InArticleII"DeclarationofPrinciplesandStatePolicies",Section6,the1987ConstitutionofthePhilippinesdeclares,"TheseparationofChurchandStateshallbeinviolable."Thisreasserts,withminordifferencesinwordingandcapitalization,adeclarationmadeinArticleXV,Section15ofthe1973Constitution.[53][54]Similarly,ArticleIII,Section5declares,"Nolawshallbemaderespectinganestablishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof.Thefreeexerciseandenjoymentofreligiousprofessionandworship,withoutdiscriminationorpreference,shallforeverbeallowed.Noreligioustestshallberequiredfortheexerciseofcivilorpoliticalrights."echoingArticleIV,Section8ofthe1973constitutionverbatim.[54][55]

SaudiArabia

ThelegalsystemofSaudiArabiaisbasedonSharia,IslamiclawderivedfromtheQu'ranandtheSunnah(thetraditions)oftheIslamicprophetMuhammad.

Singapore

Singaporeishometopeopleofmanyreligionsand,assuch,theSingaporeangovernmenthasarguably,asperanumberofperspectives,madeanefforttoavoidgivinganyspecificreligionsprioritiesovertherest.

In1972theSingaporegovernmentderegisteredandbannedtheactivitiesofJehovah'sWitnessesinSingapore.Itmayseemlikeareligiousbiastosome,howeverothers(includingtheSingaporeangovernment)claimthatthiswasjustifiedonthegroundsthatmembersofJehovah'sWitnessesrefusetoperformmilitaryservice(whichisobligatoryforallmalecitizens),salutetheflag,orswearoathsofallegiancetothestate.[56][57]SingaporehasbannedallwrittenmaterialspublishedbytheInternationalBibleStudentsAssociationandtheWatchtowerBibleandTractSociety,bothpublishingarmsoftheJehovah'sWitnesses.Apersonwhopossessesaprohibitedpublicationcanbefinedupto$1,500(SingaporeDollars$2,000)andjailedupto12monthsforafirstconviction.[58]

Spain

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InSpain,CommentatorshavepositedthattheformofchurchstateseparationenactedinFrancein1905andfoundintheSpanishConstitutionof1931areofa"hostile"variety,notingthatthehostilityofthestatetowardthechurchwasacauseofthebreakdownofdemocracyandtheonsetoftheSpanishCivilWar.[59][60]Followingtheendofthewar,theCatholicChurchregainedanofficiallysanctioned,predominantpositionwithGeneralFranco.Religiousfreedomwasguaranteedonlyin1966,nineyearsbeforetheendoftheregime.Since1978,accordingtotheSpanishConstitution(section16.3)"Noreligionshallhaveastatecharacter.ThepublicauthoritiesshalltakeintoaccountthereligiousbeliefsofSpanishsocietyandshallconsequentlymaintainappropriatecooperationrelationswiththeCatholicChurchandotherconfessions."

Sweden

TheChurchofSwedenwasestablishedbyGustavIofSwedenandwithinthehalfcenturyfollowinghisdeathwasestablishedasaLutheranstatechurchwithexcessivepowerinSwedishsociety,itselfunderthecontrolofthestateapparatus.FreedomofreligionwasseriouslyachievedunderGustavIII'srule.Followingyearsofdiscussionsbegunin1995,theChurchofSwedenwasfinallyseparatedfromthestateasfrom1January2000.[61]

Turkey

Turkey,whosepopulationisoverwhelminglyMuslim,isalsoconsideredtohavepracticedthelacitschoolofsecularismsince1928.LikelacitinFrance,therearesomenotableentanglementsinTurkey:

DespiteTurkeybeinganofficiallysecularcountry,thePreambleoftheConstitutionstatesthat"thereshallbe

nointerferencewhatsoeverofthesacredreligiousfeelingsinStateaffairsandpolitics."[62]

Inordertocontrolthewayreligionisperceivedbyadherents,theStatepaysimams'wages(onlyforSunniMuslims),andprovidesreligiouseducation(oftheSunniMuslimvariety)inpublicschools.TheStatehasaDepartmentofReligiousAffairs,directlyunderthePrimeMinisterbureaucratically,responsiblefororganizingtheSunniMuslimreligionincludingwhatwillandwillnotbementionedinsermonsgivenatmosques,especiallyonFridays.Suchaninterpretationofsecularism,wherereligionisunderstrictcontroloftheStateisverydifferentfromthatoftheFirstAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,andisagoodexampleofhowsecularismcanbeappliedinavarietyofwaysindifferentregionsoftheworld.

UnitedKingdom

TheChurchofEngland,apartoftheworldwideAnglicanCommunion,isanestablishedchurch,andtheBritishSovereignisthetitularSupremeGovernor,andcannotbeaRomanCatholic.UntiltheSuccessiontotheCrownAct2013,themonarchcouldnotbemarriedtoaCatholic.InEngland,seniorChurchappointmentsareCrownappointments,theChurchcarriesoutimportantstatefunctionssuchascoronations,and26diocesanbishopshaveseatsintheHouseofLords,wheretheyareknownastheLordsSpiritualasopposedtothelayLordsTemporal.ThelinksbetweenchurchandstateintheUKare,nowadays,mostlyaformalityandthegovernanceoftheUKisrelativelysecular,althoughtheLordsSpiritualhaveasignificantinfluencewhentheyvoteasabloconcertainissues,notablyabortionandeuthanasia.

TheChurchofScotlandisthelargestreligiousdenominationinScotland,however,unliketheChurchofEnglanditisPresbyterianand(since1921)separatefromthestate,withtheSovereignholdingnoformalroleotherthanbeinganordinarymember.

TheChurchofIrelandwasdisestablishedasearlyas1871theChurchinWaleswasdisestablishedin1920.[63]

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AstheUKhasnosinglewrittenconstitution,thereisnoexplicitconstitutionalprincipleoffreedomofreligiousexerciseasthereisinothercountries,suchasGermanyandtheUnitedStates.However,theunwrittenconstitutionsecuressuchrights,andvariouslawssuchastheHumanRightsAct1998andtheEqualityAct2010allowreligiousgroupstoassociate,worship,promoteandpublishtheirviewsalongsidetheestablishedchurches.

UnitedStates

ThephraseofJefferson(seeabove)wasquotedbytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtfirstin1878,andtheninaseriesofcasesstartingin1947.[64]Thephrase"separationofchurchandstate"itselfdoesnotappearintheUnitedStatesConstitution.TheFirstAmendmentstatesthat"Congressshallmakenolawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof."TheSupremeCourtdidnotconsiderthequestionofhowthisappliedtothestatesuntil1947whentheydid,inEversonv.BoardofEducation,thecourtincorporatedtheestablishmentclause,determiningthatitappliedtothestatesandthatalawenablingreimbursementforbusingtoallschools(includingparochialschools)wasconstitutional.[65]

Priortoitsincorporation,unsuccessfulattemptsweremadetoamendtheconstitutiontoexplicitlyapplytheestablishmentclausetostatesinthe1870sand1890s.[66][67]

TheconceptwasimplicitintheflightofRogerWilliamsfromreligiousoppressionintheMassachusettsBayColonytofoundtheColonyofRhodeIslandandProvidencePlantationsontheprincipleofstateneutralityinmattersoffaith.[68][69]

Williamswasmotivatedbyhistoricalabuseofgovernmentalpower,andbelievedthatgovernmentmustremoveitselffromanythingthattoucheduponhumanbeingsrelationshipwithGod,advocatinga"hedgeorwallofSeparationbetweentheGardenoftheChurchandtheWildernessoftheworld"inordertokeepthechurchpure.

ThroughhisworkRhodeIslandscharterwasconfirmedbyKingCharlesIIofEngland,whichexplicitlystatedthatnoonewastobemolested,punished,disquieted,orcalledinquestion,foranydifferencesinopinion,inmattersofreligion.

WilliamsiscreditedwithhelpingtoshapethechurchandstatedebateinEngland,andinfluencingsuchmenasJohnMiltonandparticularlyJohnLocke,whoseworkwasstudiedcloselybyThomasJefferson,JamesMadison,andotherarchitectsoftheU.S.Constitution.WilliamstheologicallyderivedhisviewsmainlyfromScriptureandhismotiveisseenasreligious,butJefferson'sadvocationofreligiouslibertyisseenaspoliticalandsocial.[70]

TheTreatyofTripoli

In1797,theUnitedStatesSenateratifiedatreatywithTripolithatstatedinArticle11:

AstheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaisnot,inanysense,foundedontheChristianreligionasithasinitselfnocharacterofenmityagainstthelaws,religion,ortranquility,ofMussulmenand,asthesaidStatesneverenteredintoanywar,oractofhostilityagainstanyMahometannation,itisdeclaredbytheparties,thatnopretextarisingfromreligiousopinions,shalleverproduceaninterruptionoftheharmonyexistingbetweenthetwocountries.[71]

AccordingtoFrankLambert,ProfessorofHistoryatPurdueUniversity,theassurancesinArticle11were"intendedtoallaythefearsoftheMuslimstatebyinsistingthatreligionwouldnotgovernhowthetreatywasinterpretedandenforced.PresidentJohnAdamsandtheSenatemadeclearthatthepactwasbetweentwosovereignstates,not

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betweentworeligiouspowers."[72]

Supportersoftheseparationofchurchandstatearguethatthistreaty,whichwasratifiedbytheSenate,confirmsthatthegovernmentoftheUnitedStateswasspecificallyintendedtobereligiouslyneutral.[73]ThetreatywassubmittedbyPresidentAdamsandunanimouslyratifiedbytheSenate.

Useofthephrase

Thephrase"separationofchurchandstate"isderivedfromaletterwrittenbyPresidentThomasJeffersonin1802toBaptistsfromDanbury,Connecticut,andpublishedinaMassachusettsnewspapersoonthereafter.Inthatletter,referencingtheFirstAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,Jeffersonwrites:

BelievingwithyouthatreligionisamatterwhichliessolelybetweenMan&hisGod,thatheowesaccounttononeotherforhisfaithorhisworship,thatthelegitimatepowersofgovernmentreachactionsonly,&notopinions,IcontemplatewithsovereignreverencethatactofthewholeAmericanpeoplewhichdeclaredthattheirlegislatureshould"makenolawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion,orprohibitingthefreeexercisethereof",thusbuildingawallofseparationbetweenChurch&State.[21]

AnotherearlyuserofthetermwasJamesMadison,theprincipaldrafteroftheUnitedStatesBillofRights.Ina1789debateintheHouseofRepresentativesregardingthedraftoftheFirstAmendment,thefollowingwassaid:

August15,1789.Mr.[Peter]Sylvester[ofNewYork]hadsomedoubts.Hefearedit[theFirstAmendment]mightbethoughttohaveatendencytoabolishreligionaltogether.Mr.[Elbridge]Gerry[ofMassachusetts]saiditwouldreadbetterifitwasthat"noreligiousdoctrineshallbeestablishedbylaw."Mr.[James]Madison[ofVirginia]saidheapprehendedthemeaningofthewordstobe,that"Congressshouldnotestablishareligion,andenforcethelegalobservationofitbylaw."[T]heState[s]seemedtoentertainanopinionthatundertheclauseoftheConstitution.itenabledthem[Congress]tomakelawsofsuchanatureasmightestablishanationalreligiontopreventtheseeffectshepresumedtheamendmentwasintended.Mr.Madisonthoughtiftheword"National"wasinsertedbeforereligion,itwouldsatisfythemindsofhonorablegentlemen.Hethoughtiftheword"national"wasintroduced,itwouldpointtheamendmentdirectlytotheobjectitwasintendedtoprevent.[74]

Madisoncontended"BecauseifReligionbeexemptfromtheauthorityoftheSocietyatlarge,stilllesscanitbesubjecttothatoftheLegislativeBody."[75]Severalyearslaterhewroteof"totalseparationofthechurchfromthestate."[76]"StronglyguardedasistheseparationbetweenReligion&GovtintheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates",Madisonwrote,[77]andhedeclared,"practicaldistinctionbetweenReligionandCivilGovernmentisessentialtothepurityofboth,andasguaranteedbytheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates."[78]InalettertoEdwardLivingstonMadisonfurtherexpanded,"WeareteachingtheworldthegreattruththatGovts.dobetterwithoutKings&Noblesthanwiththem.ThemeritwillbedoubledbytheotherlessonthatReligionflourishesingreaterpurity,withoutthanwiththeaidofGovt."[79]ThisattitudeisfurtherreflectedintheVirginiaStatuteforReligiousFreedom,originallyauthoredbyJeffersonandchampionedbyMadison,andguaranteeingthatnoonemaybecompelledtofinanceanyreligionordenomination.

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nomanshallbecompelledtofrequentorsupportanyreligiousworship,place,orministrywhatsoever,norshallbeenforced,restrained,molested,orburthenedinhisbodyorgoods,norshallotherwisesufferonaccountofhisreligiousopinionsorbeliefbutthatallmenshallbefreetoprofess,andbyargumenttomaintain,theiropinioninmattersofreligion,andthatthesameshallinnowisediminishenlarge,oraffecttheircivilcapacities.[80]

UndertheUnitedStatesConstitution,thetreatmentofreligionbythegovernmentisbrokenintotwoclauses:theestablishmentclauseandthefreeexerciseclause.Botharediscussedinregardtowhethercertainstateactionswouldamounttoanimpermissiblegovernmentestablishmentofreligion.

ThephrasewasalsomentionedinaneloquentletterwrittenbyPresidentJohnTyleronJuly10,1843.[81]Duringthe1960presidentialcampaignthepotentialinfluenceoftheCatholicChurchonJohnF.Kennedy'spresidencywasraised.Ifelected,itwouldbethefirsttimethataCatholicwouldoccupythehighestofficeintheUnitedStates.JohnF.Kennedy,inhisAddresstotheGreaterHoustonMinisterialAssociationon12September1960,addressedthequestiondirectly,saying,

IbelieveinanAmericawheretheseparationofchurchandstateisabsolutewherenoCatholicprelatewouldtellthePresident(shouldhebeCatholic)howtoact,andnoProtestantministerwouldtellhisparishionersforwhomtovotewherenochurchorchurchschoolisgrantedanypublicfundsorpoliticalpreferenceandwherenomanisdeniedpublicofficemerelybecausehisreligiondiffersfromthePresidentwhomightappointhimorthepeoplewhomightelecthim.IbelieveinanAmericathatisofficiallyneitherCatholic,ProtestantnorJewishwherenopublicofficialeitherrequestsoracceptsinstructionsonpublicpolicyfromthePope,theNationalCouncilofChurchesoranyotherecclesiasticalsourcewherenoreligiousbodyseekstoimposeitswilldirectlyorindirectlyuponthegeneralpopulaceorthepublicactsofitsofficialsandwherereligiouslibertyissoindivisiblethatanactagainstonechurchistreatedasanactagainstall.[]Idonotspeakformychurchonpublicmattersandthechurchdoesnotspeakforme.WhateverissuemaycomebeforemeasPresidentonbirthcontrol,divorce,censorship,gamblingoranyothersubjectIwillmakemydecisioninaccordancewiththeseviews,inaccordancewithwhatmyconsciencetellsmetobethenationalinterest,andwithoutregardtooutsidereligiouspressuresordictates.Andnopowerorthreatofpunishmentcouldcausemetodecideotherwise.ButifthetimeshouldevercomeandIdonotconcedeanyconflicttobeevenremotelypossiblewhenmyofficewouldrequiremetoeitherviolatemyconscienceorviolatethenationalinterest,thenIwouldresigntheofficeandIhopeanyconscientiouspublicservantwoulddothesame.

TheUnitedStatesSupremeCourthasreferencedtheseparationofchurchandstatemetaphormorethan25times,thoughnotalwaysfullyembracingtheprinciple,saying"themetaphoritselfisnotawhollyaccuratedescriptionofthepracticalaspectsoftherelationshipthatinfactexistsbetweenchurchandstate".[82]InReynolds,theCourtdeniedthefreeexerciseclaimsofMormonsintheUtahterritorywhoclaimedpolygamywasanaspectoftheirreligiousfreedom.TheCourtusedthephraseagainbyJusticeHugoBlackin1947inEverson.InaminorityopinioninWallacev.Jaffree,JusticeRehnquistpresentedtheviewthattheestablishmentclausewasintendedtoprotectlocalestablishmentsofreligionfromfederalinterference.RehnquistmadenumerouscitationsofcasesthatrebuttedtheideaofatotalwallofseparationbetweenChurchandState.AresultofsuchreasoningwasSupremeCourtsupportforgovernmentpaymentstofaithbasedcommunityprojects.JusticeScaliahascriticizedthemetaphorasabulldozerremovingreligionfromAmericanpubliclife.[83]

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Religiousviews

Beyondlawandphilosophy,someChristiansrefusetovote,carryarms,orparticipateincivilgovernmentinanyway,oftenleadingtotheirpersecution,ashappenedtoAnabaptists,theirdescendantsincludingtheAmishandMennonites,Quakers,and,inthe20thCentury.Jehovah'sWitnessesinmanycountries,believingbynotparticipatingtheyareclosertotheKingdomofGod,since"Jesusanswered(Pilate),'Mykingdomisnotofthisworld:ifmykingdomwereofthisworld,thenwouldmyservantsfight(todefendhim).'"John18:36.Forthem,theterm"Christiannation"cannotbeavalidgovernmentalposition,leavingonlyChristianpeople,possiblyinChristiancommunities,beyondwhicharethe"thingswhichareCaesar's"Matthew22:21.

Ahmadiyya

AccordingtotheAhmadiyyaMuslimCommunity'sunderstandingofIslam,Islamicprinciplesstatethatthepoliticsofgovernmentshouldbeseparatefromthedoctrineofreligion.SpecialpreferenceshouldnotbegiventoaMuslimoveranonMuslim.[84][85]

RomanCatholicism

TheCatholicteachinginDignitatisHumanae,theSecondVaticanCouncil'sDeclarationonReligiousFreedom(1986),statesthatallpeopleareentitledtoreligiousfreedomandthatconstitutionallawshouldrecognizesuchfreedom.[86]WhiletheChurchnowteachesthatchurchstateseparationispermissible,apositiononcecondemnedinPopePiusIX'sSyllabusofErrors(No.55),itdoesnotendorseaseparationofreligionandpolitics[87]theChurchtakesthepositionthatreligion,andtheRomanCatholicChurchinparticular,hasaproperroleinguidingandinformingconsciences,therebyservingascheckandbalancetothepowerofthestate.[88]TheChurchteachesthattherightofreligiousfreedom(enshrinedintheU.S.'s"FreeExerciseClause")isdoctrinal,whilethequestionofthedegreeofseparationofchurchfromthestatesuchasaprohibitiononanestablishedreligion(enshrinedintheU.S.'s"EstablishmentClause")isvariable,dependinguponthehistoryofanationhenceitisacceptableandconsistentwithreligiousfreedomforcountriessuchasEngland,Malta,CostaRica,andDenmarktohaveanestablishedreligionaslongastheygrantreligiousfreedomtoall:

If,underconsiderationofhistoricalcircumstancesamongpeoples,specialcivilrecognitionisgiventoonereligiouscommunityintheconstitutionalorderofasociety,itisnecessaryatthesametimethattherightofallcitizensandreligiouscommunitiestoreligiousfreedomshouldbeacknowledgedandmaintained.[89]

TheChurchtakesstancesoncurrentpoliticalissues,andtriestoinfluencelegislationonmattersitconsidersrelevant.Forexample,theCatholicbishopsintheUnitedStatesadoptedaplaninthe1970scallingforeffortsaimedataConstitutionalamendmentproviding"protectionfortheunbornchildtothemaximumdegreepossible".[90]

Friendlyandhostileseparation

Scholarshavedistinguishedbetweenwhatcanbecalled"friendly"and"hostile"separationsofchurchandstate.[91]Thefriendlytypelimitstheinterferenceofthechurchinmattersofthestatebutalsolimitstheinterferenceofthestateinchurchmatters.[92]Thehostilevariety,bycontrast,seekstoconfinereligionpurelytothehomeorchurchandlimitsreligiouseducation,religiousritesofpassageandpublicdisplaysoffaith.[93]

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ThehostilemodelofsecularismarosewiththeFrenchRevolutionandistypifiedintheMexicanRevolution,itsresultingConstitutionandtheSpanishConstitutionof1931.[94][95]Thehostilemodelexhibitedduringtheseeventscanbeseenasapproachingthetypeofpoliticalreligionseenintotalitarianstates.[93]

TheFrenchseparationof1905andtheSpanishseparationof1931havebeencharacterizedasthetwomosthostileofthetwentiethcentury,althoughthecurrentschemesinbothcountriesareconsideredgenerallyfriendly.[59]France'sPresidentNicolasSarkozyatthebeginningofhisterm,however,consideredthecurrentschemea"negativelaicite"andwantedtodevelopa"positivelaicite"moreopentoreligion.[37]TheconcernsofthestatetowardreligionhavebeenseenbysomeasonecauseofthecivilwarinSpain[96]andMexico.

TheFrenchphilosopherandUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsdrafterJacquesMaritainnotedthedistinctionbetweenthemodelsfoundinFranceandinthemidtwentiethcenturyUnitedStates.[97]HeconsideredtheUSmodelofthattimetobemoreamicablebecauseithadboth"sharpdistinctionandactualcooperation"betweenchurchandstate,whathecalleda"historicaltreasure"andadmonishedtheUnitedStates,"PleasetoGodthatyoukeepitcarefully,anddonotletyourconceptofseparationveerroundtotheEuropeanone."[97]AlexisdeTocqueville,anotherFrenchobservertendedtomakethesamedistinction,"IntheU.S.,fromthebeginning,politicsandreligionwereinaccord,andtheyhavenotceasedtobesosince."[98]

Seealso

1905FrenchlawontheSeparationoftheChurchesandtheStateHumanEtiskForbundStatusofreligiousfreedombycountryAntidisestablishmentarianismBaptistsinthehistoryofseparationofchurchandstateChristianReconstructionismIslamicRepublicTheocracy

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philippineconstitutions/the1987constitutionoftherepublicofthephilippines/the1987constitutionoftherepublicofthephilippinesarticleii/).Retrieved22March2015.

54. "TheAmended1973Constitution"(http://www.gov.ph/thephilippineconstitutions/theamended1973constitution/).Retrieved22March2015.

55. "THE1987CONSTITUTIONOFTHEREPUBLICOFTHEPHILIPPINESARTICLEIII"(http://www.gov.ph/thephilippineconstitutions/the1987constitutionoftherepublicofthephilippines/the1987constitutionoftherepublicofthephilippinesarticleiii/).Retrieved22March2015.

56. "Singapore"(http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5732.htm).U.S.DepartmentofState.Retrieved22March2015.57. "Singapore",InternationalReligiousFreedomReport2004,U.S.DepartmentofState,AsRetrieved20100311

(http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35427.htm)58. "2010InternationalReligiousFreedomReport2010:Singapore",U.S.StateDepartment,November17,2010,As

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1973)(LIBRARYOFIBERIANRESOURCESONLINEAccessed20070530)"(http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/payne25.htm).

61. TedOlsen(1January2000)."SwedishChurchStateSeparate"(http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/januarywebonly/11.0.html).ChristianityToday.Retrieved27December2014.

62. "TheConstitutionoftheRepublicofTurkey"(http://web.archive.org/web/20060810204816/http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/english/constitution.htm).TurkishGrandNationalAssembly(TBMM).Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/english/constitution.htm)on20060810.

63. Madeley,JohnT.S.Enyedi,Zsolt(2003).ChurchandstateincontemporaryEurope:thechimeraofneutrality(http://books.google.com/books?id=n5Brda6FmswC).PsychologyPress.p.203(http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=n5Brda6FmswC&pg=PA203).ISBN9780714653945.

64. WilliamM.Wiecek,ThebirthofthemodernConstitution:theUnitedStatesSupremeCourt,19411953(CambridgeU.P.,2006)pp.2614

65. KermitHall,ed.TheOxfordcompaniontotheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates(http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=cY3er3ilgjcC)(2005)pp.3034(http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=cY3er3ilgjcC&pg=PA303).

66. PhilipHamburger,SeparationofChurchandState(http://books.google.com/books?id=q6Axd76IE1UC&dq).pp.287334,342,HarvardUniversityPress,2004

67. KermitHall,ed.TheOxfordcompaniontotheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates(http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=cY3er3ilgjcC)(2005)pp.2623(http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=cY3er3ilgjcC&pg=PA262).

68. Hamilton,NeilA.(2002).Rebelsandrenegades:achronologyofsocialandpoliticaldissentintheUnitedStates(http://books.google.com/?id=jZymqT1HmqAC)(illustrateded.).Taylor&Francis.p.11(http://books.google.com/books?id=jZymqT1HmqAC&pg=PA11).ISBN9780415936392.

69. Bercovitch,SacvanPatell,CyrusR.K.(1997).TheCambridgeHistoryofAmericanLiterature:15901820(http://books.google.com/?id=s3j5JVSEOMC)(illustrateded.).CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.196197

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(http://books.google.com/?id=s3j5JVSEOMC)(illustrateded.).CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.196197(http://books.google.com/books?id=s3j5JVSEOMC&pg=PA196).ISBN9780521585712.

70. JohnM.Barry,'RogerWilliamsandtheCreationoftheAmericanSoul(http://www.smithsonianmag.com/historyarchaeology/GodGovernmentandRogerWilliamsBigIdea.html),Smithsonianmagazine,January2012

71. Forfulltextsee"TheBarbaryTreaties17861816TreatyofPeaceandFriendship,SignedatTripoliNovember4,1796"AvalonProject(http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/bar1796t.asp)

72. FrankLambert(February3,2005)."Introduction"(http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7500.html).TheFoundingFathersandthePlaceofReligioninAmerica.Introduction(PrincetonUniversityPress).ISBN9780691126029.Retrieved20080621."Bytheiractions,theFoundingFathersmadeclearthattheirprimaryconcernwasreligiousfreedom,nottheadvancementofastatereligion.Individuals,notthegovernment,woulddefinereligiousfaithandpracticeintheUnitedStates.ThustheFoundersensuredthatinnoofficialsensewouldAmericabeaChristianRepublic.TenyearsaftertheConstitutionalConventionendeditswork,thecountryassuredtheworldthattheUnitedStateswasasecularstate,andthatitsnegotiationswouldadheretotheruleoflaw,notthedictatesoftheChristianfaith.TheassuranceswerecontainedintheTreatyofTripoliof1797andwereintendedtoallaythefearsoftheMuslimstatebyinsistingthatreligionwouldnotgovernhowthetreatywasinterpretedandenforced.JohnAdamsandtheSenatemadeclearthatthepactwasbetweentwosovereignstates,notbetweentworeligiouspowers."Checkdatevaluesin:|year=/|date=mismatch(help)

73. F.ForresterChurch.Theseparationofchurchandstate(2004)p.12174. DebatesandProceedingsintheCongressoftheUnitedStates(Washington,D.C.:Gales&Seaton,1834,Vol.Ipp.757

759,August15,178975. "JamesMadison,MemorialandRemonstranceagainstReligiousAssessments"(http://press

pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendI_religions43.html).Presspubs.uchicago.edu.Retrieved20120427.76. (March2,1819lettertoRobertWalsh),Lambert,Frank(2003)."Thefoundingfathersandtheplaceofreligionin

America"(http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=1qse4fZ6eQgC).PrincetonUniversityPress.p.288(http://books.google.com.ph/books?id=1qse4fZ6eQgC&pg=PA288).ISBN9780691088297.

77. JamesMadison."MonopoliesPerpetuitiesCorporationsEcclesiasticalEndowments"(http://www.constitution.org/jm/18191213_monopolies.htm).constitution.org.Retrieved20080616.

78. (1811lettertoBaptistChurches)79. "Madison'slettertoEdwardLivingston,July10,1822"(http://www.reachandteach.com/content/article.php?

story=20030829111914471).Reachandteach.com.20030828.Retrieved20120427.80. J.F.Maclear,Churchandstateinthemodernage:adocumentaryhistory(1995)p6581. Tylerwrote,"TheUnitedStateshaveadventureduponagreatandnobleexperiment,whichisbelievedtohavebeen

hazardedintheabsenceofallpreviousprecedentthatoftotalseparationofChurchandState.Noreligiousestablishmentbylawexistsamongus.TheconscienceisleftfreefromallrestraintandeachispermittedtoworshiphisMakerafterhisownjudgment.TheofficesoftheGovernmentareopenaliketoall.NotithesareleviedtosupportanestablishedHierarchy,noristhefalliblejudgmentofmansetupasthesureandinfalliblecreedoffaith.TheMahommedan,ifhewilltocomeamonguswouldhavetheprivilegeguaranteedtohimbytheconstitutiontoworshipaccordingtotheKoranandtheEastIndianmighterectashrinetoBrahmaifitsopleasedhim.SuchisthespiritoftolerationinculcatedbyourpoliticalInstitutions.TheHebrewpersecutedanddowntroddeninotherregionstakesuphisabodeamonguswithnonetomakehimafraid.andtheAegisoftheGovernmentisoverhimtodefendandprotecthim.Suchisthegreatexperimentwhichwehavecried,andsucharethehappyfruitswhichhaveresultedfromitoursystemoffreegovernmentwouldbeimperfectwithoutit.")quotedinNicoleGutin,ReligiousideologyinAmericanpolitics:ahistory(2009)p.85

82. *SeeLynchv.Donnelly,465U.S.668,673(http://supreme.justia.com/us/465/668/case.html)(1984):"TheconceptofawallofseparationisausefulfigureofspeechprobablyderivingfromviewsofThomasJefferson....[b]utthemetaphoritselfisnotawhollyaccuratedescriptionofthepracticalaspectsoftherelationshipthatinfactexistsbetweenchurchandstate."

CommitteeforPublicEducation&ReligiousLibertyv.Nyquist,413U.S.756,760

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CommitteeforPublicEducation&ReligiousLibertyv.Nyquist,413U.S.756,760(http://supreme.justia.com/us/413/756/case.html)(1973):"Yet,despiteMadison'sadmonitionandthesweepoftheabsoluteprohibitionsoftheClauses,thisNation'shistoryhasnotbeenoneofentirelysanitizedseparationbetweenChurchandState.Ithasneverbeenthoughteitherpossibleordesirabletoenforcearegimeoftotalseparation."PatrickM.Garry,TheMythofSeparation:America'sHistoricalExperiencewithChurchandState,33HofstraL.Rev.475,486(http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1139183)(2004)(notingthat"thestrictseparationistviewwaswhollyrejectedbyeveryjusticeontheMarshallandTaneycourts.")Zorachv.Clauson,343U.S.306,312(http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgibin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=343&invol=306)(U.S.1952):"TheFirstAmendment,however,doesnotsaythatineveryandallrespectsthereshallbeaseparationofChurchandState.".Lemonv.Kurtzman,403U.S.602(http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgibin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=403&invol=602)(1971):"Ourpriorholdingsdonotcallfortotalseparationbetweenchurchandstatetotalseparationisnotpossibleinanabsolutesense."

83. Leev.Weisman,505U.S.577(https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/505/577/)(1992)84. "SeparationofMosqueandstate"(http://www.alislam.org/egazette/articles/Separation_of_Mosque_and_State200906.pdf)

(PDF).Alislam.Retrieved20100913.85. "MuslimsforPeace"(http://www.muslimsforpeace.org/).MuslimsforPeace.Retrieved20100913.86. Calo,ZacharyA.,CatholicSocialThought,PoliticalLiberalism,andtheIdeaofHumanRights

(http://www4.samford.edu/lillyhumanrights/papers/Calo_Catholic.pdf),pp.1819,SamfordUniversity,November200487. Calo,ZacharyA.,CatholicSocialThought,PoliticalLiberalism,andtheIdeaofHumanRights

(http://www4.samford.edu/lillyhumanrights/papers/Calo_Catholic.pdf),p.20,SamfordUniversity,November200488. Grasso,KennethL.andRobertP.Hunt,Catholicismandreligiousfreedom:contemporaryreflectionsonVaticanII's

declarationonreligiousliberty(http://books.google.com/books?id=gRNcvjNxXfYC&dq),p.6,Rowman&Littlefield,2006

89. Murray,JohnCourtneyandJ.LeonHooper,Religiousliberty:Catholicstruggleswithpluralism(http://books.google.com/books?id=T8FKWmD_pKMC&pg),pp.213214,WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,1993

90. Curran,Charles."NationalCatholicReporteronline,29November2010"(http://ncronline.org/news/politics/uscatholicbishopsandabortionlegislation).Ncronline.org.Retrieved20120427.

91. Maier,Hans(2004).TotalitarianismandPoliticalReligions(http://books.google.com/?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&dq).trans.JodiBruhn.Routledge.p.109(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&pg=PA109).ISBN0714685291.

92. Maier2004,p.110(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&pg=PA110)93. Maier2004,p.111(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&pg=PA111)494. Maier2004,p.106(http://books.google.com/books?id=Wozo1W7giZQC&pg=PA106)95. MartinezTorron,JavierFreedomofreligioninthecaselawoftheSpanishConstitutionalcourt

(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_200101/ai_n8950497/),p.2(http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_200101/ai_n8950497/pg_2),BrighamYoungUniversityLawReview2001

96. Payne,StanleyG.,AHistoryofSpainandPortugal,Vol.2(http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm),Ch.25:TheSecondSpanishRepublic(http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm),p.632,(PrintEdition:UniversityofWisconsinPress,1973)(LibraryofIberianResourcesOnline(http://libro.uca.edu/title.htm),Accessed20090711)

97. Carson,D.A.ChristAndCultureRevisited(http://books.google.com/books?id=pIwE74bxvpAC&dq),p.189,Wm.B.EerdmansPublishing,2008

98. deTocqueville,Alexis,DemocracyinAmerica,editedandtranslatedbyHarveyMansfieldandDelbaWinthrop,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2000.

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Furtherreading

Feldman,Noah."ReligionandtheEarthlyCity",SocialResearch,Winter2009,Vol.76Issue4,pp9891000Kuznincki,Jason(2008)."SeparationofChurchandState"(http://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC).InHamowy,Ronald.TheEncyclopediaofLibertarianism.ThousandOaks,CA:SAGECatoInstitute.pp.45860.ISBN9781412965804.LCCN2008009151(http://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151).OCLC750831024(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024).Taylor,Charles."ThePolysemyoftheSecular",SocialResearch,Winter2009,Vol.76Issue4,pp11431166Temple,William,Abp.ChristianityandtheState.London:MacmillanandCo.,1928.Whitman,JamesQ."SeparatingChurchandState:TheAtlanticDivide",HistoricalReflections,Winter2008,Vol.34Issue3,pp86104McGowan,Barry,"HowtoSeparateChurch&State:AManualfromtheTrenches",HuftonMueller,LLC.(June2012).ISBN9780615638027Stone,GeoffreyR.,"TheWorldoftheFramers:AChristianNation?",UCLALawReview,56(Oct.2008),126.

Externallinks

About:HowtoSeparateChurch&StatebyBarryMcGowan(https://www.facebook.com/#!/HowToSeparateChurchState)ReligiousLiberty.TV(http://www.religiousliberty.tv)CurrentandhistoricalinformationaboutchurchstateseparationHistoryoftheSeparationofChurchandStateinAmerica(http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/history_of_the_separation_of_chu.htm)"TheIntellectualOriginsoftheEstablishmentClause"(https://web.archive.org/web/20080625032915/http://www.undergodprocon.org/pdf/feldman.pdf)PDF(251KB)byNoahFeldman,Asst.ProfessorofLaw,NewYorkUniversity,2002(archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.undergodprocon.org/pdf/feldman.pdf)on20080625).ChurchesAreNotExemptfromStateLicensesbyRichardR.Hammar(http://www.christianitytoday.com/yc/churchlawtaxupdate/feature_080404.html)CampaignActivitiesbyRichardR.Hammar(http://www.christianitytoday.com/yc/churchlawtaxupdate/campaignactivities.html)GeoffreyR.Stone,TheWorldoftheFramers:AChristianNation?,56UCLAL.Rev.1(2008).(http://uclalawreview.org/?p=219)

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