Seeing Patterns and Learning to Do Things and what that has to do with language

Seeing PatternsSeeing Patternsand Learning to Do and Learning to Do

ThingsThings

and what that has to do with and what that has to do with languagelanguage

David TuggyDavid TuggySIL-MexicoSIL-Mexico

Is “the language faculty” a Is “the language faculty” a black box?black box?

Is language something totally different from Is language something totally different from the rest of what we do in our minds?the rest of what we do in our minds?

If not, how are they connected? What does If not, how are they connected? What does what we do mentally in general tell us about what we do mentally in general tell us about language?language?

(And what does language tell us about our (And what does language tell us about our mental capacities and activities generally?)mental capacities and activities generally?)

Cognitive Grammar (CG) claims that Cognitive Grammar (CG) claims that much that we find in language much that we find in language dovetails with what we know about dovetails with what we know about other aspects of cognition.other aspects of cognition.

Language is amazing, but it is not Language is amazing, but it is not totally different from or unrelated to totally different from or unrelated to the rest of our mental activities.the rest of our mental activities.

Non-linguistic cognition is pretty Non-linguistic cognition is pretty amazing too.amazing too.

OutlineOutline I plan to divide this talk into two I plan to divide this talk into two

sections:sections:I.I. We have amazing abilities toWe have amazing abilities to

Acquire complex and flexible habits (learn Acquire complex and flexible habits (learn to do things)to do things)

Compare and categorize experiences (see Compare and categorize experiences (see patterns and apply them in novel ways) patterns and apply them in novel ways)

II. Understanding these abilities can clarify II. Understanding these abilities can clarify our understanding of what language is our understanding of what language is and how it functions. In particularand how it functions. In particular We should be careful not to simplify by We should be careful not to simplify by

setting learning and the application of setting learning and the application of patterns against each other as if they were patterns against each other as if they were mutually exclusive. mutually exclusive.

We are good at learning to We are good at learning to do thingsdo things

Think about what is involved in driving a car.Think about what is involved in driving a car. One way to assess it is to consider what it One way to assess it is to consider what it

would take to teach a robot to do the same.would take to teach a robot to do the same. There are a host of more-basic skills that must There are a host of more-basic skills that must

be mastered, that are recruited into the skill of be mastered, that are recruited into the skill of driving.driving.


For instance (on the perception side For instance (on the perception side of things):of things): Binocular visual perception: Binocular visual perception:

triangulation and depth triangulation and depth perception.perception.

Perception of 3-dimensional Perception of 3-dimensional space and assessment space and assessment of your position in it.of your position in it.

Calculation of your, and your Calculation of your, and your car’s, motion, rate of motion, car’s, motion, rate of motion, direction of motion, etc.direction of motion, etc.

Calculation of other vehicles’, Calculation of other vehicles’, and pedestrians’, etc. and pedestrians’, etc. motion, rate, direction, etc.motion, rate, direction, etc.


(still on the perception side of things):(still on the perception side of things): Perception of where the parts of your body Perception of where the parts of your body

are with respect to each other and to the are with respect to each other and to the immediate surroundings (like the car seat, immediate surroundings (like the car seat, gear shift, steering wheel.)gear shift, steering wheel.)

Hearing car sounds, horns, and road noise, Hearing car sounds, horns, and road noise, and evaluation of their significance.and evaluation of their significance.

Seeing and recognizing details like turn Seeing and recognizing details like turn signals and brake lights.signals and brake lights.

Knowing where your mirrors are, and how Knowing where your mirrors are, and how to interpret what you see in them. to interpret what you see in them.


More on the motor side of things:More on the motor side of things: Turning your head and eyes for optimum Turning your head and eyes for optimum

seeing.seeing. Knowing how to move other body parts.Knowing how to move other body parts. Knowing how to move (without watching) to Knowing how to move (without watching) to

the controls of the car and then move the the controls of the car and then move the controls.controls.

Assessing what your motions will do.Assessing what your motions will do. Assessing and controlling how hard, fast and Assessing and controlling how hard, fast and

far the motions will/should carry.far the motions will/should carry. Adjusting all of the above to the perceptions Adjusting all of the above to the perceptions

mentioned before, in real time.mentioned before, in real time.


These (and other) skills are combined and These (and other) skills are combined and coordinated in various sophisticated, coordinated in various sophisticated, highly flexible ways, into such higher-order highly flexible ways, into such higher-order skills as:skills as: Starting and acceleratingStarting and accelerating Steering to the rightSteering to the right

or to the leftor to the left Staying on the road and Staying on the road and

in your lanein your lane Shifting gears Shifting gears Slowing and stopping,Slowing and stopping,

not running into cars ahead not running into cars ahead Changing lanes, passing other vehiclesChanging lanes, passing other vehicles Obeying traffic signals and signs.Obeying traffic signals and signs.


These in turn are likely to form part of These in turn are likely to form part of such ordinary activities as:such ordinary activities as: Going to work.Going to work. Running an errand.Running an errand. Visiting your parents.Visiting your parents.

The whole package is so complex that it The whole package is so complex that it takes considerable time to learn to do it takes considerable time to learn to do it wellwell

We continue to upgrade and relearn We continue to upgrade and relearn these skills even after we have these skills even after we have mastered them.mastered them.


They become so ordinary to us that we They become so ordinary to us that we can do them on “autopilot”, as it were, can do them on “autopilot”, as it were, hardly paying any attention to what we hardly paying any attention to what we are doing, much less taking in the full are doing, much less taking in the full complexity of it all.complexity of it all.

We adapt them with exquisite We adapt them with exquisite precision to new situations.precision to new situations.

The consequences of doing them The consequences of doing them poorly are likely to be lethal.poorly are likely to be lethal. Yet we regularly and almost unthinkingly Yet we regularly and almost unthinkingly

trust ourselves and thousands of others to trust ourselves and thousands of others to do them right (or at least well enough).do them right (or at least well enough).


Besides the perceptual and motor-Besides the perceptual and motor-related skills are more “autonomous” related skills are more “autonomous” ones; ones;

E.g. evaluation of other cars’ motions E.g. evaluation of other cars’ motions and inferences about their drivers’ and inferences about their drivers’ intentions, reading signs, judgment of intentions, reading signs, judgment of the passage of time, calculation of the passage of time, calculation of odds, calculations about what speed odds, calculations about what speed to take a corner or a speed bump at, to take a corner or a speed bump at, and comparison of the result with the and comparison of the result with the anticipated situation, etc. etc.anticipated situation, etc. etc.


Language is a set of skills of this sort.Language is a set of skills of this sort. It involves coordinating hugely It involves coordinating hugely

complex muscular, perceptual, and complex muscular, perceptual, and “autonomous” cognitive skills.“autonomous” cognitive skills.


Many levels of such skills are recruited as parts of other, Many levels of such skills are recruited as parts of other, higher-level skills.higher-level skills.

We can say “I wouldn’t have believed that she would We can say “I wouldn’t have believed that she would have said anything of the sort” and understand it in have said anything of the sort” and understand it in context while hardly paying any attention to it, certainly context while hardly paying any attention to it, certainly without consciously realizing its enormous complexity.without consciously realizing its enormous complexity.

aj wʊɾˌ ˌ bəlivdðæt ʃiwʊɾˈ ˌ sɛɾɛniƟɪŋəvðəsoɹtˈ ˈ

Pro D N

NP

P

Pr

NQV prtc

Adj

VVProV Neg V V prtc Sub

PPNP

VV

VPS

NP

Adj

V

V

V

VPS


CG recognizes this, defining a language CG recognizes this, defining a language as a “structured inventory of as a “structured inventory of conventionalized linguistic units”. conventionalized linguistic units”.

A “A “unitunit” is a skill we have mastered, a ” is a skill we have mastered, a cognitive routine we can run through cognitive routine we can run through without having to put “constructive without having to put “constructive effort” into it. effort” into it.

There are hierarchies upon hierarchies There are hierarchies upon hierarchies of such skills involved in our use of of such skills involved in our use of language.language.

What is it that we learn What is it that we learn to do?to do?

An important point is that though we An important point is that though we learn these skills (linguistic or otherwise) learn these skills (linguistic or otherwise) from our experiences, they cannot be from our experiences, they cannot be equated with particular actual equated with particular actual experiences. experiences.

Not every neuron that fired will fire again Not every neuron that fired will fire again in exactly the same way the next time we in exactly the same way the next time we implement the skill (e.g. of perceiving a implement the skill (e.g. of perceiving a car braking on the road ahead, or of car braking on the road ahead, or of saying “she wouldn’t’ve said it”).saying “she wouldn’t’ve said it”).

What is it that we learn What is it that we learn to do?to do?

Rather these are Rather these are patternspatterns of activation.of activation. They permit a certain amount of “slop” or They permit a certain amount of “slop” or

leeway.leeway. This “slop” or leeway is extremely This “slop” or leeway is extremely

important.important. It is what permits us to recognize a new It is what permits us to recognize a new

situation as one of a kind we’ve seen situation as one of a kind we’ve seen before.before.

It also permits us to act in a new way It also permits us to act in a new way that is nevertheless one of a kind we that is nevertheless one of a kind we have done before.have done before.

Extracting patternsExtracting patterns

CG talks about this in terms of CG talks about this in terms of all the “units” being all the “units” being “schematic” to one degree or “schematic” to one degree or another. another.

Think “Schema” = “Pattern”. Think “Schema” = “Pattern”. There are higher-level (more There are higher-level (more

abstract) and lower-level (more abstract) and lower-level (more specific) patterns, and patterns specific) patterns, and patterns of many kindsof many kinds

It is “patterns all the way It is “patterns all the way down”, as far as language is down”, as far as language is concerned. concerned.

THING

PHYSICAL OBJECT

VEGETABLE

EDIBLE ROOT

RUTABAGA

SLICEDRUTABAGA

S.S

CV.CV

Stopˈ V.LiquidV

pɪloˈ

p ɪloˈ ʰ ʷ

pˈ ʰ oɫʊ

PROCESS

MOVE

MOVE BODY

MOVE SMALL BODYPART

WINK

WINK WITH YOUR LEFT EYE

Stem-Deriv Affix

N-Adjr

N-y

FOOD-y

salty

saltypronounced [sɔˈ ɾiɫ ]


Schemas arise as experiences are Schemas arise as experiences are compared and commonalities noted.compared and commonalities noted.

A schema embodies the commonalities of A schema embodies the commonalities of its subcases. its subcases.

Consider the (already Consider the (already schematic yet still ratherschematic yet still ratherspecific) concept of a specific) concept of a

pencil.pencil.used for writing or drawing

erasable mark

rubber eraser

wooden body

yellow color ( or others)

carbon “lead”

cylindrical form, long ,

with sharp point that leaves a mark

you sharpen it,it gets shorter as

you do so


As this concept is compared to the similar concept As this concept is compared to the similar concept of a ballpoint pen, there are notable similarities.of a ballpoint pen, there are notable similarities.

used for writing or drawing

erasable mark

rubber eraser

wooden body


carbon “lead”




you do so


non- erasable ink mark plastic lid

plastic body

different colors

metal tip with a ball at the end

cylindrical form, long, with sharp point that

leaves a mark

Extracting patternsExtracting patterns These similarities These similarities

together constitute together constitute a schema (pattern) a schema (pattern) we can call ‘writing we can call ‘writing instrument’.instrument’.


erasable mark

rubber eraser

wooden body


carbon “lead”




you do so


non- erasable ink mark plastic lid

plastic body

different colors

metal tip with a ball at the end

cylindrical form, long, with sharp point that

leaves a mark


longcylincrical

form, sharppoint that

leaves a mark

colors may vary

Extracting patternsExtracting patterns This kind of relationship is traditionally This kind of relationship is traditionally

represented in CG by an arrow from represented in CG by an arrow from schema to subcase: A schema to subcase: A B means “A is B means “A is schematic for B; B is a subcase of A.”schematic for B; B is a subcase of A.”

PENCIL BALLPOINT PEN

WRITING INSTRUMENT

Extracting patternsExtracting patterns This relationship is by nature This relationship is by nature

asymmetrical.asymmetrical. Every specification of the schema Every specification of the schema

(pattern) holds true of the subcases; (pattern) holds true of the subcases; Not vice versa.Not vice versa.


WRITING INSTRUMENT

Extracting patternsExtracting patterns There is an interesting sense in which There is an interesting sense in which

either the subcase(s) or the pattern either the subcase(s) or the pattern can be seen as “basic” to the other.can be seen as “basic” to the other.


WRITING INSTRUMENT

Extracting patternsExtracting patterns (1) The schema is extracted from, and (1) The schema is extracted from, and

comes into being because of, the comes into being because of, the subcases. In this sense the system is subcases. In this sense the system is built “bottom-up”built “bottom-up”


WRITING INSTRUMENT

(2) Once it is (2) Once it is estab-lished estab-lished (learned), the (learned), the schema schema legitimizes legitimizes ((sanctionssanctions) its ) its subcases in subcases in “top-down” “top-down” fashion.fashion.

Applying patterns Applying patterns productivelyproductively

Particularly, a well-established schema Particularly, a well-established schema can sanction novel structures.can sanction novel structures.

This includes “partial sanction”, where This includes “partial sanction”, where the “subcase” contradicts some of the the “subcase” contradicts some of the schema’s specifications.schema’s specifications.


WRITING INSTRUMENT

MECHANICAL PENCIL

ELECTRICTATTOOING

STYLUS

Extracting and applying Extracting and applying patternspatterns

This is the way linguistic rules work under CG. This is the way linguistic rules work under CG. Rules are simply schemas. Applying a rule is Rules are simply schemas. Applying a rule is

letting the rule sanction a more specific letting the rule sanction a more specific subcase.subcase.

If the subcase is a new one, the rule is applied If the subcase is a new one, the rule is applied productively.productively.

Like any other linguistic structures, rules are Like any other linguistic structures, rules are part of the language to the extent that they part of the language to the extent that they are learned conventionally (thus known and are learned conventionally (thus known and known to be known by all in the relevant known to be known by all in the relevant group.)group.)

Once learned, they can sanction novel Once learned, they can sanction novel structures.structures.

Learning and using Learning and using patternspatterns

E.g. a kid may learn the words E.g. a kid may learn the words sugarysugary and and saltysalty,,and by comparing them, extract a schema and by comparing them, extract a schema FOODFOOD-y-y..

FOODFOOD-y-y is a nascent rule, and the child may is a nascent rule, and the child may use it to invent new words like use it to invent new words like vinegaryvinegary or or orangey.orangey.

salty sugary

FOOD-yvinegary orangey

Learning & PatternsLearning & Patterns From all of this it should be clear that From all of this it should be clear that

learning things (establishing units) and learning things (establishing units) and extracting schemas (making extracting schemas (making generalizations) and applying them generalizations) and applying them are not mutually-exclusive activities.are not mutually-exclusive activities.

salty sugary


Learning & PatternsLearning & Patterns Everything we have learned (e.g. all Everything we have learned (e.g. all

the established structures in the the established structures in the diagram below) are generalizations diagram below) are generalizations (schemas, patterns).(schemas, patterns).

salty sugary


Learning & PatternsLearning & Patterns The schemas aren’t much good to us The schemas aren’t much good to us

until we have learned them (mastered until we have learned them (mastered them as units).them as units).

Once we have done so, we can use Once we have done so, we can use them to come up with new subcases, them to come up with new subcases, which may in turn be learnt.which may in turn be learnt.

salty sugary


Learning & PatternsLearning & Patterns Different people can learn slightly different Different people can learn slightly different

units, as long as their system is close enough units, as long as their system is close enough to somebody else’s that they can talk.to somebody else’s that they can talk.

VinegaryVinegary or or orangeyorangey may be learned, but if may be learned, but if not, they are still understandable because not, they are still understandable because they are sanctioned by the schema (rule) they are sanctioned by the schema (rule) FOODFOOD-y-y..

salty sugary


Learning & PatternsLearning & Patterns Knowing (having mastered) a schema and Knowing (having mastered) a schema and

knowing (having mastered) a subcase are knowing (having mastered) a subcase are not mutually-exclusive propositions.not mutually-exclusive propositions.

To the contrary, knowing the subcases To the contrary, knowing the subcases helps extract the schema, and knowing helps extract the schema, and knowing the schema reinforces the subcases.the schema reinforces the subcases.

salty sugary


The traditional contrast The traditional contrast between Regularity and between Regularity and

IrregularityIrregularity

(Shifting gears —(Shifting gears —downshifting??—)downshifting??—)

In most linguistics of the last In most linguistics of the last 100 years, the contrast 100 years, the contrast between what is regular and between what is regular and what is irregular is given what is irregular is given enormous importance.enormous importance.

(Regular = according to rule, i.e. it fits a (Regular = according to rule, i.e. it fits a schema)schema)


IrregularityIrregularity It is often considered It is often considered

important to maximize the important to maximize the regular and minimize the regular and minimize the irregular in our models of irregular in our models of language (so as to be language (so as to be “scientific”).“scientific”).

The problem is it has been The problem is it has been assumed that only irregular assumed that only irregular things are learned. things are learned.


IrregularityIrregularity It is assumed that: Regular = It is assumed that: Regular =

systematic = predictable = produced systematic = predictable = produced by rule.by rule.

Irregular = idiosyncratic = arbitrary = Irregular = idiosyncratic = arbitrary = learnedlearned

There is assumed to be a dichotomy There is assumed to be a dichotomy between these two categories.between these two categories.

things that areregular

=systematic=predictable=produced by

rule

things that areirregular

=idiosyncratic=arbitrary=learned


IrregularityIrregularity This difference is typically made into part of the This difference is typically made into part of the

architecture of linguistics. The architecture of linguistics. The regular/predictable is the province of grammar, regular/predictable is the province of grammar, the irregular is the province of the lexicon.the irregular is the province of the lexicon.



rule



Grammar Lexicon


IrregularityIrregularity The system assumes nice neat “modules”.The system assumes nice neat “modules”. It is therefore considered important to establish if It is therefore considered important to establish if

a particular kind of structure is to be accounted a particular kind of structure is to be accounted for “in the grammar” or “in the lexicon.”for “in the grammar” or “in the lexicon.”



rule



Grammar Lexicon


IrregularityIrregularity Structures are taken to be of fundamentally Structures are taken to be of fundamentally

different sorts, and are processed in very different sorts, and are processed in very different ways, if they are “in the different ways, if they are “in the grammar”, than if they are “in the lexicon”.grammar”, than if they are “in the lexicon”.



rule



Grammar Lexicon


IrregularityIrregularity So, if a word like So, if a word like sugarysugary, or a phrase , or a phrase

like like over the topover the top, could be produced , could be produced by rule, the presumption is that in fact by rule, the presumption is that in fact it is produced by rule.it is produced by rule.

FOOD-y Prep the N

vinegary orangey

salty sugaryathwart the bannisters

under the circumstances

over the top under the table


IrregularityIrregularity The schema is real, the subcases are The schema is real, the subcases are

epiphenomenal.epiphenomenal. In effect, if you first learned the specific structure, In effect, if you first learned the specific structure,

as soon as you learn how to produce it by rule, as soon as you learn how to produce it by rule, you forget it and remember only the rule.you forget it and remember only the rule.

FOOD-y Prep the N

vinegary orangey





IrregularityIrregularity All members of the category alike are All members of the category alike are

produced by the rule rather than learned.produced by the rule rather than learned. This is justified because it makes the This is justified because it makes the

model simpler and more predictive. model simpler and more predictive. (Science is all about prediction, right?)(Science is all about prediction, right?)

FOOD-y Prep the N

vinegary orangey





IrregularityIrregularity Now this was so obviously wrong for many Now this was so obviously wrong for many

words that the model was modified: words that the model was modified: morphology (word-formation) was morphology (word-formation) was distinguished from syntax (“real” grammar), distinguished from syntax (“real” grammar), because (oversimplifying) so often many examples because (oversimplifying) so often many examples

of a morphological rule had clearly been learned.of a morphological rule had clearly been learned.

FOOD-y Prep the N

vinegary orangey





IrregularityIrregularity As a result, morphological structures and As a result, morphological structures and

rules were taken to be different in kind rules were taken to be different in kind from syntactic structures and rules; they from syntactic structures and rules; they were taken care of in a different “module”.were taken care of in a different “module”.

FOOD-y Prep the N

vinegary orangey




The CG viewThe CG view For CG, the dimensions of the predictability For CG, the dimensions of the predictability

distinction are gradual, and though they distinction are gradual, and though they tend to line up, they are not exactly parallel.tend to line up, they are not exactly parallel.

things that areirregularthings that are

regulardegree of regularity

things that areidiosyncratic

things that aresystematic

degree of systematicity

things that arearbitrary

things that arepredictable

degree of predictability

things that arelearned (and retrieved from

memory)

things that areproduced by rule = sanctioned by

schema

a matter of degree?

Prototypically Grammatical Prototypically

Lexical

The CG viewThe CG view The distinction between what is produced by rule The distinction between what is produced by rule

and what is learned is of especial interest to CG. and what is learned is of especial interest to CG. It is the only one of these four that is directly cognitive It is the only one of these four that is directly cognitive

(dealing with (dealing with howhow the system processes the structure). the system processes the structure).

things that areirregularthings that are

regulardegree of regularity

things that areidiosyncratic

things that aresystematic

degree of systematicity

things that arearbitrary

things that arepredictable

degree of predictability


memory)


schema

a matter of degree?

Prototypically Grammatical Prototypically

Lexical

The CG viewThe CG view It is closely tied to the two abilities we It is closely tied to the two abilities we

have been discussing. have been discussing. Producing something by rule is using a Producing something by rule is using a

schema to sanction it, especially if it itself is schema to sanction it, especially if it itself is not (yet) learnt. not (yet) learnt.

Learning is (of course) learning, routinizing a Learning is (of course) learning, routinizing a skill, making a sequence of cognitive skill, making a sequence of cognitive activations into a unit, then recalling that unit, activations into a unit, then recalling that unit, as needed, from cognitive storage (memory).as needed, from cognitive storage (memory).


memory)


schema

a matter of degree?

The computer analogyThe computer analogy A standard (and largely useful) to talk about A standard (and largely useful) to talk about

these issues is on the analogy of a computer.these issues is on the analogy of a computer. Learned information is analogous to what is Learned information is analogous to what is

stored on the hard drive, and information stored on the hard drive, and information produced by rule is analogous to information produced by rule is analogous to information produced by a program and not stored.produced by a program and not stored.


memory)


schema

a matter of degree?

“Computed” “Stored”(on the hard drive)

The computer analogyThe computer analogy This makes it less than immediately obvious This makes it less than immediately obvious

that the distinction is one of degree.that the distinction is one of degree. What degree is there between information What degree is there between information

that is on the hard disk and information that that is on the hard disk and information that is not? is not?

In a sense, none.In a sense, none.


memory)


schema

a matter of degree?


The computer analogyThe computer analogy But that’s like saying there is an absolute, But that’s like saying there is an absolute,

binary, modular difference between the binary, modular difference between the word word giraffegiraffe written here on the screen and written here on the screen and giraffegiraffe here, or in a book. here, or in a book.

It’s true in a sense, but for most purposes It’s true in a sense, but for most purposes it’s much more important to see that it’s it’s much more important to see that it’s the same word (pattern = schema) either the same word (pattern = schema) either place.place.


memory)


schema

a matter of degree?


The computer analogyThe computer analogy For information from a program or from the For information from a program or from the

hard disk to be useful, it has to be brought to hard disk to be useful, it has to be brought to working memory (RAM).working memory (RAM).

Once it’s there, it doesn’t much matter where it Once it’s there, it doesn’t much matter where it came from. came from.

The same information (pattern = schema) can The same information (pattern = schema) can be in both places at once, and transferred back be in both places at once, and transferred back and forth.and forth.


memory)


schema

a matter of degree?


information in working memory

I nformation being used

The computer analogyThe computer analogy There is not a dichotomic difference There is not a dichotomic difference

between between kindskinds of information that are of information that are on the hard drive and those that are on the hard drive and those that are produced by computation.produced by computation.

Once it’s in working memory, you can’t Once it’s in working memory, you can’t necessarily tell, from the necessarily tell, from the kindkind of of information it is, where it came from.information it is, where it came from.


memory)


schema

a matter of degree?




The computer analogyThe computer analogy The original information, the program The original information, the program

that massages it, and the resulting that massages it, and the resulting computed data can all be together on computed data can all be together on the hard drive, or all together in the the hard drive, or all together in the working memory, or in both, at the working memory, or in both, at the same time, and still be accessible.same time, and still be accessible.


memory)


schema

a matter of degree?




Non-linguistic cognition Non-linguistic cognition againagain

What’s 9 What’s 9 xx 8? 8? How did you figure it?How did you figure it?

10 10 xx 8 = 80, -8 = 72 8 = 80, -8 = 72 10 10 xx 9 = 90, -(9 9 = 90, -(9 xx 2 = 18), = 72 2 = 18), = 72 8 8 xx 8 = 64, +8 = 72 8 = 64, +8 = 72 Or just, oh yeah, 9 Or just, oh yeah, 9 xx 8 = 72. 8 = 72.

You can figure (compute it, produce it by rule) You can figure (compute it, produce it by rule) in any of a number of different ways, or just in any of a number of different ways, or just remember it.remember it.

Different ones can retrieve a date (say your Different ones can retrieve a date (say your father’s birthday) in different ways. father’s birthday) in different ways.

For most practical purposes, how you get it For most practical purposes, how you get it doesn’t matter at all, as long as you get it right.doesn’t matter at all, as long as you get it right.

Humans aren’t Humans aren’t computers anywaycomputers anyway

Two important differences between Two important differences between computers’ and humans’ cognition are computers’ and humans’ cognition are (1) salience and (2) how storage (1) salience and (2) how storage works.works.


Patterns in humans’ minds differ in Patterns in humans’ minds differ in salience (cognitive prominence). Non-salience (cognitive prominence). Non-salient patterns are less clearly “there”. salient patterns are less clearly “there”. Salient patterns “stand out” and attract Salient patterns “stand out” and attract attention.attention.

salty sugary

FOOD-y

vinegary orangey

on the tableover the top


athwart the bannisters

Prep the N


The result is that categories are not The result is that categories are not homogenous. Some members may be homogenous. Some members may be novel, produced by rule, others, while novel, produced by rule, others, while sanctioned by the rule, are also learned in sanctioned by the rule, are also learned in their own right. their own right.

salty sugary

FOOD-y

vinegary orangey

on the table

Prep the N

over the top




And the cases which have been And the cases which have been learned differ in their salience learned differ in their salience according to their usage.according to their usage.

salty sugary

FOOD-y

vinegary orangey

on the table

Prep the N

over the top




Repetition increases salience; all else Repetition increases salience; all else being equal, often-repeated structures are being equal, often-repeated structures are entrenched with ever-greater salience. entrenched with ever-greater salience.

This may give a better picture of the This may give a better picture of the general way a category might develop :general way a category might develop :

on the table

behind the door

under the bedon the table

under the bed

etc.

on the table

Prep the N

over the top

etc.

Prep the N

under the bed

Prep the N

on the table

etc.behind the door

Prep the N

on the table

Prep the N

over the top

And so forth.And so forth.


(To repeat (To repeat :) :) Repetition increases salience; all else Repetition increases salience; all else

being equal often-repeated structures being equal often-repeated structures are entrenched with ever-greater are entrenched with ever-greater salience. salience. (Repetition isn’t the (Repetition isn’t the onlyonly thing that thing that

enhances salience, but we won’t go into enhances salience, but we won’t go into the others here.)the others here.)

∴∴ frequency counts correlate highly frequency counts correlate highly with salience. Common structures are with salience. Common structures are especially important.especially important.


Humans start storing experiences Humans start storing experiences automatically, but need repetition to automatically, but need repetition to learn. learn. (Computers store on command, and only need (Computers store on command, and only need

one command.)one command.) Humans can’t very well avoid learning Humans can’t very well avoid learning

what they experience over and over. what they experience over and over. Again, frequency counts are a useful index Again, frequency counts are a useful index of likelihood of being established.of likelihood of being established.

Whether or not a structure is (ir)regular or Whether or not a structure is (ir)regular or (un)predictable is a much less useful (un)predictable is a much less useful indicator.indicator.

What difference does all What difference does all this make?this make?

So what? What does all this have to do So what? What does all this have to do with linguistics?with linguistics?

I would like to suggest 6 maxims having I would like to suggest 6 maxims having to do with this difference between to do with this difference between learning a pattern and calculating it learning a pattern and calculating it (producing it by rule). They contradict (producing it by rule). They contradict much of the received wisdom of much of the received wisdom of traditional linguistics. traditional linguistics.

They bear especially on the “modular” They bear especially on the “modular” architecture of many models.architecture of many models.

They affect phonology, semantics, They affect phonology, semantics, lexicon, and grammar alike.lexicon, and grammar alike.

Background for the Background for the maximsmaxims

The maxims generally take the form: The maxims generally take the form: “You can’t assume 100% computation “You can’t assume 100% computation and 0% storage, or verce visa. It is an and 0% storage, or verce visa. It is an empirical question how much of each.”empirical question how much of each.”

I won’t question that what is I won’t question that what is unpredictable yet known must have unpredictable yet known must have been learned.been learned.

But I do question the assumption that But I do question the assumption that what is predictable or can be produced what is predictable or can be produced by rule therefore is not learned.by rule therefore is not learned.

Background for the Background for the maximsmaxims

Many cognitive scientists have concluded Many cognitive scientists have concluded that humans (in comparison with current that humans (in comparison with current digital computers) vastly maximize digital computers) vastly maximize storage (with sophisticated retrieval) and storage (with sophisticated retrieval) and minimize computation. minimize computation.

I.e., generally, we learn more than we I.e., generally, we learn more than we need to, not less. Experts are those that need to, not less. Experts are those that have learned more, not that can figure have learned more, not that can figure things faster.things faster.

Our cognitive system has Our cognitive system has lotslots of of redundancy.redundancy.

So (surprise surprise) does language.So (surprise surprise) does language.

Maxim #1Maxim #1

Frequently linguists have argued that Frequently linguists have argued that some member(s) of Category X are some member(s) of Category X are computed (=predictable=produced computed (=predictable=produced by rule), or, as the case might be, by rule), or, as the case might be, irregular (=unpredictable irregular (=unpredictable =learned=in the lexicon).=learned=in the lexicon).

They then conclude that all members They then conclude that all members of Category X are treated the same of Category X are treated the same way.way.

Maxim #1Maxim #1

E.g. Chomsky (1967 – Lexicalist E.g. Chomsky (1967 – Lexicalist Hypothesis):Hypothesis):

Derived nominals are IRREGULAR. Derived nominals are IRREGULAR. (cites exx.) “A lexical treatment of (cites exx.) “A lexical treatment of DN’s is the natural way to capture DN’s is the natural way to capture this irregular behavior.”this irregular behavior.”

Crucial assumption: if some DN’s (the Crucial assumption: if some DN’s (the exx. cited) are lexical, all are.exx. cited) are lexical, all are.

Maxim #1Maxim #1

CG denies this gratuitous assumption. RatherCG denies this gratuitous assumption. Rather Showing that one member of a class is Showing that one member of a class is

learned or computed does not show that all learned or computed does not show that all members of the class are treated the same members of the class are treated the same way.way.

I.e.I.e.

What happens to one formWhat happens to one form

doesn’t have to happen to all of doesn’t have to happen to all of them.them.

Maxim #1Maxim #1What happens to one formWhat happens to one form


Think of Think of –er–er nominalizations. Are they nominalizations. Are they lexical? Novel ones like lexical? Novel ones like flingerflinger or or gulpergulper are presumably produced by rule. are presumably produced by rule. Others are clearly learned.Others are clearly learned.

flingerflinger < < screamerscreamer < < swimmerswimmer < < readerreader < < computercomputer < < propellerpropeller < < rockerrocker < < rulerruler < < drawerdrawer

So, are So, are –er–er nominalizations learned, or nominalizations learned, or produced by rule? Answer: It depends.produced by rule? Answer: It depends.


doesn’t have to happen to all of them.doesn’t have to happen to all of them. flingerflinger < < screamerscreamer < < swimmerswimmer < < readerreader < <

computercomputer < < propellerpropeller < < rockerrocker < < rulerruler < < drawerdrawer

Verb-er

computerreader propellerrocker

ruler

drawer

screamer

flinger

Some forms are well-learnt and well-established, Some forms are well-learnt and well-established, others may be novel and only allowed because others may be novel and only allowed because sanctioned by the rule. This is a more realistic sanctioned by the rule. This is a more realistic model.model.


doesn’t have to happen to all of them.doesn’t have to happen to all of them.

Some forms are computed, some are Some forms are computed, some are learned and retrieved from memory. You learned and retrieved from memory. You will have to check each case: it is an will have to check each case: it is an empirical issue.empirical issue.

Objection: This is redundant: it violates Objection: This is redundant: it violates simplicity. Why should we posit that simplicity. Why should we posit that people learn things when there’s a people learn things when there’s a perfectly good way to figure them?perfectly good way to figure them?

Answer: It is good that the model is Answer: It is good that the model is redun-dant— that is true to the cognitive redun-dant— that is true to the cognitive reality. reality.



Arguing otherwise is like arguing that a Arguing otherwise is like arguing that a computer can’t have on its hard disk computer can’t have on its hard disk information that could be calculated by a information that could be calculated by a program, because that would be redundant.program, because that would be redundant.

Whether or not it’s redundant, it happens.Whether or not it’s redundant, it happens. Restating: Restating:

It is ultimately an empirical issue whether It is ultimately an empirical issue whether a a particular linguistic formparticular linguistic form is stored in is stored in

language speakers’ minds or whether it is language speakers’ minds or whether it is computed from other informationcomputed from other information. .


doesn’t have to happen to all of them.doesn’t have to happen to all of them.

Saying that it is an empirical issue Saying that it is an empirical issue doesn’t mean there is necessarily doesn’t mean there is necessarily any easy empirical test to let you any easy empirical test to let you know.know.

It does mean that in principle it could It does mean that in principle it could be either way, and you must be either way, and you must examine relevant data to settle the examine relevant data to settle the question in a given case.question in a given case.

Maxim #2Maxim #2Chomsky 1965 (and almost everybody Chomsky 1965 (and almost everybody

else):else): Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-

listener, in a completely homogenous speech-community, who listener, in a completely homogenous speech-community, who knows its language perfectly, and is unaffected by such knows its language perfectly, and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance.performance.

““Primarily” = in practice, “only”; Primarily” = in practice, “only”; “grammatically irrelevant” begs important “grammatically irrelevant” begs important questions.questions.

Speech communities are not homogenous, Speech communities are not homogenous, however: far from it. And this fact is however: far from it. And this fact is relevant.relevant.

Maxim #2Maxim #2 Some speakers’ computing or Some speakers’ computing or

learning a form doesn’t necessarily learning a form doesn’t necessarily mean all speakers do it.mean all speakers do it.

Your doing itYour doing it

doesn’t mean everybody doesn’t mean everybody else has toelse has to..

Maxim #2Maxim #2

Your doing itYour doing itdoesn’t mean everybody doesn’t mean everybody

else has toelse has to..

Shifting from second to third gear may Shifting from second to third gear may be perfectly automatic for one person, be perfectly automatic for one person, and require considerable thought and and require considerable thought and calculation for another.calculation for another.

For a friend “that was all she wrote” was For a friend “that was all she wrote” was a clichéd, dead metaphor he pulled off a clichéd, dead metaphor he pulled off the shelf. For me it was brand new, made the shelf. For me it was brand new, made me laugh out loud.me laugh out loud.

Maxim #2Maxim #2Your doing itYour doing it

doesn’t mean everybody else has todoesn’t mean everybody else has to..

Relatedly, one type of computation by one Relatedly, one type of computation by one speaker doesn’t guarantee the same computation speaker doesn’t guarantee the same computation by another: by another: Un[[believabl]y]Un[[believabl]y] vs. vs. un[[believe]ably]un[[believe]ably] vs. vs.

[unbelief]able]y][unbelief]able]y], vs. , vs. [unbelievable]y[unbelievable]y, etc., etc. hangmanhangman = V + O (guy who hangs a man) or V + S = V + O (guy who hangs a man) or V + S

(man who hangs people)(man who hangs people) Like calculating 8 Like calculating 8 xx 9 in different ways: who cares 9 in different ways: who cares

how you did it? The result is the same (near how you did it? The result is the same (near enough).enough).

Maxim #2Maxim #2

Your doing itYour doing it

doesn’t mean everybody else doesn’t mean everybody else has tohas to..

Restating: Restating: It is ultimately an empirical issue It is ultimately an empirical issue whether whether a particular forma particular form is learned is learned by a particular individual speakerby a particular individual speaker, , or whether he (or she) computes it in or whether he (or she) computes it in

one way or another. one way or another.

Maxim #3Maxim #3 Most of us have had the experience of Most of us have had the experience of

“tumbling to” an analysis of something that “tumbling to” an analysis of something that had previously been monomorphemic to us.had previously been monomorphemic to us. E.g. E.g. rue + thrue + th = = ruth(less)ruth(less)

vile + th vile + th == filth filth like like true + th = true + th = truthtruth heal + th heal + th == health health

Similarly, derivedness can fade. Similarly, derivedness can fade. AwesomeAwesome used to be more saliently used to be more saliently aweawe + + somesome for me. for me.

Moral: what has been exclusively accessed Moral: what has been exclusively accessed from memory or exclusively computed can from memory or exclusively computed can start to be processed the other way too.start to be processed the other way too.

Maxim #3Maxim #3

You can change the way you You can change the way you do itdo it..

Restating: Restating: It is ultimately an empirical issue It is ultimately an empirical issue

whether whether a particular forma particular form that’s that’s always been processed in one way by always been processed in one way by

a particular speakera particular speaker, will be , will be processed exclusively in that way processed exclusively in that way

in the futurein the future. .

Maxim #4Maxim #4

Maxim #4 is in a way the same thing Maxim #4 is in a way the same thing as #3: it just recognizes that you can as #3: it just recognizes that you can make such changes as #3 make such changes as #3 repeatedly. repeatedly.

Having computed Having computed ru-thru-th or or fil-thfil-th one one time, you very likely won’t bother to time, you very likely won’t bother to run through the computation the run through the computation the next time. next time.

But you might the time after that.But you might the time after that.

Maxim #4Maxim #4

You don’t have to do next time You don’t have to do next time what you did this timewhat you did this time..

Restating: Restating: It is ultimately an empirical issue how It is ultimately an empirical issue how a a

particular formparticular form is processed by is processed by a a particular speakerparticular speaker

on a particular occasionon a particular occasion. .

Maxim #5Maxim #5

Nothing stops you from bringing a Nothing stops you from bringing a form up from memory, then checking form up from memory, then checking it by computation.it by computation.

Or computing it, then thinking “Yes, Or computing it, then thinking “Yes, that’s right, I remember that”. that’s right, I remember that”.

Our minds have enough parallel Our minds have enough parallel processing capacity to do both processing capacity to do both simultaneously.simultaneously.

Maxim #5Maxim #5

You can do both at the same You can do both at the same timetime..

Restating: Restating: It is ultimately an empirical issue for It is ultimately an empirical issue for a a

particular formparticular form, , on a particular on a particular occasionoccasion, , whether whether a particular speakera particular speaker

exclusively calculates it, exclusively exclusively calculates it, exclusively retrieves it from storage, retrieves it from storage,

or or does both in some degreedoes both in some degree, , either sequentially or simultaneously.either sequentially or simultaneously.

Maxim #6Maxim #6 These considerations apply to polysemy as well.These considerations apply to polysemy as well. Some have claimed that certain meanings are Some have claimed that certain meanings are

always derived from certain others, e.g. that always derived from certain others, e.g. that ShakespeareShakespeareww ‘The literary work(s) written by ‘The literary work(s) written by Shakespeare’, is necessarily accessed via Shakespeare’, is necessarily accessed via ShakespeareShakespearep p ‘the person William Shakespeare’.‘the person William Shakespeare’.

ʃ̍ejkspir

Shakespearep

The CompleatShakespeare

The W

orks

of W

illiam

Sha

kesp

eare

Shakespearew

Maxim #6Maxim #6

This fits a rule (schema) for naming This fits a rule (schema) for naming literary works by their authors.literary works by their authors.

ʃ̍ejkspir

Shakespearep


The W

orks

of W

illiam

Sha

kesp

eare

Shakespearew

AUTHOR OEUVRE

Maxim #6Maxim #6 The same rule can be used productively to The same rule can be used productively to

let you use a name such as let you use a name such as Harry SmithHarry Smith to to refer to what Harry Smith wrote. refer to what Harry Smith wrote.

AUTHOR OEUVRE

Harry Smithp

ˌhæri̍smɪƟ

The CompleatHarry Smith

Harry Smithw

Maxim #6Maxim #6 You might say that You might say that ShakespeareShakespeare (as (as

opposed to opposed to Harry SmithHarry Smith) is lexically ) is lexically marked to undergo this particular kind of marked to undergo this particular kind of metonymic extension;metonymic extension;

The extended meaning The extended meaning ShakespeareShakespeareww then need not itself be learned, and then need not itself be learned, and listed in the lexicon.listed in the lexicon.

Maxim #6Maxim #6 CG’s position on this should, by now, be no surprise. CG’s position on this should, by now, be no surprise.

You can do it either way. You can do it either way. You can access You can access ShakespeareShakespeareww through through ShakespeareShakespearepp..

ʃ̍ejkspir

Shakespearep


The W

orks

of W

illiam

Sha

kesp

eare

Shakespearew

AUTHOR OEUVRE

Maxim #6Maxim #6 However, However, ShakespeareShakespeareww can also become established can also become established

in its own right and so linked that you can also access in its own right and so linked that you can also access it directly. it directly.

So what if it’s redundant; it happens.So what if it’s redundant; it happens.

ʃ̍ejkspir

Shakespearep


The W

orks

of W

illiam

Sha

kesp

eare

Shakespearew

AUTHOR OEUVRE

Maxim #6Maxim #6

You can go the long way to get to a You can go the long way to get to a meaning or go to it directly.meaning or go to it directly.

Restating: Restating: It is ultimately an empirical issue whether a It is ultimately an empirical issue whether a

meaning is activated only as a result of a meaning is activated only as a result of a computational process computational process starting with starting with

another meaning, or activated directly, another meaning, or activated directly, or both.or both.

(for a particular meaning in the mind of a (for a particular meaning in the mind of a particular speaker on a particular particular speaker on a particular

occasion)occasion)

The import of the The import of the MaximsMaxims

These Maxims have obvious These Maxims have obvious applications to the way the lexicon is applications to the way the lexicon is conceived, but also to phonology, conceived, but also to phonology, syntax, and semantics. syntax, and semantics.

If CG is right on these points, the If CG is right on these points, the architecture of language must look architecture of language must look rather different than what many other rather different than what many other theories have portrayed it to be.theories have portrayed it to be.

We will zip past a few ways it affects We will zip past a few ways it affects things.things.

The import of the Maxims: The import of the Maxims: the Lexicon-Grammar the Lexicon-Grammar

distinctiondistinction Obviously, it is not going to be possible Obviously, it is not going to be possible

to simply state, of many classes of to simply state, of many classes of structures or of many particular structures or of many particular structures, “These are part of the structures, “These are part of the lexicon, not part of the grammar”, and lexicon, not part of the grammar”, and act as if that ended the matter.act as if that ended the matter.

By the same token, you won’t be able By the same token, you won’t be able to say “These are always produced by to say “These are always produced by the grammar, and not learned.” the grammar, and not learned.”

Lots of structures will be in-between, or Lots of structures will be in-between, or oscillating between, in various ways.oscillating between, in various ways.


distinctiondistinction You will be a lot better off if your theory You will be a lot better off if your theory

doesn’t make that mean that they are doesn’t make that mean that they are drastically changing their nature and drastically changing their nature and functions each time they cross from one functions each time they cross from one category to the other.category to the other.

Grammatical Structure

Lexical Beast


distinctiondistinction This assumes, of course, that Lexicon is This assumes, of course, that Lexicon is

defined as the repository of what is defined as the repository of what is learned & not produced by rule. It is also learned & not produced by rule. It is also true under all other definitions of the true under all other definitions of the lexicon I know.lexicon I know.

For me, the lexicon is most usefully For me, the lexicon is most usefully viewed as the set of structures viewed as the set of structures clearly clearly learnedlearned in in fully detailedfully detailed form (at least form (at least with all their phonemes specified.)with all their phonemes specified.)

You may (if you wish) add “relatively You may (if you wish) add “relatively simple in their morphemic structure.”simple in their morphemic structure.”


distinctiondistinction All these parameters (learnedness, All these parameters (learnedness,

schematicity, complexity) are matters schematicity, complexity) are matters of degree.of degree.

In this way, the lexicon differs only in In this way, the lexicon differs only in degree from the grammar, and from degree from the grammar, and from what is not (yet) part of the language.what is not (yet) part of the language.


distinctiondistinction Like this:Like this:

Not (yet) established

Thoroughly Learned

Fully specified

(phonemes)Highly

schematic

Lexical

salt

computerwringershouter

flingerV-er

N-Adjr


under the N

P-NP

Morphemically simple

Complex at a high level


Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their country

Yesterday I and my

grandparents ate mussels in

Brussels. S

saltysmeltgruckmunge FOODNNFOOD-y N-yvinegary

mangoey

V-Nr

GrammaticalNot part of the language


distinctiondistinction SaltySalty would be clearly lexical for most would be clearly lexical for most

English speakers, English speakers, vinegaryvinegary is less so is less so because it is not as thoroughly learnt, because it is not as thoroughly learnt, may be learnt by some but not others, may be learnt by some but not others, etc.etc.

FOODFOOD-y-y would be less lexical because would be less lexical because part of it is too schematic (its phonemes part of it is too schematic (its phonemes are not specified.)are not specified.)

N-Adjr would be even less so, and more N-Adjr would be even less so, and more clearly part of the “grammar”.clearly part of the “grammar”.

But they should all be basically the same But they should all be basically the same sort of structure. (CG describes them sort of structure. (CG describes them so.)so.)

The import of the Maxims: The import of the Maxims: Conventional expressionsConventional expressions

(Langacker 1987)(Langacker 1987) ““This dichotomous perspective [of syntax This dichotomous perspective [of syntax

vs. lexicon] made it inevitable that a vs. lexicon] made it inevitable that a large body of data belonging to neither large body of data belonging to neither category would be mostly ignored. I refer category would be mostly ignored. I refer here to the huge set of stock phrases, here to the huge set of stock phrases, familiar collocations, formulaic familiar collocations, formulaic expressions, and standard usages that expressions, and standard usages that can be found in any language and can be found in any language and thoroughly permeate its use. …thoroughly permeate its use. …

The import of the Maxims: The import of the Maxims: Conventional expressionsConventional expressions

““This is why a seemingly perfect This is why a seemingly perfect knowledge of the grammar of a knowledge of the grammar of a language (in the narrow sense) does language (in the narrow sense) does not guarantee fluency in it; learning not guarantee fluency in it; learning its full complement of conventional its full complement of conventional expressions is probably by far the expressions is probably by far the largest task involved in mastering it. largest task involved in mastering it.


distinctiondistinction ““Yet conventional expressions have received Yet conventional expressions have received

so little attention that I found it necessary to so little attention that I found it necessary to invent this term for the class as a whole. … invent this term for the class as a whole. … The grammar [i.e. the linguistic description] of The grammar [i.e. the linguistic description] of a language is responsible for listing its full set a language is responsible for listing its full set of conventional expressions (such as of conventional expressions (such as go for a go for a walk, absolutely incredible, have a good time, walk, absolutely incredible, have a good time, … cheap imitation, the seconds are ticking … cheap imitation, the seconds are ticking away, and so on,away, and so on, and so on). To furnish such a and so on). To furnish such a list would obviously be a vast undertaking, for list would obviously be a vast undertaking, for there are many thousands of such expressions, there are many thousands of such expressions, and new ones are always forming. …and new ones are always forming. …


distinctiondistinction ““The issue of whether conventional The issue of whether conventional

expressions should be included in a expressions should be included in a grammar is factual rather than grammar is factual rather than methodological in a framework taking methodological in a framework taking seriously the goal of psychological seriously the goal of psychological reality in linguistic description. If a reality in linguistic description. If a speaker does in fact learn a large set speaker does in fact learn a large set of conventional expressions as fixed of conventional expressions as fixed units, it is incumbent on the grammar units, it is incumbent on the grammar to represent this fact by providing an to represent this fact by providing an inventory of these expressions. inventory of these expressions.


distinctiondistinction ““The simplest description that The simplest description that

accurately accommodates all the data accurately accommodates all the data must by definition include such a list.*” must by definition include such a list.*”

—Langacker 1987:35-36, —Langacker 1987:35-36, 4141

[*Footnote*: With apologies [*Footnote*: With apologies to Sapir, we can say that not to Sapir, we can say that not only do all grammars leak, only do all grammars leak, they also list (massively).]they also list (massively).]

Man the pumps! We’re shipping

water!

S.S.

Grammar

The import of the Maxims: The import of the Maxims: PhonologyPhonology

An obvious application to phonology An obvious application to phonology is that all common rule-governed is that all common rule-governed forms will tend to be learned (stored). forms will tend to be learned (stored).

A “rule” may tell you A “rule” may tell you that the that the vv of of livliv ‘leaf’ ‘leaf’ devoices word-final. devoices word-final. This does not mean This does not mean that you don’t learn that you don’t learn livzlivz ‘leaves’, ‘leaves’, livdlivd ‘leaved’, and ‘leaved’, and liflif ‘leaf’, ‘leaf’, in their own right.in their own right.

The import of the Maxims: The import of the Maxims: PhonologyPhonology

““Suppletion” thus overlaps massively Suppletion” thus overlaps massively with rule-governed phonology, and with rule-governed phonology, and often proves decisive in language often proves decisive in language change.change.

E.g. people might (and in fact some do) E.g. people might (and in fact some do) start saying start saying lifslifs ‘leaves’, or ‘leaves’, or liftlift ‘leaved’ ‘leaved’ using the salient singular form as using the salient singular form as “basic” and recomputing the others, “basic” and recomputing the others, directly contradicting the rule.directly contradicting the rule.

(Phonological systems empirically don’t (Phonological systems empirically don’t always change the ways the rules would always change the ways the rules would lead you to expect. This is one reason lead you to expect. This is one reason why.)why.)

The import of the Maxims: The import of the Maxims: Semantics vs. PragmaticsSemantics vs. Pragmatics

One of the major criteria linguists One of the major criteria linguists seem to use to decide what is seem to use to decide what is “pragmatic” as opposed to “pragmatic” as opposed to “semantic” is whether something is “semantic” is whether something is (in some degree) predictable (in some degree) predictable (especially predictable from the (especially predictable from the context.) context.)


E.g. the meaning E.g. the meaning ShakespeareShakespeareww ‘Shakespeare’s works’, is a ‘Shakespeare’s works’, is a pragmatic extension (because it’s pragmatic extension (because it’s predictable) of the ‘real’ meaning predictable) of the ‘real’ meaning ShakespeareShakespearep p ‘the person William ‘the person William Shakespeare’.Shakespeare’.

ʃ̍ejkspir

Shakespearep


The W

orks

of W

illiam

Sha

kesp

eare

Shakespearew


As already argued, nothing stops As already argued, nothing stops bothboth meanings being learned, conventionally meanings being learned, conventionally associated with the phonological form associated with the phonological form ˈʃejkspirˈʃejkspir, and thus ‘real’ meanings., and thus ‘real’ meanings.

ʃ̍ejkspir

Shakespearep


The W

orks

of W

illiam

Sha

kesp

eare

Shakespearew


““Semantics is conventionalized Semantics is conventionalized pragmatics”. pragmatics”.

A lot more gets conventionalized A lot more gets conventionalized (learned and known to have been (learned and known to have been learned by all the relevant speakers) learned by all the relevant speakers) than might seem strictly necessary.than might seem strictly necessary.

A lot of what is presented as A lot of what is presented as pragmatics is in fact semantic.pragmatics is in fact semantic.

SummarySummary It has traditionally been assumed in It has traditionally been assumed in

linguistics that what is regular, linguistics that what is regular, systematic and predictable is not systematic and predictable is not learned but rather produced by learned but rather produced by rule, while what is irregular, rule, while what is irregular, idiosyncratic and arbitrary is idiosyncratic and arbitrary is learned. learned.

SummarySummary It is normally assumed as well that these It is normally assumed as well that these

distinctions are binary and coincide with distinctions are binary and coincide with each other so exactly as to be practically each other so exactly as to be practically equivalent. equivalent.

Important aspects of the architecture of Important aspects of the architecture of many theoretical models depend on these many theoretical models depend on these assumptions, notably the modular assumptions, notably the modular distinction between lexicon (where the distinction between lexicon (where the irregular, idiosyncratic, arbitrary and irregular, idiosyncratic, arbitrary and learned structures reside) and grammar learned structures reside) and grammar (the domain of rules for producing the (the domain of rules for producing the unlearned, regular, systematic, and unlearned, regular, systematic, and predictable phenomena of language). predictable phenomena of language).

SummarySummary

CG maintains, on the contrary, that the CG maintains, on the contrary, that the distinctions are all gradual rather than distinctions are all gradual rather than binary, and that they do not coincide binary, and that they do not coincide exactly. In particular, much that is exactly. In particular, much that is regular, systematic and in some degree regular, systematic and in some degree predictable may nevertheless be predictable may nevertheless be learned. learned.

This has important implications for the This has important implications for the structure of the CG framework, notably structure of the CG framework, notably for the ways lexicon and other aspects for the ways lexicon and other aspects of grammar grade into each other.of grammar grade into each other.

SummarySummary

If CG is right on these points, the If CG is right on these points, the architecture of language must look architecture of language must look rather different than what many rather different than what many other theories have portrayed it to other theories have portrayed it to be. be.

Power Point available atPower Point available at

www.sil.org/~tuggydwww.sil.org/~tuggyd

Seeing Patterns and Learning to Do Things and what that has to do with language

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