REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE -...

Chapter III

REVIEW OF RELATED

LITERATURE

3.1 Studies Related to Effect of Modern

instructional Strategies

3.2 Studies on Experiential Learning

3.3 Studies on Learning Style

3.4 Studies related to Achievement with

respect to learning styles

3.5 Studies on Experiential Learning and

Learning Styles on Achievement’

Review of Related Literature Review of Related Literature Review of Related Literature Review of Related Literature

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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Review of related literature is an important pre-requisite to

actual planning and execution of any research work. “The

identification of a problem, development of a research design and

determination of the size and scope of the problem, depend to a

great extent on the care and intensity with which a researcher has

examined the literature or other research studies and authoritative

writings related to the problem under investigation” (Mouly,1964).1

The survey of related studies implies locating, studying,

and evaluating reports of relevant researches, study of published

articles, going through related portions of encyclopaedias and

research abstracts, study of pertinent pages out of

comprehensive books on the subject and going through related

manuscripts if any (Borg & Gall, 1989).2 The research worker

needs adequate familiarity with the work, which has already been

done in the area of his choice. “In the field of education, as in

other fields too the research worker needs to acquire up-to-date

information about what has been thought and done in the

particular area from which he intends to take up a problem for

research” (Sukhia & Melhotra, 1981).3


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The purpose of the literature review was to comprehensively

investigate ideas, issues, and themes related to the Effectiveness of

Kolb’s Experiential Learning on Achievement in Mathematics of

Students at Secondary Level. For that the investigator collected as

many studies as possible related to different aspects of the

problem under investigation. The studies collected are given under

the following heads.

3.1 Studies Related to Effect of Modern instructional

Strategies


3.3 Studies on Learning Style

3.4 Studies related to Achievement with respect to Learning

Styles

3.5 Studies on Experiential Learning and Learning Styles

on Achievement

3.1 Studies Related to Effect of Modern Instructional Strategies

This section includes recent studies related to the

application of different strategies regarding teaching in general and

teaching of mathematics in particular. The studies on how

mathematical interest and attitude towards mathematics are

affected by the application of different strategies are also given in

this section.

Erdogan & Baren (2009)4 studied the effect of mathematics

teaching provided through drama on the mathematics ability of

six-year-old children. The study revealed that teaching of the


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mathematical concepts through entertaining activities, in which

children want to participate and can be active, will be more

appropriate since these concepts are abstract and relatively hard

to learn in the pre-school period. Therefore, drama method should

be used in teaching mathematical concepts in pre-school

education institution.

In meta-analysis of eleven studies, Abraham(2008)5 provides

evidence of effective ICT supported language learning, particularly

related to vocabulary development and the promotion of

conversational fluency. Several observers describe the efficacy of

wireless SMS text and technologies to support vocabulary

development (Chen & Chung, 20086; Lu, 20087; Aderinoye, 20088).

De Almeida - Soares (2008)9 describes the constructive use of

blogs to promote English as a Foreign Language instruction for

secondary students.

Hardy(2008)10 discusses a middle school project called

Technology in Math Education(TIME) in advancing the integration

of ICT into the school mathematics curriculum. Franklin & Peng

(2008)11 offer a case study evaluating the use of iPod Touch device

to advance middle school math teaching. Teasdale(2008)12

describes a British project that applies ICT to the promotion

authentic, outcome-led, problem-based, learner – centered

mathematics education. Sindhu (2008)13 found that website


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learning is more effective than the activity oriented method of

teaching Biology at the Higher Secondary level.

Crisen et al.(2008)14 found that effective instructional

practice developed is a combination of pedagogical skills and ICT

knowledge for conceptualizing secondary school mathematics

teachers’ classroom practices.

From a review of 99 studies of cooperative group training

method, Slavin (1990)15 found that cooperative methods were

effective in improving students’ achievement. The most effective

methods emphasised both group goals and individuals

accountability.

Sungur & Tekkaya (2006)16 investigated the effectiveness of

Problem Based Learning and traditional instructional approaches

on various facets of students’ self regulated learning, including

motivation and learning strategies. Instruction to the control group

with teacher centred, text book oriented traditional instruction

and experimental group with Problem Based Learning, in which

students worked with ill structured problems. Results revealed

that Problem Based Learning students had higher levels of

intrinsic goal orientation, task value, use of elaboration learning

strategies, critical thinking, meta-cognitive self regulation, effort

regulation and peer learning compared with control group

students.


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Rodrguez (2006)17 conducted a study on E- learning in

Project Management Using Simulation Models: A Case Study. In

this study, the possibility of enhancing E-learning systems to

achieve deep learning has been studied by replicating an

experiment in which students had to learn basic software

engineering principles. The result shows that, quantitatively, the

latter group achieved a better understanding of the principles;

furthermore, qualitatively, they enjoyed the learning experience.

When an experimental group was taught geometry concepts

using drama and the control group using the traditional

instruction, Kariuki & Humphrey (2006)18 found significant

difference between the academic achievement of experimental and

control groups. No difference was found in the interest and

attitude toward math between experimental and control groups.

Finally, no significant relationship was found between academic

achievement and interest and attitude towards math.

The study done by Chung & Tam (2005)19 examined the

effects of different approaches to teaching learners with mild

intellectual disabilities to solve mathematical word problems.

Students presented with worked example and cognitive strategy

instruction solved more problems correctly and generally

outperformed students presented with conventional instruction in

both immediate and delayed tests.


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The purposes of the study by Fuchs et al. (2004)20 were to

assess the effects of Schema-Based Instruction (SBI) in promoting

mathematical problem solving and to investigate schema induction

as a mechanism in the development of mathematical problem

solving. Students receiving SBI, improved more than the control

group on problem-solving measures. SBI group’s schema

development exceeded that of the control group.

Kumar (2004)21 conducted a study of the impact of

Inductive Thinking Model on the learning of Physical Science at

secondary level. The investigator concluded that Inductive

Thinking Model of teaching is superior to ordinary classroom

practices like verbal illustration and demonstration in the learning

of Physical Science.

Jayaraman (2003)22 found that high achievement is possible

in learning fractions in mathematics at upper primary level due to

the application of the activity-centered as experimental approach

when compared with the conventional approach.

The study by Cass et al. (2003)23 evaluated effects of

manipulative instruction on perimeter and area problem-solving

performance of high school students with learning disabilities in

mathematics. Students rapidly acquired the problem solving skills,

maintained these skills over a two-month period, and transferred

the skills to a paper-and-pencil problem solving format.


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Autry (2002)24 conducted a study to examine first-grade

student’s achievement in mathematics and attitudes towards

mathematics using different instructional approaches. Results

indicate that there is no significant difference on achievement tests

between the constructivist approach and the direct instruction

approach.

Kariuki & Wilson (2002)25 examined the effects of

motivational teaching strategies and traditional teaching strategies

on academic achievement and student attitudes toward

mathematics. The results showed a significant difference in

teaching strategies on academic achievement and in student

attitudes toward mathematics.

Vaughan (2002)26 investigated the effects of cooperative

learning on achievement in and attitudes towards mathematics

among fifth graders of color in a culture different from that of the

United States. Result indicated that participants made positive gains

in mathematics attitudes and achievement.

The report by Blume et al. (2001)27 describes the effect of

integrating math and science and employing technology to bridge

the gap. Post intervention data indicated strengthened

mathematical computation skills, increased problem solving skills,

and increased student interest.


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Mevarech (1999)28 compared the effects of three cooperative-

learning environments on Israeli seventh grader’s mathematical

problem solving (meta-cognitive training, direct strategy

instruction and neither). Pencil-and-paper testing assessed

student’s problem-solving abilities. Results indicated that students

exposed to meta-cognitive training significantly outperformed their

counterparts who received strategy instruction, who in turn

significantly outperformed students who received no training.

Shyu (1999)29 found that computer-assisted video-based

anchored instruction was more important than media attributes in

the teaching of problem solving among the Taiwanese elementary

students.

An experimental study conducted by Oladunni (1998)30

focuses on the effects of the application of two problem-solving

techniques– meta-cognitive and heuristic-on the achievement of

students in the computation of creative mathematics problems.

Results indicate that there was a significant difference in the

achievement of experimental and control groups.

Woodward & Baxter (1997)31 conducted a year-long study of

an innovative approach to mathematics, which emphasized in-

depth problem solving and achievement of automaticity through

math games, found such methods to be viable for students with

average and above average academic abilities, but students with


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learning disabilities or at-risk students need much greater

assistance if they are to be included in general education

classrooms.

Marsh & Cooke (1996)32 conducted a study on third graders

with a history of low achievement in math. They were first given

verbal (abstract) instruction in solving word problems. Students were

then introduced to manipulative instruction using Cuisenaire rods to

set up word problems. Students exhibited immediate and sustained

improvement on subsequent probes administered without

manipulative available.


Since its first statement in 1971 (Kolb, 1971;33 Kolb, Rubin,

& McIntyre, 1971)34, there have been many studies using

Experiential Learning Theory to advance the theory and practice of

experiential learning. The July 2005 update of the Experiential

Learning Theory bibliography by Kolb (2005)35 included 1876

entries. It was 1004 entries in the 1999 bibliography (Kolb,

Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001).36

Kolb & Kolb (2010)37 proposed an experiential learning

framework for understanding how play can potentially create a

unique ludic learning space conducive to deep learning. The case

study suggests that play in a ludic learning space can promote


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deep learning in the intellectual, physical, spiritual, and moral

realms.

Learners can chart their path on the learning way by

developing their meta-cognitive learning capacities, and educators

can pave the way by placing learning about learning on the agenda

of their educational programs (Kolb & Kolb, 2009).38 The meta-

cognitive model is used to describe how fundamental concepts of

experiential learning theory-a learning self-identity, the learning

spiral, learning style, and learning spaces-can guide meta-

cognitive monitoring and control of learning. Meta-cognitive

strategies to help individuals improve their learning effectiveness

are outlined.

Dhilwayo (2008)39 present a prospective entrepreneurship

training model based on experiential learning which will enable the

"Production'' of small business owners or entrepreneurs which is

not being achieved by the current methods, design /approach. It

provides a model that integrates experiential learning into

entrepreneurship education. It shows that appropriate experiential

training can truly be integrated in to entrepreneurship education

in Africa as in disciplines such as Engineering or Nursing.

Thomas (2008)40 considered a facilitator is to act

intentionally when they are deliberate about what they are doing

and can provide rationales for their action. A review of facilitation


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literature and the experiential education literature demonstrates

the importance of both intentionality and intuitive process when

facilitating. The study confirmed the importance of an emphasis

on both intentionality and intuition in the preparation of

facilitators for experiential education.

Rone (2008)41 felt instructional pedagogies in learning

contexts from classrooms to board rooms are couched within

experiential learning paradigms. The field trip is a teaching

pedagogy that dress on experiential learning. The effectiveness of

field trip as an instructional pedagogy is assured and best

practices for incorporating field trips into instruction are

presented.

Ives-Devey (2008)42 studied the advantages and challenges

of experiential learning in Geography. Geography increasingly

relies on training of professional who can apply geographies

concepts to solve real -world problems. The planning profession for

years has been training professionals to work in the area of

community planning. Planning programs typically include

experiential learning modules throughout the curriculum.

Domesk (2007)43 provides a concrete example of how

experiential learning approaches can be implemented in order to

most effectively meet specific educational goals in international

sustainability studies. The study presents a multidimensional


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international experiential program. It illustrates how experiential

learning offers an educational experience that most effectively;

connects the academic with the practice, fosters an effective

interdisciplinary curriculum, links students to work experience

and job opportunities. The literature on experiential learning urges

that experiential learning approaches deserve greater attention in

theory and practice.

Steel et al. (2007)44 explored a reuse of themes and issues

stemming from the application of an experiential learning

approach to postgraduate journalism education of the University

of Sheffield. The development of experiential learning programmes

within journalism education provides valuable experiences that

stimulate the real world of journalism practice.

Ives & Obenchain (2006)45 conducted a pre-test- post-test

study using measures of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) and

Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) in six 12th grade American

Government classrooms taught by three experienced teachers over

one semester. One of the three teachers implemented a curriculum

in two classes based on Experiential Education (EE) Principles

with guidance from investigations. Students in the EE emphasised

classes demonstrated greater gains in HOTS than the students in

other four classes. There was no difference in the two groups of

LOTS. The result suggest that EE instruction in High School


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classes can promote HOTS more than traditional instruction does

with no sacrifice in LOTS.

Stavenga de Jong, Wieystra, & Hermenussen (2006)46 were

investigating the relationship between school-based (academic) and

work-based (experiential) learning approaches of students in

vocational education programs. The study identified two academic

learning dimensions (Constructive learning and Reproductive

learning) and three experiential learning dimensions (analysis,

initiative, immersion).

Breunig (2005)47 is of the opinion that the educational

theories of experiential learning and critical pedagogy intersect in

a number of ways. One of the intended aims of both of these

pedagogies is that the purpose of education should be to develop a

main society just world. The investigator explores some of the

ways for experiential educators and critical pedagogues to begin

engaging a more purposeful classroom praxis that acts on the

theoretical underpinnings of share pedagogies as one means to

work toward their shared vision of a more society just world.

Research involving different methodologies and different

educational and workplace populations, has shown that

Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is useful for understanding

team learning and performance (Adams, Kayes, & Kolb; 2005).48


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Pauleen, Marshall, & Ergort (2004)49 used ELT to construct

and implement web-based team learning assignments in

knowledge management. Students worked on projects in virtual

teams evaluated that 75% agreed or strongly agreed that

experiential learning was a valuable way of experiencing and

learning about a variety of communication channels in a team

environment and 99% found that experiential learning to be more

valuable than simply reading about something.

Lingham (2004)50 found that the more the team supported

the experiential learning cycle through norms that focused their

conversation on interpersonal diverging and task oriented

converging, the better they performed, the more satisfied they were

with their membership on the team, and the more they felt

psychologically safe to take risks on the team.

McGlinn (2003)51 used experiential learning cycle in a

teacher education program, emphasizing the reflective component

of the cycle to overcome students’ lack of reflection on their

teaching. The investigator claims that the experiential learning

model is effective in promoting change and development in

students’ self-knowledge about their teaching practices by

providing time for reflection.

Cleave-Hogg & Morgan (2002)52 designed an anesthesia

simulation based on experiential learning for undergraduate


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medical students. The study supports the value of integrating the

experiential simulation exercise in the anesthesia undergraduate

curriculum.

Hweng & Henson(2002)53 conducted a study on a critical

review of the literature on Kolb's learning style inventory is a

commonly used measure of learning styles on Kolb's experiential

learning model. The psychometric soundness of learning style

inventory scores has been critiqued historically. This study

reviewed the literature learning style inventory and evaluated the

psychometric propositions of Kolb's original and received versions

of the learning style inventory.

Powell & Wells (2002)54 conducted a study on the

effectiveness of three experiential teaching approaches on student

science learning in fifth grade public school classrooms. In this

study the investigator compares the effect of three experiential

science lessons in meeting the objectives of the Colorado model

contents science standards. It uses Kolb's Experiential learning

model as a frame work for understanding the process by which

students engage in learning when participating in Experiential

learning activities. The study concluded that the model is very

effective in environmental Education.


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Harrelson & Leaver-Dunn (2002)55 suggest that experiential

learning requires that teachers assume a facilitator mind set,

which might be a difficult mind set for some.

Park & Bang (2002)56 studied the performance of 52 Korean

industrial work teams using the Belbin team role model, which is

conceptually linked to ELT (Jackson, 2002).57 They found that

teams with roles that matched the particular stage of a team’s

work / learning process performed best.

Sprau & Keig (2001)58 introduce films in the history survey

course based on experiential learning model. They recommend

that the experiential learning model can best serve the students’

interests, so that students are guided to acquire higher-order

thinking skills to deal with subsequent learning experiences.

Terry (2001)59 published an article about experiential

learning. The investigator explains the importance of Kolb's

experiential learning model. Translate learning style theory into

the university teaching practice, namely Classroom learning,

assignment, essay research writing and examinations. The

recommendations for practice can be adopted to accommodate the

style delineations of other theorist models. It focuses on university

classroom group, essay research writing and examination

experiences.


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Healey & Jenkins (2000)60 applied the Svinicki and Dixon

model to the teaching of geography course. In their view, two

central practical applications of the experiential learning theory

are relevant to different types of learning environment be it a

lecture course or a seminar-based course.

Mc Goldrick, Battle; & Gallagher (2000)61 developed a

managerial economic course based on experiential methods

applied to one form of service learning, student-based instruction.

Krista (2000)62 stated in his report that experiential learning

style inventory is widely used to understand the stages of learning

and the ways people prefer to receive and process new

information. The model and self assessment are both based on

Kolb's experiential learning theory, emphasis the need for learner

involvement in educational activities.

Miettinen (2000)63 conducted a study about the concept of

experiential learning and John Dewey's theory of Reflective

thought and activities. He studied Kolb's electric method of

constructing model of experiential learning. He concludes that

Kolb's notion of immediate concrete experience is epistemologically

problematic.

Gopinah & Sawyer (1999)64 developed a computer-based

enterprise simulation based on experiential learning in business

course to bridge the gap between knowledge and its application


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and found that the recursive nature of experiential learning

promotes strategic decision making and group behavior consistent

with long-term strategy.

In Political Science Brock & Cameron (1999)65 developed

instructional sequences for a course based on experiential learning

cycle and concluded that there is great merit in following the four-

stage learning cycle. They highlighted that David Kolb's experiential

learning model and examines learning preference within the icon of

the model. Discusses implications and provides illustrations for each

of the model’s 4 stages. 1. Concrete Experience 2. Reflective

Observation 3. Abstract Conceptualisation. 4. Active Experimentation.

Travers (1998)66 investigated the impact of experiential

learning methods on students’ self-regulation of their own learning

process in mathematics. The purpose of the study was to examine

whether the treatment group taught mathematics through an

experiential learning method demonstrated a higher level of self-

regulation than the control group, which was taught mathematics

through a traditional lecture format. The results indicate that the

experiential learning group demonstrated a higher level of self-

regulation. Students taught experientially were exposed to a

variety of situations from which to compare a new experience with

previous ones, thus developing the ability to critically evaluate

what worked and didn’t work in a given learning situation.


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Vince (1998)67 explains that experiential learning is

important in management education. He considered the

propositions of Kolb's learning style model by adding

psychodynamic and political as illustrates the complexity of

experiential learning when unconscious forces and power aspects.

Luckner & Nadler (1997)68 described 12 reasons why

experiential learning is effective. The reasons are

i) Equality

ii) Developing relationship quickly

iii) Disequilibrium

iv) Projective technique

v) Decreased time cycle

vi) Meta Learning

vii) Chaos and Crisis in a Safe Environment

viii) Kinaesthetic Imprint

ix) Common language/ company mythology

x) Encourage Risk Taking

xi) Diversity of Strengths

xii) Fun

Berry & Woolfe (1997)69 found Kolb's model of experiential

learning is effective in examining the issues relating to teaching

method and assessment procedure.


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Saundess (1997)70 argues that a basic understanding of

experiential learning process and the nature of cases and

simulations on experiential activities will help instructors of

business communication.

Siegel, Khursheed, & Agarwal (1997)71 conducted a

controlled field experiment to test the effectiveness of video

simulation as a way to integrate experiential learning theory in the

teaching of auditing in their accounting course. The videotape

used in the experiment followed the principles of experiential

learning in teaching the fundamental steps in auditing. The

results of the experiment indicated significantly higher

examination scores for the experimental groups, supporting the

value of experiential learning for improving effectiveness in

teaching auditing

Hatcher & Bringle (1997)72 reported the effectiveness of the

learning cycle in designing reflection activities in in-service

learning settings.

Gardner & Korth (1997)73 used ELT to design a course in

group dynamics, group development, and group effectiveness.

They used the experiential learning cycle to improve transfer of

learning. They found experiential learning model enhances the

learning process, reinforces the link between theory and practice,

and facilitates the transfer of learning to the workplace.


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Rasanen (1997)74 developed a model of experiential art

interpretation in which students reflect and construct aesthetic

meaning through an integration of art history, criticism, and

aesthetics guided by the experiential learning model. She suggests

that experiential art interpretation increases students’ expressive

skills and results in products that are meaningful both to their

makers and others.

Joining Together: group theory and group skills by Johnson

& Johnson (1996)75 was one of the first texts to pick up on Kolb

and to link experiential learning with the work around groups by

Lewin and others.

Stiernborg, Zaldivar, & Santiago (1996)76 conducted a pre-

test post-test quasi-experimental design study to assess the

comparative effectiveness of didactic teaching and experiential

learning in a HIV / AIDS training program for nursing students in

the Philippines. The study concluded that the experiential learning

approach was more effective than the didactic approach for

knowledge acquisition.

Munton (1996)77 a study on the theories of education and

learning argues that continuous training is important for

improving the quality of day-care provision. Social learning theory

is used to examine Kolb's experiential learning model is an

approach to training day-care providers. The study concluded with


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the creation of conditions under which experiential learning can be

implemented effectively.

Piette(1995)78 analyses paradoxes of management

development -trends and tensions. He concluded that the

experiential learning model: (1. abstract conceptualisation 2.

traditional management education) is influenced in management

education.

Fraser (1995)79 examined what is lost and gained in the

translation of private experience into public sphere.

In order to revitalize the engineering education, in 1989 the

College of Engineering and Technology at Brigham Young

University initiated a faculty training program based on the

experiential learning model (Harb et al., 1995).80 Several faculty

members redesigned their courses to reach the full spectrum of

the experiential learning cycle, using a variety of teaching

strategies. Also Rogers & Frieberg (1994)81 discuss applications of

the experiential learning framework to the classroom.

Dyer & Schumann (1993)82 developed an experiential

learning laboratory classroom in their marketing course and

developed the Knowledge / Experience Integration Learning Model

in a senior level marketing class. At the completion of the course,

students reported an increased level of critical thinking ability and


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capacity to apply and connect theoretical knowledge with real- life

business application.

Ronald (1993)83 conducted a study on the enhancement of

learning on public sector in training programmes using Kolb's

experiential learning model. The study suggests that people differ

in the way they perceive and process information.

Specht (1991)84 examined the effect of an experiential

learning method in student learning in an undergraduate

accounting course compared with another class conducted using a

traditional lecture method. The results revealed that the

experiential class demonstrated retention of knowledge over a six-

week period, whereas a significant decrease in the scores of the

lecture class was observed. The study also concluded that

students in the experiential learning classroom may have formed a

better understanding of the concepts, thus successfully retaining

knowledge better than students in the lecture class.

Mezirow (1991)85 develops a comprehensive theory of how

adults learn by making meanings of their experiences. He focuses

on perspective transformation.

Hartshorn, & Sue (1990)86 examine research about the use

of manipulatives to teach Mathematics. ‘Manipulatives’ refers to

objects that can be touched and moved by students to introduce

and reinforce a Mathematical concept. Research suggests that


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manipulatives are particularly useful in helping children move

from concrete to the abstract level. Building the Bridge between

these levels requires careful structuring of manipulatives by the

teacher, issues relating to the implementation and success of

manipulatives, the period of students exposure and training.

Von Eschenbach, & Raqsdale (1989)87 investigated the effect

of an experiential classroom environment on children's learning

through the integration of Mathematics and Social studies. The

findings support the contention that children leave better by

doing. Children are more attentive to their learning, achieve a

deeper insight or meaning of the concepts and are able to apply

the information.

Atkinson & Murrel (1988)88 reports that Kolb's experiential

learning theory offers the career counsellor a meta-model with

which to structure and ensure a thorough investigation of self and

the world of work in a manner provides the client with an optional

amount of learning and personal development. Fitzhibbon (1987)89

stated that Kolb's experiential learning can be adopted and applied

to student -teacher supervision.

Svinicki & Dixon (1987)90 described a comprehensive

instructional model to deal with the constraints and challenges

that instructors and students encounter in adopting experiential

learning as an instructional framework. The instructional design


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model incorporates a broad range of classroom activities that lead

students through the full cycle of learning. The model has been

successfully applied in various academic fields such as geography

(Healey and Jenkins, 2000),60 theatre (Gressler, 2002),91 and

political science (Brock and Cameron, 1999).65

Baker, Simon, & Bazeli (1987)92 contended that teaching is

an art requiring the instructor to select from among a wide variety

of instructional strategies to teach students with a diversity of

learning preferences.

Wilkerson (1986)93 studied the relationship between

preferred learning and clinical achievement of Baccalaureate

nursing students. The theoretical frame work was based on Kolb's

model of experiential learning with four phases from concrete

experience to active experimentation. The study found Kolb's

learning style inventory was effective to assess preference for

learning.

Sugarman (1985)94 promotes the usefulness of the Kolb’s

experiential learning model for curriculum planning,

implementation, and evaluation in the counseling field. The

experiential learning framework helps students expand their

repertoire of learning skills through the conceptualization of the total

learning process. He stated that experiential learning is helpful for

trainees, student counsellors and clients.


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Sims & Sauser (1985)95 proposed the experiential learning

model as a theoretical basis to design management curricula

intended to develop managerial competencies in business

students. They offer seven core principles that need to be in place,

if such curricula are to be successfully implemented.

Experiential exercise has proven to be effective in generating

considerable student involvement and participation in the learning

process, with increased student capacity to retain knowledge for a

longer period of time (Umapathy, 1985).96

Lipshitz (1983)97 underscores the complexity of the role of

an experiential teacher who needs to have a firm grasp of the

relevant conceptual material and also develop sensitivity and skill

in managing students’ emotional reactions to the learning process.

He designed and implemented an experiential behavior science

course in the Israeli Military Academy focused on the development

of problem-solving, decision-making, and crisis-management skills

in their officers. The aim was to use the experiential learning

model to counter the organizational environment of the Israeli

Defense Force.

Brookfield (1983)98 described experiential learning a direct

encounter with the phenomena being studied. He used the term in

contrasting sense. On the one hand it is used to describe the sort

of learning undertaken by students who are given a chance to


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acquire and apply knowledge, skills and feelings in an immediate

and relevant setting. The record is education that occurs as a

direct participation in the events of life.

Certo (1976)99 articulated the value of experiential learning

as a methodology of education that focuses on the whole person

and emphasizes the critical role of the facilitator as an active

experiential instructor who blends, with a proper balance,

experience, reflection, conceptualization, and action in the

classroom activities.

Pace (1977)100 emphasised the relevance of experiential

pedagogy that gives primary to learners’ experience, action, and

opportunity for students to test out newly learned concepts and

theories.

Carlsson, Keane, & Martin (1976)101 used ELT learning cycle

framework to analyse the biweekly reports of research and

development project teams in a large consumer product

corporation. McMullan & Cahoon (1979)102 applied Kolb’s (1971)33

experience-based learning evaluation instrument in their

organizational behavior course.

3.3 Studies on Learning Styles

The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) has been used widely in

computer and information science, particularly to study end user

software use and end user training (Bostrom, Olfman, & Sein,


107

1990;103 Davis & Bostrom, 1993).104 It has been used to examine the

relationship between learning style and problem solving and decision

making, on-line search behavior, and performance in computer

training and computer assisted instruction.

Many of the studies in psychology were on LSI psychometrics.

The first version of the LSI was released in 1976 and received wide

support for its strong face validity and independence of the two

dimensions of the learning process (Marshall & Meritt, 1985;105 Katz,

1986).106

Yenilmer (2007)107 studied the relationship among the learning

styles, Math anxieties and math attitudes of the secondary school

teacher training students. The results show that math anxiety and

math attitude are efficient in predicting preferred learning styles of

secondary school students in learning Mathematics.

Kayes (2005)108 in his study explores the internal validity and

reliability of Kolb’s revised Learning Style Inventory (LSI-2A and LSI-

3). This study largely supports prior research supporting the internal

reliability of scales. Principal Component Analysis provides evidence

for a 2 factor structure as hypothesized by Kolb.

Sandmire & Boyce (2004)109 investigated the performance of

two-person collaborative problem-solving teams in an allied health

education-anatomy, physiology, and pathology course. They

compared a group of higher abstract/high concrete student pairs


108

with a group of abstract pairs and a group, of concrete pairs. The

abstract/concrete pairs performed significantly better on a simulated

clinical case than the abstract pairs, indicating the value of

integrating the abstract and concrete dialectics of the learning cycle.

Sloan et al. (2004)110 conducted a study on learning styles of

elementary pre-service teachers. This study was investigated the

learning style preference of 72 elementary pre-service teachers who

were near the end of their third year of collegiate study. A learning

style inventory, the style Analysis survey, was administered to

determine learning style preferences. The categories assessed were

(a) using physical senses, (b) dealing with people, (c) handling

possibilities, (d) approaching tasks, and (e) dealing with ideas. Over,

all the subjects possessed some common characteristics. They

showed an inclination toward being usual learners who were

extroverted, closing-oriented, and global learners

Ishiyama & Hartlaub (2003)111 conducted a comparative study

of student learning styles in two different political science curricular

models at two universities. The result indicated that while there

was no statistically significant relationship between student

learning styles in underclass students, there was a significant

difference in mean scores among upper-class students between the

two universities.


109

Berry (2003)112 suggests that if African American student

receive Mathematics instruction recommended by certain standards,

such instruction will complement their cultural styles and learning

preferences.

Halstead & Martin (2002)113 found that engineering student

teams that were formed randomly to include all learning styles

performed better than self-esteemed teams.

There is considerable variation in inquiry norms and

knowledge structures within some fields. Professions such as

management (Loo, 2002a114 & 2002b115; Brown and Burke, 1987)116

and medicine (Sadler et.al., 1978117; Plovnick, 1975)118 are multi-

disciplinary including specialties that emphasize different learning

styles. Social sciences can vary greatly in their basic inquiry

paradigms.

Sharp (2001)119 showed that classroom experience of students

can improve teamwork skills with theory by recognizing and

capitalizing their strengths, respecting all styles, sending messages

in various ways, and analysing style differences to resolve conflict

and communicate effectively with team members.

In the study of a 6-week teambuilding program, Hall (1996) 120

reported difficulty with self-selected teams that tended to group on

the basis of friendship.


110

Kayes (2001)121 found that teams made up of members whose

learning styles were balanced among the four learning modes

performed at a higher level on a critical thinking task than teams

whose members had specialised learning styles. Researches by

Hardigan & Sisco (2001)122 supported the idea that students

preferred learning style differ. Sandmire, Vroman, & Sanders

(2000)123 investigating pairs formed on the action /reflection dialectic

showed no significant performance differences.

Research that examined the relationship between learning

style and learning environment has suggested that teachers should

adjust and structure the learning environment and their

expectations of students around the students individual learning

styles. (Gadt-Johnson & Price, 2000;124 Hickson, Land & Aikman,

1994)125

The majority of studies in medicine focus on learning style

analysis in many medical education specialties. Curry (1999)126 has

done a number of studies comparing different measures of learning

styles. Other research has examined learning style and student

performance on examination and the relationship between learning

style and medical specialty career choice.

Reese (1998)127 developed a program using learning style

interventions to improve student learning at the University of Denver

Law School.


111

Nulty & Barrett (1996)128 caution that the learning style

grouping should not be taken as absolute representation of a

particular student population, because different teaching strategies

and discourse modes may be adopted which are not traditional to

that discipline. Their study also suggests that learning styles are

related to the stage the students have reached in their studies.

Researchers and educators contend that understanding of the

distribution of learning styles in one’s discipline and subspecialty is

crucial for the improvement of the quality of instructional strategies

that respond to the individual need of the learner, as well as the

optimal level of competency and performance requirement of each

profession (Baker, Simon, & Bazeli, 1986;129 Bostrom, Olfman, &

Sein, 1990;103 Drew & Ottewill, 1998;130 Fox and Ronkowski,

1997;131 Kreber, 2001;132 Laschinger, 1986;133 McMurray, 1998;134

Rosenthal, 1999;135 Sandmire, Vroman, & Sanders, 2000;123 Sims,

1983).136

In the first experimental study of the effect of learning styles

on team performance, Wolfe (1997)137 examined how homogeneous

three-person teams of accommodators, divergers, assimilators, or

convergers performed on a complex computer business simulation

compared with heterogeneous teams. The four groups of

heterogeneous teams had similar performance results.


112

There are studies suggest that educators need to adopt their

teaching styles and instructional methods to facilitate the learning

process by offering a variety of learning opportunities appropriate to

different student learning styles and to different subject matters

(Baker, Simon, & Bazeli,1986;129 Buch & Bartley,2002;138 Cartney,

2000).139

Lemire (1998)140 through his research describes the

psychometric issues associated with three different learning style

models (Visual, Auditory and Kinaesthetic) and the instruments

designed to assess their models. He also presents some background

to the learning styles idea along with suggestions for utilising the

information with developments.

In their study of learning style differences among pediatric

residents and faculty, Kosower & Berman (1996)141 found that most

residents preferred accommodating or diverging styles (81%), most

faculties preferred either converging or assimilating learning

strategies (73%). Similar results were found in a longitudinal study

comparing undergraduate nursing students’ learning styles and

faculty learning styles. Nursing students preferred concrete thinking

(59%) over abstract thinking (41%), while their faculty preferred

abstract thinking (82%) over concrete thinking (18%) (Kalsbeek,

1989).142


113

Sims & Sims (1995)143 in the book on "The importance of

learning styles: Understanding the implications for learning, course

design, and Education'' discuss on models of different learning

styles, instruments to evaluate learning styles and techniques for

assessing individual learning characteristics as well as the future of

learning style research and its implications for enhancing learning

in higher education institutions.

Sadler, Plovnick, & Snope (1978)117 report some of the

difficulties of teaching in an environment in which the learning style

of the faculty and the students differ. Their study suggests that faced

with such a situation, instructors may be required to use

instructional methods valuable to the students but not necessarily

appearing or intellectually rewarding to the instructors themselves.

Brown & Cooper (1976)144 developed a learning style inventory

that measures Mathematics learning style. The inventory has nine

categories namely Visual language. Visual, Numerical, Auditory

Language, Auditory Numerical Textile concrete, Social individual,

Social group, Oral Expressiveness and Written Expressiveness.

3.4 Studies related to Achievement with respect to Learning Styles

Indu & Ignatious (2008)145 conducted a study on the

perceptual learning styles of High school students. The study

revealed that effective learning depends on the learning style of the

learner. It also showed that a majority of students preferred the


114

visual learning style. Government school students preferred the

visual and the auditory learning styles compared to their

counterparts in private, government aided and corporation schools.

Orhun (2007)146 conducted a study on an investigation into

the Mathematics Achievement and Attitude towards Mathematics

with respect to Learning Styles according to gender. This study

aimed to investigate whether there is relationship between gender

and Learning Styles, Mathematical Achievement and attitude

towards mathematics. The results of this study suggested that their

differences among learning modes preferred by female and male

students. Mathematics Achievement and attitude towards

mathematics were not, themselves dependent on gender. It was also

noticed that while female students most preferred the convergent

Learning Styles, male students most preferred the Assimilator

Learning Styles. No students were observed to prefer the

Accommodator Learning Styles in both groups.

Hawk & Shah (2007)147 in their study have indicated that

students can and should develop their abilities that are not in their

natural modes and preferences. This is possible only if they are

aware that learning style does exist in individuals and that not all

individuals learn in the same way. Thomas (2007)148 found that co-

operative learning enhances the achievement of students grouped

according to their learning styles.


115

Aruna & Usha (2006)149 conducted a study on the influence of

cognitive style, intelligence and classroom climate on process

outcomes in science. The study found that there is significant

relationship between cognitive skills and process outcomes in

science.

Malathi & Malini (2006)150 conducted a study on the

relationship between learning style and achievement among higher

secondary students of Chennai. The study revealed that there is high

correlation between learning style and achievement which implies

that higher the achievement scores the better was the learning style

among higher secondary students.

Rayneri et al. (2006)151 in their study examined the learning

style of gifted middle school students, student perceptions of

classroom environment and achievement levels. Eighty gifted

students from grades 6, 7 and 8 were administered the learning style

Inventory (LSI) to identify student learning preferences. The study

found that learning style of gifted students has correction with

achievement in all contest areas.

Farkas (2003)152 examined the effects of teaching through

traditional versus learning style instructional methods on an urban

sample of 105 heterogeneously grouped 7th grade students

achievements, attitudes, empathic tendencies and the like. The data

that was subjected to a statistical analysis supported the


116

implementation of a multisensory rather than traditional approach

for teaching lessons. He Co-ordinated the effectiveness of learning

style methods for increasing achievement and attitude towards

learning.

A number of studies have examined the relationship between

learning style, assessment method, and academic performance.

While some studies show relationship between grades and the

converging learning style (Rutz, 2003;153 Boyatzis & Mainemelis,

2000),154 other studies indicate that these learning style differences

in student performance may be a function of the assessment

technique used.

There is a good relationship between learning style and class

participation on student enjoyment level. (Du & Simpson; 2002)155

Kinsley (2002)156 conducted a study on the effectiveness of

four stage model of Mathematical learning. He discusses about the

instructional implication of this model. He conducted that the model

is very effective than traditional method.

Krista (2000)62 started in his report on experimental learning

style inventory widely used to understand the stages of living and the

ways people prefer to receive and process new information. The

model and self assessment are both based on Kolb’s experiential

learning theory, emphasis the need for learner involvement is

educational activities.


117

Rourke & Lysynchuck (2000)157 investigated the influence of

learning style on achievement in hypertext. The learning style of

twenty one female and twenty male students enrolled in a

psychology class was assessed using the learning style inventory

(Kolb, 1985).158 The learning style inventory categorises respondents

into one of four learning style based on their abilities in the four

stage of experiential learning style. A significant difference was found

between divergers who scored highest and accommodators who

record lowest. The results supported previous research which

indicated that benefits of hypertext are differentially distributed

across learning style.

Ross, Drysdale & Schultz (2000)159 in a study found that

learning styles influence the types of learning experiences that

students find effective, comfortable and growth promoting. They also

found that the effect of learning style on academic preference with

sequential learners performing significantly better than the random

learners in two-computer-science courses.

Bada & Okan (2000)160 found that for students to achieve

effective learning, teachers must give special consideration to the

skills and assumptions of learners and to their individual learning

preferences.

There has been considerable interest in the study of

instructional practices for mathematics teaching in Asia. Recent


118

assessments have indicated that students in several Asian countries

such as Japan, Honkong, Korea and Singapore, have indented to

score above international averages (Kelly, Mullis, & Martin, 2000).161

In order to explore possible explanations for these achievement

differences, an international study has been conducted to examine

cultural factors, such as mathematics curriculum and content,

student characteristics and learning styles, and instructional

strategies (International Commission on Mathematical Instruction,

2000).162

Oughton & Reed (2000)163 measured the relationship between

graduate students’ learning styles and performance outcome in a

hypermedia environment in which students were required to

structurally map out their acquired knowledge and grasp the

interrelationships among various ideas and concepts. The result

showed that Assimilating and Diverging learners were the most

productive on their concept maps.

Lynch et al. (1998)164 explores the relationship between

learning style and three different academic performance measures in

a medical school. The study indicated that Converging and

Assimilating learners scored significantly higher on the multiple –

choice performance measures, while no learning style difference was

found on the Computer- based simulation. It also concluded that the

results support the Kolb(1984)165 and Newland & Woelfl (1992)166


119

assertions that Converging and assimilating learners may have a

performance advantage on objective, single best answer, multiple-

choice examination.

Holley & Jenkins (1993)167 examined the impact of learning

style on four different accounting exam question formats: multiple-

choice theory (MCT), multiple- choice quantitative (MCQ), open-

ended theory (OET), and open-ended quantitative (OEQ). The result

indicated that there was a significant performance difference by

learning style for all but the multiple-choice quantitative format. It

also concluded that students with different learning styles perform

differently depending on the examination format, and that

performance cannot be generalised for similar subjects if the testing

format varies.

A research entitled as Mathematics learning viewed from

neurobiological model for intellectual functioning was conducted by

Davidson (1983).168 The learning of Mathematics was addressed in

this study with special focus as defining learning styles in

Mathematics, classifying individuals according to learning styles,

relating achievement to learning styles, associating learning styles

with localised. Hemispheric functioning of the brain, correlating

learning styles in Mathematics with general learning styles, and

tailoring teaching strategies to learning styles. Results confirm that


120

Mathematics learning styles more strongly reflect qualitative aspects

of performance in their straight success or non-success.

Scott (1994)169 conducted in information analysis of 4 MAT

model. 4 MAT is an eight step sequential instructional model based

on two theoretical constructs. Kolb's model of learning style and the

concept of brain hemispherity. A review of professional literature on

research with 4 MAT model indicates that 4 MAT model is capable of

comprehensive use of developing instructional units for discursive as

well as non-discursive disciplines for secondary as well as

elementary education.

Felder & Solomon’s Inventory of learning styles (1992)170

organises information handling domains into four categories:

Processing (Active or reflective) perception (Sensing or intuitive),

input (visual or verbal) and understanding (Sequential or global).

Student's learning styles are known to effect their performance at

University (Marriott and Marriott 2003,171 Sangester, 1996)172

According to Honey & Mumford (1992)173, a student's learning

style reflects his or her preference for the four stages of the adult

learning cycle: The activist stage, the reflector stage, the theorist

stage, and the pragmatist stage.

Copenhaver (1979)174 has conducted a study to examine the

differences in cognitive learning styles used by students learning

mathematics and English. An attempt was made to determine if


121

students do change their learning styles as they move from one

subject area to another.

Grwronski (1971)175 studied the existence of inductive and

deductive learning styles and their effect on Mathematics

achievement. No significant difference in achievement was found

between students identified as having inductive or deductive learning

styles on programs developed inductively or deductively.

3.5 Studies on Experiential Learning and Learning Styles

on Achievement

The primary purpose of the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) and

Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) is to increase individuals’

understanding of the process of learning from experience and their

unique individual approach to learning. There have been many

studies that have used ELT and the LSI to improve the learning

process in education.

There are studies reported to cover a broad range of

applications using ELT and the LSI. Some educators have used an

experimental design to compare the effectiveness of an experiential

learning method with a more traditional course format, whereas

others have developed and implemented assessment methods for

teacher-student interaction. While instructional strategies and

methods were designed to fit the academic requirements of a specific

field, many of the experiential activities reported in the studies can

be broadly applied to different fields with adequate modifications.


122

Valiente (2008)176 observed that learning in groups and using

experiential approach may have completely different meanings and

expectation in various cultures. It seems apparent that different

cultures may face difficulties in following the established phases of

an active learning cycle or taking part in experiential learning events

that do not coincide with their vision of the world and their economic

and professional realities.

Warwick (2008)177 used Kolb’s Experiential learning model to

teach mathematics in the UK General certificate of Secondary

Education for which final examinations are taken at the age of 16.

When students attend his first year mathematics module generally

find that there are a significant number of students for whom the

study of mathematics may have been an unpleasant experience in

the past.

Knisley (2002)178 developed a model of mathematical learning

from an exploration of educational research and personal

observations. The study Uses Kolb's model of experiential learning to

characterise four mathematical learning styles: 1) allegorizers

2) integrators 3) analyzers and 4) Synthesizers. There styles viewed

as corresponding to four stages of mathematical learning.

Gardner & Korth (1999)179 used ELT, learning styles, and the

learning cycle to develop a course for human resource development

graduate students that focused on learning to work in teams. They


123

found strong relationships between learning styles and preference for

learning methods – assimilators preferred lectures, reading, writing,

and individual work, while accommodators and often divergers and

convergers preferred partner and group work.

McMurray (1998)180 organized his English-as-a-foreign-

language classroom using ELT principles. Classroom observations

supported the idea that students benefited from the team role

assignment and from accounting for learning style in the course

design.

There have been two comprehensive reviews of the ELT/LSI

literature, one qualitative and one quantitative. In 1990, Hickcox 181

extensively reviewed the theoretical origins of ELT and qualitatively

analysed 81 studies in Accounting, Business education, Medical

profession, Post-secondary education and Teacher education. She

concluded that 61.7% of the studies supported ELT, 16.1% showed

mixed support and 22.2% did not support ELT. In 1994,

Illiff(1994)182 conducted a meta-analysis of 101 qualitative studies

culled from 275 dissertations and 624 articles that were qualitative,

theoretical and quantitative studies of ELT/LSI. He found that 49

studies showed strong support for the LSI, 40 showed mixed support

and 12 showed no support.

ELT posits that effective learners are able to flex their learning

styles according to the demands of different learning tasks. To the


124

extent that the individual learning preferences are respected and

recognized, it is also important for the students to be exposed to

diverse learning situations where their abilities and competencies

can be stretched beyond the comfort of their preferred learning

modes. Several studies suggest that in fact students shift their

learning strategies to match the learning demands of a particular

discipline (Cornett, 1983;183 Entwistle, 1981;184 Kolb, 1984;165

Ornstein, 1977).185 Some studies suggest that the identification of

learning strategies best suited for different learning styles may

increase the learning effectiveness of each individual student and

conversely, increase students’ adaptive flexibility to alter their

learning styles to respond to the learning demand of a specific

environment (Brenenstuhl & Catanello, 1979;186 Curry, 1999;187

Fritzsche, 1977;188 Lynch et al. 1998).164

Conclusion

The review of related literature enabled the investigator to have

an extensive information on modern instructional strategies in

general and experiential learning strategy in particular. It helped the

investigator to know the application of Kolb’s experiential learning

and learning style in various disciplines and its effect on

achievement. It capacitated the investigator to frame the objectives

for the study.


125

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