SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 1. RATIO SCHEDULES PROVIDE A REWARD AFTER A CERTAIN NUMBER OF RESPONSES...

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

• 1. RATIO SCHEDULES PROVIDE A REWARD AFTER A CERTAIN NUMBER OF RESPONSES (RATIO = NUMBER)

• 2. INTERVAL SCHEDULES PROVIDE REWARD AFTER A CERTAIN TIME INTERVAL

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)

Variable Interval (VI)



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)


Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses

Example: A factory workers gets paid after every 10 cases of a product are completed



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)


The number of responses for a reward (reinforcement) varies

Example: Telemarketers never know how many calls it takes to make a sale

slot machine pay-offs



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)


Time period between rewards remains constant

Example: Weekly paycheck

Quarterly school grades



Fixed Ratio (FR)

Fixed Interval (FI)

Variable Ratio (VR)


Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies

Example: Random visits from the boss who delivers praise

Fishing

THE PROBLEM OF PUNISHMENT

PUNISHMENT AN AVERSIVE CONSEQUENCE USED TO WEAKEN THE BEHAVIOR THAT FOLLOWS

• HOW DOES THIS DIFFER FROM NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT?


PUNISHMENT VS. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT


Loud Noise Press Lever

Press Lever

Loud Noise Removed

Loud Noise Applied

Response ConsequenceNegative Reinforcement

Punishment

No Noise

TWO TYPES OF PUNISHMENT

1. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT

THE APPLICATION OF AN AVERSIVE STIMULUS AFTER A RESPONSE

TOUCHING A HOT STOVE WILL LIKELY REDUCE THE CHANCE OF IT HAPPENING AGAIN

WASHING YOUR MOUTH OUT WITH SOAP FOR SWEARING


TWO TYPES OF PUNISHMENT2. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT

(OMISSION TRAINING)

THE REMOVAL OF AN REINFORCER/STIMULUS AFTER A RESPONSE

TAKING THE CAR KEYS FROM A MISBEHAVING TEEN

A CHILD WHO TALKS BACK MAY NOT BE ALLOWED TO WATCH IT’S FAVORITE CARTOON


FOUR KINDS OF CONSEQUENCES


Positive orappetitive

Negative or aversive

STIMULUS

-Remove

NegativeReinforcement

Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use

Omission TrainingMissing dinner leads to

less staying out late

+Present

PositiveReinforcement

Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work

PunishmentGetting speeding ticketleads to less speeding

WHY PUNISHMENT DOESN’T WORK

1.THE POWER OF PUNISHMENT USUALLY DISAPPEARS WHEN THREAT OF PUNISHMENT IS REMOVED

PUNISHMENT…

2. …OFTEN TRIGGERS AGGRESSION OR ESCAPE

3. …MAY INCREASE APPREHENSION IN THE LEARNER, INHIBITING THE LEARNING NEW AND BETTER RESPONSES

4. …IS OFTEN UNFAIR AND APPLIED UNEQUALLY


WHEN DOES PUNISHMENT WORK?• IT MUST BE IMMEDIATE

• IT MUST BE CERTAIN AND CONSISTENT

• IT SHOULD BE LIMITED IN DURATION AND INTENSITY

• SHOULD BE CLEARLY TARGET THE BEHAVIOR, NOT THE PERSON

• LIMITED TO THE SITUATION IN WHICH THE RESPONSE OCCURRED

• SHOULD NOT SEND MIXED MESSAGES (I CAN HIT YOU BUT YOU CAN’T HIT OTHERS

• NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT IS THE MOST EFFECTIVECopyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

ALTERNATIVES TO PUNISHMENT

•EXTINCTION

•REINFORCING PREFERRED ACTIVITIES• THE PREMACK PRINCIPLE

•PROMPTING AND SHAPINGCopyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

OPERANT AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING COMPARED

• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING INVOLVES THE ASSOCIATION OF TWO STIMULI (UCS + CS) BEFORE THE RESPONSE OR BEHAVIOR

• IT IS LARGELY A RESPONSE TO PAST STIMULATION AND ENDS WITH THE RESPONSE

• OPERANT CONDITIONING INVOLVES A REINFORCING (REWARD) OR PUNISHING STIMULUS AFTER A RESPONSE OR BEHAVIOR

• IS DIRECTED AT ATTAINING SOME FUTURE REINFORCEMENT OR AVOIDING PUNISHMENT AND REQUIRES A STIMULUS THAT FOLLOWS THE RESPONSE


HOW DOES COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY EXPLAIN

LEARNING?


According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained

as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone

• INSIGHT LEARNING – PROBLEM SOLVING OCCURS BY MEANS OF A SUDDEN REORGANIZATION OF PERCEPTIONS.. SUDDENLY PERCEIVING FAMILIAR OBJECTS IN NEW FORMS OR RELATIONSHIPS

• COGNITIVE MAPS –A MENTAL REPRESENTATION OF PHYSICAL SPACE


How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning?

WOLFGANG KÖHLER AND INSIGHT LEARNING

• EXAMPLE: CHIMP STACKS CRATES TO REACH FOOD

• THIS IS A FORM OF COGNITIVE LEARNING

• BEHAVIORISM HAS NO CONVINCING STIMULUS-RESPONSE EXPLANATION FOR KOHLER’S DEMONSTRATION.


• KÖHLER OBSERVED THE MANNER IN WHICH CHIMPANZEES SOLVE PROBLEMS, SUCH AS THAT OF RETRIEVING BANANAS WHEN POSITIONED OUT OF REACH.

• HE FOUND THAT THEY STACKED WOODEN CRATES TO USE AS MAKESHIFT LADDERS, IN ORDER TO RETRIEVE THE FOOD.

• KÖHLER CONCLUDED THAT THE CHIMPS HAD NOT ARRIVED AT THESE METHODS THROUGH TRIAL-AND-ERROR (WHICH THORNDIKE HAD CLAIMED TO BE THE BASIS OF ALL ANIMAL LEARNING, THROUGH HIS LAW OF EFFECT)

• RATHER THEY HAD EXPERIENCED AN INSIGHT (ALSO KNOWN AS AN “AHA EXPERIENCE”), IN WHICH, HAVING REALIZED THE ANSWER, THEY THEN PROCEEDED TO CARRY IT OUT IN A WAY THAT WAS “PURPOSEFUL.”


EDWARD TOLMAN’S COGNITIVE MAP

• ORGANISMS LEARN THE SPATIAL LAYOUT OF THEIR ENVIRONMENTS BY EXPLORATION, EVEN IF THEY ARE NOT REINFORCED FOR EXPLORING

• (EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE: ANIMALS FORGING FOR FOOD)


EDWARD TOLMAN’S COGNITIVE MAP

• ARGUED THAT IS WAS A COGNITIVE MAP THAT ACCOUNTED FOR A RAT QUICKLY SELECTING AN ALTERNATIVE ROUTE IN A MAZE WHEN THE PREFERRED PATH WAS BLOCKED

• CHALLENGED THE WORK OF PAVLOV, WATSON, AND SKINNER

• CLAIMED LEARNING WAS MENTAL, NOT BEHAVIORAL.


EXAMPLES OF COGNITIVE MAPS

• GIVING DIRECTIONS

• WALKING THROUGH YOUR HOUSE IN THE DARK


OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: BANDURA’S CHALLENGE TO

BEHAVIORISM• A FORM OF COGNITIVE LEARNING

• WE LEARN BY WATCHING OTHERS’ BEHAVIOR AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF THEIR BEHAVIOR

• ALBERT BANDURA: PROPOSED THAT REWARDS CAN BE EFFECTIVE IF WE MERELY SEE SOMEONE ELSE GET THEM


BANDURA’ BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT1961• BANDURA FOUND THAT THE

CHILDREN EXPOSED TO THE AGGRESSIVE MODEL WERE MORE LIKELY TO ACT IN PHYSICALLY AGGRESSIVE WAYS THAN THOSE WHO WERE NOT EXPOSED TO THE AGGRESSIVE MODEL.


WATCH THE VIDEO

ALBERT BANDURA BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT

ON YOUTUBE


The Bobo Experiment Video

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdh7MngntnI

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdh7MngntnI

CHILDREN SEE, CHILDREN DO

WATCH THE VIDEO

CHILDREN SEE. CHILDREN DO.

ON YOUTUBE


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHi2dxSf9hw




RECENT COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS FINDINGS

RESCORLA• HAS SHOWN THAT THE MOST

CRITICAL FEATURE OF A CS IS ITS VALUE IN PREDICTING WHEN THE US WILL OCCUR

KAMIN• EXPANDED ON THIS

CONCEPT AND DEMONSTRATED THAT A CS - R CONNECTION ONLY OCCURS IF THE CS CONTAINS UNIQUE INFORMATION ABOUT THE UCS


SUMMARYREINFORCEMENT CHANGES NOT

ONLY THE BEHAVIOR BUT ALSO THE INDIVIDUAL’S EXPECTATIONS FOR FUTURE REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS IN SIMILAR SITUATIONS .

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007Reinforcement changes

expectations and behavior

BRAIN MECHANISMS AND LEARNING

LONG-TERM POTENTIATION

• BIOLOGICAL PROCESS INVOLVING THE STRENGTHENING OF SYNAPSES IN GROUPS OF NERVE CELLS; BELIEVED TO BE THE NEURAL BASIS OF LEARNING


ARE THERE TWO LEARNING CIRCUITS??• SIMPLE ‘MINDLESS’ LEARNING, LIKE LEARNING TO

RIDE A BIKE

• MORE COMPLEX LEARNING THAT REQUIRES CONSCIOUS PROCESSING: CONCEPT FORMATION, INSIGHT LEARNING, OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, MEMORY OF SPECIFIC EVENTS.


SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 1. RATIO SCHEDULES PROVIDE A REWARD AFTER A CERTAIN NUMBER OF RESPONSES...

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