Robert A. Emmons Department of Psychology University of California, Davis · Robert A. Emmons...
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1 Is Gratitude Queen of the Virtues and Ingratitude King of the Vices? Robert A. Emmons Department of Psychology University of California, Davis Draft: Do Not Cite Without Permission Prepared for Yale Center for Faith & Culture consultation on “Joy, Gratitude, and Complaint,” September 8-9, 2017, Yale University
Transcript of Robert A. Emmons Department of Psychology University of California, Davis · Robert A. Emmons...
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IsGratitudeQueenoftheVirtuesandIngratitudeKingoftheVices?
RobertA.Emmons
DepartmentofPsychology
UniversityofCalifornia,Davis
Draft:DoNotCiteWithoutPermission
PreparedforYaleCenterforFaith&Cultureconsultationon“Joy,Gratitude,andComplaint,”
September8-9,2017,YaleUniversity
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“Gratitudeisthealpha,thepointfromwhichallvirtuesmustbegin...itisthe
heavyweightchampionofvirtues”–JonathanLast,TheSevenDeadlyVirtues
Itisimpossibletoenvisionthegoodlifewithoutgratitude.Gratitudeisavirtuewith
unusualpower.Itmakeslifebetterforselfandforothers.Awarenessofitsimportanceraises
inescapablebigquestions:Howgratefullyorungratefullywilleachofusliveourownlives?
Whywillwechoosetodoso,andwithwhateffectsonourselvesandthosearoundus?Writing
intheNotreDameJournalofLaw,Ethics,andPublicPolicy,ElizabethLoder(2006)noted
“Gratitudeaffectshowapersonconceivestheworldandexpectsotherstobehave.It
increasesinterpersonalreceptivity.Itseepsintoone’sbeingandaffectsalldispositions
pervasively”(p.176).One-halfcenturyearlier,famedsociologistGeorgSimmeldeclaredthat
gratitudeis“themoralmemoryofmankind.”Ifeverygratefulaction,hewentontosay,were
suddenlyeliminated,societywouldcrumble.
Regardlessofone’sworldview,faithtradition,orphilosophicalleaning,gratitudeis
muchadmired.Asmatteringofquotesrevealsthepowerandpotentialofthisvirtue:
“Whateveryouareinsearchof—peaceofmind,prosperity,health,love—itiswaitingforyou
ifonlyyouarewillingtoreceiveitwithanopenandgratefulheart”(Breathnach,1996).
Elsewherethesameauthorreferstogratitudeas“themostpassionatetransformativeforcein
thecosmos”(p.2).Anotherpopulartreatmentofthetopicreferstoitas“oneofthemost
empowering,healing,dynamicinstrumentsofconsciousnessvitaltodemonstratingthelife
experiencesonedesires”(Richelieu,1996,p.222).Lockandkeymetaphorsareespecially
common;gratitudehasbeenreferredtoas“thekeythatopensalldoors”thatwhich“unlocks
thefullnessoflife,”andthe“keytoabundance,prosperity,andfulfillment”(Emmons&Hill,
2001,Hay,1996).
Thepotentialandpromiserevealedinthesequotesisnotwithoutadownside.Itruns
theriskofslidinglooselyintoaconceptualizationofgratitudewhichisuncriticalandnaively
construed.Indeed,muchofwhatpassesforgratitudetodayappearsfarremovedfrom
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historicalconceptionsthatemphasizedconceptsofduty,obligation,reciprocation,
indebtedness,owingandbeingowed.Whetherthegiverofabenefitishumanordivine,
gratitudeissomethingthatduetothegiver,tobereturned,notkeptbytheself(Volf,2006).A
virtueanalysisofgratitudeprovidesawelcomecorrectivetothePollyannishbiasthatprevails
inthecurrentgratituderevivalthatappearstobegrowing(GreaterGoodScienceCenter,
2014,Leithart,2014).
Buoyedbyresearchfindingsfromthefieldofpositivepsychology,thehappiness
industryisaliveandwellinAmericaandEurope.Punditsandpontificatorsroutinelypropose
thatgratitudeshouldbepartofany12-step,30-day,7-secret,or10-keyprogramtodevelop
happiness.Criticsofthis“gratitudelite”approachhavelamentedthatwhatpassesforgratitude
todayisagenericandvaguefeelingofwell-beingthatoftendoesnotevenacknowledgethe
presenceofagivertowardwhomoneshoulddirecttheirthanks(Mitchell,2012).Buthowdoes
thepositivepsychologyofgratitudebearonthequestiontowardwhichthispaperisdirected?
Isgratitudequeenofthevirtues?Isitthepointfromwhichallvirtuesmustbegin?Inmodern
timesgratitudehasbecomeuntetheredfromitsmoralmoorings.Theinstrumentalvalueof
gratitudehasbeenfavoritedovervaluinggratitudeforitsownsake(McConnell,2016).When
theRomanphilosopherCicerostatedthatgratitudewasthequeenofthevirtues,hemost
assuredlydidnotmeanthatgratitudewasmerelyastepping-stonetowardpersonalhappiness.
Gratitudeisamorallycomplexdisposition,andreducingthisvirtuetoatechniqueorstrategyto
improveone’smoodistodoitaninjustice.Furthermore,gratitudemaynotalwaysfeelgood.
Solomon(2004)wrote,“We(especiallyinthissociety[theUnitedStates])donotliketothinkof
ourselvesasindebted.”Perhaps,onoccasion,gratitudemayfeelgood,andwedospeakof
heartfeltgratitude,butIthinkthemoreusualfeelingisoneofslightdiscomfort…”Gratitude
maynotbetheinherentlypositiveemotionitisassumedtobe.Indeed,gratitudemay
encompassorbeassociatedwithvariousnegativeemotions:indebtedness;obligation;guilt;
ingratitude;embarrassment;andawkwardnessleadingRoberts(2016)todeclare“the
perceptionofgratitudeasinherentlypositiveshouldnotbeacceptedoutright.”
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Ahistoricalawarenessmakesitclearthatequatinggratitudetosolelyaninnerfeelingis
insufficient.Inthehistoryofideas,gratitudeisconsideredanaction(returningafavor)thatis
notonlyvirtuousinandofitself,butvaluabletosociety.Toreciprocateistherightthingtodo.
“Thereisnodutymoreindispensablethatthatofreturningakindness”wroteCiceroinabook
whosetitletranslates“OnDuties.”Cicero’scontemporary,Seneca,maintainedthat“Hewho
receivesabenefitwithgratituderepaysthefirstinstallmentonhisdebt.”Neitherbelievedthat
theemotionfeltinapersonreturningafavorwasparticularlycrucial.ImmanuelKantbelieved
thatgratitudewasnotmerelyadutyamongothersbuta“sacredduty.”Kantclaimsthat
gratitudeisadutyoflovewehavetowardothersinreturnfortheirkindnessorcharity.
Conversely,acrosstime,ingratitudehasbeentreatedasaseriousvice,agreatervicethan
gratitudeisavirtue.Ingratitudeisthe“essenceofvileness,”wroteKantwhileDavidHume
opinedthatingratitudeis“themosthorribleandunnaturalcrimethatapersoniscapableof
committing.”Asweshallsee,therearedifferentsenses,types,orvarietiesandvariationsof
gratitudethathavetheirhomeindifferentpsychological,social,moral,spiritualandreligious
contextsofdiscourse(Carr,2016).Howweattempttoanswerthequestionthatframesthis
papermaydependonthespeciesofgratitudeuncovered.
GratitudeDefined
Gratitudeisthebasicresponsetotherecognitionthatonehasreceivedgiftsand
benefitsbeyondthosethatmayhavebeenotherwiseexpected,deserved,orearned.Whena
personisgrateful,theyrespondtoanunmeritedbenefitbyaffirmingitsgoodnessand
recognizingitasnotflowingfromtheirownagency.Gratitudeinvolvesanagency
requirement,abenefactorrequirement,andanintentionalityrequirement(McAleer,2012).
Gratitudeisafeelingthatoccursininterpersonalexchangeswhenonepersonacknowledges
receivingavaluablebenefitfromanother,aresponsetoanactthatisspurredbythedesireto
benefittheother.Muchofhumanlifeisaboutgiving,receiving,andrepayment.Inthissense,
it,likeothersocialemotions,functionstohelpregulaterelationships,solidifyingand
strengtheningthem.
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Thereisanenergizingandmotivatingqualitytogratitude.Itisapositivestateofmind
thatgivesrisetothe“passingonofthegift”throughpositiveaction.Assuch,gratitudeserves
asakeylinkinthedynamicbetweenreceivingandgiving.Itisnotonlyaresponseto
kindnessesreceived,butitisalsoamotivatoroffuturebenevolentactionsonthepartofthe
recipientdirectedtowardthebenefactorortootherparties.
Gratitude’sothernatureisethereal,spiritual,andtranscendent.Theterms“cosmic”or
“transpersonal’gratitudearesometimesusedtodepictthisformofgratitude.Philosophiesand
theologieshavelongviewedgratitudeascentraltothehuman-divinerelationship.Aslongas
peoplehavebelievedinaSupremeBeing,believershavesoughtwaystoexpressgratitudeand
thanksgivingtothisBeing,whomtheyconsidertheirultimategiver.Inmonotheistictraditions
Godisconceivedofasapersonalbeingthatisthesourceofgoodnessandthefirstgiverofall
gifts,fromwhoallgoodflows.Inthesetraditionsgratitudeauniversalreligiousfeeling,
expressedinthethankofferingsdescribedinancientscripturestothedailyceremoniesand
ritualsofNativeAmericans,tothewell-rehearsedliturgiesofmainlinedenominationstothe
contemporarypraiseandworshipmusicoftheevangelicaltradition.
Gratitudeisthebasicresponsetotheperceptionandreceptionofdivinegrace,the
feelingthatonehasreceivedgiftsandbenefitsbeyondthosethatareexpected,deserved,or
earned.It’softenbeensaidthatgraceistherootofthegospel,andgratitudeisthefruit.For
example,Barthsaidthat“graceandgratitudegotogetherlikeHeavenandEarth.”Asa
Christianlyimbuedwayofbeing,itariseswhenabelieverreflectsonGod’sinterventionin
historyorinthelifeofthatindividual,providingordoingforthemforthemthatwhichthey
couldhaveneverdoneorprovidedforthemselves.AnethicthatisdeeplyrootedinJudeo-
Christiandoctrine,theword“thanks”anditsvariouscognates(thankful,thankfulness,
thanksgiving)appearsover150timesintheHebrewscripturesandNewTestament,andthe
practiceofthanksgivingisabehavioralexpressionofgratitudetoGod.Inthemostgeneral
sense,gratefulaffectcomesfromtherecognitionthatcreationisagiftofGodandnotaright,
privilege,oraccident(Wilson,2015)occurringwhenthemindisturnedtowardcontemplation
ofGod'sincomprehensiblegoodness.RecognizingGod’sprovisionofbenefitsandresponding
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withgratefulemotionisoneofthemostcommonreligiousdispositionsthatChristianpeople
areencouragedtodevelop.Withgratitudethereisamplification,strengthening,anddeepening
oftheentireawarenessoflife.
IsgratitudetoGodanearlyinevitableoutcomeofhowthehumanmindconceivesof
God’sagency?Doourmentaltoolssupporttheinferencethatbenefitsthatcannotplausiblybe
attributedtohumanagencyinevitablyleadtoanattributionofintentionalbenevolencetoa
divineortranscendentagent?Whatarethemechanismsbywhichpeopleapportioncreditto
Godfordesiredoutcomesasopposedtohumanagency,ornon-agency?AsSchimmel(2004)
pointsout,ournaturaltendencyistothankthehumanbenefactor,begratefultohim,and
perhapsacttowardshiminafawningmanner,andtoforgetGod’sroleinthecausalchainof
benefaction.
ThoughtheconceptofapersonallytranscendentGodmaylacktractioninnontheistic
traditions,gratituderetainsitsspiritualnature.Thisfundamentalspiritualqualitytogratitude
thattranscendsreligioustraditionsisaptlyconveyedbythelatecomparativereligionsscholar
FrederickStreng:“Inthisattitudepeoplerecognizethattheyareconnectedtoeachotherina
mysteriousandmiraculouswaythatisnotfullydeterminedbyphysicalforces,butispartofa
wider,ortranscendentcontext(Streng,1989,p.5).Inthissense,gratitudedirectsourmindsto
thevastoceansofrealitiesnotvisible.Thisspiritualcoreofgratefulnessisessentialifgratitude
istobenotsimplyatoolfornarcissisticself-improvement.Truegratefulnessrejoicesinthe
other.Ithasasitsultimategoalreflectingbackthegoodnessthatonehasreceivedby
creativelyseekingopportunitiesforgiving.Themotivationfordoingsoresidesinthegrateful
appreciationthatonehaslivedbythegraceofothers.Seeninthislight,gratitudeisacosmic
orderingprinciplethatiscapableofweavingasustainablethreadofmeaningfulnessasone
contemplateshowevenmundaneorordinaryevents,personalattributes,orvaluedpeople
oneencountersareelementsofthegift-natureoflifejustasitnourishesafundamentally
affirminglifestance.
Bothinterpersonalandtranspersonalorcosmicgratitudecanbeenanalyzedastraits,
emotions,ormoodstates.Thegratefuldispositioncanbedefinedasastableaffectivetrait
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thatwouldlowerthethresholdofexperiencinggratitude.Asanemotion,gratitudecanbe
understoodasanacute,intense,andrelativelybriefpsychophysiologicalreactiontobeingthe
recipientofabenefitfromanother.Asastablemood,gratitudehasalsobeenidentifiedto
haveasubtle,broadandlongerdurationimpactonconsciousness.Gratitudeisnotjusta
transientemotion,butisalsoavirtue.Gratefulpeoplearemorepronetotheemotion,are
pronetorespondwithgratitudetoawiderrangeofbeneficentactions,andaremorelikelyto
noticebeneficenceonthepartofothers—inparticularmorelikelytorespondtoitwiththe
emotionofgratituderatherthanwithalternativeemotionslikeresentment,shame,orguilt.
Gratefulpeoplearelikelytoagreewithstatementssuchas“It’simportanttoappreciateeach
daythatyouarealive,“Ioftenreflectonhowmucheasiermylifeisbecauseoftheeffortsof
others,”and“Forme,lifeismuchmoreofagiftthanitisaburden.”Itemssuchasthesecome
frompersonalityquestionnairesdesignedtomeasuretraitlevelsofgratitude;inotherwords,
toidentifypeoplewhoarebynaturegratefulsouls.
GratefultoWhom?CosmicGratitude
Mostaccountsofgratitudesuggestthatthevirtueisonlyappropriatewhenitisfelt
towardagents.Yetwesometimeshavegoodreasontobegratefulto(notmerelyfor)non-
agents,humansorsupernatural,experiencesandcircumstances.Theistsmaynotbetheonly
peoplewhoareinclinedtofeelgratitudeforthingsnotplausiblyattributabletohumanagency.
Evenatheistssometimesfeelthisimpulse.Roberts(2014)calledthissentiment“cosmic
gratitude”Anintriguingquestionforsuchcosmicgratitudeistowhomshouldonedirectthis
feeling?PhilosopherRobertSolomonwrotethat“beinggratefultotheuniverseisalimpway
outofthisquandary”(Solomon2004,p,viii).Thelimpnessobviouslyderivesfromthefactthat
theuniverseseemsnottobeanintentionalagent,andingratitudeoneattributesbenevolent
agencytothesourceofone’sblessings.Inaninterdisciplinaryvolumeongratitudepublishedby
OxfordUniversityPress,BenedictinemonkBrotherDavidSteindl-Rast(2004)proposedtwo
differentkindsofgratitude:thankfulness,whichispersonal,andgratefulness,whichis
transpersonal:
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Whenwethank,wethink–namely,intermsofgiver,gift,andreceiver.Thisisnecessary
forpersonalgratitude,buttranspersonalgratitude–thoughcognitive–liesdeeperthan
thinkingandprecedesit.Whenitisanintegralelementoftheexperienceofuniversal
wholeness,gratitudedoesnotyetdistinguishbetweengiver,gift,andreceiver.(Steindl-
Rast,2004,p.286).
Steindl-Rast’sclaimthatgratitudeisessentiallyacelebrationisbasedonthefactthatits
essentialcharacteristicsareaheightenedandfocusedintellectualandemotionalappreciation.
Thegratefulperson’sintellectualfocusissharpenedandtheiremotionalresponseintensifiedin
theactof(spontaneousordeliberate,butineithercasewilling)appreciation,whichhe
designatesasgratitude.Thisconformitywiththedefinitionofcelebrationjustifieshisspeaking
ofgratitudeasacelebration.Itdiffersfromothercelebrationsbyitsobject,whichis
undeservedkindness.
Inhisconceptualanalysisofthesetwoconceptualmodesofgratitude,Steindl-Rastwas
thefirsttomakeaveryimportantdistinction.Sincethetimehepennedthosewords,others
havedifferentiatedbetweendirected,propositional,benefit-triggered,personal,specificand
targetedgratitudeontheonehand,andnon-directed,prepositional,generalized,impersonal,
non-specific,andappreciativegratitudeontheother.Thisfundamentaldistinctionbecomes
importantwhenitcomestoaddressingthethirdbigquestionweposedearlier.Thatis,cana
non-theist,includingatheistsandagnostics,aswellasbelieversinfaithtraditionswithout
supernaturalagents,feelexistentialgratitude?Thequestionarisesbecausegratitudeis
typicallythoughttobedirectedtowardsapersontowhomoneisgrateful.Hencethetheist
maybegratefultoGodfortheirexistence,experiencedasagift.Butcanthenon-believerfeel
somethingsimilarwithoutbeingirrational?Cantherebegratitudeforexistencethatisnot
directedtowardanysource?
ThisquestionisequallyimportantfortheistswhodonotholdaconceptionofGodasa
personalbeing,orevenanykindofentity,oragainthosewhoholdthatourrelationtoGod
cannotappropriatelybemodeledonourrelationtootherpeople.Therearevarious
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conceptionsofGodasUltimaterealityor“thegroundofbeing,”whichisalsonotanindividual
orpersonalbeingthatonecanreceivebenefitsfrom.
TheProblemofNon-TheismandExistentialGratitude
Tofeelgratitude,apersonmusthavesomesenseofthegoodbeinggoodforthem,
somesenseofthegoodasoriginatingoutsidethemselvesandtheirlimitedcontrol,andin
emblematicformsofgratitude,asenseofthatthegoodisundeserved,andcannotbeclaimed
byright.Thisrevealsthatgratitudeisanemotionwithconsiderablecognitiveelaboration.
Existentialgratitudeinvolvesbeinggratefulforone’sexistence.Itrevealsitselfin
statementssuchas“Iamgratefultobealive,”or“Ihavedeepthanksgivingforlifeitself.”Asin
otherformsofgratitude,oneisthankfulforagoodthatoriginatesoutsideofone’sownagency.
Inthecaseofexistentialgratitude,thegoodoneisgratefulforisexistenceitself.Inbroader
formsofexistentialgratitude,theobjectonecelebratesmaybeone’sownexistenceperse
(Lacewing,2016).Here,onerespondstotheuttercontingencyofexistence;thequalityoflifeis
notthemainfocus.Wedelightjustinbeing,ajoiedevivre.
Inexistentialgratitude,itisexistenceitselfthatisthegift.Butthenwhoprovidesit?To
whomisowedgratitude?Fortheists,God,aspersonalcreatorandsustainerofallthatexists,
capablyfillsthatrole.Itisclearthatthetheistmayfeelexistentialgratitude,giventhatitis
directedtowardsapersonalGod.Whatofthenon-theist?Ifthereisnoidentifiablegiver,
existentialgratitudefailstomeetthetripartiteconstrual(giver,gift,receiver)considereda
litmustestforwhatconstitutestheemotionofgratitude(Roberts,2014).Howcanwhatisfelt
inthiscontextevenresemblegratitude?Mostphilosophicalandpsychologicalanalysesof
gratitudespecifythatthegoodisexperiencedasagiftandthattheemotionisdirectedtowards
aperson,thegiver.Iftheonlynon-directedformofgratitudeisexistentialgratitude,tocallit
gratitudemaylooklikespecialcircumstance.Butifnon-directedgratitudeismorefrequent,we
canunderstandthenon-directed,existentialgratitudeofthenon-theistinlightofthis.
Itmaybethatnon-directedexistentialgratitudefiguresprominentlyinpartduetiotherecent
riseofthereligious“nones.”Itisaresponse,atleastinpart,tocognitivepressurebroughtto
bearontheexperienceoftheundeservedgoodnessofone’sexistencebythoughtsand
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experiencesthatsupportnon-theism.Thisisnottosaythatthepersontalksthemselvesintoa
non-directedformofgratitude,butthattheirunderlyingrepresentationsofhowtomakesense
theworldchangeovertimeinlinewithsuchthoughts.Theexactmannerinwhichcognitive
systemscontributetotheformationofbeliefsinintentional,non-randombenevolenceinthe
absenceofadivinebenefactorisanimportanttopicforascienceofGTG.
Butatheistsmaynotbetheonlyonestotakeissuewithexistentialgratitude.Iftheists
takewhattheyperceiveastheblessingsintheirlivestobefavorsexpressingthebenevolence
ofGodtowardsthem,warrantingthemtoloveGodinreturnandtoexpressthisloveinworship
andthanksgivingandbenevolentactionstowardtheirfellowhumanbeings–aretheynot,in
logicalconsistency,committedtobeingangrytoGodfortrialsandtragediesintheirlives?Isit
notingratitudeif,whenblessingsarereversed,theresponseisindignation?Asabelieverthat
allthings,blessingsandcurses,camefromthehandofGod,Jobwasfacedwiththatterrible
question:IsGodthesortofpersonwhoactswithoutanyreason?Jobrespondedwith
equanimity:“TheLordgives,andtheLordtakesaway;blessedbethenameoftheLord”(Job
1:21).InJob’sworldview,onecouldnotreceivethegoodwithoutthebad.NowJobchapter
2:20says"andheworshipped."Job'sexpressionofgrief(hiscomingapartattheseams)was
itselfanactofworship.Griefisanemotionalacknowledgementthatthingsaren'tthewaythey
shouldbe.Griefinvolvesatsomeleveladistantmemoryofwhatoncewasandacryforwhat
onedaywillbewasauniversalrealityonceagain,aworldwithoutpainandsuffering.This
longing,thishopethattheworldwillbeputbackthewayitoncewas,pointstoan
eschatologicaldimensionofgratitude.
WithGod,theconnectionbetweenwhatappearstoustobeabenefitoracalamityand
theintentionofitsagentislessnaturallytransparent.Thereisevensomeevidencethatpeople
whoareclearlyresistanttotheconceptofGodtendtopresupposetheto-forstructurein
descriptionsoftheirexperiencesofcosmicgratitude(gratitudeforthingsthatcannotbe
plausiblyattributedtohumanagency,Roberts,2014).Butthosewhoareamiabletothe
conceptofGodalsosometimesfeeluncomfortablethankingGodforblessings,becausethey
feelthatdoingsocommitsthemtobeingangrywithGodformisfortunes.Invokingthe
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languageofLeithart(2014),Christianity“infusesgratitudeintoeverynookandcrannyof
humanlife”(p.227).ByvirtueofitsbeingtheocentricandChristocentric,Christiangratitudeis
differentfromallotherformsofgratitude.IfgratitudetoGodisavirtue,arelationalquality
thattranscendsvicissitudesoflifecircumstances,theacceptanceallgoodandbadfortuneisa
kindofhumilityinthefaceofGod’sunchangingnature.Asasynthesisofthetemporaland
eternal(Minear,1962),gratitudeisauthenticonlywhenitencapsulatesthetotalityofthe
human-divinerelationship.Thisisaphilosophicalandtheologicalissueforsure,butultimately
weseethisasanissuethatempiricalsciencecouldalsospeakto.Evenifthereisno
transcendent,willingagenttowhomwecangivethanks,thatdoesnotprecludethewisdom,
eventhenecessity,oflivingwithanorientationofgratitudeforexistenceitself(Solomon,
2014).
Wemighthaveanotherquandaryaswell.Theologiesmayteachthatthemoreyou
ascribebenefactionstoGodthelessofityouascribetoman.Therefore,aswereflectuponthe
relationshipbetweenthetheologicalideaofgratitudeandthanksgivingtoGodontheone
hand,andgratitudeandthanksgivingtomanontheother,weshouldnotassumethatthe
latterisanobviousderivationfromtheformer.Onthecontrary,theoppositemightbethecase
–themoreyouoweGodthelessyouoweman.Howdoesthistensionplayitselfoutinthe
actualexperienceofpeople?Forexample,whotendstobemoregratefultohuman
benefactors,suchasfoundationswhichsupportresearch?IsitthedevoutbelieverinGod’s
omnipotenceandbenevolence,whoviewsgrantingagenciesasGod’smediumbutnotthe
ultimatesourceoffunding,ortheatheist,whohasnoonetothankforaFoundation’s
beneficenceotherthanthefoundation’sfounderanditsstaff(Schimmel,2004)?Theistsmay
nothavetheupperhandongratitudeafterall.
FindingsfromtheScienceofGratitude
Anexaminationofgratitudeinthehistoryofideascomesfromanumberof
perspectives—philosophy,religiousstudies,anthropology,theology,andpoliticaleconomy,to
nameafew.Eachofthesearevalid,valuableandnecessaryintheirownright.Ascientific
perspectivecanprovideanevidence-basedapproachtounderstandinghowandinwhatways
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gratitudebringsbenefitsintothelifeofthepractitioner.Thetoolsandtechniquesofmodern
sciencehaveincreasinglybeenbroughttobearonunderstandingthenatureofgratitudeand
whyitisimportantforhumanhealthandhappiness.Ascientificperspectivecannotbe
divorcedfromthebigquestionsthatIbeganthispaperwith.Responsiblesciencereturnsto
basichumanquestionsaboutwhatisgoodandvaluableandworthcultivatinginlife.Iwould
maintainthisistrueaboutthescienceofgratitude,inwhichIhavebeenacontributorfor
nearlytwodecades.
Scientificstudieshaverevealedthatgratitudeisfoundationaltowell-beingandmental
healththroughoutthelifespan.Fromchildhoodtooldage,accumulatingevidencedocuments
thewidearrayofpsychological,physical,andrelationalbenefitsassociatedwithgratitude.In
thepastfewyears,therehasbeenatremendousincreaseintheaccumulationofscientific
evidenceshowingthecontributionofgratitudetopsychologicalandsocialwell-being.Clinical
trialsindicatethatthepracticeofgratitudecanhavedramaticandlastingpositiveeffectsina
person’slife.Itcanlowerbloodpressure,improveimmunefunction,promotehappinessand
well-being,andspuractsofhelpfulness,generosity,andcooperation.Additionally,gratitude
reduceslifetimeriskfordepression,anxiety,andsubstanceabusedisorders(Emmons,2007,
2013;Emmons&McCullough,2003).Giventherangeofbenefitslinkedwithgratitude,ithas
fittinglybeenreferredtoasthequintessentialpositivetrait(Wood,2010),theamplifierof
goodnessinoneself,theworld,andothers(Watkins,2014)andashavinguniquepowertoheal,
energize,andchangelives(Emmons,2013).
Theresearchbaseisnowextensive.Multiplemechanismsforunderstandinggratitude’s
impactonwell-beinghavebeenidentified.Iwillbrieflydescribe5ofthese.
Gratitudeincreasesspiritualawareness.Manyworldreligionscommendgratitudeasa
desirablehumantrait,whichmaycausespiritualorreligiouspeopletoadoptagratefuloutlook.
UponrecognitionofGod’sprovisionofbenefits,humansrespondwithgratefulaffectand
gratitudeisoneofthemostcommonreligiousfeelingsthatbelieversinvirtuallyallspiritual
traditionsareencouragedtodevelop.ThejoyfulactofpraisingGodisathankfulnessflowing
nearlyautomaticallyfromarecognitionofdivinegifts,andcosmicgratitudeisfoundationalto
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humanflourishing.Whencontemplatingapositivecircumstancethatcannotbeattributedto
intentionalhumaneffort,suchasamiraculoushealingorthegiftoflife,spirituallyinclined
peoplemaystillbeableattributethesepositiveoutcomestoahumanornon-humanagent
(viz.,Godorahigherpower)andthus,experiencemoregratitude.Spirituallyinclinedpeople
alsotendtoattributepositiveoutcomestoGod’sintervention,butnotnegativeones.Asa
result,manypositivelifeeventsthatarenotduetotheactionsofanotherperson(e.g.,
pleasantweather,avoidinganautomobileaccident)maybeperceivedasoccasionsfor
gratitudetoGod,althoughnegativeevents(e.g.,alongwinter,anautomobileaccident)would
likelynotbeattributedtoGodasGodistypicallyseenasallgood.Thisattributionalstyle,then
islikelytomagnifythepositiveemotionaleffectsofpleasantlifeevents.Beinggratefultoa
SupremeBeingisanacknowledgmentthattherearegoodandenjoyablethingsintheworldto
beenjoyedinaccordancewiththegiver’sintent.Goodthingshappenbydesign.Ifaperson
believesinthespiritualconceptofgrace,theybelievethatthereisapatternofbeneficencein
theworldthatexistsquiteindependentlyoftheirownstrivingandeventheirownexistence.
Gratitudethusdependsuponreceivingwhatisnotexpectedorhasnotbeenearned,or
receivingmorethanone’sdue.Thisgift-awarenessissimultaneouslyhumblingandelevating.
Gratitudeisfundamentaltothespirituallife,becauseitisingratitudethatpeoplebecome
awareoftheirlimitationsandtheirneedtorelyonforcesandsourcesoutsideofthem.
Gratitudereducesstressandpromotesphysicalhealth.Someofthebenefitsofgratitude
formentalhealthandwell-beingmayresultfromgratitude’sabilitytoenhancephysicalhealth
functioning.Anumberofstudieshavereportedphysicalhealthbenefitsofgratitude.Gratitude
interventionshavebeenshowntoreducebodilycomplaints,increasesleepdurationand
efficiency,promoteexercise,decreasefunctionallimitationscausedbypain,improvemood
amongindividualsintreatmentforalcoholusedisordersandimprovecardiovascular
functioning(Emmons&McCullough,2003;Hill,Allemand&Roberts,2013;Woodetal.,2009).
Experimentalresearchsuggeststhatdiscreteexperiencesofgratitudeandappreciationmay
causeincreasesinparasympatheticmyocardialcontrollowersystolicbloodpressureaswellas
improvementsinmoremolaraspectsofphysicalhealthsuchaseverydaysymptomsand
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physicianvisits.Therefore,theremightbesomedirectphysiologicalbenefitstofrequently
experiencegratefulemotions.Peoplewhoexperiencegratitudecopemoreeffectivelywith
everydaystressandshowincreasedresilienceinthefaceoftrauma-inducedstress(seeWatkins
&McCurrach,2016).Gratitudeinterventionshavealsoshownpromiseasatreatmentfor
mentalillnesses.Thegenerationofgratitudehasbeenassociatedwithreductionsof
hopelessness,suicidalideation,andsuicidalattempts(Huffmanet.al.,2014)independentlyof
depression.Apromisinglineofresearchisbeginningtoexaminetherelationshipbetween
gratitudeandbiomarkersofhealthandagingincludingoxytocin,telomerase,andendothelial
progenitorcells,aprecursortoatherosclerosis(Algoe&Way,2014;Mendes,2014).
Gratitudemaximizespleasure.Awell-establishedlawinthepsychologyofemotionis
theprincipleofadaptation.Peopleadapttocircumstances,bothpleasantandunpleasant.
Withthepassageoftime,theabilityoftheseeventstoevokeanemotionalresponsedecays.
Theemotionsystemlikesnewness.Unfortunatelyforpersonalhappiness,adaptationto
pleasantcircumstancesoccursmorerapidlythanadaptationtounpleasantlifechanges.Thisis
whyevenamajorwindfall,suchasahugepayraise,tendstoimpacthappinessforonlyamere
fewmonths.Oncetheglowfades,presethappinesslevelsreturn.Gratitudepromotesthe
savoringofpositivelifeexperiencesandsituations,sothatthemaximumsatisfactionand
enjoymentisderivedfromone’scircumstances.Inhelpingpeoplenottakethingsforgranted,
gratitudemayrecalibratepeople’s“setpoints”forhappiness—baselinelevelsofhappinessthat
areprimarilydrivenbyone’sgenes(Emmons,2007).
Gratitudeprotectsagainstthenegative.Gratitudenotonlyenhancespositivestatesof
beingbutalsomitigatestoxicemotionsandstates.Nothingcandestroyhappinessmorequickly
thanenvy,greed,andresentment.TheGermanmoralphilosopherBalduinSchwarzidentified
theproblemwhenhesaid“theungrateful,envious,complainingman…crippleshimself.Heis
focusedonwhathehasnot,particularlyonthatwhichsomebodyelsehasorseemstohave,
andbythathetendstopoisonhisworld”(Schwarz,1999).Gratefulpeopletendtobesatisfied
withwhattheyhave,andsoarelesssusceptibletosuchemotionsasdisappointment,regret,
andfrustration.Moreover,inthecontextofmaterialprosperity,bymaintainingagratefulfocus
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apersonmayavoiddisillusionmentandemptiness.Thesenseofsecuritythatcharacterizes
gratefulpeoplemakesthemlesssusceptibletoneedingtorelyonmaterialaccomplishments
forastablesenseofself.Anumberofstudieshavedocumentedanegativecorrelation
betweengratitudeandmaterialisticpursuitsdemonstratingthatgratitudecanreducethe
psychiccostsofamaterialisticlifestylefueledbyinsecurityandacquisitiveness(e.g.Froh,
Emmons,Card,Bono&Wilson,2010).
Gratitudestrengthensrelationships.Perhapsthecentralmechanismthatdrives
gratitude’spositiveeffectsisthatstrengthensandexpandssocialrelationships.Gratitudeisa
wayofseeingthatremindsusthatwearenotalone.Gratitudehelpscultivateaperson’ssense
ofinterconnectedness.Gratitudeisthe“moralmemoryofmankind”wrotenotedsociologist
GeorgSimmel.Onejustneedstotrytoimaginehumanrelationshipsexistingwithoutgratitude.
Researchhasshownthatpeoplewhokeepgratitudejournalsreportfeelingcloserandmore
connectedtoothers,aremorelikelytohelpothers,andareactuallyseenasmorehelpfulby
significantothersintheirsocialnetworks(Emmons&McCullough,2003).Emotionslikeanger,
resentment,envy,andbitternesstendtounderminehappysocialrelations.Butthevirtueof
gratitudeisnotonlyafirewallofprotectionagainstsuchcorruptionofrelationships;itcontri-
butespositivelytofriendshipandcivility,becauseitisbothbenevolent(wishingthebenefactor
well)andjust(givingthebenefactorhisdue,inacertainspecialway).Peoplewhoarehighon
dispositionalgratitude,thechronictendencytobeawareofblessingsinlife,havebetter
relationships,aremorelikelytoprotectandpreservetheserelationships,aremoresecurely
attached,andarelesslonelyandisolated(reference).Peoplewhohaveaneasiertime
conjuringupreasonstobegratefularelesslikelytosaythattheylackcompanionshiporthatno
onereallyknowsthemwell.Theinnatelongingforbelongingisstrengthenedwhengratitudeis
experiencedandexpressed,leadingoneresearchertocharacterizegratitudeasthe“find,
remind,andbindemotion”(Algoe,2012).
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IngratitudeasKingoftheVices
“ForalthoughtheyknewGod,theyneitherglorifiedhimasGodnorgavethankstohim,
buttheirthinkingbecamefutileandtheirfoolishheartsweredarkened”(Romans1:21,
NIV).
Givenitsmagneticappeal,onewouldwonderwhethergratitudewouldeverbe
rejected.Yetitis.Agrowingnumberofsocialcommentatorscontendthatgratitudeisa
diminishingvirtueinmoderntimesandthatwearelessgratefulthaninotherhistoricalperiods.
Generosityshouldevokethankfulness,butmanyofuscanprobablythinkoftimeswheneither
ourownbenefactionwasmetafterwardswithcoldnessandresentment,orperhapswhenwe
resented,andavoided,someonewhohadbeengeneroustous.Anydiscussionofgratitudehas
toreckonwiththerealityofingratitude.
OneofthebestsellingbooksofrecentyearswasWalterIsaacson’s(2011)revealing
biographyofthelateApplefounderSteveJobs.Delvingdeeplyintothepersonalitydynamicsof
Jobs,Isaacsonprovidesillustrationafterillustrationofhisprofoundandpervasivenarcissism.
Someoftheexamplesaredownrightlaughable.Oneofthemostamusingoccursin2009when
Jobsisrecoveringfromalivertransplantandpneumonia.Atonepointthepulmonologisttries
toputamaskoverhisfacewhenheisdeeplysedated.Jobsripsitoffandmumblesthathe
hatesthedesignandrefusestowearit.Thoughbarelyabletospeak,heordersthemtobring
fivedifferentoptionsforthemasksothathecanpickadesignhelikes.Throughouthislife,this
marketinggeniusactedinwaysthatbroadcastedhislackofsensitivitytoothers,ahallmarkof
narcissism.OncehearrivedathishotelsuiteinNewYorkforpressinterviewsanddecided,at
10P.M.,thatthepianoneedstoberepositioned,thatthestrawberrieswereinadequate,and
thattheflowerswereallwrong:hewantedcallalilies.Whenhispublic-relationsassistant
returns,atmidnight,withthecorrectflowers,hetellsherthathersuitis“disgusting.”“Evenin
smalleverydayrebellions,suchasnotputtingalicenseplateonhiscarandparkingin
handicappedspaces,heactedasifhewerenotsubjecttothestricturesaroundhim,”Isaacson
writes.“Ithinktheissueisempathy--thecapacityforempathyislacking,”saidTinaRedse,his
firsttruelove,assertingthatJobsfitthepsychiatricmanual'sdefinitionofNarcissistic
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PersonalityDisordertoanuncannydegree.Anothercorefeatureofnarcissismisasenseof
entitlement—theexpectationofspecialtreatmentorprivilegeswithoutreciprocatingorany
senseofobligation.IsaacsonprovidesmanyexamplesofthisfromJobs’life.Hewasavery
demandingchild,demandinghisparentsmovesohecouldbeinabetterschooldistrict.Jobs
statedthatifhedidn'tgotoReedCollege,oneofthemostpriceyschoolsinthecountry,he
wouldn'tgoatallandforcedhisparentstofinanceit,ahugeburdenforthem.Whenhe
decidedhewantedjobatAtari,hewentinanddeclaredhewasn'tleavinguntiltheygavehima
job.Onceatarestauranthesenthisfoodbackthreetimes.ThereisastorythatJobswas
caughtspeedingat100milesanhourandreceivedaticket.Whiletheofficerwaswritingthe
tickethehonkedhishornandtoldtheofficerhewasinahurry.Hewasluckytheofficerdidn't
getupsetwithhim.Thenhetookoffandagaindroveat100milesanhour.Isaacson’sbookis
filledwithpageafterpageofexampleslikethese.Notmuchgratitudehere.
Ingratitudeisthefailuretorememberorrecognizeone’spositioninamatrixofgiving
andreceivingandtheunwillingnessorinabilitytofeelthejoythatundergirdstheseexchanges.
Ingratitudeisthefailuretobothacknowledgereceivingafavorandrefusingtoreturnorrepay
thefavor.Thereisnorejoicinginreceivingthegift,andnoconcernforthegiver’sjoyingiving
thegift.Peoplewhoareincapableoforunwillingtoacknowledgebenefitsthatothershave
conferreduponthemarehighlyscornedinmosttraditionalconceptionsofhumansocial
conduct.WroteIgnatiusofLoyola,“ingratitudeisthemostabominableofallsins,anditisto
bedetestedinthesightoftheCreatorandLordbyallofGod’screaturesforitistheforgetting
ofthegraces,benefits,andblessingsreceived”(quotedinAu,2010,p.65).
Simplyfocusingongratitude’sbenefitsdownplaysboththerealityofandtheperilsof
ingratitudeandotherobstaclesthatpreventgratitudefromflourishing.Agratefulapproachto
lifeisneitherautomaticnorinevitable.Gratituderequiresthinkingabouttheotherand
acknowledgingone’sdependenceontheother.Fromtheperspectiveoforiginalsin,itissimply
morenaturaltothinkaboutoneselfandmissthemarkwhenitcomestogivingcredittoothers
forallthegoodweexperience.Accordingtoscriptures,ingratitudeiswhatcausedthehuman
predicamentinthefirstplace.Schimmel(2004)pointedoutthatinGenesis,Adamnever
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thanksGodforthegiftofahelpmatebutratherblamesGodforhavingmadeawomanwho
leadshimintosin.Creation’sbountiesareneverenoughfortheoriginalcoupleinEden.Yetit
isthatdefiantstance–thatFaustianurgetoasserttheselfoverandagainstthenatural
constraintsofthecosmos–thatmaydefinehumankindsoclearlyandtragically,Genesisseems
tosuggest.Thisoh-so-inevitableandsupremelynaturaloriginalsincomestoshape
humankind’srelationshipwithGod,arelationshipthatwillalwaysbecontentiousaslongas
humansactlikehumans(andGodlikeGod).
Alltoooftenwewishtomaintainanillusionofindependence.Wewanttotakesole
creditforoursuccess.Weliveinanationwhereeveryoneappearstobeontheirownself-
containedpursuitofhappiness.Eachindividualhashisorherownpaththisjourneytakes.For
some,thesearchbeginsinbooks;forothersitcomesthroughservice.Andperhapsthemost
popularformofseekinghappinessisthroughtheaccumulationof“things.”Materialism,
though,isboughtatacost.Asocietythatfeelsentitledtowhatitreceivesdoesnotadequately
expressgratitude.Comfortsareeasilytakenforgranted.Seenthroughthelensofbuyingand
selling,relationshipsaswellasthingsareviewedasdisposable,andgratitudecannotsurvive
thismaterialisticonslaught.Thelackofgratitudeiscontagious,andispassedfromone
generationtothenext.Ingratitudeisthefailuretobothacknowledgereceivingafavorand
refusingtoreturnorrepaythefavor.Ingratitudeisaspiritualpoverty,abankruptcyofthesoul.
Peoplewhoareincapableoforunwillingtoacknowledgebenefitsthatothershaveconferred
uponthemarehighlyscornedinmosttraditionalconceptionsofhumansociallife.
Askedtoofferanopinionabouttheoppositeofgratitude,mostpeoplewouldreply
“ingratitude.”Thisisunderstandable.Gratitudeinvolvesrecognition,theexpressionofthanks,
andappropriaterepayment.Itisopen-handedandopen-heartedliving(Thompson2017).
Conversely,ingratitudeinvolvesthefailuretorecognizeoracknowledgeabenefit,andthe
failuretoexpressthanksinword,andthefailuretorepaythebenefitindeed.Leithart(2014)
presentsAquinas’accountofingratitudeintermsofthreedegrees:“itbelongstothefirst
degreeofingratitudetoreturnevilforgood,tothesecondtofindfaultwithafavorreceived,
andtothethirdtoesteemkindnessasthoughitwereunkindness”(p.93).Justaswemay
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morallycommendpeopleforpossessingthevirtueofgratitude,wemaymorallyfaultthemfor
lackingit.Whereasgratitudeisavirtue,ingratitudeisanaccusation.Itrevealsadeeplyflawed
character.
PoliticaltheoristMarkMitchellidentifiesfourcontemporaryforcescontributingtothe
erosionofgratitudeinmodernculture:(a)increasingsecularismandlossofanabsolutemoral
order;(b)lossofcontactwiththenaturalworld;(c)lossofasenseofrootednessinaplace,and
(d)alossofsenseofthepast(Mitchell,2012).Eachoftheselossescontributestoanoverall
inabilitytofeelgratefulforlife’sblessings,andthanklessnessisnevervirtuous.Forgottenisour
collectivedebttoGod,thenaturalworld,toaplace,andtothepast,allofwhicharenecessary
foranadequateunderstandingofourdebtstoboththepastandthefuture(Mitchell,2010).
Othersalsoseeingratitudeasthedominantethosofyouthculture,oraforgetfulnessofthe
contributionsofpreviousgenerations.Aspiritofingratitudecorrodeshumanrelationshipsand
becomesepidemicwithinaculturewhenentitlementsandrightsareprioritizedoverdutiesand
obligations,lamentsSeniorFellowRogerScrutonoftheAmericanEnterpriseInstitute(Scruton,
2010).Ingratitudeiscommonlyrecognizedasoneofthekeystounderstandinglatemodernity
(Leithart,2014).Leithartstatesthecaseplainlyremarkingthat“wealthhasnotsatisfied,but
onlyledtotheexpansionofdesires,whichhasproduceda“radicalingratitude”towardthevery
institutionsthathavesatisfiedhisdesires”(p.219).
Ingratitudeisavicethatrepresentsaprofoundmoralfailure,adefectofcharacter.In
histexts,Shakespeareusestheterms‘ingrate’,‘ingrateful’,and‘ingratitude’some40times,
oftenmodifiedbytheadjectives‘monstrous’,‘hideous’,or‘grotesque.’Wheregratitudeis
appropriate,evenmandatory,beingungratefulisasignorsymptomoflackofsocialization,
whethertheinabilitytoappreciatewhatothershavedoneforyouor,worse,thegrudging
resentmentofone’sownvulnerabilityandtherefusaltoadmitone’sdebttoothers.Thevexing
question,posedbycontemporarymoralists,iswhetherweseetheworldthroughthelensof
gratitudeortheastigmatismofingratitude(Mitchell,2012).Descartescolorfullydescribed
threecategoriesofpeoplewhodisplaytheviceofingratitude:“Brutish”and“arrogant”people
areungratefulbecausethey“thinkthatallthingsaretheirdue”;somearetoo“stupid”totake
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timetothinkaboutthebenefitstheyreceivefromothers;the“weakandabject”peopleare
thoseareobsequiousinseekinghelpbutthenhatetheirbenefactors.Aweakmanhateshis
benefactorbecausehe“lacksthewilltoreturnthefavorordespairsofhisabilitytodoso”
(Leithart,2014,p.146).Convincedthatothersareasgreedyasheisandthatnoonedoesgood
withoutexpectingbenefit,hethinkshehasdeceivedhisbenefactorbytakingafavorwithout
planningtoreciprocate.
Yet,ingratitudeasthedirectoppositeofgratitudeisconceptuallyproblematic.
Gratitudeisanemotion,oranemotionaldisposition.Ingratitudeseemstonotbeanemotion.
It’sastateofnotbeinggratefulthatmaybeexpressedeitherinbeingwithoutemotionin
responsetoagiftorinanyofavarietyofemotionsthatarecontrarytogratitude:say,
resentmentorembarrassmentaboutthegift,thegiverandbeingareceiver.Inanycase,it’s
notanemotion.Apersondoesnotfeelingratitude,apersonisungrateful,oraningrate.Iwill
arguebelowthatentitlementisamuchbettercandidatefortheinverseofgratitude.
Whyisingratitudesuchaprofoundmoralfailure?Theprincipleofreciprocity,upon
whichhumansocietiesarebased,statesthatonehasanobligationtohelpotherswhohave
helpedus,whileatthesametimenotharmingotherswhohavehelpedus.Directing
ingratitudetowardourbenefactorisawayofinflictingharmuponthatperson.Themoralrule
underlyingreciprocityisviolatedwhenoneisnotgratefulforthebenefitreceived.While
occasionallyeachofusrespondtoabenefitinamannerwhichmaybeinterpretedasan
ungratefulresponsebyourbenefactor,thereisclearlyapsychologicaldisturbanceinthe
personalitythathabituallyrespondstobenefitswithindifference,resentment,oringratitude.
Thisisaflagrantviolationofnaturallaw.Gratitude,forCicero,isavirtuerootedinnature
itself.Toactungratefullytoabenefactoristoactcontrarytonature.
Themostcommontypeofmoralreasoncitedinfavorofgratitudeisjustice.Inthese
caseswehavejuridicalreasonsforgratitude(Fitzgerald,1988).Therecipientsofgratitude
‘‘deserve’’it,‘‘merit’’it,are‘‘entitled’’toit,oringratitudemaybesomehow‘‘unfair.’’Those
whooughttobegrateful‘‘owe’’gratitudeorhavea‘‘debtofgratitude.’Ingratitude,then,
wouldbeacaseofinjustice.
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ViolationsofthenormofreciprocitytypeelicitwhatsocialpsychologistJonathanHaidt
hascalledmoraldisgust.Moraldisgustistriggeredbyactionsthatrevealanabsenceofnormal
humandecency,actionslikeingratitudethatshowthelower,darker,andmore“monstrous”
sideofhumannature.Haidtarguesthatmoraldisgustmakespeopleshunthosethattriggerit.
Itcertainlytendstobethecasethatwearemotivatedtoavoidpeoplewhoareungrateful,and
thisshunningcontributestotheirself-centeredmisery.
Whoisnotfamiliarwiththemostfamousinstanceofingratitudeinspiritualwritings?In
theNewTestamentgospelofLuke,JesusofNazarethhealstenlepersoftheirphysicaldisease
andinsodoingoftheirsocialstigma.Pronouncedcleanoftheircontagiousconditionandno
longersocialoutcasts,theygettheiroldlivesback.Theywerenolongerinbondagetotheir
disease.Rescued,nowfree,onlyonereturnedtoexpressthanksgivingforbeinghealed.When
onlyonecamebackthankful,Jesusasked,"Werenotalltencleansed?Wherearetheother
nine?WasnoonefoundtoreturnandgivepraisetoGodexceptthisforeigner?Riseandgo;
yourfaithhasmadeyouwell."Biblicalscholarsofthispassageagreethatby“faith”whatJesus
reallymeantwasthankfulness,asin“yourgratitudehasmadeyouwell.”Theparablereminds
usofjusthowcommoningratitudeisandhoweasyitistotakeblessingsforgranted,andhow
gratitudeisdependentuponunmeritedkindness.
Weretheothersungrateful?Perhapstheywerejustforgetful.Afterall,givenbacktheir
dignity,theywerenodoubtinahurrytoreturntotheirfamiliesandoldlives.Contemporary
research,though,paintsamorecomplicatedpictureofingratitude.Peoplewhoareungrateful
tendtobecharacterizedbyanexcessivesenseofself-importance,arrogance,vanity,andan
unquenchableneedforadmirationandapproval.Narcissistsrejectthetiesthatbindpeople
intorelationshipsofreciprocity.Theyexpectspecialfavorsandfeelnoneedtopaybackorpay
forward.Giventhisconstellationofcharacteristics,beinggratefulinanymeaningfulwayis
beyondthecapacityofmostnarcissists.Withoutempathy,theycannotappreciateanaltruistic
giftbecausetheycannotidentifywiththementalstateofthegift-giver.Narcissismisaspiritual
blindness;itisarefusaltoacknowledgethatonehasbeentherecipientofbenefitsfreely
bestowedbyothers.Apreoccupationwiththeselfcancauseustoforgetourbenefitsandour
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benefactors,ortofeelthatweareowedthingsfromothersandthereforehavenoreasonto
feelthankful.IgnatiusLoyolawrotethatingratitudeisaforgettingofthegraces,benefits,and
blessingsreceived,andassuchitisthecause,beginning,andoriginofallevilsandsins.
Gratitudeisgrace,ingratitudeisdisgrace.
Atthecoreofnarcissismisentitlement.Thisattitudesays,“lifeowesmesomething”or
“peopleowemesomething”or“Ideservethis.”Inallitsmanifestations,apreoccupationwith
theselfcancauseustoforgetourbenefitsandourbenefactorsortofeelthatweareowed
thingsfromothersandthereforehavenoreasontofeelthankful.Entitlementandself-
absorptionaremassiveimpedimentstogratitude.Youwillcertainlynotfeelgratefulwhenyou
doreceivewhatyouthinkyouhavecoming,becauseafterall,youhaveitcoming.Counting
blessingswillbeineffectivebecausegrievanceswillalwaysoutnumbergifts. Aspiritof
ressentiment,ora“narrativeofinjury,”dominates.Jonas(2012)contendsthatfeelingsof
resentmentareincreasinglyprevalentincontemporarydemocracies,especiallyinmodern
institutionalsettings.
Werenarcissisticentitlementaconditionthatafflictedonlyasmallpercentageof
humankind,thentherewouldbelittlecauseforconcern.Indeed,psychiatristsestimatethat
onlyonepercentofthegeneralpopulationmeetstheclinicalcriteriafornarcissisticdisorders.
However,narcissisticcharacteristicsarefoundinallindividualsinvaryingdegrees.Early
childhoodismarkedbyegocentrism,theinabilitytotakeanother’sperspective.This
preoccupationwithone’sowninternalworldisanormalstageofhumandevelopment.Over
time,mostofusevolveoutofthisrestrictedperceptuallens.Howeverthosewhocontinueto
seetheworldprimarilyfromtheinsideoutslidedowntheslopefromordinaryegocentrismto
entitlednarcissism,aconditiondefinitelyatoddswithGod’splanforflourishinghumanbeings.
Ingratitudeisthefailuretobothacknowledgereceivingafavorandrefusingtoreturnor
repaythefavor.Justasgratitudeisthequeenofthevirtues,ingratitudeisthekingofthevices.
Peoplewhoareincapableoforunwillingtoacknowledgebenefitsthatothershaveconferred
uponthemarehighlyscornedinmosttraditionalconceptionsofhumansociallife.TheRoman
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philosopherSenecasaidthat“nootherviceissohostiletotheharmonyofthehumanraceas
ingratitude.”Thanklessnessisnevervirtuousandsoqualifiesitaskingofthevices.
AmplifyingGratitude,DiminishingIngratitude
Isthereanantidotetoingratitude?Gratitudeisoftenprescribedastheremedyforthe
exaggerateddeservingnessthatmarksnarcissisticentitlement.Butwhatenablesgratitudein
thefirstplace?Astrongcasecanbemadeforhumilityasthefoundationofgratitude.
Gratitudeisbornofhumility,foritacknowledgesone’sdependenceonbothnaturaland
supernaturalforces.Thisacknowledgmentgivesbirthtoactsmarkedbyattentionand
responsibility.Ingratitude,ontheotherhand,ismarkedbyhubris,whichdeniesthegift,and
thisalwaysleadstoinattention,irresponsibility,andabuse(Mitchell,2010,2012).Ingratitude
andhumilitythemindisturnedtorealitiesoutsideofitself.Awarenessoflimitationsandthe
needtorelyonothersbecomecommonplace.Themythofself-sufficiencyisdefeated.A
gratefulpersonlooksupwardandoutwardtothesourcesthatsustainthem.Becomingaware
ofrealitiesgreaterthanoneselfprovidesashieldfromtheillusionofbeingself-made,being
hereonthisplanetbyright—expectingeverythingandowingnothing.Thehumblepersonsays
thatlifeisagifttobegratefulfor,notarighttobeclaimed.Humilityushersinagrateful
responsetolife.Gratitudefitsbestwithahumbleapproachtoliving,buthumilityisnowhereto
beseeninAdam’sandEve’sdefiantquesttobeasgreatandtoknowasmuchasGod. Onewho
ishumbleratherthanarroganttendstoappreciatehowmuchheowestoothers,Godor
humans,forwhichheisgrateful,andhisgratitudewillinstillinhimadesiretocontinuethe
chainofbenefactionbyhelpingothersinneed.TobegratefultoGod,forwhoGodis,forwhat
Goddoesandwhatheasksofus,impactsonwhatwewant,whatwewanttoknow,howwe
decidetobehaveandwhowearetryingtobecome.
Humilitydoesnotcomeeasilyornaturally,particularlyinculturesthatvaluesself-
promotionandself-aggrandizement.Humilityrequiresthesustainedfocusonothersrather
thanself,orastheJewishproverbstates,humilityislimitingoneselftoanappropriatespace
whileleavingroomforothers.Thinkingaboutoneselfisnatural;puttingothersfirstis
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unnatural.Perhapsthisiswhygratitudecanbecounterintuitive.Itgoesagainstnatural
inclinations.Thereisamassivedesiretotakecreditforthegoodthingsthathappen.
Ingratitude,ontheotherhand,hasitrootsinpride.Thebeliefthatoneself-sufficient,without
needtojoinothersinmutualobligation,supportsastancethatfavorstakingsolecreditfor
successinlifeandminimizesthecontributionsthatothersmake.Itcanbetempting.
Reigninginentitlementandembracinggratitudeandhumilityisspirituallyand
psychologicallyliberating.Formationingratituderequiresrecognizingthatlifeowesmenothing
andallthegoodsIhavearegifts.Itisnotagettingofwhatweareentitledto.Recognizingthat
everythinggoodinlifeisultimatelyagiftisafundamentaltruthofrealityanditishumilitythat
makesthatrecognitionpossible.Thehumblepersonsays,“HowcanInotbefilledwith
overflowinggratitudeforallthegoodinmylifethatI’vedonenothingtomerit?”The
realizationthatallisgiftisfreeing,andfreedomistheveryfoundationuponwhichgratitudeis
based(seeKonstan,2016,forafurtherdiscussiononfreedomandthefeelingofgratitude).
Truegiftsarefreelygiven,andrequirenoresponse.Intheparableofthelepers,Jesuswasfree
towithholdthegiftofhealing,andhedidnotdemandthattheotherninewhowerehealed
returntoexpressgratitude.Theonewhodidreturnexercisedhisfreedomaswell.Wherethere
isnofreedom,thereisnogratitude.Gratitudecannotbeforcedordemanded.Gratitudeand
freedomareinextricablyjoined.
GratitudeastheLinchpinBetweenSufferingandJoy
Beforedrawingtoaconclusion,Iwanttooffersomeempirical(i.e.experimental)
evidenceontheconnectionbetweensuffering,gratitude,andjoy.Oneofthenotable
observationsofthe2014Yalejoyconsultationswasthatjoymaybeexperiencedinthemidst
trialsandtribulationsaswellaswhenlifeseemtobegoingwell.Volf(2015)phrasedthe
questionthisway:“Canapersonwhosuffersrejoice?”Inthelaboratory,we’veinvestigatedthe
effectivenessofgratefulreappraisalofunpleasanttroublingmemories(citedinWatkins,2014).
Inonestudy,allparticipantswereaskedtorecallanunpleasant“openmemory”—amemoryof
anunpleasanteventhatispoorlyunderstoodandtheparticipantfeelsthattheeventisnotyet
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behindthem.Afterdescribingandreportingonthesubjectivequalitiesofthismemory,
participantswererandomlyassignedtooneofthreejournalingconditions.Participantswrote
for20minuteson3consecutivedays.Inthecontrolconditionstudentssimplywroteaboutthe
upcomingday.Intheemotionaldisclosureconditionparticipantswroteabouttheirunpleasant
memoryinafreeformmanner.Inthegratefulreappraisalconditionparticipantswroteabout
positiveconsequencesoftheeventthattheycannowfeelgratefulfor.Participantsthen
reportedonvariousqualitiesoftheiropenmemoryafterthetreatmentphase,andoneweek
aftertreatment.Comparedtothecontrolandemotionaldisclosureconditions,thoseinthe
gratefulreappraisaltreatmentshowedmoreclosureoftheirmemory,lessunpleasantemotion
inresponsetorecallingthememory,andfewerintrusivethoughtsconcerningthememory.In
thisstudyparticipantsalsoreportedontheiremotionalstateimmediatelyaftereachjournaling
session,andwewerefortunatetohaveincludedajoyitem.Inarecentreanalysisofourdata,
wefoundthattherewassignificantmaineffectfortreatmentonjoy,inthatthoseinthe
gratefulreappraisaltreatmentreportedsignificantlymorejoythanthoseintheemotional
disclosuretreatment.Indeed,wefoundthatthejoyreportedforthoseinthegrateful
reappraisaltreatmentwasslightlyhigherthanthejoyreportedbythosesubjectswhowerenot
evenwritingabouttheirpainfulmemory.Moreover,itappearedthatthejoyreportedbythose
followingtheirjournalingwasimportanttothehealingoftheirunpleasantopenmemory.
Thatstudyshowedthatjoycanbeexperiencedevenwhenthinkingabouttroubling
eventsfromourpast;alsothatthinkingaboutthoseeventsinagratefulmannermaybecritical
tothatexperienceofjoy,andtothehealingoftroublingmemories.Volf(2015)arguesthat
therearetwowaysthatonemayrejoicethroughsuffering,bothofwhichmaybeseenasforms
ofgratefulreappraisal.First,wemayrejoicebecauseeveninthemidstofpainfulcircumstances
wecanstillcelebrate“somegoodthatisoursdespitethesuffering.”Forexample,eventhough
onemayexperiencelossthroughadiseasesuchascancer,oftentheseindividualsdisplayan
increasedappreciationforlifeitself.Second,Volfproposesthatwecanrejoiceforthe“good
thatthesufferingwillproduce.”“Joydespite”ispossibleonaccountof“Joybecause.”Weare
engagedinfurtherexperimentalworktospecificallyinvestigatethisconception.
26
Conclusion:GratitudeastheTruestApproachtoLife
Despitetheflurryofempiricalscienceongratitudeandhappiness,incontemporary
societythereisa"crisisingratitude",meaningthat,asaculture,wehavelostadeepsenseof
gratefulnessaboutthefreedomsweenjoy,alackofgratitudetowardsthosewholosttheirlives
inthefightforfreedom,alackofgratitudeforallthematerialadvantageswehave.The
untetheringofgratitudeandobligation,gratitudeandresponsibility,andgratitudeand
indebtedness,hasledtoa"gratitudelight"approach.Inshort,ifwearecynicalaboutgratitude
itisbecausewereducegratitudetoafeeling.
Fromancientreligiousscripturesthroughmodernsocialscienceresearch,thevirtueof
gratitudeisupheldasadesirablehumancharacteristicwithacapacityformakinglifebetterfor
oneselfandforothers.Asidefromafewharshwordsfromasmallhandfulofcynics,nearly
everythinkerhasviewedgratitudeasasentimentwithvirtuallynodownside.AsComte-
Sponville(2001)pointedout,gratitudeis“themostpleasantofthevirtues,andthemost
virtuousofthepleasures”Itisvirtuouslypleasantbecauseexperiencingitnotonlyupliftsthe
personwhoexperiencesit,butitedifiesthepersontowhomitisdirectedaswell.Butthefact
thatpeopletypicallyconsidergratitudeavirtueandnotsimplyapleasurealsopointstothefact
thatitdoesnotalwayscomenaturallyoreasily.Gratitudemust,andcan,becultivated.Andby
cultivatingthevirtue,itappearsthatpeoplemaygetthepleasureofgratitude,andallofits
otherconcomitantbenefits,freeofcharge.
Itisfittingtoendthispaperbyrestatingthebigquestionposedatitsoutset:Isgratitude
queenofthevirtues,andingratitudekingofthevices?Wecananswerthisquestionwiththree
domainsofevidence:(a)gratitudeleadstohappiness,betterhealth,overallwell-being,and
otherindicatorsofflourishinginlifeinamannerthatiscausalandnotmerelycorrelative;(b)as
amoralmotive,gratitudeleadspeopletoactoutofconcernforothers,primarilybyincrease
generosityandaltruism,and(c)gratitudemitigatestoxicemotionsandcurbsantisocial
impulses.Conversely,ingratitudeisanacidthatcorrodesrelationships,poisonoustobothits
possessorandtosociety.Inempiricalresearchonhumanstrengths,gratitudeconsistently
emergesasoneofthestrongestpredictorsofvariousindicatorsofhumanflourishing.Gratitude
27
hasbeenlinkedtopositivesocialoutcomes,includingempathy,generosity,voluntarism,
compassion,forgivingnessandtheprovisionofsocialsupport.Gratitudedoesappeartoplaya
uniqueroleinthehumanmoralapparatusinthatitisbotharesponsetothebenevolenceof
othersbutalsogeneratesbenevolentactionsonthepartofthereceiver.Asanintegralelement
ofmoralcharacter,gratitudeisanopenandreceptivestancetowardtheworldthatenergizesa
persontoreturnthegoodnesstheyhavereceived.Gratitude’sintrinsicfunctionistoaffirmthe
goodinlife,embracethatgood,andthentransformthegoodinpurposefulactionsto
accomplishsomethingthatisatoncemeaningfultotheselfandofconsequencetotheworld
beyondtheself.ThelatemoralphilosopherCharlesSheltonbeautifullycapturedtheessenceof
gratitudeasawayoflife:
Gratitudeisaninteriordepthweexperiencewhichorientsustoanacknowledged
dependenceoutofwhichflowsaprofoundsenseofbeinggifted.Thiswayofbeing,in
turn,elicitsahumilityjustasitnourishesourgoodness.Asaconsequence,whentruly
grateful,weareledtoexperienceandinterpretlifesituationsinwaysthatcallforth
fromusanopennesstoandengagementwiththeworldthroughpurposefulactionsin
ordertoshareandincreasetheverygoodwehavereceived(2004,p.273).
Fromapsychologicalperspective,thisfullestsenseofgratituderepresentsasubstantial
alteringinaperson’soutlook.Toelaborate,toexperiencethisdegreeofgratitudebringsabout
anexpansiveenlargementofaperceptualhermeneutic.Inshort,thisdegreeofgratitude
nourishesamoreorlessall-encompassinghermeneuticsofappreciation.Thisappreciativelens
fosterswithinindividualsaradicalopennesstoandreceptivityoftheworld.Thisopennessand
receptivityallowsforanaltruisticacuitythatenhancesthegivingawayofgoodness.Stated
succinctly,asoneexperienceslife,gratitude’sintrinsicfunctionallowsonetoapproachthe
worldbyembracingit,nourishingit,andtransformingit.Acorollarytothisdefinitioninvolves
thelanguageofgratitude.Ifthisportrayalofgratitudeisaccuratearangestretchingfromthe
commonplacethankstoaprofoundwayofbeingitmightprovemoreprecisewhendiscussing
gratitudetoincorporateperiodicallyspecificphrasessuchastruegratitude,authentic
gratitude,orgenuinegratitudeinordertoconveythatinherentintheexperienceofgratitude
28
existsthecapacityforittorootmoredeeplywithinapersonandwithanendpoint(gratitudeas
definedabove)thatonecanstriveforbutnevertotallyattain.Thisspiritualorcosmicgratitude
containsbothaverticalandhorizontaldimension,orientingapersontowardGodandtoward
others.Gratitudeisbothanintrinsicgoodorientingone’sverticalrelationshiptothedivineand
amotivatorforhorizontalactsofjusticeandgenerositydirectedtowardpeople.Authentic
gratitudeleadspeopletoexperiencelifesituationsinwaysthatcallforthfromtheman
opennesstoengagewiththeworldtoshareandincreasetheverygoodnesstheyhave
received.Itisthefeelingofconnectionwithhumanityemergingfromasenseofwonderand
joythatparticipatinginanintricatenetworkofexistencebrings.
Thereisaverybasicrealityaboutgratitude.Weallbeginlifedependentonothers,and
mostofusendlifedependentonothers.Thehumanconditionissuchthatthroughoutlife,not
justatthebeginningandend,weareprofoundlydependentonotherpeople.Andweare
awareofthisdependence.MoralphilosopherAlasdairMacIntyre(1999)hasreferredto
humansas“dependentrationalanimals.”Tobealiveistobeinrelationshipswithothers,
relationshipsthatarevitaltoourwell-being.Gratitudetakesusoutsideourselveswherewesee
ourselvesaspartofalarger,intricatenetworkofsustainingrelationships,relationshipsthatare
mutuallyreciprocal.
Wearereceptivebeings,dependentonthehelpofothers,ontheirgiftsandtheir
kindness.Assuch,wearecalledtogratitude.Ifwechoosetoignorethisbasictruth,westeer
ourselvesoffcourse.Sogratitudeisessentialifwearetotrulyunderstandourselves.Insome
respectsthisisaprofoundlycounter-culturalidea.Ourpsychologicalsocietyhasplacedgreat
emphasisuponindividualautonomyandself-sufficiency,andwithrespecttogratitude,
overemphasizeditsbenefitsandignoredthevicesthatmakeitsochallengingtosustainably
maintain.Untilthisdependenceisacknowledged,gratituderemainsapotentialityatbest.
Whenembraced,gratitude’sessencecanbeconstruednotonlyfrombehaviorswhichare
measurable,butfromwaysoflivingthatarebothpathwaysforaspiringtothegoodlifeand
passagesforattainingit.
29
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