DOCUMENT RESUME

44D 099 194 SE 017 065

AUTHOR Creager, Joan G.; Ed.TITLE A/BS Education Review, Vol. 2, No. 5.INSTITUTION American Inst. of Biological Sciences, Washington,

D.C. Education Div.PUB DATE Dec 73NOTE 16p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.75 HC-$1.50 PLUS POSTAGEDESCRIPTORS Biology; College Science; Computer Assisted

Instruction; Environmental Education; LaboratoryProcedures; Microbiology; *Newsletters; Role Playing;Secondary School Science

IDENTIFIERS A/BS; American Institute of Biological Sciences

ABSTRACTPresented are the following articles: A Role for

Computers in Teaching Biology; The Laboratory in GeneralMicrobiology; Rectifying the Misnomer; The uMessageu of Pioneer 10:Interpretation and Role Playing for Beginning Science Students; TheProject Oriented Laboratory as an Effective Teaching Method forNonscience Majors; Environmental Education Programs in the NationalPark Service; An Appeal to Reason; and two abstracts from the 24thAnnual RIBS Meeting, Amherst, Massachusetts. (BR)

AMERICANINSTITUTE OF

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A ROLE FOR COMPUTERS INTEACHING BIOLOGY

N. Scott UrquhartDepartment of Experimental Statistics

New Mexico State UniversityLas Cruces. New Mexico 81t003

Computers hale a promising future as an instructional tool inbiology. they can provide students in various applied areaswith realistic quantitative experiences. Students in diverseparts of biology become decision makers whose actions canhave substantial ecological, economic, and environmental im-pact. Current training of such students seldom provides themwith experience in making decisions, particularly when theycan see the consequences of various alternatives. Computerscan provide a realistic simulation of that experience, but abiologist should participate in designing the computer basedmaterials to assure their validity and relevance.

This paper examines the current status of computers in highereducation and a role they could have in biological instruc-tion. 1 he paper also describes material currently completedand in use at New Mexico State University and elsewhere. Twosimulators are described in some detail: one concerns animalbreeding, the other involves population dynamics.

Computers in Higher Education

Computers permeate our existence, personal as well as aca-demic. Although they were conceived to handle repetitive sci-entific calculations, their potential for doing routine clericalchores was quickly exploited. The present generation of com-puters have great speed, power, and reliability. Without theadvent of sophisticated schemes for translating simple requestsinto the language computers actually use, however, this powerwould be inaccessible. Important aspects of these translators(called compilers and interpreters) are: (I) Their generalityincorporates many options usable for instruction, but not de-signed primarily for that purpose. (2) Their effective utiliza-tion requires a clear understanding of both the problem beingscAved and the use of one of the translators.

Once you conceive an instructional use for computers. youmay face two distinct problems. You may encounter difficulty

getting authority to expend the needed computer time evenif you have a computer on campus. Until recently, universitycomputer centers often have allowed big users and efficiencyof machine use to dominate decision making. The lack of fundshas reduced time demands from the physical sciences. Further,some disciplines such as engineering have a history of usingcomputers for instruction. Thus, there are precedents lot in-structional computer time.

Communication of your biological problem to a computer maypose another problem. You may be able to use computer pro-grams developed by someone else; otherwise, you will needsomeone to write the necessary program. If you get to thispoint, take pains to clearly communicate your desires to theprogrammer. Computer personnel may not be experiencedwith the difficulties you face, either instructionally or adminis-tratively. Persistence and patience may be needed.

A Role for Computers

Computers can do repetitive and cler.cal tasks with greatspeed and precision, but they also have a creative potentialin instruction. To creatively use computers in this task, weshould identify relevant instructional activities and then setabo'it building them. You may regard the computer as a de-humanizing device. Properly exploited, computer enrichedinstruction has the opposite effect: It allows a degree of in-dividualization unattainable in usual lecture or laboratorysettings.

Students at many levels high school, undergraduate, andgraduate can utilize computers in their learning at leastthree ways: (1) They can write programs to solve stated prob-lems. (2) They can use an available program to execute tediouscalculations. (3) They can gain quantitative experience. Pro-grams for solving problems are well developed in engineeringand the physical sciences. Programs to execute tedious cal-culations are available in statistics.

AIBS Education Reviewto be Available to Members Only

For two years the .41/0 Education Review has been sent to allMRS members and over 13,0(K) non-members who expressedinterest in biological education. This service has been madepossible in part from a grant for educational activities whichwill not he available after 1973. Therefore, it is necessary tolimit our circulation to AIRS members effective January 1974.The quality of this publication has increased with each issueand it is a valuable service AIRS provides its members. It iscopyrighted, ca. ties referenced articles, and has a review.board.

While the Review represents a significant part of AIRS efforts onbehalf of biological educators, there are other benefits of mem-bership. Bic) Science, the official AIRS journal, is published

('ONTENTS:

A Role for Computers in TeachingBiology, Scott Urquhart 65

The laboratory in Generat Microbiology:Rectifying the Misnomer, R. M. II-errer 69

The "Message" of Pioneer 10: Interpretationand Role-Playing for Beginning ScienceStudents, Robert .4. Bonazzi 73

The Project Oriented Laboratory as anEffective Teaching Method for NonscienceMajors, Del Blakburn, Hal Brown 74

Environmental Education Programs in theNational Park Service: An Appeal toReason, Richard L. Cunningham 76

Abstracts from the 24th Annual AIRS Meeting:

Graduate Education: Present Problemsand Future Prospects. George .1. Gm% 7K

Decremental Planning and DysfunctionalAttitudes, Elwood B. Elide 7K

Letter to the Editor 79

The 1974 Asia Foundation Grants

Opinions expressed hs aulhois are then oun and do not nee-essaril!, retied the iipinions ill the American Institute of Bio-logical Sciences not the insminuins with whi.h the author*.are attilialed

A1115 11/1 CA 110% RI 111 1,1 Published h the A11151 ducationDi% isin. 1900 Wisconsin As enue. . N.tshtngton 20016Editorial Board: Robert !Janke. Richard II (,hirer.

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monthly and contains articles on a wide range of topics of in-terest to biology teachers. Members are also entitled to usethe AIBS Placement Service.

Our President. Robert W. Krauss, has been instrumental indeveloping a Public Responsibilities Committee with repre-sentatives from every state who are available for advice andconsultation to legislators and other public officials from thenational to the local level on matters of import to the biologicalcommunity.

National office projects include a study of natural ecosystemsas a part of the International Biological Program, biomedicalengineering workshops, and Project BIOTECH, through whichmodules for teaching technical skills arl being produced. Thisoffice also provides literature on careers. publications fordepartment heads, and consultant services on facilities, cur-ricula, meetings, and workshops.

Because part of our obligation to the biological community isto foster professional development of students, we charterAIRS Student Chapters in colleges and high schools providingguidance and support. Theta are 70 chapters and new ones arecurrently being developed.

With its 40 Adherent Societies, AIRS is a professional organi-sation which speaks for biology. Our current activities vouchfor our dedication to serve biologists. the continuation and ex-pansion of our services depends on our membership strength.We urge you to become an AIRS member as part of your pro-fessional responsibility to the biological community. I he timelyreceipt of your membership application will assure that yo,. con-tinue to recei%e the Education Revich. May we hear from iousoon?

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66 AIRS FI)11CMION REVIEW V01.. 2 NO. 5

Computers have only begun to be used to provide quantitativeexperiences. Students in diverse parts of biology become de-cision makers, often using complex quantitative information.Decisions such as the setting of a deer season. the culling of abeef herd, the opening of a forest area to logging, the confisca-tion of contaminated food stuffs, etc., can have significant eco-logical. economic, or environmental effects. Yet most curriculagive students few opportunities to make specific decisions.Such opportunities are needed if students are to receive con-structive criticism before their mistakes wreak havoc.

A computer can provide a suitable environment for makingsuch decisions. A computer program written to mimic a bio-logical process will have several parameters. As the param-eters are varied, by either the student or his instructor,a spectrum of conditions result. With specific values assignedto the parameters, the computer produces variables describingthe associated biological situation, a process called simulation.The instructional value of simulation has been used extensivelyby the aerospace industry and the military. For example, air-line pilots receive much of their training and testing in com-puter monitored cockpit simulators.

A simulator can be either probabilistic or deterministic. 'thesame set of parameters always produce the same result inthe deterministic case, but a new sample occurs each time inthe probabilistic case. The population dynamics simulatorillustrates the former while the animal breeding simulatorillustrates the latter.

A simulator can operate in either hatch mode or through aninteractive terminal. In batch mode, the program and param-eter values are taken to the computer center, usually asa punched card deck. The simulation is executed by the com-puter center. The completed simulation is returned later, us-ually as printed output. Elsewhere I have described a batchmode simulator (Urquhart 1971). Until fairly recently, onlybatch processing was available. Interactive terminal systemshave now become economically feasible and are appearing onmany campuses. Several kinds exist, but all operate on theprinciple that several users, each operating from a typewriterterminal, can share the computing power of a central facility.The computer responds to a user's request almost immediately.A large computer usually can execute requests much fasterthan users can generate them.

Such interactive terminal systems have more instructional po-tential than batch processing because students can initiate asimulator when they get ready, and can receive immediatediagnostic feedback on errors which would abort a batch ex-ecution. The simulator can be constructed to give each stu-dent a unique configuration of conditions.

To maximize the educational value of the experience, use ofthe simulator should require no knowledge of computer pro-gramming and only rudimentary information about computeraccess. The simulator should be able to recover from errorconditions created by student input. Tne resulting diagnosticsshould be understandable, independent of the user's knowledgeof computing. Creation of such a terminal-based simulatorrequires time, patience, and an understanding of students. Oncecreated, it can be reused many times. Most such simulatorswill evolve somewhat with student and instructor experience.

Finally, the computer use described here should not be con-fused with programmed instruction. Programmed instruction

seeks to impart facts to a student by a judiciously chosen se-quence of verbal interchanges. The use advocated here providesstudents with an opportunity to use facts in gaining a simula-tion of real experience.

An Example: Animal Breeding

Some courses in animal breeding arc designed to help stu-dents learn how to plan and execute breeding plans. Instructorsof such courses have recognized the value of direct experience,but a laboratory in animal breeding cannot use anima's witheconomically interesting characteristics because of lengthygestation time and expense. Simulations provide a solutionto this problem.

By 1967 several institutions had developed computer-basedsimulators for breeding either beef or dairy cattle, usingreasonable genetic models. These used batch mode computa-tion because terminals were not readily available. The pro-cess of saving the genetic values associated with each stu-dent's herd and later communicating his selections to thecomputer proved rather troublesome. Students waited twodays to a week to obtain results. Procedural problems ofgetting tudents to turn in their selections, and subsequentcollating of card decks absorbed substantial amounts of in-structor time.

We have written a terminal-based simulator and used it

successfully for three semesters. 'the students run it them-selves at any time they choose thereby relieving the instruc-tor of the responsibility for obtaining ::tudent selections. Sincethe terminal promptly gives the results of selections, stu-dents can execute enough generations to see the long term ef-fect of their actions.

Students receive about 30 minutes of instruction on terminalusage, including a demonstration, and are given a two-pagehandout containing the same information. They then begin tomake their own runs. About 201.7 of the students experienceminor difficulties during their first run; thereafter, very fewproblems occur. In three semesters, the simulator has beenused by about ISO students, Only one could not master it, ap-parently because he refused to read the computer's requests.

The program is usable by students with no knowledge of com-puting. Two simple statements (13 typewriter characters inall) start the simulator; all transactions are in conversationalEnglish. The computer requests the numbers of bulls to be usedand then the numbers of cows for each bull. (Animals are num-bered simply; "317" would be the 17th animal in the thirdgeneration.) Each animal number is screened as it is entered.For example, it must be in the current herd, only bulls canbe entered as sires and cows as dams, a cow can be bred toonly one bull in each generation. etc. The student immediatelyis informed of the nature of any illegal entry and asked for asuitable entry. The simulator provides numerous opportunitiesfor the student to correct mistaken entries.

Once a student has completed his entries, the computer re-trieves the genetic values of his herd, combines them accord-ing to his breeding plan, adds on random environmental ef-fects, randomly assigns sex, randomly picks a small (5%) num-ber of unproductive matings, and prints a report of the charac-teristics of the calf crop. Each line of printout gives a calfnumbe:, its sire and dam numbers, its weaning weight, year-

DECEMBER 1973 67

ling weight, and average daily gain. These figures are expressedas a percent of the mean of animals of the same sex. Thecomputer then stores the genetic values of the calf crop ar.their parents, and turns itself off. These animals (up to 85 innumber) provide the breeding pool for the next generation(up to 50 in number). Genetically desirable cows and bullscan be saved for many generations whereas the poor ones canbe replaced by promising calves. Since each herd belongs toone student, only he is able to change it. The accessibilityof each student's herd is protected by a security system.

The same program provides special access to the instructor.When the instructor specifies genetic means, variances, andcorrelations for the traits, the program creates new herdsand produces an initial generation for each student. The in-structor's access also lets him examine the genetic valuesof any of the studers herds, providing a basis for evaluatingprogress made by the students.

Students may execute a simulation any time the terminal sys-tem is operating, except within six hours of a previous selec-tion. This restriction is included to encourage students tocarefully plan their selections. (The terminal system operatesfrom 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. weekdays during the semester. Eve-ning and weekend time is sometimes available.)

Students like the idea and nature of the simulator. They gen-erally regard it as the high point of the course. In fact, manyof them suggest that greater use should be made of it.

An Example: Population Dynamics

This simulator allows a user to follow the changes a pop-ulation of organisms undergoes during a cycle, ordinarilya yearly cycle. A cycle begins with reproduction and pro-ceeds through a series of critical events with interveningperiods. Critical events are short periods of time whenmortality rates change for identified reasons, such as migra-tion, hunting seasons, or overwintering. During the interven-ing times mortality occurs fairly evenly ai lower rates.

An age distribution is followed through a cycle, experiencingage dependent reproduction and mortality. Reproduction isdescribed by the mean number of offspring per female: con-versely, mortality is specified by the probability of survivingthrough that stage (critical event or between critical events).In reality these probabilities do not remain constant, so in thesimulator they do not remain constant. A series of (discrete) en-vironmental qualities with associated probabilities are pro-vided. During a simulation, the student selects the environ-mental quality to be used at each stage. Thus, the simulatorallows the student to follow an age and environmentally de-pendent population through many generations.

The simulator allows a user to specify many circumstancesof the population. Because of its flexibility, it has been usedboth in research and in teaching. The simulator has been usedas an integral part of the instruction in an advanced wildlifemanagement class for two semesters. Parameters have beenset to mimic white tailed deer populations. Five environmen-tal qualities represent very good to very had for reproduction,summer survival, and overwintering. Hunting is the singlecritical event and may be specified as: (1) light hunt, maleonly; (2) medium hunt, male only; (3) heavy hunt, male only:

(4) light hunt, female and medium hunt, male; and (5) mediumhunt, female and heavy hunt, male.

Early in the term students were given all of the probabilitiesand associated specifications. They experimented with varioussituations. For example, they ran the simulator for ten years,trying to keep the population sire constant. By varying theenvironmental quality at every stage. they effectively changedthe impact of weather and predation as desired. Studentsquickly learned that they had little grasp of the relationshipsbetween hunting, harvest, and age-dependent reproduction. Onestudent's population doubled even though he thought that hewas "hitting it awfully hard." Students had great latitude forexperimentation. Since they could choose from more than 102%distinct sets of environmental quality configurations, they hadto understand the impact of their actions to maintain a stablepopulation.

In practice, a wildlife r. onager influences little more thanthe length of the hunt, : arson. Thus, as part of their finalexamination, these stud.' were assigned specific valuesfor environmental quality. miner survival, and winter sur-vival. They managed the t.s,. .f hunting season for 15 years toachieve a specified size. age, and sex composition for the pop-ulation. This gave mor.' -:cart 1010 choices of managementstrategies. With the knowledge they had acquired, most ofthe students approximated the specified conditions with onlya modest amount of experimentation.

With very little effort, students learned to use the simulator.Their attitudes were very favorable toward both the simulatorand its impact on their learning. In fact. they felt that thesimulator enabled them to understand population dynamics ina way that could not have been accomplished by other means.

Availability of these Materials

These simulators were coded in API. (A Programming lan-guage) because it provided the needed interactive capabilityand was available here at New Mexico State University. Thesesimulators (as well as our expansions of STATPACK) areavailable from the Department of Experimental Statistics, Rox3130, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico88003. They are avail ible to educational institutions at the costof reproduction. Programs arc presently adapted to the IBM360 65 with a 72K core. The population dynamics simulatorwill execute in standard API. using 36K workspaces. Theanimal breeding simulator will handle 35 herds per accountnumber in 72K workspaces: an earlier version handled onlyten in 36K workspaces. Additional information about the pro-grams is available from the author.

Acknowledgments

Several people have made valuable contributions to the project reported here. The animal breeding simulator was usedby B.J. Rankin's class; B. Wile helped write it. I he popula-tion dynamics simulator was used by V.W. Howard's class;K.A. Green helped write it. T. H . Puckett provided technicalassistance on computing matters.

Reference

Urquhart, N Scott. 1971. Nonverbal maructional .1.1pm:it:hes for in-troductory %mimics. Am. Stumm tan 2501. 20-25.

AIRS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. 5

THE LABORATORY INGENERAL MICROBIOLOGY:

RECTIFYING THE MISNOMER

R. M. Weint.r

Organ:nem I MicrobiologyUnisersit. of Maryland

College Park. Maryland 20742

.-Aroduction

There are many microbiologists studying a few organismsbut few microbiologists are studying many organisms. Thistrend is reflected in many introductory courses where one bac-teria, Ec/tenth/a cob, is included in' more than 50'i of thelaboratory periods of many syllabi. Especially now, when in-terrelationships among living organisms require elucidation,the obvious advantages of such specialization are overbalancedby the potentially narrowed student that is produced. Thus.this paper emphasizes the need to recouple microbiology, cer-tainly at the introductory level, to the dive..sio of biology andfocuses on several experimental designs that begin to trans-form "E. coliology r into a true general microbiology cur-riculum.

Laboratory manuals that are used in introductory microbiol-ogy programs cover, at most, four to ten orders of bac-teria. One can double the number of orders of bacteria to whichthe student is exposed by modifying one existing and widelyused experiment, namely the Gram stain, and by adding an ad-ditional procedure on the morphogcnesis of Myxobacter. Addedcosts are minimal and the slight increase m time that an in-structor or lab assistant spends in preparation brings morethan commensurate awareness to the student. Each of theseexperiments can be implemented with the existing apparatusfound in most laboratories. The three strains of bacteria usedin these studies can be purchased from the American typeCulture Collection at a total cost of $50.00 (American TypeCulture Collection Catalogue of Strains, 1972), or if budget re-quirements demand, from the author as a gift.

The Gram Stain

In many general microbiology laboratories, there is a weekor two allotted to introducing the student to the fundamentaltools and techniques of the discipline. This, especially in micro-biology, is more than a period of familiarization; it is one ofreorientation from the visible to the invisible. Therefore, itis not sufficient to demonstrate the uses of costly equipmentlike the microscope and unfamiliar supplies like culture needles.We have found that one must rigorously impress the novice withthe ubiquity of microorganisms and prove that though individual-ly invisible to the unaided eye they can be manipulated andstudied. This is a difficult period that requires perseveranceand trust from the student and patience from the instructor.After this apprenticeship. when the student's mind is openedand Ow hand is steadied, one can begin to develop the recep-tive class.

DECEMBER 1973

Usually the Gram stain is introduced at this time mainly be-cause it is invaluable in the identification of bacteria. Oftenthis exercise has a dual purpose:

a) practice of procedure.b) familiarity with the comparative morphology of the

eubacteria.

When the same genus of organism is stained by each studentonly the former purpose is achieved. Most procedures, how-ever. call for the staining of from three to five genera (Table I).

It is apparent that among the Eubacteriales, the Gram positivecocci and rods are included, as are the Gram negative rods.With one exception, the Gram negative cocci are omitted. Ofthe other orders of bacteria, the Pseudomonadales and theActinomycetales are infrequently studied. Yeasts are sometimeschosen to represent the eucaryotic protists.

Thus, to fulfill the second objective of this exercise most pro-cedures call for about four genera of bacteria to be stained,most of them belonging to the Order Eubacteriaks. Yet, wehave found that although the same student will later completethe Gram stain in 15 minutes, the novice requires one hourto complete the procedure and observe the specimen (usuallyseveral attempts are necessary). For this reason, it is difficultfor the average undergraduate to make more than two accept-able Gram stains during the first exposure. Therefore wehave found that this exercise is best handled by dividing theclass, each student gaining practice by staining and observingtwo organisms (or four organisms, two per slide), and learningcomparative morphology by observing the different organismshis partners have stained.

When these team efforts proved to be valuable learning aids(considering time limits imposed on all instruction) we ex-panded the exercise. At first, the aim was to study the mor-phology of the eubacteria and we included Gram positive andnegative cocci and Gram positive and negative rods. Addedlater were two members of the Pseudomonadales, ribrio andSpirillum. These additions effectively proved that bacteriacome in shapes other than cocci and rods, namely short com-mas and spirals.

In a pilot study, two more organisms were added to the ex-ercise (the students were working in groups of four). Repre-sentatives of the Orders Hyphomicrobiales and Caryophanaleswere chosen.

Hyphomicrobia are widely distributed in freshwater, marine,and soil habitats. They have been isolated from shellfish,human nasopharynx, and activated sludge samples. They areaerobic and many species oxidize one - carbon compoundssuch as urea, methanol, methylamine, and potassium cyanide.Of primary concern in the Gram stain exercise is the uniquemorphology and morphogenic cycle (Fig. 1) of these pro-caryotes.

A small. non-motile swarmer cell about 0.5 Am in diametermatures into an ovoid cell, measuring 0.5 by 1.0 Am. Thiscell grows a stalk (hypha) about 0.3 Am wide and from 1.0 to4.0 microns long. The stalk is just thief. enough to be seenwith a student oil immersion lens and success in viewing it

69

provides a good test of one's ability to stain and focus themicroscope correctly. Through the tip of a growing hypha. abud is formed which grows a single flagellum. Completingthe cycle, the bud separates from the parent, swims away(later to differentiate into a stalked cell itself), while themother cell continues to generate more buds. All morpho-logical forms are Gram negative.

Hyphontiriihium neptunium ATCC 15444, is the species mosteasily cultivated. It can be grown in Marine Broth (Difco) at37°C. Costs can be reduced by using 30% of the recommendedconcentration. We have found, in fact, that better yields areobtained at 30ri than at 10057 of the suggested formula. Thegeneration time at either concentration is about 23 hours. AIS hour culture (in the late logarithmic phase of growth) con-tains about 60% stalked cells, 30% buds (one half of then beingmotile at room temperature). and 10(4 of the other morph-logical forms in approximately equal proportions. Alternatise-ly. a proportion of two buds for each stalked lorm can be ob-tained by preparing lawns of the organism on Marine Agar(Difco), incubating these at 37" C for 40 hours and thenrefrigerating for 12 hours (Blackman and Weiner 1973).

The Caryophanales, found in fresh water, provide an interestingcontrast. Members of this procaryotic order are about 30 p.m(occasionally 200 pm) long by 3 pm wide (Breed et al. 19S7)These organisms (trichomes) consist of many disk-like cellsenclosed in a continuous wall and divided by internal septa.Each living cell contains a prominent disk-shaped nuclen.In hanging drop preparations, Carrophanon are highly motileand the organisms, being large and peritrichously flagellated.

b

ig. 1. Life cycle of Hiphomicrobruni. Morphological forms:a) non-motile %warmer: b) mature cell: c) stalked era withbud; d) stalked cell with flagellated bud; e) stalked cell; flmotile %warmer.

!able 1.

The Gram Stain: Examples of organisms suggested in a sample of six laboratory manuals suitable for use ingeneral microbiology courses

LaboratoryManual

(Senior Author)

Bartholomew1967

Benson1973

Bradshaw1973

Pelczar1972

Seeley1972

Swatek1969

Organisms Stained

Gram PositiveRods

Bacillussubtilis

Bacillustnegaterium

Bacilluscereus

Bacilluscereus

Bacillussubtilis

Gram Negative Gram PositiveRods Cocci

Escherst hst. ttlu'CUA

( oh warm%

htlithillit,Pla .% laplatit proem.%

uureus

bcherst-Ina Stuphrh,weruAt tindanndis

t.%1 hitt Stuphylomectisaurvus

1.-At ht., it hut Strtynt tan-cu..firecalis

Sartina hamStupht-hptitecuA

aureus

( ;ram NegativeCocci

Neisseriaperflara

TotalOther Number

"Unknown" 5*organisms

Alycohudiertum 4smegmatis

Succhuromyee.% 3

cerertsiae

Organisms in gumscrapings

Saccharcinitirscervisiae

4

4

IPE coil and S. aureus are mixed and stained. S aureus is stained by up to five modifications of the technique.B. subtilis is "crushed" and then %tamed. Two "unknown" organisms are stained and identified by the stu-dent. A subsequent exercise deals with comparative morphology, by making use of demonstration slides.

70 AIBS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. 5

are also good subjects for flagella scams. !hey are Gram vari-able and aerobic.

Corpophimon lawn ATCC 15219, can he cultivated and main-tained on agar slants on a medium consisting of 4 grams yeastextract (Rilco). 5 grams peptone (Ditto). 2 grams of sodiumacetate, and 1.5 grams bacto-agar (I)ifcO dissolved in 100 ml.of water. Colonies appear in N hours at mrc at a pH of 7.7.

By adding these two organisms to the Gram stain exercise,we found that the students not only learned to make an importantdifferential stain and learned some of the shapes of bacteria,but perhaps most significantly came to appreciate the com-plexity and variation of some of the simplest living things theprocaryotes. With this, the laboratory became more than avehicle in which applied procedures were mastered; it becamea time when concepts took root. To cite one example, I foundthat many students enrolled in microbiology with the notionthat all bacteria are the same sire invisible. Upon leaving alaboratory having made Gram stains of the Euhacteriales, thatsame misconception remained. Those randomly chosen studentswho stained and observed ktphomicrobium and Citryopliaminside by side (the latter being up to 400 X larger) scoredsignificantly better on questions pertaining to site and diversityof bacteria than those who relied solely on their texts andlecture notes.

Procaryotic Morphogenesis

Another interesting order of bacteria rarely, if ever, includedin a basic microbiology laboratory is Myxobacteriales. Mem-bers of this order thrive in the soil where they play a prom-inent role in the carbon cycle, transforming compounds thatare not readily decomposed such as cellulose, chitin, andbacterial cell walls into usable nutrients. Commonly, Mro-

butler lyses and feeds on other bacteria. Morphogenically,Mixobatur are unique and their life cycle is consideredmost complex among the procaryotes. The vegetative rod-shaped cells divide by binary fission and move by gliding a-long surfaces, leaving a trail of slime. Other cells commonlyfollow in the wake of their predecessors. When the nutrientsupply of amino acids becomes depleted. the vege.ative cellsaggregate forming a heap. This mound begins to differentiate in-to a head comprised of many cells and a stalk composed pre-dominantly of slime. A large capsule may form atcund thehead of the fruiting body while the cells undergo metamorphosisins yxospores. The myxospore is spherical and relatively

it to harsh environmental conditions. The fruiting bodyis ..oven brightly pigmented and visible without the aid of amicroscope. When the nutrient supply is reestablished, thespores germinate into vegetative cells and the cycle beginsanew.

Th .4e attributes suggest a number of fascinating experimentaldesigns. Brock (1970) describes a method for the isolation ofmyxobacter, allowing the student to observe its predatory tend-encies. gliding movement, and Id.: cycle in the process. It is

also possible to work with a captive strain and observe a con-trolled pattern of procaryotic morphoitenesis.

Itlxoeoccus xantbus, ATCC 2f232, in the vegetative form is aGram negative rod about 5.0 /Ain long. The Gram negativemicrocysts are 2.0 1.1m in diameter. The spherical. yelloworange to bright orange fruiting bodies are -mind structures.up to 4001.tm in diameter when mature (Breed et al. 1957). Thevegetative organism is cultivated and maintained on slantsprepared by dissolving 20 grams of Casitone (Difco), 1 gramof MgSO4.7H20 and 15 grams of air in 1 liter of 0.01 MK2HPO4 KH:PO4 buffer at pH 7.2 (Dworkin 1962). Myx-

Table 2.

Observations of some characteristics of bacteria in several published laboratory formatsversus similar observations with suggested srpplemental exercises

Characteristics ofthe Bacteria

Sire Range

Morphology

Motility

Mode ofReproduction

Cell-CellInteraction

(Cooperation)

Observations from laboratorysyllabi that exclude experi-ments on members of the Orders:Carsophanales. Hyphamicrobiale%.Myxobacteriales

It) told

cocci rods, spirals

b flagella

binary (transverse) fission

Additional observations fromlaboratory syllabi augmentedwith experiments on members ofthe orders: Caryephanales.Hyphomicrobiaies. 44.roboileriale

200 fold

stalked, septated

by gliding

budding

do Yes

MultiphasicLife Cycles No Yes

Nutrition

Spores

DECEMBER 1973

Inorganic and organic "nutrients" I oxic and recalcitrant molecules;predatory

kndospores Myxospores

71

wort its ranthus is aerobic, has a temperature optimum of30°C and a pH range of 7.0-7.8.

Fruiting body formation can be induced on a medium preparedby autoclaving (1.3 hr.) IOM to Escherihia a e,li mlsuspended in distilled water containing ri agar (Dworkin 1962).Optimal success in inducing myxospores depends on starvationof the vegetative cell inoculum (Dv orkin 1963). Therefore, inpreparation for this exercise, the instructor removes thevegetative cells from a heavily inoculated Casitone agar slantand places them, overnight, in 100 ml of a buffer consisting of0.1% MgSO4. and 0.01 M K 2H Pat K H PO4.

During the laboratory period each member of the class drop0.1 ml of the starved suspension onto the center of a Petri plat:.containing the Cwitone medium and another 0.1 ml onto one con-taining the E oh medium.

The following laboratory period, the student can observe co-lonial morphology with the unaided eye and under the lowpower objective of the microscope. The colonies on the Casi-tone agar are about 1 cm in diameter while the fruiting bodiesthat form on the E. culi agar are less than one-tenth thissize and are round and raised. Slime trails should be in evi-dence on both media. The student can make side by side Gramstains of the vegetative cell from the colony and of the myxo-spore from the fruiting body. This exercise takes 5 minutesduring one laboratory period and about one hour of the secondperiod, depending upon the scrutiny of the observation. If timeis a critical factor, the plates and slides can he prepared asa demonstration.

This exercise shows that the simplest of cells can cooperateto benefit the species and that this cooperation and subse-quent differentiation is induced by environmental stimuli.Furthermore, molecular controls governing the morpho-genesis of Afy.eoroccus xanchus are being investigated andthe student becomes acquainted with an organism that mayyield significant insights into the mechanisms of biologicalmodulation.

Eucaryotic Protists

Commonly, general microbiology laboratory curricula devoteseveral laboratory periods to descriptive characteristics of thealgae, fungi, and protozoa. We replace and supplement thesewith exercises that point out the dynamic aspects of theseorganisms. While I strongly favor this approah, descriptionsof such procedures are beyond the scope of this article. I citetwo examples, however. Our students observe Euglena losetheir chloroplast when deprived of light. S. Bannicki-Garcia(1972) outlines a procedure for cultivating ilufor rouNti sothat the mycelia! and yeast phases can be selectively induced.These exercises, like the aforementioned ones involving theprocaryotes, foster the concept of relatedness among livingthings. In these cases, we show that there is a link betweenthe algae and protozoa, between "true fungi" and the yeasts.

Discussion

Bacteria are not merely homogeneous entities that derivesignificance because they cause disease, are involved in theproduction of foods, and are indicators of pollution, but also,significantly, they are a diverse group of morphologicallycomplex organisms that share ecosystems and many funda-mental life processes with the eucaryotes. In unifying bac-teriology with biology, these generalizations can be made:

I. Algae have hiphasic life cycles consisting of sessile andmotile stages. So do the procaryotic lOphomiercibium.

2. Slime molds cooperate to form fruiting bodies. So dothe procaryotic M.exobater. (Seeley and Denmark 11972]present a valuable experiment on Dietosteltum discoidium,a cellular slime mold).

If these are examples of convergent evolution, then the survivaladvantages of these life cycles are underscored; if not, then(at least) a behavioral thread connecting the procaryotes withthe eucaryotes is woven. Thus, exercises of this nature stimu-late discussion and inquiry at a time when relationshipsamong flora, fauna, and their habitats are looming ever moresignificant.

Summary

When one adds three species of bacteria, representing threeOrders, to existing formats, new relationships among orga-nisms become apparent to the student in the general micro-biology laboratory (Table 2).

References

The American Type Culture Collection Catalogue of Strains. 1972.American Type Culture Collection, Rockville. Md. 312 p.

Bartholomew, J.W. 1967. Laboratory Textbook and Exercises in Micro-biology. Wm. C. Brown Co., Dubuque, Iowa. 211 p.

Bannicki-Garcia, S. 1972. The dimorphic gradient of Muor rauxii: Alaboratory exercise. ASM News, 38: 486-488.

Benson, H.J. 1973. Microbiological Applications. Wm. C. Brown Co.,Dubuque, Iowa. 345 p.

Blackman. M.A., and R.M. Weiner. 1973. Effect of inhibition of DNAreplication upon the morphogenesis of Hyphomicrobium neptunium.Abstracts of the Annual Meeting of the ASM. 73:29.

Bradshaw, L. J. 1973. laboratory Microbiology. W. B. Saunders Co.,Philadelphia, Pa. 311 p.

Breed, R.S., E.G.D. Murray, and N.B. Smith. 1957.Bergey's Manual ofDeterminative Bacteriology. The Williams and Wilkins Co., Balti-more. Md. 1094 p.

Brock, T.D. 1970. Biology of Microorganisms. Prentice-Hall. Inc.,Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 737 p.

Dworkin, M. 1962. Nutritional requirements for vegetative growth ofyrxoemeu.s ranrhus. J. Batempl.. 84:251-257.

Dworkin, M. 1963. Nutritional regulation of morphogenesis in Wm/-coccus xanrhu.s. J. Bacterial., 86:67-73.

Pelcur, M.J., and E.C.S. Chan. 1972. laboratory Exercises in Micro-biology. McGraw-Hill Co., Hightstown, N.J. 478 p.

Seeley. H W.. and P.J. van Demark. 1972. Microbes in Action. W.H.Freeman and Co.. San Francisco, Calif. 361 p.

Swatek, F.E. 1969. Laboratory Manual and Workbook for General Micro-biology. C.V. Mosby Co.. St. Louis. Mo. 237 p.

Is BioScience Available to Your Students?

&cadence carries frequent articles of interest not onlyto biology students but to those in other fields as well.Institutional subscriptions for your library are availableat S24 per year by writing Frank LoVerde. AIBS, 3900Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.. Washington. D.C. 20016.

72 AIBS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. S

THE "MESSAGE" OF PIONEER 10:INTERPRETATION AND ROLE-

PLAYING FOR BEGINNINGSCIENCE STUDENTS

Robert A. BanguiCarenovaa Central School

Catemona, Nev. York 11035

Current scientific literature can he a great source of in-teresting and enlightening experiments in the beginning sci-ence laboratory. Since the research is new and at the fore-front of scientific endeavor, it offers a refreshing change fromthe more classical frog dissection and microscope drawing.Students may encounter fresh and relevant problem-solvingin actual situations. Our effectiveness as science educatorsdepends on our providing these situations for students.

The exercise described here is based on an article by Sagan,Sagan. and Drake (1972). The article describes the engravedmessage sent aboard the Pioneer 10 spacecraft launched on amission to explore Jupiter. Since the spacecraft will leave

our solar system. scientists felt that it should carry a mes-sage to possible finders concerning the nature and location

of the civilization responsible for its creation. A "message"was conceived and etched on a plate (Fig. 1). The representa-tions depict the nature and locaion of our civilization, de-igned for recognition by other civilizations at our level of

development.

1 have employed a reproduction of this plate in my biologyclasses as an exercise in reasoning and role-playing. Theclass was divided into small groups and told to study theplate and report on its content and meaning. Members ofthe group were instructed to pretend that they were thescientists of the discovering civilisation entreated to in-terpret the meaning of the plate. These further details weregiven:

1. The scientists had before them the spacecraft for ob-servation.

2. The craft and the plate were badly pitted after a long timein space.

Each group was to report its findings. Two questions wereasked:

I. What do the various figures show"!

2. What gas the purpose of including these figures?

BUTCr- ° ; CisJ 64 s

..... I

rr

0

is

7

a

0 0 011$1. III

ta1111.

0 0111. =It.

0

40...111

Fig. 1 Engraved Plate aboard Pioneer 10 as depicted by Sagan. Sagan. and Drake (1972). (Figure courtesy' of Dr. Carl Sagan.Cornell l'niversity.)

DECEMBER 1973 73

Table 1.

Sixteen groups of students were involved in interpreting thefigure on the Pioneer 10 plate. This table gives the figures,their meaning, and the number of correct responses.

FIGURE IN... REPRESENTS NO. GROUPSWITH CORRECTRESPONSES

Upper left Hydrogen atom atime measure 3

Center left

Bottom

Right Center

Time interval nota-tions for the loca-tion of our solar

system in space. The14 lines represent timeintervals corresponding

to pulsars. 6

Solar system and path ofPioneer 10. 14

Humans superimposedover .;ketch of spacecraft

to show relative SiTC. Manwith hand raised repre-sents the "universal"

friendly gesture. 14

After each group reported. an opportunity was given for in-teraction and discussion between the members of the entireclass. The result was a classwide agreement on the meaningof the figures.

The response of the students was quite surprising. for theywere able to interpret and give rational explanations for manyof the figures on the plate, though the groups were unfamiliarwith the reports carried in the popular press. Table I liststhe figures. their meaning. and the number of responses thatwere generally accurate. There were 16 student groups.

After discussion, I introduced some additional questions whichhad not occurred to all me classes, such as:

1. Why are the man and woman not wearing clothes?

2. Why do you think scientists rejected the suggestion thatthe man and woman hold hands?

3. Do you think it is wise to "advertise" our location in theuniverse"

4. If you were given the assignment of devising a plate to beplaced aboard a future spacecraft. describe how you wouldrepresent mankind and the world in which he lives.

The success of the exercise was due to a number of factors.the most important of which was the meaningfulness of theexercise to the students. Since the subject of space explora-tion is well known, the problem they were askeo to solve was

very real to them. Secondly, expressing oneself in a groupsituation in which role-playing (as the scientists) is a part.added to enjoyment and lively discourse.

This exercise and others like it can be useful in showing thelogical processes which are a necessity in science. It canfurther show the group effort and cooperation encounteredit almost all of today's scientific research. Whether as abeginning experience to set the stage for a course or as arefreshing change from other classroom activities, this ex-ercise offers an opportunity for group effort in problem-solving involving current scientific thought.

Reference

Sagan. Carl. Linda Salrman Sagan. and Frank Drake. 1972. a mes-sage from earth. Science. 176140241: 881-884.

THE PROJECT ORIENTED:..ABORATORY AS AN EFFECTIVE

TEACHING METHOD FORNONSCIENCE MAJORS

Del Blackburn,Hal Brown

Biology DepartmentClark College

Vancouver, Washington 98663

In the United States there are two principal types of in-troductory science courses. The first is the time honoredstudy of a representative set of basic laws and theories ofthe science currently practiced and understood. The secondis a survey course for nonscientists who can be assumed tobe taking their last course in science. This type is also termedby many instructors as "the overview course."

Both types of coverage lack one major consideration, that ofthe needs and interest of the nonscientist. The developmentof the concept of the open laboratory was drawn from the manyconcepts and publications in modern educational methods themost notable being the experimenters who produced Summer-hill, open classroom. This, coupled with a basic belief thatour students were not learning to deal with science as it oper-ates in our society and the basic realities of controversy inscience and politics, caused us to design a course programthat we feel has greatly improved the quality of our educa-tional program.

The rationale behind our program includes the followingprinciples. First, with the current information explosion inbiology, no citilen can operate properly in our society with-out some background information on the current problems andtheir total implications in an ecologic system. Second, moststudents are not in school because of a desire to he there butrather from societal pressure. Therefore, societal needs areof tremendous importance in designing a course. Third. thetraditional laboratory experience in biology is of questionablevalue to the nonscientist. Fourth. the traditional cookbooklaboratory does not teach students how a scientist works onthe forefront of research or how science is involved in currentprograms. Fifth, the students of today are looking more andmore for involvement in education with the real world.

74 AIDS EDUCATION REVIEW VOI.. 2 NO. 5

With this background the Project Oriented Laboratory wasdeveloped. It was designed primarily to provide students witha medium through which they could become involved withbiology and current problems through research, applicationof existing data, political and community action concerningthe quality of life. Prior to this char_ e a Traditional Class-room Laboratory system was used.

The following is a list of several points of which students arcmade aware concerning the course requirements.

I. Each student or group of students is required to select aproject on the list provided. or preferably of their ondesign, and turn in a project design and contract to theinstructor by the second week of the quarter. It is the re-sponsibility of each student to live up to his contract. Thefirst week is spent in teaching methods of design.

2. Each student will in turn in a mid-quarter report on theproject.

3. Each student will turn in a final evaluation and report on theproject.

4. Research advice, resources, guidance, etc. is providedby the instructor with maximum cooperation between dif-ferent members of the science division and resource per-sons in the community.

5. Grades for the project are based on time spent on theproject (about 40-50 hours for a ten week quarter), de-gree of completion of the project. student attitude towardthe project, project design, and final report and successof the project.

There is no formal laboratory period assigned to the course.All teaching is done on an individual basis with large blocksof time being made available for students to contact the in-structors. In addition, students are required to attend a week-ly conference for one hour to discuss projects and solveproblems that have evolved. The conferences are limited to20 students with care being taken to keep discussion stu-dent oriented. To aid in this, individual students make re-ports to the conference on their project with other studentsevaluating and solving problems in projects. Students thatare working on some project indirectly related to biologysuch as inservice work for some organization, prepare ashort research paper on some biological aspect of their work.

The class is offered fall and spring quarter with a yearly enroll-ment of about 150 students. One instructor has primary re-sponsibility for the course each quarter it is offered and threeother instructors assist in an advisory capacity for projects.This is in addition to their full time load and comes out toabout five to ten students each.

The only real change in materials needed to operate this typeof a course was in the area of basic ecologic studies withspecial emphasis on water and soil related problems. Inthis regard we have purchased another tabletop model in-cubator for basic microbiological tests, four water testingkits (two for dissolved oxygen and two for more extensive test-ing), sedimentation cones, Jackson turbidity meter, and soil'Ming kits.

It is the belief of the instructors that the success of the coursecan be measured by the success of the projects completed.About 150 students start projects per year with a completionrecord of about 75-80,7. Close to half of those completingprojects do a very good job with more time spent than isrequired. Below are listed a tew of the projects that havebeen completed as a result of our project oriented laboratory.

I. Ten students acquired a lease from the city of Vancouveron seven acres of undeveloped land north of our campus.They have developed a park on this land.

2. One student developed a strain of I)rosophilia fruit fliesresistant to DDT.

3. For the past three years students have operated a re-cyclit.g organization. SCR AP (Students Council for Recyclingand Abating Pollution). Currently we are in the process ofconstruction of a permanent building to house this facility.

4. Our students have studied 12 major streams in the localarea including bacterial studies, chemical analysis, sedi-ment studies, animal and plant life investigations, anderosional studies. Copies of studies that point to environ-mental problems arc sent to the proper authorities. Be-cause of this policy, our students have been involved inpolitical issues and other community problems.

5. We currently have a group of students working on a de-tailed land use and ownership map for the Washington sideof the Columbia River gorge. Our students have also beeninvolved in land use planning in our local community.

6. Some students have elected to work in health services,including:a. Well baby clinicsh. School vaccination programsc. Food to needy individualsc. VD education programs

7. One of our students currently has a research piper inpreparation for publication on his work with the produc-tivity of Great Blue Herons.

8. Two areas in the Gifford Pinchot National Forest maywell become part of the Wilderness system partially basedon studies done and political action taken by our students.

9. Washington now has many unique laws that our studentshelped to shape by political involvement and active re-search.

The instructors that have worked with this course have hadsome problems. Some of these problems and possible solutionsare listed below.

1. Students tend to delay until the last week all work on proj-ects. This problem was fairly well solved by use of con-ference reports, mid-quarter reports. and project checklistskept by advisors and instructors.

2. Also some student. seem to have trouble developing proj-ects. We have found that it helps to solicit the coopera-tum of community groups, local government, conservation

DECEMBER 1973 75

groups, and other interested individuals for projects. Wealso keep a list of projects for students who have problems.

3. With students out in the community. differences with in-dividuals in the community sometimes develop. It helpsto provide the administration with a list of all projectsbeing worked on for each quarter. Also it is important tostress to students the importance of working in the existingsystem.

We believe that the sharing of information through conferencesgives .each student a wide exposure to many areas of biology.Also, student evaluations have been of great value in developingthe course around the interest of our students and in evaluatingthe success of the laboratory.

References

Biological S6ences Curriculum Study. 1970 2nd Ed. Biological ScienceInteraction of Experiments and Ideas. Prentice-Hall Inc.. Engle-wood Cliffs, N.J.

Dickson, Alec. 1973. A curricular approach to community serviceToday's Educarton 62(6): 37.40.

Johnson. R.H.. and R. Shutes. 1962. Biology and team teaching .4m.Bud. Teach.. 24(4): 247-255.

Lee, A.E. 1961. Experimental approach in teaching biology: an in-troduction to the BSC'S laboratory block prog.-am. .4m. !hot leach.23(111: 409-411,

Neill, Alexander. 1960. Summerhill; A Radial Approach to Child Rear-ing. Hart Pub. Co., New York. N.V.

Novak. A. 1963. Scientific inquiry in the laboratory. Am. Sod. leach.25(5): 342-346.

ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONPROGRAMS IN THE

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE:AN APPEAL TO REASON

Richard L. Cunningham

National Park ServiceCape Cod National Seashore

South We Meet, Massachusetts 02663

Environmental education is the key to our environmental prob-lem education for adults of all ages and occupations and, ofcourse, education for the young. A clear understanding ofbasic ecological principles and systems is necessary for any--one to make sound environmeptal decisions.

If we define environment simply as our total surroundings,then perhaps man's first education was environmental. Whatto eat and what not to eat, how to avoid being eaten, whereto live all these were basic environmental decisions ofearly man. His adaptation to and basic understanding of thelife around him and his physical surroundings were necessaryfor his survival. At least numerically now, there is no ques-tion that early man's basic environmental education has provedsuccessful.

Today, at least, in the more highly developed nations, mostmen have lost their understanding of basic environmental de-pendence. For the majority, the environment good or hadis something taken for granted. To many inner city children

milk is something that comes from a carton or a bottle (not acowl); air is something that can be seen because it is ditty,and wildlife means rats in the alley or in the apartment.

Where people live and It)W people live, with each other andas part of the natural environment, these are the real gutissues of the environmental crisis. Without man there are noenvironmental crises only natural systems at work.

Environmental education begins with environmental awareness.Many private organizations and public resource managementagencies have developed line environmental programs andcurricula. One of these programs, NEED (National Environ-mental Education Development), has been developed and pro-moted by the National Park Service, U.S. Department of theInterior.

The National Park System contains a variety of natural andcultural treasures. many of which are representative of en-vironmental quality. These areas provide opportunities forthe development of basic understanding and appreciation ofthe interrelationships upon which our quality of life depends.

Environmental interpretation by the National Park Serviceemphasizes a "man-centered" approach, attempting to answerthe question. "What does it mean to me?" The understandingof what it means to me. is the difference between approachingenvironmental problems through reason or through emotion.

The NEED Program seeks to develop appreciative and criticalenvironmental awareness through an understanding of naturaland cultural interactions as illustrated in areas administeredby the National Park Service. This is a curriculum-integratedprogram using specially developed teaching materials. Even-tually, NEED materials will be prepared for kindergartenthrough twelfth grade.

The NEED materials furnish a new way of looking at all sub-jects. They encourage awareness of the interrelatedness ofall aspects and systems of the environment, cultural as wellas natural.

NEED is organized in phases which correspond to the variousstages of a student's growth and interest patterns. Phase I

is developed for the elementary school level. It strives tohelp children become aware of the natural world and its pro-cesses through personal perception, observation, and differ-entiation. Appreciation of the environment is a main objective.

Phase II is designed for the middle grades or junior highschool. Here the emphasis is on proper utilization of environ-mental resources, with introduction of concepts on man's use,misuse, and abuse of his environment. Concepts of care andcorrection of environmental problems are appropriate at thislevel.

Phase III is designed for the secondary grades. and its goalis the creation of a personal environmental ethic. All theaspects of responsible citizenship social studies, behavioralsciences, history. government, science all contribute towardthe total environmental picture.

Originally formulated by tt.e National Park Service, theNational Environmental Study Area (NFSA) program is nowa cooperative venture of bureaus within the :'..partment ofthe Interior, the Department of Health, Education, and Wel-

76 AIRS Erwc ON REVIEW Vol. 2 NO. 5

fare's Office of Education, the National Education Association,and local educational communities. Curriculum materialshave been developed by the National Park Service andparticipating schools.

An envionmental study area can be anywhere a beach, amarsh or pond, a field or forest, a park or playground. It canalso be a town dump, the school grounds, an historic build-ing, or a battleground. Currently I am working on developingteacher curriculum materials for the use of a shopping centeras a NESA.

Some NESA's are primarily natural, exemplifying the naturalelements and systems from which man is made and has de-veloped his society and culture. Some NESA's are primarilycultural. Here the environment and the individual become anindivisible whole a reality whose meaning for each personlies in his own involvement.

At Cape Cod National Seashore we offer the NEED and NESAprograms, with five areas being designated as EnvironmentalStudy Areas. The NEED Program features a five-day over-night experience for grades five through eight. Classes stayat a former Coast Guard Station and are responsible for prep-aration of their meals and care of the facility. Thus the pro-gram becomes not only environmental education in content,but a total social learning-living together experience. Specificteacher aids have been developed for Cape Cod and are pro-vided to participating schools. Teacher workshops are offeredto provide use of resource material and suggest ways of adapt-ing the area experience to the entire range of classroom cur-ricula. Sensory perception is an excellent introduction to en-vironmental awareness for both teachers and students.

Now in its fourth year of operation at Cape Cod National Sea-shore, the NEED-NESA programs, operating throughout theschool year, have included schools from Massachusetts,Connecticut, and Rhode Island. This coming school year,schools from New Hampshire and New York are scheduled.It is the goal of our program for schools to continue theirNEED-NESA experience back home in their local communities.Many schools have developed their own environmental studyarea and related teaching aids.

Our objectives are to:

1. introduce students to their total environment culturaland natural, past and present.

2. develop in them an understanding of how man is using hisresources.

3. equip them to be responsible and active members of theworld they are shaping and being shaped by.

In other words, the development of environmental attitudesand ethics. If today's students can develop environmentalawareness and attitudes it should lessen the reaction toenvironmental crises with emotion rather than environmen-tal reason. Our goal in environmental education should he tohelp the individual come to grips with his own world byarriving at his own personal environmental ethic. Such anethic must be based on an understanding of earth's naturalsystems and the human systems man has devised and super-imposed on nature. It must also glow out of a personal desireto participate in the total life pn.cesses of our planet. Forwho has the most to gain or to lose in the total environmentof tomorrow than the child of today?

INFORMATION FORCONTRIBUTORS

Correspondence: All correspondence should be directed tothe Editors, AIRS Education Review. American Institute ofBiological Sciences, 3900 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W.,Washington, D.C. 20`.1....

Editorial Policy: The Editors will welcome manuscripts onbiological education from administrators, faculty, students,and those outside academe who are engaged in educationalpursuits. Articles describing research studies in biologicaleducation, new learning programs, and viewpointsstimulating dialogue in biological education are requested.

The usual length of feature articles is 3,000 words. Manu-scripts must conform to the C.B.E. Style Manual. Illus-trations are acceptable, but text length should be adjusted toaccommodate them. The recommendations of reviewers willbe considered for each manuscript submitted. The Editorsreserve the right to edit manuscripts, but authors will havean opportunity to approve galleys.

Papers are accepted for publication on the condition thatthey are submitted solely to the AIRS Education Reviewand that they will not be reprinted or translated withoutthe consent of the Editors.

Preparation of Manuscript: In the preparation of copy,manuscripts should be neatly typewritten in 57 characterlines, double-spaced throughout, including references,tabular material, footnotes, etc., on one side only of 81/2 xI I inch white bond paper. No abstract is required. Pleasesubmit the original plus two additional copies. The authorshould retain a copy. A separate title page should beprovided, and footnotes, figure descriptions, and tablesshould be typed on sheets separate from the text. At leastone of the copies must he complete with figures, tables, andreferences. Please convert all weights and measures to themetric system.

Illustrations: Illustrations such as photographs, maps. linedrawings, graphs, etc., should be submitted, unmounted.with the manuscript. Only black and white illustrations willbe accepted. Number figures consecutively and identify onthe reverse side. Glossy photographs are required and mustbe at least 4 x 5 inches but not larger than 81/2 x 11 inches.Originals of drawings are requested. Generally, drawingslarger than Ith:. x I I inches are not acceptable. Lettering onall illustrations must he sufficiently large to allow reductionto a single column. Figure captions fo.. each illustrationshould be typed on a separate page and accompany theillustration.

References: In the text. references to literaturecitations should be designated by the author's name andyear of publication in parentheses. If there are more thantwo authors, only the senior author's name should he listedin the text with the abbreviation -et al.." for exa,nple:(Smith et al. 1965). Only published references should hegiven in the References section, and each should conform instyle to the name-i.nd-year system of the C.B.E. StyleMa nua I_

DECEMBER 1973 77

ABSTRACTS- FROM THE 24th ANNUAL.AIBS MEETING, AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS

Graduate Education:Present Problems and

Future Prospects

George A. Cries

Oklahoma State tionersityStillwater. Oklahoma 74074

Abs!ract of Keynote ThlkALBS Symposium

18 June 1973

The present state of graduate education in the biologicalsciences is somewhat cloudy. During the past decade therehas been a great proliferation in the number of institutionsoffering graduate programs. These programs, like some of theestablished ones, vary extensively in both scope and quality.Reduced federal and state budgets. a poor job market, and theclamor for accountability may bring about more collaborationamong neighboring institutions, the retrenchment of some pro-grams, and the elimination of others. Biologists sorely need,but probably will not establish, some mechanism of self-policing. If quality control and decisions on which programsare to be eliminated are left up to state coordinating boards,wisdom and logic may not always prevail. Professional accred-itation is not the answer. Presently. programs vary from thevery narrow (e.g.. dental anatomy) to the very broad (e.g.,animal sciences) and from the self-contained within a depart-ment to the truly multidisciplinary.

Prospects for continued high levels of funding and hence em-ployment possibilities appear to be hest in the areas of cel-lular-molecular biology (primarily as it relates to disease)and in environmental biology (especially that with a hiomathe-matical or socially relevant thrust). Most graduate trainingprograms suffer from their isolation from the social sciencesand humanistic disciplines.

The probability for federal funding to return to the "easymoney" days of the 1950's and 1960's is remote indeed. Suchmonies as are forthcoming will most likely he in goal-orient-ed areas. It is difficult for a generation of scientists broughtup in the post-Sputnik era to accept the fact that we may onlynow be returning to a period of "normalcy."

As yet, the Doctor of Arts degree has not found wide acceptanceeither among graduate institutions or among potential em-ployers. The degree does offer a solution to the problems ofstaffing two-year and some four-year institutions with highlyqualified instructors.

Decremental Planningand Dysfunctional

Attitudes

Elwood B. Ehr le

Mankato State CollegeMankato, Minnesota 56001

Presented in the symposium. "Graduate Education: CurrentProblems and Future Prospects." 18 June 1973.

The common patterns of incremental planning have run intodifficulties arising from the dollar crunch, declining enroll-ments. and the poor marketability of doctoral recipients. Dec-remental planning is already a common practice on manycampuses. This requires a significant upgrading in our senseof priorities and an awareness that many programs will haveto be curtailed or eliminated to preserve or foster others.Since individuals and bureaucracies frequently yearn for thepreservation of the status quo, dysfunctional attitudes ariseon all sites. Graduate faculties appear not to be immune tothis phenomenon.

The source of dysfunctional attitudes can be seen in the pur-suit of many questions. What are the best ways to reduce adepartmental budget by 5. 10. or 15 percent? How do you knowwhen to cut across - the -hoard and when to prune selectively?What is the lowest critical mass for effective operation ina program? How do you enthusiastically encourage studentsto pursue their studies when unemployment is their likelyreward? How do you balance teaching, research, and servicewhile reducing personnel? These are questions of significancein decremental planning. Individuals who are unable or un-willing to deal with them and take refuge in a "business asusual" stance are contributing dysfunctional attitudes leadingto the further impairment and decrementing of their depart-ment's programs.

PLAN AHEAD!

25th ANNUAL ALBS MEE:TING

Arizona State University - Tempe

16-21 June 1974

78 AIBS EDUCATION REVIEW VOL. 2 NO. 5

LETTER TO THE EDITOR

It takes effort and imagination in these days of restrictedbudgets to keep fresh ideas flowing into a department; yet,if the department is not to stagnate in a miasma of self-content and provincialism this flow of ideas must continueunabated. This letter is to share our experience with a pro-gram of renewal and refreshment that requires more ideasthan money to succeed. We call it our Shot-in-the-Arm Pro-gram. It has lived up to its name.

Under this program, we invite experts to the campus to dealwith special areas where expertise can unlock a whole trainof self-improvement and make possible new ventures formerlyinaccessible for want of this expertise. A couple of exampleswill show best how the program operates.

Despite our best efforts, we needed new ideas on how to handlethe biology component of our library. We sought out a youngbiologist-librarian who had distinguished himself by develop-ing an exemplary program for effective use of the library onhis own campus. At our request, he evaluated the biologybook collection in the library, prepared a list of journalsthat might well he dropped and listed others that wouldimprove the college holdings. He suggested better ways forthe department to develop its annual list of books recommend-ed for purchase. He recommended various steps the depart-ment might take to encourage students to make better use of thelibrary. His discussions with the professional library staffand the biology staff, together and separately. not only stimu-lated both to better performance, but established new, moreactive cooperative ventures. As a consequence of his visit,a librarian has been assigned to the department for liaison.Her enthusiasm for her new role is demonstrated by the factthat she is auditing a beginning biology course this fall.

Sometimes the visitor worked directly with a faculty mem-ber and his class, opening new vistas in the subject matterarea. The genetics class obtained the services of an expertin the genetics of photosynthesis. He spent two vigorous dayson the campus giving lectures on extranuclear inheritanceand setting up laboratory experiments with the students sothat they could study plastid inheritance in Chbrella. Typical

of those who dealt with subject matter. he left cultures,media, ideas for independent study, references, new tech-niques, and an enormously stimulated faculty member andclass.

These will serve as examples, but the contributions of otherswho visited during the two-year period were no less exciting.The assistant to the director of an important botanic gardenwent over the operation of the college greenhouse and advisedon how it might be improved. A pioneer in the field of audio-tutorial education worked with a member of the staff who wasdeveloping teaching modules for her class. A visiting radia-tion biologist worked with the whole department to introduceradiation techniques where appropriate in the department pro-gram. A plant physiologist and an animal physiologist workedwith faculty members to add new zest to the program. Thelegacy of ideas left by these consultants will invigorate thedepartment for a long time.

Few colleges could pay for such a program if compensationwere proportional to the value received. Fortunately, thoseone would hope to invite are dedicated teachers who takegreat pleasure in sharing their enthusiasm and ideas withothers. They have been willing to come for expenses andmodest honoraria. The most important reward for a con-sultant is the feeling that he did something worthwhilethat he really made a difference. It is only fair that theconsultants have every opportunity to make a significantcontribution. There should be careful preparation for theirvisits and their ideas should be thoughtfully considered. Mostwant no part of a ceremonial visit, but would prefer to be usedto the utmost while they are on campus.

Only $500 was contributed to the program by the college. TheAEC supported the visit of the radiation biologist, but the restwas paid for by gifts, only one of which exceeded $100. Thebiggest contribution, of course, was made by the turned-onconsultants who were so generous in sharing their ideas andenthusiasm.

DONALD S. DEANChairman. Biology Department

Baldwin - Wallace CollegeBerea. Ohio 44017

HELP NEEDED TO ACT ON IDEASDiscussions at the last AIRS annual meeting at the Universityof Massachusetts produced many more ideas than our officestaff has either the time or the expertise to explore. There-fore, we are calling on any of our readers who have the timeand inclination to assist us.

Several students expressed a need for better information onhow to select a graduate school. Graduate students or facultywho have ideas And recent experience in this area might con-sider preparing a manuscript for publication in the Review orpreparing the text for a brochure to be distributed to interestedstudents. How to look for a job and how to plan a career wereother topics of interest to students. Manuscripts on these topicsmight be used in communications with student chapters.

The results of our Manpower Survey show that only 1 percentof respondents are members of ethnic minorities and that 18percent are women. Consequently, insufficient information

DECEMBER 1973

FROM THE ANNUAL MEETINGabout the status of women and minority members was derivedfrom the study.

Related to the problem of insufficient information on thestatus of women and minorities is the need for description ofexperience with workable affirmative action programs. If youhave evidence to demonstrate successful application of yourideas, write us a short note. Your experience might be veryuseful responding to inquiries we receive in the EducationDivision, or perhaps would be of sufficient general interest tojustify publication.

This publication is a medium of exchange among biologistswith common interests and problems in their pur: Jit ofexcellence in biological education. The extent to which theReview reflects your concerns and serves to publicizecreative and constructive solutions to problems depends onyou. Please share your ideas with us.

79

THE 1974 ASIA FOUNDATION GRANTS

The Asia Foundation is continuing its support of biologists who are pursuingpre- Or postdoctoral graduate stuck in the l'nited States and who intend toreturn to their home country upon completion of their work. Nationals fromthe following countries are eligible lir awards under the program: Afghan-istan, Bangladesh. Burma. China. Hong Kong. India. Indonesia, Japan. theKhmer Republic (Cambodia). Korea. Laos. Malaysia. Nepal. Pakistan. thePhilippines. Singapore. Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Thailand. and riet Nam.

Those qualifying on the above criteria are eligible to applyfor the following:

Grants-in-Aid

The Asia Foundation has authorized the AIRS to offer grants-in-aid of up to $200 each to qualified Asian biologists or sci-entists in closely related fields for the purpose of assistingthem to complete research projects. The grams may be usedto purchase materials, literature, or to obtain clerical servicefor the preparation of a thesis or final report.Travel AwardsThe Asia Foundation has authorized the AIRS to offer grantsof up to $150 each for travel or per diem expenses to enableAsian biologists who are visting the United States to conductresearch or pursue graduate studies to attend the 1974 AnnualAIRS Meeting at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona,16-21 June 1974.

Asia Foundation AwardThe Asia Foundation has established the Asia FoundationAward for outstanding research published during 1972 or 1973.Papers may be submitted by the author, his mentor, or any co-worker in the fields of biology, agriculture, natural resourcesand basic (nonclinical) medical science. Only single authorpapers will be considered. The award, to be presented at theAIRS Annual Meeting, carries an honorarium of $400, plus upto $150 to cover travel expenses. In the event the recipienthas already returned to his home country, the honorariumaward will be made in absentia.

Procedures:

Grants-in-Aid and Travel Awards

Application forms are available from: AIRS Asia FoundationProgram, 3900 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C.20016. If the applicant is a student, the need for such a grantmust be established by the student's major professor or de-partment head. All applicants must explain the limitations oftheir present financial aid and must state an intent and ex-pected date of return to Asia in the near future. The univer-sity or organization affiliation in the home country. an ex-planation of source of present financial support, and a briefparagraph explaining present research should be included inthe application. Deadline for receipt of applications is 1

March 1974; notification of action will be made by I April1974.

Asia Foundation Award

No application form is required. Five (5) copies of the papershould be submitted to AIRS Asia Foundation Program at theaddress given above. The paper should he accompanied by abrief statement indicating the (1) author's U.S. address; (2)university or organization affiliation in his home country; (3)social security number; and (4) expected date of return to Asia.Final date for receipt of papers is 1 March 74; the recipientwill be notified on or about 1 April 74.

AIRS Education ReviewVolun 2/Number 5 /December 1973

3900 V% ,nsul Avenue. N WMann.. .n. D C 20016

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