SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

Self-directed learning has been described as "a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or

without the help of others," to diagnose their learning needs, formulate learning goals, identify

resources for learning, select and implement learning strategies, and evaluate learning outcomes

(Knowles 1975)

Self-directed learning, which has its roots in adult education, is an approach that has also been tried with

learners in elementary and secondary schools. There may be slight variations in how different educators

define Self-directed learning, but a survey of the literature on the subject identifies several tenets that

are central to the concept

As the term suggests, Self-directed learning views learners as responsible owners and managers of their

own learning process. Self-directed learning integrates self-management (management of the context,

including the social setting, resources, and actions) with self-monitoring (the process whereby the

learners monitor, evaluate and regulate their cognitive learning strategies) (Bolhuis, 1996; Garrison,

1997)

Self-directed learning recognizes the significant role of motivation and volition in initiating and

maintaining learners' efforts. Motivation drives the decision to participate, and volition sustains the will

to see a task through to the end so that goals are achieved (Corno, 1992; Garrison, 1997)

In Self-directed learning, control gradually shifts from teachers to learners. Learners exercise a great deal

of independence in setting learning goals and deciding what is worthwhile learning as well as how to

approach the learning task within a given framework (Lyman, 1997; Morrow, Sharkey, & Firestone,

1993). Teachers scaffold learning by making learning 'visible.' They model learning strategies and work

with students so that they develop the ability to use them on their own (Bolhuis, 1996; Corno, 1992;

Leal, 1993)

Self-directed learning is, ironically, highly collaborative. Learners collaborate with teachers and peers in

(Guthrie, Alao & Rinehart; 1997; Temple & Rodero, 1995)

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Self-directed learning develops domain-specific knowledge as well as the ability to transfer conceptual

knowledge to new situations. It seeks to bridge the gap between school knowledge and real-world

problems by considering how people learn in real life (Bolhuis, 1996; Temple & Rodero, 1995)

Self-directed learning in a descriptive model of lifelong learning based entirely on the locus of control

for decision making about the objectives and means of learning. The model is a two-by-two matrix of

learner and institution; the self-directed learning situation occurs when learners--not the institution--

control both the learning objectives and the means of learning

The following situations occupy the other cells of the matrix:

Formal learning, in which institutions, not learners, control objectives and the means of learning

Non-formal learning, in which learners control the objectives and institutions control the means

Informal learning, in which institutions control the objectives but learners control the means of learning

Some self-directed learning takes place in comparative isolation in secluded libraries. Other self-directed

learners engage in more interpersonal communication (with experts and peers, for instance) than is

typically available in conventional classroom setting

Who is engaged in self-directed learning?

About 90 percent of all adults conduct at least one self-directed learning project per year. Typical

learners engage in five, spending an average of 100 hours on each project (Tough 1978). (It is important to

bear in mind that most of the research that has been conducted on self-directed learning has investigated the

activities of middle-class adults). Many self-directed learners are attempting to gain new skills, knowledge,

and attitudes to improve their work performance. Others conduct their self-directed learning to improve

family life and health, enjoy the arts and physical recreation, participate in a hobby, or simply increase their

intellectual capital.

Adult educators have found that some adults are incapable of engaging in self-directed learning

because they lack independence, confidence, or resources. Not all adults prefer the self-directed option, and

even the adults who practice self-directed learning also engage in more formal educational experiences such as

teacher-directed courses (Brookfield 1985)

Defining the self-directed learner:

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According to Abdullah (2001), self-directed learners are "responsible owners and managers of their

own learning process. Such individuals have the skills to access and process the information they need for a

specific purpose. Self-directed learning integrates self-management (management of the context, including

social setting, resources, and actions) with self-monitoring (the process whereby learners monitor, evaluate,

and regulate their cognitive learning strategies). It is important to note that being a self-directed learner is a

trait or disposition we want students to develop, rather than a laundry list of observable behaviors we wish

students to exhibit.

The individual, the group and the nature of autonomy:

A further run on, and linked with the above, is the extent to which an emphasis is placed on the

individual at the expense of the group. The problem here is that individuals can exist only so long as there

are groups. In this sense no project can be wholly self-directed - it always has to take account of the wishes

of others, and the dynamics of the context in which it takes place.

Freedom can never be absolute. None of us is self-determined. Self is relative to other selves and to

the inclusive environment. We live in freedom when we are conscious of a degree of self-direction

proportionate to our capacities. (Lindeman 1926). To be autonomous requires that people have a developed

self, to which their actions can be ascribed. 'In turn this requires a consciousness of oneself as a being who

acts for reasons, whose behavior can be explained by reference to one's own goals and purposes' (Lindley

1986). A second dimension of autonomy requires freedom from external constraints. That is to say, an

autonomous person is someone who is not manipulated by others. Such a person is able to act in pursuit of

self-chosen goals. However, autonomy on its own is not enough to get around the problems of reconciling

self and society within education.

Here we might go back to the work of Cyril Houle. He argued that there are three main groupings of

adults who continue to learn. These orientations are:

Goal-orientated - those who use education as a means of accomplishing fairly clear cut objectives

Activity-orientated - those who take part in such activities because of an attraction in the circumstances

of learning rather than in the content or announced purpose

Learning-orientated - those that seem to seek knowledge for its own sake

Implications for Instruction:

The research and literature on what teachers, administrators, and school communities can do to promote the

development of self-directed learners strongly reinforce a central theme: A student cannot become a self-

directed learner without becoming self-directed learners engaged in a curriculum that allows it to

happen. Here are the features that help foster and learning.

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Student Choice / Responsibility:

The curriculum has opportunities for student choice in the way mastery of content and subject matter is

demonstrated and investigated. State standards and local district curriculum standards don't need to be

adjusted, but students should be able to have some choice in acceptable ways to show they have met the

standards

Teachers raise awareness of students' role in their own learning (Abdullah, 2001). Teachers shift some of

the responsibility for learning from themselves to the learner. This is not to suggest that the teacher

should not teach, make lesson plans, or facilitate activities. However, the teacher can instruct the class in

those features over which students have control: amount of effort, note taking, perseverance, and locus

of control, self-efficacy, and self-regulation.

Educators encourage study skills, inquiry, questioning, and an atmosphere where errors are acceptable

during the process of arriving at correct answers. Teachers need to be able to comfortably inhabit "a

world of ambiguity." They should be able to avoid taking the shortest path to correct answers and should

help students to determine correct answers through critical questioning; expressing differing and

conflicting views; and putting assertions and hypotheses to the rigor of disciplined inquiry (scientific

method)

Teachers provide opportunities for students to self-monitor, revise work, and reflect on their own

thinking and learning processes. Journals, study groups, and critical friends' groups are just a few of the

ways to Learning/Collaboration/Reward achieve this in classrooms.

The curriculum has a strong strand of problem-based and project-based learning. Students have

opportunities to explore solutions to real-world problems and focus on innovation. Students also have

opportunities to transfer conceptual knowledge to new situations. For example, if students complete a

social studies project about the factors contributing to the American Civil War, they should have an

opportunity to apply their knowledge to understanding the factors contributing to civil wars in other

countries.

Collaboration and cooperation are high. Interestingly, self-directed learners are not nurtured in isolation

but where there are ample opportunities to collaborate and interact with their peers

Rewards are used sparingly and when they are used, they reward achievement, perseverance, risk taking,

and collaboration. Remember, rewards are part of an ethos that reinforces extrinsic motivation

Teachers model the behaviors they wish students to exhibit. Teachers should model critical questioning,

risk taking, and subjecting assertions and hypotheses to public scrutiny and debate. Teachers need to

model the discipline it takes to really investigate complex problems and formulate possible solutions

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Policy and Accountability Issues:

Several key issues and concerns leap to mind when looking at the literature on self-directed learners.

A thoughtful reader may look at the information presented above and draw the reasonable conclusion that

committing time and resources to develop school environments that enable students to become self-directed

learners appears to be antithetical to the provisions of state accountability systems and adequate yearly

progress determinations. First, it is important to point out that developing self-directed learners can be a

viable and worthy component of school improvement efforts. Second, there is empirical evidence that self-

directed learning leads to increased student achievement. Table (below) describes the traits of self-directed

learners and the research demonstrating the effects on student achievement. National nursing council

requires that school improvement interventions meet rigorous scientific research criteria.

Self-directed learning programs:

Self directed learning programs hold numerous advantages over traditional forms of classroom

instruction for employees in the workplace, whether they be leaders, managers, or individual contributors.

After many years of reflection about learning, eminent psychologist, Carl Rogers, founder of self-directed

therapy, asserted that “anything that can be taught to another is relatively inconsequential, and has little or

no significant influence on behavior” (On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy,

Houghton Mifflin, 1961, p. 276). He adds, “The only learning which significantly influences behavior is

self-discovered, self-appropriated learning”.

Self-directed learning programs:

Are more effective in development because learning accommodates employees’ learning styles and

objectives

Save substantial training costs because learners learn to help themselves and each other with

practical and timely materials

Achieve increased employee effectiveness in their jobs as they learn to learn from their own work

experiences and actually apply their learning in their place of work

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Some of those suggestions are listed below, and are wonderful ways for supervisors and learners to turn

the workplace into a classroom. Help the learner identify the starting point for a learning project and

discern relevant [ways] of examination and reporting.

Encourage adult learners to view knowledge and truth as contextual and that they can act on their

world individually or collectively to transform it

Create a partnership with the learner by negotiating a learning contract for goals, strategies and

evaluation criteria

Be a manager of the learning experience rather than an information provider

Teach inquiry skills, decision making, personal development, and self-evaluation of work

Help learners develop positive attitudes and feelings of independence relative to learning

Recognize learners' personality types and learning styles

Use techniques such as field experience and problem solving that take advantage of adults' rich

experience base

Encourage critical thinking skills by incorporating such activities as seminars

Create an atmosphere of openness and trust to promote better performance

Behave ethically, which includes not recommending a self-directed learning approach if it is not

congruent with the learner's needs

Obtain the necessary tools to assess learner's current performance and to evaluate their expected

performance

Provide opportunities for self-directed learners to reflect on what they're learning

Promote learning networks, study circles, and learning exchanges, self-managed teams of self-

directed learners)

Provide staff training on self-directed learning and broaden the opportunities for its implementation

Fisher adds that "Self-directed learning is more than a form of education. It is a component in human

development" As a process, 'self directed learning is a form of study in which learners have the primary

responsibility for planning, carrying out and evaluating their own learning experiences' (Merriam and

Caffarella 1991). In an influential review and exploration of self-direction, suggests that there are four main

ways of approaching the literature.

The four distinct but related phenomenons are as follows. Self-direction as:

A personal attribute (personal autonomy)

The willingness and capacity to conduct one's own education (self management)

A mode of organizing instruction in formal settings (learner control)

The individual, non-institutional pursuit of learning opportunities in the 'natural social setting'

(autodidaxy)

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Knowles’ skill was then to put the idea of self direction into packaged forms of activity that could be

taken by educators and learners. He popularized these through various books and courses. His five step

model involved:

Diagnosing learning needs

Formulating learning needs

Identifying human material resources for learning

Choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies

Evaluating learning outcomes

Research on traits of Self-Directed Learners:

Learner Traits Research Classroom Implications

Student

Motivation

Anderman, 2004;

Guthrie, Alao, &

Rinehart, 1997;

Howse, Lange,

Farran, & Boyles,

2003; Lumsden,

1994, 1999

Challenging, but achievable, relevant assignments;

conceptual theme instruction; choice in task/task

accomplishment; mastery learning/outcome-based

instruction; cooperative/collaborative learning;

individual goal setting; accelerated learning;

teacher modeling of positive behaviors; depth

rather than breadth of topics.

Goal Orientation Caraway, Tucker,

Reinke, & Hall,

2003; Nichols,

Jones, & Hancock,

2003; Stefanou &

Parkes, 2003

Type of assessment influences motivation; learner

emotions/teacher instructional strategies influence

student goal orientation; a higher general level of

confidence increases student engagement in

curriculum.

Locus of Control Harlen & Crick,

2003; Miller,

Fitch , & Marshall,

2003

Learning goals rather than performance goals; at-

risk students have a higher external locus of

control.

Self-Efficacy Bouffard &

Couture, 2003;

Linnenbrink &

Pintrich, 2003;

Student demonstrates behavioral, cognitive,

motivational engagement; teachers assist students

to maintain self-efficacy beliefs; foster belief that

competence/ability is changeable; motivational

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Thomas, 1993;

Zimmerman, 2002

variables do not change much across subject matter;

performance feedback improves independent learning.

Self-Regulation Palmer &

Wehmeyer, 2003

Students can develop self-regulation through

problem-solving/goal-setting instructional activities.

Metacognition Blakey & Spence,

1990; Ngeow &

Kong, 2001

Students should plan, monitor, and evaluate their

thinking processes; students should engage in

inquiry/problem-based learning that includes

problem framing, data gathering, divergent

thinking, idea generation, evaluating alternatives.

Benefits of Self-Directed Learning:

The benefits of self-directed learning are best described in terms of the type of learners it develops.

The literature on self-directed learning asserts that self-directed learners demonstrate a greater awareness of

their responsibility in making learning meaningful and monitoring themselves (Garrison, 1997). They are

curious and willing to try new things (Lyman, 1997), view problems as challenges, desire change, and enjoy

learning (Taylor, 1995). Taylor also found them to be motivated and persistent, independent, self-

disciplined, self-confident and goal-oriented.

Self-directed learning allows learners to be more effective learners and social beings. Guthrie, et al.

(1996) noted that the self-directed learners in a Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) program

demon-strated the ability to search for information in multiple texts, employ different strategies to achieve

goals, and to represent ideas in different forms (drawing and writing). Morrow, et al. (1993) observe that

with proper planning and implementation, self-directed learning can encourage students to develop their

own rules and leadership patterns.

Roles for Educators and Institutions:

The following list summarizes points made by several writers (Ash 1985; Bauer 1985; Brockett and

Hiemstra 1985; Brookfield 1985; Cross 1978; Hiemstra 1982, 1985; and Reisser 1973) regarding how adult

educators can best facilitate self-directed learning:

Help the learner identify the starting point for a learning project and discern relevant modes of

examination and reporting

Encourage adult learners to view knowledge and truth as contextual, to see value frameworks as cultural

constructs, and to appreciate that they can act on their world individually or collectively to transform it

Create a partnership with the learner by negotiating a learning contract for goals, strategies, and

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Be a manager of the learning experience rather than an information provider

Help learners acquire the needs assessment techniques necessary to discover what objectives they should

set

Encourage the setting of objectives that can be met in several ways and offer a variety of options for

evidence of successful performance

Provide examples of previously acceptable work

Make sure that learners are aware of the objectives, learning strategies, resources, and evaluation criteria

once they are decided upon

Teach inquiry skills, decision making, personal development, and self-evaluation of work.

Act as advocates for educationally underserved populations to facilitate their access to resources

Help match resources to the needs of learners

Help learners locate resources

Help learners develop positive attitudes and feelings of independence relative to learning

Recognize learner personality types and learning styles

Use techniques such as field experience and problem solving that take advantage of adults' rich

experience base

Develop high-quality learning guides, including programmed learning kits

Encourage critical thinking skills by incorporating such activities as seminars

Create an atmosphere of openness and trust to promote better performance

Help protect learners against manipulation by promoting a code of ethics

Behave ethically, which includes not recommending a self-directed learning approach if it is not

congruent with the learners' needs

Conduct research on trends and learners' interests

Obtain the necessary tools to assess learners' current performance and to evaluate their expected

performance

Provide opportunities for self-directed learners to reflect on what they are learning

Recognize and reward learners when they have met their learning objectives

For its implementation. Promote learning networks, study circles, and learning exchanges

Provide staff training on self-directed learning and broaden the opportunities

Conclusion:

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Self-directed learning is a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of

others, to diagnose their learning needs, formulate learning goals, identify resources for learning, select and

implement learning strategies, and evaluate learning outcomes. Learners attempt to gain new skills,

knowledge and attitude to improve their work performance. Basically it is adult learning which also needs

teacher guidance because isolated learners lack confidence and resources. The development of self-directed

learners can be accomplished within a framework of current academic standards and strict accountability.

Many of the types of teaching and instruction that foster self-directed learning are well-known, widespread,

and proven to be effective. However, most Learning is Informal and Self-Directed in Nature the emphasis on

fostering self-directed learners cannot take place in one or two classrooms, but must permeate the academic

culture of schools. Self-directed learners' achievement cannot be measured separately from other students'

achievement. There has been some research on assessing self-directed learners, the school, district, and state

systems of gathering achievement data should not change; only the methods of instruction may have to be

altered.

References:

Mardziah Hayati Abdullah.(2001). Self-directed learning, www.gwu.edu.pk

Cheryl Meredith Lowery. (2007), Self-directed learning, www.gwu.edu/eriche

Cheryl Meredith Lowery.(2007), Facilitating self-directed learning http://www.sdl./htm

Mohd. Shahar Saad . (2006) , http://lib.upm.edu.my/hast.html

http://www.nwrel.org/index.html

http://www. selfdirectedlearning .com/order.html

http://www.ntlf.com/forms/join.htm

http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/lib.htm

http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/bib/digests.htm

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