Agropastoralism as Strategy for Sustainable Conservation and Livelihood in Wadi Allaqi

Biosphere Reserve, South Eastern Desert, Egypt.

Final Report Submitted to

The Rufford Small Grants Foundation

2012

Agropastoralism as Strategy for Sustainable Conservation and Livelihood in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere

Reserve, South Eastern Desert, Egypt.

Prepared by

Hoda A. Yacoub Researcher in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve

Nature Conservation Sector EEAA, Egypt

The project was funded by the Rufford Small Grants Foundation [RSGF] and implemented in cooperation with South Protected Areas Administration and members of Conservation of Natural and Cultural Heritages in Upper Egypt NGO.

Project team: Moneir M. Mahgoub Director of Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve Hoda A. Yacoub Researcher in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve Hatem A. Mekki Researcher in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve Mohammed M. Mounzaly Researcher in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve Edris Saleh Bedouin man from Sedinab tribe Nafeisa Hussein Bedouin woman from Sedinab tribe

Acknowledgment

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to "The Rufford Small Grants Foundation" for their support and fund which helped to implement the project. Our appreciation extended to involve Mr M. Hesseib, the Director of South Protected Areas Administration, Nature Conservation Sector, EEAA, that this work will never come to light without the facilities of the place and his encouragement. Last but not least, deepest thanks to our colleague and the workers in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve for their kind support.

Project team

Executive Summary

Pastoralists sustainably manage their environment including defining and protecting grazing reserves, they understand that security of resources access and owing the diverse resources are important factors for their sustainability. Drought conditions forced Bedouin tribes to migrate and settle at the shores of Lake Nasser to compensate the lack of resources. The mobility of Bedouins in narrow scale and their sedentarization create a load on natural plant species and severely declined plants which are already threatened. The settlement of Bedouins in Allaqi Village which is far 16 km from their resources due to Governmental decision makes the situation more critical. The present of alternative livelihood adapted with the new circumstances was essential. Agropastoralism can provide the opportunity to Bedouins to improve their livelihood, it is a farming pattern for employing the agriculture and livestock, where the households can obtain more than 50% of its gross income from livestock and communal grazing land and more than 25% from cropping activities. The outstanding feature of Bedouin farms is that trees of target species will be cultivated with annual fodder crops to maintain a stable agricultural production without placing a load on natural vegetation and provide conservation to following target trees species: Medemia argun (IUCN Classification 2010: Critically endangered) Balanites aegyptiaca and Ziziphus spina-christi. The project will also conserve the habitat of Wadi Allaqi which supports the flora and fauna found in the area. The project also objects to:

1. Give an opportunity for intensive land management using of the advantages of the biological interaction.

2. Help to regulate the use of wildlife populations and ecosystems. 3. Help the Bedouin communities to become aware of problems related to their

habitat. 4. Improve the productivity of land. In brief, the agropastoralism could be able to

solve the equilibrium of development and conservation under condition of careful implementation related to locations, techniques and types of trees and crops.

Chapter 1: Wadi Allaqi and the need for the Agropastoralism

Wadi Allaqi Location and Description

Wadi Allaqi is the largest wadi in South-Eastern Desert in Egypt, extends for more than 270 km along a north-west/south-east axis, from its highest tributaries in the Red Sea Hills to its downstream confluence with the Nile Valley east of Lake Nasser. It considered as one of the most extensive drainage in Nubian Desert and lies at an important geological boundary. The upstream tributaries may receive occasional rainfall and the drainage can accumulate into the main channel of Wadi Allaqi forming torrents that discharges into the Nile. In its upper reaches in the hills, the annual rainfall averages are less than 50 mm, while in the downstream parts of wadi, rainfall events are extremely rare and the area is genuinely hyper-arid. The ecology of the upper and middle parts of the Wadi Allaqi is closely linked to topography, as vegetation is almost wholly confined to runoff channels. Water is received from across extensive catchment areas and channels into the alluvial sediments of the lower lying wadis (Ali et al. 1997, Belal 2009). The ecology of downstream of Wadi Allaqi (project target area) is dominated by Lake Nasser, the reservoir behind the Aswan High Dam. The fluctuation of lake level provides opportunity for vegetation variety. Wadi Allaqi was declared a conservation area in 1989 and has protected status since then within the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA). Because of its arid environment and combination of two ecosystems (extreme arid desert and the shores of Lake Nasser) inhibited by nomadic tribes, this area was designated a biosphere reserve in 1993 within UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme (MAP).

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People in Wadi Allaqi

People in Wadi Allaqi are nomadic and semi-nomadic, locally called Bedouins. Bedu, the Arabic word from which the name Bedouin is derived, means "inhabitant of the desert" and refers generally to the desert-dwelling nomads of many regions in Middle East. Nomadic Bedouin tribes in Egypt have long inhabited the Eastern and Western desert areas, forming unstable and mobile communities, move on to rain-fed pastures. Bedouins in Allaqi composes from two main tribes, the Ababda and the Bishari, both of which are assigned to the Beja cultural group (Paul 2000). The Beja are a people of Hamitic origin distributed along the Red Sea coast between southern Egypt and the Horn of Africa. Herding of camels, sheep and goats is the primary economic activity and means of survival for tribal families. Bedouins used to move with their herds from one spot to another, seeking sustenance and shelter for a time. This continuous migration allowed grazing grounds to be naturally replenished. The construction of the Lake Nasser attracts many Bedouin tribes to migrate and settled at the shores of the lake to secure water and grazing resources which was previously scarce. Furthermore, opportunity for cultivation was created in post-inundation times, when the lake can be used to irrigate small farms, even at distance away from the lake shores, relatively shallow wells can be dug to depths of two to four metres (called Gamama), which draw on subsurface water flows associated with the lake (Belal et al. 200).

Bedouins and the scarce water resources

One of Bedouin settlement in Wadi Allaqi

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Allaqi Village and Lack of Resources

The project targets the Bedouins who are settled in governmental houses (16 km far from the Lake Nasser shores) according to Aswan Governor Decision No 23 in 2002. The object of settlement plan is to take step toward modernization and facilitate the implementation of development project to improve as they think the Bedouins status. The concept of the "develop" impact by many ways the Bedouins; that it has reshaped the relationship between them and their environment which traditionally sustain them. In decades past, the success of the Bedouin pastoral enterprise depended upon their adaptation to harsh conditions and upon an indigenous knowledge of both the climate and the fragile desert landscape. All this factors should be taken in consideration before taking any vital decisions related to Bedouin communities; the location of the village for example is too far from Bedouins essential livelihood resources which create a great challenge to their sustainability in the village. Food insecurity, poverty, irregular water supplies and lack of fodders are the main constrains. Furthermore, those communities experience harsh seasonal shortage of food due to drought conditions that extends more than fifteen years. The problems of poverty are further exacerbated among Bedouins of Allaqi by the inadequacy of basic services, which rely on health and education facilities that are remote, poorly staffed and lack basic equipment and supplies. The civil society organizations (CSOs) who could offer some support are almost nonexistent due to the isolation of most of these communities. The number of Bedouin families living in village is forty two, dependent on the government to have water and in sometimes food. The water derived from the lake to village by a simple system composed of pumps and pipes. The water is captured in cement reservoir which capacity equal to 500 meter square, moved for 14 km toward the village by pumping machines and pipes, stored in metallic reservoir found in the village and finally distributed to houses. The unstable water level of Lake Nasser creates some problems related to water security particularly in summer (minimum water level) which force the Bedouins to store the water to be used for days. The agropastoralism systems based agriculture and pasture can be a solution to provide the Bedouins with alternative livelihood resources, particularly when the appropriate plant species (tolerant to drought and heat) were selected.

Map of Wadi Allaqi showing the location

of Allaqi Village

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Background, aim and objectives

Conservation of habitat and natural resources is the work strategy of Allaqi as one of protected areas in country, but this is not adequate to face the natural constrains and for sustainable conservation of habitat and threatened species particularly in present of reverse conditions as drought, overgrazing, overuse and low environmental awareness. Agropastoralism is able to cover this gab by: 1) Acting as sustainable production unit for seeds and seedlings of target species, 2) identifying the most promising production and cropping strategies through utilization wealth of indigenous knowledge that exists on how to deal with climate variability and risks, combined with scientific research applied in the area and deal with related issues. Simply, for the sustainable species and habitat conservation, two actions are required, first, sustainable production mechanisms for species achieved through the agropastoralism techniques which provide the opportunity for restoration and re-habitation of threatened target species, second, adaption with reverse conditions which also can be achieved through the agropastoralism by making the Bedouins "self sufficient" of their food and fodder and improving their capacity to mitigate the effect of regular droughts, 3) the project will require local consultation in designing and testing of new practices to create a feeling of ownership among land managers and to tap into practical traditional experience, and 4) One of project outcomes is to feed the Information Centre in NCS with documents including practical experience and applicable benefit information related to Agropastoralism technique, for example, identify: a) appropriate crops and trees, b) the best areas for application the agropastoralism, c) the best methods for agropastoralism, d) ways of seeds reservation, collection and storage and e) indigenous knowledge of Bedouins related to conservation ways of habitat and wild plants, ways of cultivation, the uses of plants as food, fodder and medicine. The application of the agropastoralism as a strategy for species conservation and alternative livelihood resources may:

Reduce the load on natural plants to improve the efficiency for the in-situ conservation of semiarid habitat in Wadi Allaqi and its biodiversity particularly for threatened species.

Insure the effective implementation of management plans for habitat, species action plans and species recovery plans.

Give an opportunity for intensive land management using of the advantages of the biological interaction occurs when there is combined cultivation of trees with crops and/or domestic animals.

Emphasize bio-intensive elements and the positive interactions. Increase the effectiveness of many cultural practices including fertilization, irrigation, plant

protection and bee pollination. Achieve one of IUCN aims which related to contribution to solutions that conserve the biodiversity,

while at the same time ensuring that people’s livelihoods are improved in a sustainable way. Help to regulate the use of wildlife populations and ecosystems by local stakeholders (communities'

management) and enhance the resource productivity to secure adequate stocks and flows of food and cash to meet basic needs of Bedouins (Livelihood alternatives).

Promote mechanisms which support the Bedouins against struggles in the face of low grazing resources and increase their capacity to adapt with climate stress.

Help Bedouin communities to become aware to problems related to their habitat as degradation of natural grasslands due to their traditional nomadic system (loads on grazing resources), assess risks and opportunities.

Improve the productivity of land.

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Agroforestry, Pastoralism and Agropastoralism?!!

Agroforestry is the growing of both trees and agricultural/ horticultural crops on the same piece of land. They are designed to provide tree and other crop products and at the same time protect, conserve, diversify and sustain vital economic, environmental, human and natural resources. Agroforesty differs from traditional forestry and agriculture by its focus on the interactions among components rather than just on the individual components themselves providing multiple benefits, including diversified income sources, increased biological production, better water quality, and improved habitat for both humans and wildlife. Research over the past 20 years has confirmed that agroforestry can be more biologically productive, more profitable, and more sustainable than forestry or agricultural monocultures. Pastoralism is the dependence primarily on herds of domesticated animals as economic resource, characterized by mobility (nomadism or transhumance) as a survival strategy that the pastoralists travel with their herds to pasture areas, rather than bringing food to them. The size of the herd/flock determines the share of feed resources obtained from pastures grazed communally under an open access or common property tenure system Agropastoralism differ from the pastoralism that it depends on the agriculture and herds of animals as a mixed economic resource, so it usually carried out by pastoral families or their descendants who have, to varying degrees, settled and taken up cropping, while some group members take the animals for pasture.

Cropping in Allaqi plus to livestock husbandry represents the

agropastoralism

Agroforestry is a mixed agriculture between trees and crops

Agropastoralism and New Opportunities for Livelihood

Wadi Allaqi as in many arid areas exposed to human and natural processes that cause reduction in the natural resources base and the capacity of terrestrial ecosystem. The natural processes as lake floods, soil erosion and long drought periods. On the other hand, pasture land has become degraded in many parts due to centralization of grazing at the shores of Lake Nasser causing over-grazing due to density of livestock in excess of the carrying capacity of the land. Livestock affect both the soil structure and the vegetation cover of herbaceous plants. Removal of vegetation exposes soil to the elements (wind and water), which when combined with soil disturbances, can speed erosive processes. Frequent drought years and climatic changes contributed to the advance of desertification encouraged the overuse of natural resources and inappropriate ways of dealing with the land. The destruction of the natural grass and woody vegetation cover in many areas affected the topsoil temperature and the air humidity and consequently influences the movements of atmospheric masses and rainfall. Small scale agriculture combined with ancestral pastoral practices can be suitable solution and alternative livelihood resource. Previous studies indicated that arid areas can provide high yielding cultivation on condition that water is available. The sustainability of arid zone agriculture is questionable and faced with combined challenges of development and protection of water resources, managing salinity and creating long-term economically and environmentally sounds operations (Ayars et al. 1985, Gold 1999, Aslam et al. 2006). In this review agriculture in Allaqi should address strategies to ensure the sustainability of arid agriculture via the right management of water and the use of appropriate plant and crop. The irrigation water was secured from the lake and the cultivated trees and crops were carefully selected based on certain criteria (explained in details in Chapter 2). In brief, the agropastoralism in Allaqi will provide more diverse economy, leads to more stable community and reduce the economic risk that the system will stand on multiple products.

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Agropastoralism as Strategy for Conservation

The farms in Allaqi village are based on agroforestry system which integrates crops with trees and shrubs. The resulting biological interactions provide multiple environmental benefits. It has the potential to sequester carbon, maintain long term soil productivity, biodiversity conservation and improving air and water qualities. Carbon sequestration involves the removal and storage of carbon from the atmosphere in carbon sinks (such as vegetation or soils) through physical or biological processes. The incorporation of trees or shrubs in agroforestry systems can increase the amount of carbon sequestered compared to a monoculture field of crop plants or pasture (Sharrow and Ismail 2004; Kirby and Potvin 2007). The incorporation of trees and crops are able to biologically fix nitrogen , enhance soil physical, chemical and biological properties by adding significant amount of above and belowground organic matter and releasing and recycling nutrients ( Nair and Latt 1997; Young 1997; Buck et al. 1998; Schroth and Sinclair 2003). The mechanisms by which agroforestry systems contribute to biodiversity have been examined by various authors (e.g. Schroth et al. 2004; McNeely 2004; Harvey et al. 2007). In general, agroforestry plays five major roles in conserving biodiversity: (1) agroforestry provides habitat for species that can tolerate a certain level of disturbance; (2) agroforestry helps preserve germplasm of sensitive species; (3) agroforestry helps the rates of conversion of natural habitat by providing a more productive, sustainable alternative to traditional agricultural systems that may involve clearing natural habitats; (4) agroforestry provides connectivity by creating corridors between habitat remnants and the conservation of area-sensitive floral and faunal species; and (5) agroforestry helps conserve biological diversity by providing other ecosystem services such as erosion control and water recharge, thereby preventing the degradation and loss of surrounding habitat.

Up: Application of agroforestry system in farms has several environmental advantages. Dawn: Savadora persica one of perennial shrubs that could be cultivated in the farms

The perennial woody trees in the farms act as windbreaks and shelterbelts. They are reducing wind chills, protecting crops, providing wildlife habitat, removing atmospheric carbon dioxide and producing oxygen, reducing wind velocity and thereby limiting wind erosion and particulate matter in the air, reducing noise pollution, and mitigating odour from concentrated livestock operations. Vegetative buffers can filter airstreams of particulates by removing dust, gas, and microbial constituents. Agroforestry practices are also a proven strategy to provide clean water. In conventional agricultural systems, less than half of the applied nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizer is taken up by crops. Consequently, excess fertilizer is washed away from agricultural fields via surface runoff or leached into the subsurface water supply, thereby contaminating water sources and decreasing water quality (Cassman 1999). They also reduce nutrient movement into ground water by taking up the excess nutrients (e.g. Udawatta et al. 2002; Lee et al. 2003). Trees with deep rooting systems in agroforestry can also improve ground water quality by serving as a ‘‘safety net’’ whereby excess nutrients that have been leached below the rooting zone of agronomic crops are taken up by tree roots. These nutrients are then recycled back into the system through root turnover and litter fall, increasing the nutrient use efficiency of the system (van Noordwijk et al. 1996; Allen et al. 2004). 7

Chapter 2: Plant Species for the Agropastoralism

Trees and Crops Selection, Bases and Criteria

To develop appropriate techniques for agriculture in Wadi Allaqi and to achieve knowledge related to dry land farming, it was necessary to consult experts from Desert Researches Centre in Cairo to cover the following topics: in which category (due to dryness degree) does the Allaqi belong? Does the water adequate for agriculture? What are the factors need to be controlled and how? What are the species of trees and crops that could be cultivated in Allaqi? According to experts opinion; the soil temperature is the master key to have successful agriculture in present of adequate water supplies. High temperatures in the surface soil or in the atmosphere close to the ground of 45°C or above, especially when associated with low humidity, can cause serious stresses that are detrimental to plant and animal life. High temperatures are injurious to seedlings and may have adverse effects on rhizobia and nitrogen fixation. High temperatures also may cause rapid decomposition of soil organic matter with adverse effects on soil texture, nutrient retention properties and the colloidal complex of the soil. Other physio-chemical conditions are related to soils which are highly weathered, acid and of low inherent fertility. These soils are not only fragile but are subject to multiple nutrient deficiencies and toxicities under continuous cultivation. Arid regions have their fair share of disease and pest problems. However, these may often be quite different from those of wetter regions. Nematodes are often a severe problem in sandy soils. Trees and crop plants for Allaqi region are those that could survive and produce in spite of aridity. However, in almost all of these trees, crops, seeds must be germinated or cuttings must be rooted under conditions of almost normal water availability. Therefore, when one speaks of tolerance of dry conditions one is talking mostly about the drought tolerance of the growing or mature plant. Choosing the right crops for arid regions might involve considerable experimentation in Allaqi. Plant species that selected for agriculture include: Endemic plant species. Multi-benefits plant species. Plant species selected by Bedouins for their economic value. Plant species selected by Bedouins to cover the reduction of fodder resources. Plant species selected by conservationists for their rarity.

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Selected Trees Species:

1. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. belongs to the family Balanitaceae is widely distributed in Africa (It is believed indigenous to all dry lands south of the Sahara), Arabian peninsula, and Sudano-Sahielian region of Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. It is known by various names, e.g. Arabic names: Heglig (tree), lalob (fruit); trade name: zaccone, zachun, desert date (dried fruit), in India: Hindi name is Hingot and English name is thorn tree/desert date. It is an indigenous species in Sudan and Eastern Desert in Egypt with a wide range of natural occurrence over diverse climatic and edaphic conditions (Suliman and Jackso 1959). Its traditional roles and values were well known for thousands of years as fruits were found in tombs of the 12th Egyptian dynasty (Von Maydell, 1986). The tree is used for food and fodder (Elseed et al. 2002; Billore 1988), as agroforestry tree (ICRAF 1998) and has a wide range of medicinal uses. The seed kernel contains high amount of oil and protein that varies among different sources (Elfeel 2010). The oil is very similar to sesame and groundnuts oils in quality and quantity (Abu Al-Futuh 1983) and has no any serious safety concern (Obidah et al. 2009). Balanites is multi branched, spiny shrub or tree up to l0 m tall. Crown spherical, in one or several distinct masses. Trunk short and often branching from near the base. Bark dark brown to grey, deeply fissured. Branches armed with stout yellow or green thorns up to 8 cm long. Leaves with two separate leaflets; leaflets obovate, asymmetric, 2.5-6 cm long, bright green, leathery, with fine hairs when young. Flowers in fascicles in the leaf axils, fragrant, yellowish-green.

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1: Balanites aegyptiaca tree growing in Wadi Allaqi, 2: Lalob the Balanites fruits, (3 and 4) Balanites seedlings in the nursery.

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Two hundred and seventy four seeds were cultivated in nursery and one hundred and ninety three of them succeed to germinate recording 70.4% germination percent. The ripe fruits of Balanites were collected by the team from midstream part of Allaqi, from area called Wadi Murra, 80km far from Lake Nasser shores. Fruits were soaked in water to remove the hard coat that it may inhibit the water movement into the seed or it may physically restrict embryo expansion. To stimulate the germination seeds were prepared in two steps: 1) Mechanical scarification using electric grinder: Seeds were scarified to scratch the outer hard coat 2) Moist scarification: Seeds were allowed to soak in the water for at least three days. The prepared seeds were distributed uniformly in polythene bags containing moist soil (mixture of 1(clay):3(sand), two seeds per-bag were planted at 2 cm depth and finally placed in wooden nursery. To protect the seedlings from rodents and locusts they were covered by plastic net. 9

2. Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.

Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf. [Family: Rhamnaceae] is an evergreen tree, naturally growing in arid and semi-arid areas and native to northern and tropical Africa, Middle East and Southern and Western Asia. The Arabic name of Ziziphus in "Nabaq", Chinese name for the herb is suanzaoren [suan = sour; zao = date; ren = seed; hence, seed of the sour date], or just zaoren and the common name is jujube, which comes from the fruit of Zizyphus jujube. The species is ecologically and economically important for its tolerance to drought and salinity, besides the high value of non wood products, particularly fruit nutrition, leaves and shoots saponin, and tannin substrates (Weinges and Schick, 1994, Sudhersan and Hussain 2003). As seed of Ziziphus spina-christi requires scarification treatments to germinate (Moustafa et al. 1998), vegetative propagation plays a significant role in its improvement programs. The species was recommended by Bedouins to be among the selected species for cultivation in the farms because of it nutritive and economic values. The fruits are edible and used to treat poor appetite and digestion. They are a nurturing energy tonic that prevents and treats nervous exhaustion, low energy, and weakness and that stabilizes the emotions. They increase weight gain and help malnourished individuals grow stronger. Three hundred and twenty five seedlings were cultivated and for technical difficulties the seedlings were developed by and under the supervision of researchers in Agricultural Research Centre, Komombo, Aswan.

3. Lawsonia inermis

Lawsonia inermis [Family: Lythraceae] is a perennial plant commonly called as "Henna" derived from the Arabic name, having other vernacular names as Mehndi in India and Mignonette tree in English. It is native to North Africa and South East Asia, and often cultivated as an ornamental plant throughout India, Persia, along the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea and northern Australia. Henna grows better in tropical savannah and tropical arid zones and produces highest dye content in temperature between 35-45°C. Henna is a tall shrub or small tree, 2.6 m high. It is multi-branched with spine tipped branches. Leaves are opposite, entire, glabrous and broadly lanceolate, having depressed veins on the dorsal surface. Henna flowers have four sepals and a 2 mm calyx tube with 3 mm spread lobes. Petals are ovate, white or red stamens inserted in pairs on the rim of the calyx tube. Fruits are small, brownish capsules, with 32–49 seeds per fruit, and open irregularly into four splits. Henna has been used since the Bronze Age to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather, silk and wool. In several parts of the world it is traditionally used in various festivals and celebrations. It was listed in the medical texts of the Ebers Papyrus Ebers (16thc BCE Egypt) (Brayan and Smith 1974) and by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya 14th c CE (Syria and Egypt) as a medicinal herb. In Morocco, wool is dyed and ornamented with henna, as are drumheads and other leather goods. It also acts as an anti-fungal (Bosoglu et al. 1998) and a preservative for leather and cloth and the flowers have been used to create perfume since ancient times. Henna is one of species that

A and B: Fresh and dried fruits and leaves of Lawsonia inermis (Henna).

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A

B

recommended by Bedouins to be cultivated for its various uses in their community. It is used to stain women hair, their hands, fingers and feet. It is also used as cure for fungus infections between feet fingers. As Ziziphus, Henna seedlings were also derived from Agricultural Research Centre, Komombo, Aswan.

4. Medemia argun Wurttenb. ex H.Wendl Medemia argun Wurttenb. ex H.Wendl [Family: Arecaceae, Palmae] is one of fan palm species, well known to the ancient Egyptians but recently feared to be extinct. It had not been reported since two isolated trees had been discovered in oases in southern Egypt by L. Boulos in the 1960s (Boulos 1968). Medemia is native only to the Sudan, where it grows in small populations, in the barren floodplains of seasonal rivers (wadis) in Nubian Desert southern Egypt and northern Sudan. Medemia is a fan palm to about 15m tall with a straight, ringed, brown trunk that supports a large, spherical crown of very stiff, strongly cost palmate leaves. The fruits are a shiny purplish black in colour and in the size of plums. When dry, they emit a pleasant malty smell and are edible. Leaves are used as a row material for weaving work. In ancient Egypt, the fruits of Medemia argun were imported from the Sudan, and have been found in Egyptian tombs, indicating their importance. Medemia was selected to be cultivated in the farms because: 1) it is endemic species in Nubian Desert and Allaqi area, 2) It has economic value, 3) It is extremely drought tolerant and will thrive under hot and dry conditions and 4) the most important reason that the plant is critically endangered according to IUCN and exposed to threats in its natural habitats. The seeds used for germination were derived from Dungul Oases, Nubian Desert West of the Nile. Seeds of Medemia were soaked in water for two or three weeks as pre-plantation stage to break the seeds dormancy, to weaken the seed coat and to stimulate the germination process. Twenty eight seedlings were cultivated with 61% germination percent.

Medemia argun cultivated stages: A. Outer dark coats of Medema seeds were removed, B. Water soaked seeds, C.

seeds ready for cultivation and D. Germinated seeds.

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5. Hyphaene thebaica L. (Palmae)

Hyphaene thebaica L. (Palmae), Doum Palm, is one of several Hyphaene species. But this is by far the most commonly grown in cultivation and most readily available. It is a native to very dry, desert areas with almost no appreciable rainfall most of the year. It is growing wild throughout the dry regions of tropical Africa, the Middle East and Western India. It is listed as one of the useful plants of the world (Fletcher 1997, Lokuruka 2008, Nwosu et al. 2008). The trunk of Doum Palm tree commonly branches into 2 like a ‘Y’ and often each branch divides again in a ‘Y’ form, giving the tree a very distinctive appearance. The fruit is ovoid or slightly 3 lobed. Roots of doum were used in treatment of Bilharziasis, while the resin of the tree has demonstrated, diuretic, diaphoretic properties and also recommended for tap worm as well as against animal bites. Doum palm fruit is edible popularly known as gingerbread and goriba. This fruit is widespread all over semi-arid zone of Africa and appears in March and persists until the following season’s flowers. The husk from the fruit can be pounded to form powder or cut off in slices; the powder is often dried then used as hot or cold drink. Young shoots produce tasty palm cabbage; the husk is edible, and so are the immature seeds if well prepared (Orwa et al., 2009). Doum Palm known to be tolerant to heat and drought conditions and have economic and medical value which encourage the project team to select it for cultivation in Allaqi. The procedures of plant cultivation are the same of Medemia argun recording 58% germination percent.

Up: Fruits and seeds of Hyphaen thebica, Down: The cultivated Hyphaen seeds in nursery in Allaqi

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The selected crops species for Agropastoralism Three crops species were selected to be cultivated in Bedouins farms based on Agroforesty system; Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor], Corn maze [Zea mays] and Peanuts [Arachis hypogaea]. Sorghum is perhaps the world's most common crop; it is quantitatively the world’s fifth largest most important cereal grain, after wheat, maize, rice and barley. It is natively cultivated in North Africa, possibly in the Nile or Ethiopian regions as recently as 1000 BC1. It is grown in Upper Egypt but is minor along the North African coast. Sorghum cultivation appropriate the environment conditions in Wadi Allaqi, that: 1) it is versatile crop and plays an important role as a food security crop especially in semi arid lands, 2) It is adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions and will produce significant yields under conditions that are unfavourable for most other cereals, 3) It is particularly adapted to drought, however, primarily a plant of hot, semi-arid tropical environments with rainfall from 250 mm that are too dry for many other dry areas crops, 4) It can be grown successfully on a wide range of soil types but is mostly suited to soil in Allaqi characterized by being light sandy and poor in nutrients and can produce grain on soils where many other crops would fail, 5) The single sowing of sorghum seeds can get more than one harvest and with good productivity. Corn maze is the second most important cereal in Egypt after the rice and it is cultivated everywhere in country in a wide variety of climate conditions. Corn was among selected crops that it is well adapted with hot and drought conditions, very nutritive [rich of starch, oil and protein] and has a lot several uses. Every part of the plant can be utilized as food, fodder and fuel wood. The vegetative parts of leaves and stem used to feed the livestock of sheep and goats because of its high digestibility and palatability and nutritive value and the seeds used to feed the domestic birds.Dried kernels free from seeds some times are used as alternative fuel wood, they produce equal amount of heat to wood with little smoke and with no dangerous gases and ashes. Bedouins use the corn flour mixed with the wheat flour to make their traditional bread, they also use it to make thick porridge called “Aseada”. Peanuts also widely known as ground nuts originated in Peru and are now grown throughout the warmer dry areas of the world. Areas of high cultivation include the Africa, South-east Asia and the sub-tropical region of Australia. Peanut was among recommended crop to be grown in Allaqi that it is tolerant to drought. Temperature is the major limiting factor for its yield; minimum 50°F is required for proper

Sorghum cultivating areas

Seeds of selected crops to be cultivated in Allaqi

growth and development. A peanut crop will not reach optimum maturity in areas with fewer heat units during the growing season. Soil characteristic in Allaqi appropriate the growth and the development of peanut, that soil for peanut production should be a sandy light-colour, light textured with good drainage, and moderately low amounts of organic matter. Such soil is preferred since it is usually loose and friable; provide proper aeration for the roots and nitrifying bacteria that are necessary for proper mineral nutrition of the plant, permitting easier penetration of roots and pegs, and easier harvesting. Bedouins can utilize all parts of peanuts, they can eat seeds [high in food energy, contains 25 to 32% protein and 42 to 52% oil], use the vegetative parts as fodder and the pods or shells can serve as high fibre roughage in their livestock feed.

13Chapter 3: Agropastoralism and Implementation Stages

The Project Work Plan Consist of Two Stages:

1. Pre-implementation Stage: Review publications and researches implemented in Allaqi (and other arid areas) that help in

carrying out the project and the Agropastoralism technique

Consultation of experts, academics (in arid areas agriculture, Cairo University) and the Bedouins in issues related to most appropriate agriculture techniques in arid areas to insure a successful project results.

Meetings with the director of Nature Conservation Sector in Cairo and the director of Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve to collect information on Wadi Allaqi nature and conditions that may help or restrict the project implementation and to insure their cooperation.

Construction the wooden nursery and preparation tools and other requirements for the plantation of target species.

Implementation awareness programs targeted the Bedouins including meetings and presentations to show the essentiality of agropastoralism as solution for climate change stresses and lack of grazing resources. 2. Implementation Stage:

Plantation the seeds of target species in nursery to be moved latter to Bedouins farms.

Selection the Bedouins farms locations.

Establish fences round farms for protection from domestic animals grazing.

Supply Bedouins with crops seeds, target species seedlings, materials and cultivation tools.

Cultivation process by Bedouins (farms will be cultivated by commonly used fodder including the seedlings of threatened target species).

Agropastoralism farming steps will be under the supervision of the project team for successful implementation and results.

Evaluation: Evaluate the impact of Agropastoralism including: 1) The livelihood of Bedouins (questionnaire), 2) The productivity of natural grazing areas, and 3) Evaluate the growth of target species (measurements as shoot length, --- etc. and general condition of trees.

Reporting.

14Pre-implementation Stage

Agriculture is a new practice for: 1) The Bedouins who live in Allaqi. Herding of sheep and goats as means of their survival and all their knowledge and experience focused on “How.. Where.. and When to find resources for their livestock?” and for 2) The project team members who most of them work as a researchers in Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve and all their activity focused to achieve the objectives of Wadi Allaqi as protected area including; the conservation, sustainable development and the research work. It was important for us as a team to understand the linkages between the poverty in Bedouins communities and the quality of the environmental resources, to know more about the factors impact resources and to find adapted and alternative livelihood resources. It was challenge, to find a new practice in Allaqi that can deal with unfavourable biophysical conditions of scarcity of water, infertile soils, high temperature, high solar radiation, high disease and pest incidence and poor socioeconomic infrastructure. This led to think about agriculture, but in a special technique, that agree with conditions in arid areas. Consultation of experts in Desert Research Centre in Cairo was so essential to collect more information about the semiarid agriculture, the discussions with researchers in Department of rural Sociology, Department of the pastures and natural resources in dry areas, Department of agriculture in arid and sustainable development, were benefit to know how to apply the agriculture in Allaqi, to improve use of the limited resources and managing the natural resources sustainably. Several meetings were held (including presentations) with Bedouins tribes, director of Nature Conservation Sector in Cairo, the director of Wadi Allaqi Biosphere Reserve and the director of Allaqi village, to show our project and related activities, to know their opinions and ideas and to insure their cooperation.

Implementation Stage

Nursery plant propagations and farms constructions Containers nursery was used in seeds propagation process, three species were planted: Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Medemia argun Wurttenb. ex H.Wendl and Hyphaene thebaica L. Fruits of Balanites were collected from Wadi Murrra in midstream part of Allaqi which far about 80 km from the Lake Nasser. To have the seeds, the fleshy pulp of the fruit was removed by allowing the fruit to soften in water for days and then scraping them over electric grinder. Dried and uninfected seeds were planted into polythene bags at a depth 2 cm, in moist soil (mixture of sand and clay in proportion 2:1) and two seeds were placed in each point. Medemia and Hyphaene also were planted in the nursery in somehow similar technique to Balanites. They were mechanically scraped to remove the hard fruit pulp and soaked in water to overcome the seeds dormancy and soften the seeds coat barrier. Nine fenced farms with surface area 81m2 were constructed nearby to Bedouins settlement in the village. Each farm contained ten seedlings distributed in pattern that make the distance between two seedlings three metres giving

adequate space for cropping. Sorghum was the first crop cultivated in January 2012 and will be harvested after three months in May.

Project evaluation Evaluation aims to trace causes to outcomes, in other words, it allows us to determine in what degree we achieved the project objectives, if the activities followed in the project has been effective and if it cause a change (positive or negative) in Bedouin society. Questionnaire with open and ended questions was used to collect qualitative information about the size of family, number of livestock (indicator), sources of livelihood … etc. The evaluation was two times before and after the project.

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A. Balanites mechanical scarification. B. Farms construction. C. Ziziphus seedlings in Nursery. D. Transplantation of Ziziphus in farms. E. Project evaluation using questionnaires.

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Chapter 4: Project Outcomes

Agroforesty and agropastoralism are long term projects; it means that many of their objectives can be achieved after sometime. The total period of the project was 13 months, part of it was spent in preparation work, which makes it not adequate to have all the objectives of the project. The plantation in the farms (trees seedling) started in October 2011, the first cropping sorghum, was in last January 2012 and it will be harvested in May 2012. One of outcomes that should be mentioned is the new knowledge and experience related to: Conditions of arid agriculture, seeds plantation in nursery, agroforestry techniques and transplantation of seedlings. Furthermore, the Bedouins community became more acceptable to present of alternative livelihood resources and more awarded about their environmental problems. The project provides the Bedouins with essential bases of agroforestry technique represented by the knowledge and the facilities which provide sustainability to outcomes. The arid habitats cover about 37% of the protected areas in country and most of them have similar challenges, so the project could be as experimental stage to identify positive and negative sides of application the agropastoralism strategy in other parts in country for conservation and for new livelihood resources.

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