REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE - Information and...

52 PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT EMPLOYEES

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In empirical researches literature review is an important aspect covering vital

evaluation of the previous and already existing case studies or reports by scholars in a

respective field of work. It provides a strong foundation and generates insight in the

mind of researcher. Hence for the present study also an exhaustive effort is made to

review the studies of related variables involved in the present investigations. To serve

this purpose the sources such as Psychological Abstract, Sociological Abstract,

Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, Journal of Health and Social Behavior,

Journal of Addictions and Offender Counseling, Personnel Psychology, British

Journal of Psychology, Academy of Management Review, Journal of Organizational

Behavior, Journal of Health Management, Journal of Vocational Behaviour,

Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Indian Academy of Applied Psychology,

Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism, Journal of Business Studies

Quarterly etc., as well as the proceedings of different conferences and seminars are

referred and reviewed. Further only the relevant studies are reported here in brief.

2.1 Studies on Aircraft Employees

Spencer and Burke (1991) explored an alternative strategy for addressing

the service quality problem by focusing on the individual service role.

The study was tested on a sample of 169 customer service employees from a large

international airline. Additional performance data were collected from the airline's

Market Research and Quality Assurance groups. Results revealed that perceptions of

management practices were found to be associated with two of the three identified

key characteristics of the service role, and strongly associated with social support.


One aspect of social support was found to bear a strong relationship to characteristics

of the service role. In addition, work overload was found to contribute significantly to

employee perceptions of service provided. Average measures of employee

perceptions of service were found to be highly related to customer satisfaction.

Barnes (1992) conducted a study on stress in aviation personnel. A sample of

25 captains, 16 flight engineers, 11 cabin crew members from air India were

considered for the study. The results revealed that the cabin crews have more stressors

than other aviation groups. This is followed by pilots.

According to Costa (1995) it is evident that the job entails, on the whole, high

psychological demands while being subjected to a considerable degree of external

control. This feeling of lack of personal influence often complained about by air

traffic controllers can be a powerful stressor, especially if one takes into account the

fact that the job requires high levels of responsibility.

McFadden (1996) found no difference between the pilot-error accident rates

of male and female airline pilots. According to him, gender does not appear to be a

risk factor for accidents when exposure to flying opportunity is controlled.

According to Li and Baker (1997) little public data and few studies are

available in the United States and elsewhere to provide information about specific

types of occurrences, such as falls in, on or from aircraft. The most recent United

States Department of Labor data show that more than 10,000 non-fatal slips, trips and

falls resulted in days away from work during 1997 among workers in scheduled air

transportation. A study published in 1997 reviewed 1980 and 1990 data on fatalities in

aviation. The study identified five deaths in 1980 attributed to “fall in, on or from

aircraft” among 1,543 aviation-related fatalities, and one death in 1990 attributed to

that cause among 1,011 aviation-related fatalities. Four of the 1980 deaths and one of


the 1990 deaths were classified as involving “ground workers”, but the report did not

specify the cause of death. The study used public data from the National Center for

Health Statistics and other cause-of-death databases.

Jamal and Preena (1998) examined the relationship between job stress and

employees' well-being in a developing country in Asia. Data were collected by means

of a structured questionnaire from 150 employees working in a national carrier in a

developing country in Asia. Pearson correlation and moderated multiple regression

was used to analyze the data. Job stress was significantly related to organizational

commitment and job satisfaction. Moderated multiple regression did not support the

role of gender as a moderator of the stress–outcome relationship.

Caroline and Marilyn (2000) investigated experiences of female pilots in a

large international airline based in Europe. The data were collected from in-depth

interviews with 23 female and 17 male commercial airline pilots. The article argues

that commercial aviation continues to be dominated by masculine values and

practices, which result in the earlier stages of women’s careers being treated as ‘a rite

of passage’. The first women to join the airline experienced sexism, harassment, high

visibility and isolation. Although the extent of the difficulties has declined over time,

the experience of dealing with sexism and adapting to the masculine culture continues

to influence the attitudes of female pilots, especially towards gender and equal

opportunities.

Baker, Lamb, Grabowski, Rebok, and Li (2001) found that male pilots are

more likely to crash due to inattention or flawed decision-making, while female pilots

are more likely to crash because they mishandle the aircraft. They also found that loss

of control on landing or take-off was the most common source of crashes for both

sexes, leading to 59% of crashes by female pilots and 36% of crashes by male pilots.


Mechanical failure, running out of fuel and landing the plane with the landing gear up

were among the problems more likely to occur with males, while stalling was more

likely to occur with females.

Iqbal and Kamal (2001) explored the difference in sexual harassment

experience among Ground and Air-hostesses. The result indicated that there is no

significant difference in sexual harassment experience between two groups regarding

different variables (e.g., age, experience, job-status, and marital-status) of the women,

although all women had experiences of sexual harassment at one time or other.

Fogarty (2004) employed a safety climate approach to assist in the

development of a model that can help to explain morale, psychological health,

turnover intentions, and error in the aviation maintenance environment. An instrument

called the maintenance environment survey was developed and administered to 240

personnel responsible for maintenance of a large military helicopter fleet. Data

collected through the survey were used to develop a structural model that predicted

45% of the variance in psychological health, 67% of the variance in morale, 27% of

the variance in turnover intentions, and 44% of the variance in self-reported

maintenance errors. The model showed the pathways through which organizational

level and individual level variables can influence work outcomes and leads to

suggestions for interventions that can help to improve maintenance efficiency.

Prince and Simon (2006) examined the impact of multimarket contact on on-

time performance in the airline industry. Using flight-level data for more than 3.5

million flights, authors found that increases in multimarket contact lead to increases in

delays, and this result is robust to several delay measures and the inclusion of carrier-

route, as well as month, fixed effects. Further authors determined that the effect is

primarily in the form of departure delays, and not due to changes in scheduled flight

times or time spent in the air.


Vermeulen (2009) investigated flight instructors' perceptions with regard to

gender-related pilot behaviour. The first sample consisted of 93 flight instructors and

the second sample was a control group of 93 commercial pilots. The aviation gender

attitude questionnaire was administered to measure the perceptions that both groups

held about female pilots' flying proficiency and safety orientation. Statistical analysis

revealed that flight instructors and commercial pilots differed significantly in their

perceptions of female pilots' flying proficiency but that the two groups did not differ

in their perceptions of female pilots' safety orientation.

According to Maureen (2010) the Aviation industry has developed

extensively since its establishment by the Wright Brothers in 1903. Over time, the

highly male-dominated industry experienced significant changes to incorporate

female aviators. Determined women initiated this process through participating in the

aircraft engineering sector and pursuing careers as pilots. However, these women

faced various challenges, which resulted in setbacks to their effective growth in the

industry. In fact, vital issues encountered in the past are still present and often

overlooked in today’s aviation industry. Therefore, identifying these problems and

proposing solutions with effective corrective measures is necessary to increase and

motivate female pilots globally.

Filardo, Febbraro, and Gill (2011) explored the precursors to negative

gender attitudes in an attempt to identify some of the key factors that contribute to

stereotype threat. Structural equation modeling based on survey findings from a

sample of male and female air cadets (N=211) indicated that an awareness of pilot

limitations and rational thinking patterns predicted aviation gender attitudes (AGA).

Knowing the precursors to negative AGA could point to a mechanism by which these

attitudes, and therefore, the environment encountered by female cadets, may be


altered to increase their confidence and decrease the stereotype threat, thus potentially

leading to fewer accidents.

Nogueira et al. (2012) evaluated psychosocial indicators as well as

musculoskeletal symptoms and disorders among aircraft maintenance workers. 101

employees were evaluated. Musculoskeletal symptoms and disorders were assessed

through the nordic musculoskeletal questionnaire (NMQ) and a standardized physical

examination. The job content questionnaire (JCQ) and the utrecht work engagement

Scale (UWES) were applied to evaluate psychosocial indicators. Results of the NMQ

indicate the lower back as the most affected body region. On the other hand, the

physical examination has shown clinical diagnosis of shoulder disorders. Neck, upper

back and ankle/foot were also reported as painful sites. Most of workers had active

work-demand profile and high work engagement levels.

Above reviewed most of the studies focused on gender difference in the

aviation industry. Remaining few studies are highlighting aircraft employees work

commitment, job satisfaction stress as well as psychological indicators and

musculoskeletal symptoms.

2.2 Studies on Organizational Role Stress

2.2.1 Studies Relating Demographic Variables to Organizational Role Stress

The relationship between demographic variables viz., age, gender, education,

occupation, experience, type of family, and stress are reviewed as bellow:

The background variables studied by Sen (1982) in relation to role stress were

age, sex, education, income, family type, marital status, residence, distance from

residence to place of work, distance from place of domicile to place of work, entry

and previous job experience. Some of the conclusions drawn were that role stagnation


decreases as people advance in age; age is negatively related with role stress. Women

experience more role stress as compared to men. Role stress is inversely related to

income; the higher the income, the less is the level of reported role stress. Unmarried

persons experience more stress than married persons. This may be due to their

comparative lack of security need, resulting in lower self-esteem, autonomy and self-

actualization needs. Persons from urban background may experience more stress.

Mitra and Sen (1993) in their study found that male and female executives

differ significantly on role ambiguity, role conflict, inter role distance, future

prospects and human relation at work and femininity and masculinity dimensions.

Male executives with masculine sex role orientation faced greater job stress and

anxiety than females possessing an androgynous personality. Authors attributed this

fact to a greater reluctance to self disclose among men and different socialization

patterns laid down for both men and women in Indian society.

Sahu and Mishra (1995) made an attempt to explore gender differences in

relationship between stresses experienced in various areas of life. The sample for the

study was 120 men and 120 women teachers. The result revealed the significant

positive relationship between works related stress and society related stress in males.

On the other hand, in females, a significant positive relationship was observed

between family stress and society related stress.

Triveni and Aminabhavi (2002) conducted a study to know the gender

difference in occupational stress of professional and non- professionals. The sample

consisted of 300 professionals (doctors, lawyers and teachers) and 100 non

professionals. The result revealed that women professionals experience significantly

higher occupational stress than men due to under participation.


M. I. Khan, Khan and Khan (2005) conducted a study on coping strategies

among male and female teachers with high and low job strain. The results of the

present study indicated that both male and female teachers used the same strategies to

cope with job strain. Significant difference was not found to exist between the male

and female teachers on different types of coping strategies except use of humour.

Teachers have adopted a range of coping strategies most tend to be functional or

active and some are dysfunctional or passive (i.e. self-distraction and use of humour).

Male and female teachers did not give response on alcohol dimension of cope scale.

Bhatia and Kumar (2005) studied on occupational stress and burnout in

industrial employees. A sample consisted of 100 employees belonging to supervisor

and below supervisor level. Their experience/length of service varied from 2-6 and 7-

12 years. Industrial employees at supervisor rank and below supervisor rank with

more experience of service had more occupational stress due to more feeling of

depersonalization and more emotional exhaustion. From the above studies, it was

concluded that the length of service has negative and positive relationship with stress.

Anitha Devi (2007) aimed at identifying the degree of life stress and role

stress experienced by professional women. A total sample of 180 women

professionals belonging to six occupations were chosen for the study. The results

revealed that, the older person experience lower life stress and role stress. Younger

people experience more stress as compared to older people. The greater the numbers

of years of service greater the role stress. The lower the income, greater stress

experienced i.e. stress decreases with increase. It was concluded that younger age

group is more susceptible to stress due to lack of experience and older age group

experience stress due to the increase in the responsibility.


Wu Yu-Chi and Shih Keng-Yu (2010) investigated whether gender roles may

affect perceived job stress. In order to ensure that the empirical results relate to a

single job environment, all participants were required to be employed as a bank clerk

in Taiwanese banks. Based on the findings, implications related to choosing

employees who are less affected by stress are discussed. In turn, employers can look

to recruit employees that are better able to function in stressful situations, which

would assist firms to lower costs associated with helping employees deal with stress.

This finding also suggested that for job stress (work-related psychological stress)

studying, gender role (a psychological construct) may be a more suitable construct

than sex role (a biological construct) to be used to explore the relationship with job

stress.

Anshula and Srivastava (2011) analyzed whether the female partners in two-

career couples of different types, namely accommodator', 'adversary' and

‘adversaries’, significantly differ with regard to their organizational role stress and job

performance. The study demonstrated that wives in 'adversary' type of two-career

couples experience relatively highest magnitude of role stress, while 'accommodators'

experience lowest degree of job stress. Expectedly, 'adversaries' were found to

maintain highest level of performance. Organizational role stress and job performance

were found to be inversely correlated for all the three sub-groups, but the intensity of

this relationship was highest for the 'adversary' type of couples. The study also

revealed that the relationship between role stress and job performance of the

participants is not significantly moderated by the type of two career couples they

belong to.


2.2.2 Studies Relating Occupation and Position of Employees to Organizational

Role Stress

Experience of stress differs from one profession to the other depending upon

the nature and condition of their work and many more other factors. Some of the

studies in this regard are stated below:

Satyanarayana (1995) investigated stressors among 75 executives and 75

supervisors of Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd (BHEL). The analysis of the data revealed

that role erosion, personable inadequacy, resource inadequacy and role stagnation

were experienced as dominate contributors of role stress in executive supervisors.

The two groups differed significantly in respect of inter-role distance, role overload,

personal inadequacy and role ambiguity dimensions.

Ryhal and Singh (1996) considered university faculty for their study using

samples of 100 faculty members 30 professors, 31 associate and 39 assistant

professors. Results revealed that those with 26-35 years experience had higher job

stress than those with teaching experience of 16-25 years and 5-15 years. Those with

16-25 years experience had higher job stress than those with teaching experience of 5-

15 years.

Ansari and Singh (1997) made an attempt to explore the contribution of

demographic variables to the nature of stress experienced by the teachers in an

agriculture university. The study comprised sample of 235 faculty members (23

professors, 74 associate and 138 assistant professors). The professors were either in

moderate or in high stress categories as compared to associate and assistant

professors.

Wilkes et al. (1998) used descriptions of the lived experience of 21

community (district) nurses, from the Wentworth Area Health Service in Sydney,


Australia, to determine the stressors involved in caring for palliative care clients at

home. Sources of stress for the nurses were poor family dynamics, the family wanting

the nurse to be part of the family unit, workloads, and others’ expectations. Another

dominant stressor was the family and/or client’s denial of the possibility of no cure.

This often conflicted with the nurses’ expectation of good dying as accepting and

peaceful. The nurses coped with their stress by developing a support network, talking

about their stress and sharing experiences in groups at work, the latter having

important implications for employers.

Upadhyay and Singh (1999) compared the occupational stress level

experienced by the 20 college teachers and 20 executives. The teachers showed

significant higher levels of stress than executives on intrinsic impoverishment and

status factors. They experienced stress because their personal wishes and strong desire

for better and prosperous career were felt to be blocked by others.

Pandey and Srivastava (2000) studied the female personnel working in

railway, bank and teaching institutions. A sample of 96 females, 16 subjects in each

professional area were taken. The study identified that respondents among all the

three dimensions, clerks of bank and railway experienced more work stress as

compared to teachers.

Pradhan and Khattri (2001) studied the effect of gender on stress and

burnout in doctors. They have considered experience of work and family stress as

intra-psychic variables. The sample consisted of 50 employed doctor couples. Mean

age was 40 years for males and 38 years for females. The result indicated no gender

difference in the experience of burnout, but female doctors experience significantly

more stress.


Rastogi and Kashyap (2003) conducted a study on occupational stress and

work adjustment among working women. Sample consisted of 150 nurses, clerks, and

teachers. The results concluded that maximum occupational stress is found among

nurses as compared to other two groups. Nurses work under the most severe

occupational environment. Teachers perceived the minimum occupational stress

because their working climate is best in comparison to the other two groups.

Chand and Monga (2007) examined the correlates of job stress and burn out

among 100 faculty members from two universities. Respondents with internal locus of

control, high social support and high job involvement experience less stress. Results

also revealed that, maximum stress is reported by professors and minimum by

assistant professors.

Mehta and Kaur (2009) carried out comparative study of organizational role

stress (ORS) among technical and non-technical teachers in Ludhiana, using ORS

scale. The study revealed that resource inadequacy was higher for technical teachers

as compared to non-technical teachers for the whole sample and for the lower age

group (<30 years). For the higher age group (>30 years), personal inadequacy and role

ambiguity were higher for technical teachers as compared to non-technical teachers.

2.2.3 Studies Relating to Organizational Factors and Stress

The organizational factors such as role, work, role, organizational climate,

interpersonal relationship at work place etc., seem to have the most significant

influence on an employee’s stress. Some studies related to this aspect are reviewed as

below:

Kirby (1990) explored the perceived stress levels of Kentucky elementary

school principals. Findings revealed that the most stressful events involved forcing the


resignation or dismissal of a teacher and dealing with unsatisfactory performance of

professional staff. The lowest amount of stress was associated with working with the

district central administration. A conclusion is that although Kentucky elementary

principals experience some stress, the job overall is not highly stressful.

Mishra and Dixit (1995) attempted to reveal the coping styles of 300

allopathic doctors. It was found that each of the four type of job stress namely role

based stress, task based stress, boundary spanning stress and conflict mediating stress

influenced burnout among the doctors and role based stresses such as role conflict and

role ambiguity are related with feeling of lack of personal accomplishment.

Lim and Teo (1999) identified through surveys and interviews the key factors

at the workplace which generate stress among 308 information technology (IT)

personnel in Singapore. They suggested that factors which generate stress can be

grouped into 4 broad categories as lack of career advancement related to the problem

of high rate of employee turnover, Work overload resulting in spillover of workload at

home and guilt and dissatisfaction for being less attentive to family, risk taking and

decision making consisting of fear of making mistakes and employee morale and

organizational culture related to a lack of participation in decisions affecting their

work, undue blame for machine failure and difficulty in team work considering the

fluid and noninvolved nature of work.

Pandey and Tripathy (2001) examined the level of perceived occupational

stress and burnout in engineering college male teachers (N=56) as well as the relative

importance of various job stressors in predicting burnout. Analysis of the data

revealed a moderate level of occupational stress as well as burnout in the given

sample. Various job stressors correlated positively with emotional exhaustion and

depersonalization component of burnout and negatively with the personal


accomplishment component. Role ambiguity and unreasonable group and political

pressure were found to be the two best predictors of various components of burnout.

Strenuous working condition and intrinsic impoverishment emerged as the third best

predictor of emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment respectively. Overall,

the findings suggested that teaching is a stressful occupation and teachers are at risk

for developing burnout syndrome and subjectively defined job stressors such as role

ambiguity, unreasonable group pressure may play an important role in it.

Lait and Wallace (2002) proposed and assessed a model of organizational-

professional conflict to determine how professional and bureaucratic conditions of

work influence service providers’ expectations and in turn their job stress. The model

was tested using data from a survey of 514 human service providers in Alberta,

Canada. The findings suggested that whether service providers’ expectations are met

is critical in explaining job stress. Professional conditions of work relating to working

relationships and client interactions are key to fulfilling service providers’

expectations, whereas bureaucratic conditions of work that reflect role conflict and

excessive role demands are particularly stressful. An unexpected finding was that

bureaucratization of procedures that may limit service workers’ control over their

work does not contribute significantly to their job stress.

Nasurdin, Ramayah and Kumaresan (2005) determined the influence of

organizational variables (conflict, blocked career, alienation, work overload, and

unfavorable work environment) on job stress among managers and to examine

whether this relationship varies according to the individual's level of neuroticism.

Analysis of 285 responses using hierarchical regression revealed that three of the five

organizational variables (conflict, blocked career, and alienation) had significant

positive effects on job stress. Neuroticism was found to moderate the effects of the


three organizational stressors (alienation, work overload, and unfavorable work

environment) on job stress.

Bhattacharya and Guha (2006) conducted a study on stress and coping on

lady criminal lawyers of Kolkata city. A group of 34 lady criminal lawyers were

selected for the study. The significant factors which are generating stress are busy

schedule of work, odd duty hours, poor interaction, leading tendency of superiors, and

poor interpersonal relationship among the colleagues in the work environment.

Latha and Panchanatham (2007) found out the job stressors and their

implications on the job performance of 40 software professionals. More than 50% of

the respondents do not feel stressed by the working conditions and promotional

opportunities. It can be inferred that IT industry is providing better working

environment.

Srivastava (2009) investigated the determinants of organisational stressors

and its effect on job stress. It further investigated gender as a moderator for

organisational-job stress relationship in private sector organisations. Analyses of 300

responses using hierarchical regression revealed that organizational variables (blocked

career, alienation, conflict, and unfavorable work environment) had significant

positive effects on job stress. Gender moderated the effects of these organizational

stressors on job stress.

Sharma and Devi (2011) identified the sources of role stress experienced by

the commercial bank employees in Jammu and Kashmir state of India, The results

showed that though, banks in the public sector are more characterized by role

indistinctness, role invasiveness, role divergence, resource shortage and banks in

private sector by role excess but the difference is statistically insignificant. However,

statistically significant differences have been found for role augmentation, self-


diminution and role stress among employees: an empirical study of commercial banks

60 fortification in public and private sector banks.

2.2.4 Organizational Role Stress in Relation to Job Related Factors

Chassie and Bhagat (1980) examined the differential effects of role stress

experienced by women in terms of commitment to the organization, overall job

satisfaction, satisfaction with specific aspects of the job, and personal-life satisfaction.

Role stress was significantly and negatively related to organizational commitment;

overall job satisfaction; satisfaction with pay, work, co-workers, and supervision; and

personal-life satisfaction. The t-test analysis revealed significant mean differences

between high and low role-stress groups on organizational commitment, overall job

satisfaction, and satisfaction with extrinsic aspects of the job.

Chaudhary (1990) examined the relationship between role stress and job

satisfaction among bank officers. The main findings of the study was role erosion and

resource inadequacy was experienced as dominant whereas, role ambiguity and role

expectation conflict as remote contributors of role stress among bank officers. No

significant differences was observed between the two age groups on role stress

dimensions. The overall indices of role stress and job satisfaction was found to be

negatively correlated in higher as well as lower age groups of bank officers.

In another study, Ahmad and Khanna (1992) investigated the relationship

between job stress, job satisfaction and job involvement among 50 middle level hotel

managers (aged 22-36 years). The analysis of the data revealed a significant negative

relationship between job stress and job satisfaction irrespective of the subject’s sex,

marital status, education and experience. Occupational stress was reported to be

negatively correlated with job involvement, and the high job involvement group was

more satisfied with their job than the low job involvement group.


Quah and Campbell (1994) found that role conflict and role ambiguity were

positively and significantly related to work stress among Singaporean managers and

work stress was negatively and significantly related to job satisfaction. Two

personality variables were chosen as moderator variables, but only one, tolerance of

ambiguity showed moderating effects. Locus of control failed to moderate the stressor

stress and stress response relationships. Overall, this study demonstrates that stress at

work does exist for a sample of Singaporean managers and that the antecedents of this

stress are role related.

Judge and Colquitt (2004) examined the relationship between organizational

justice and stress and whether work–family conflict was a mediator of the

relationship. Distributive, procedural, interpersonal, and informational injustice were

cast as stressors to explore their relationships with the stress levels of 174 faculty

members employed at 23 U.S. universities. The results revealed that procedural and

interpersonal justice had the strongest relationships with stress, and that these effects

were mediated by work–family conflict. The presence of justice seemed to allow

participants to better manage the interface of their work and family lives, which was

associated with lower stress levels.

Ahsan, Abdullah, Fie and Alam (2009) investigated the relationship between

job stress and job satisfaction. The determinants of job stress that have been examined

under this study include, management role, relationship with others, workload

pressure, homework interface, role ambiguity, and performance pressure. The sample

consists of a public university academician from Klang valley area in Malaysia. The

results revealed a significant relationship between four of the constructs tested. The

results also showed that there is significant negative relationship between job stress

and job satisfaction.


Pathak (2012) examined the relationship between organizational stress

and job satisfaction level of an individual and whether perceived organizational

support moderates the relationship between both. Study was done on a sample of

200 managers belonging to private sector organizations of Delhi/NCR region. The

results showed that organizational role stress is negatively and significantly

related with job satisfaction. Perceived organizational support was found to lessen the

stress level of the employees, thereby indirectly affecting job satisfaction. In addition,

the results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis support the moderating

effect of perceived organizational supported with regard to the relationship

between organizational role stress and job satisfaction.

2.3 Studies on Emotional Labour

2.3.1 Studies Relating Emotional Labour to Demographic Variables

Bulan, Erickson and Wharton (1997) using a sample of employees within

the health and banking industries, examined the effects of affective requirements,

interactive work, and other occupational conditions on women's and men's job-related

emotional well-being. It is found that when one's job success depends on being able to

handle people well, both women and men tend to experience higher levels of

inauthenticity and fewer positive feelings about their work. However, spending more

time at work interacting with others and having greater control over that work tends to

have the opposite effect on well-being. Authors also found that job involvement

operates quite differently for women and men in ways that are sensitive to service-

sector work conditions.

Babin and Boles (1998) researched gender differences in the behaviour of

service employees and cited some important underlying factors in the organisational

literature. For women, service work is more emotionally exhausting, their work roles


are more ambiguous, and the separation of work and non-work tasks is more difficult

because they take on greater responsibilities. Work roles often dominate gender roles,

but especially in frontline service jobs, gender roles and associated stereotypes

continue to reign.

Lockenhoff and Carstensen (2004) found that when time in life is limited,

younger and older people alike pay more attention to the emotional aspects of

situations, prioritize emotion-focused over problem-focused coping strategies. Similar

effects emerged when time is limited for reasons other than chronological and there is

ample evidence for a greater emphasis on emotion-focused coping strategies as people

age, and this is associated with better emotion-regulatory skills and more positive and

less negative emotional experience among older adults.

Johnson and Spector (2007) surveyed 176 participants from eight customer

service organizations and investigated how individual factors moderate the impact of

emotional labor strategies on employee well-being. Hierarchical regression analyses

indicated that gender and autonomy was significant moderators of the relationships

between emotional labor strategies and the personal outcomes of emotional

exhaustion, affective well-being, and job satisfaction. Females were more likely to

experience negative consequences when engaging in surface acting. Autonomy served

to alleviate negative outcomes for individuals who used emotional labor strategies

often. Contrary to our hypotheses, emotional intelligence did not moderate the

relationship between the emotional labor strategies and personal outcomes. Results

demonstrated how the emotional labor process can influence employee well-being.

2.3.2 Studies Relating Emotional Labour to Occupation and Position

According to Maslach’s (1982) findings on health care workers, the

requirement of attending on and caring for patients continuously imposes an excessive


emotional burden on health care professionals. Those who identify with their roles

entirely and do their best to treat each and every patient kindly and in a helpful

manner, will get exhausted or burnt out very soon, and will no longer be able to

conceal their true (and inappropriate) emotions afterwards, despite their immense

effort. Exposure to the risk of burnout is the highest with those who are doing their

utmost to fully meet the emotional role demands on them.

Matsumoto (1990) presented a theoretical framework that predicts cultural

differences in display rules according to cultural differences in individualism-

collectivism (I-C) and power distance and the social distinctions ingroups - outgroups

and status. The model was tested using an American-Japanese comparison, where

subjects in both cultures rated the appropriateness of the six universal facial

expressions of emotion in eight different social situations. The findings were

generally supportive of the theoretical model, and argue for the joint consideration of

display rules and actual emotional behaviors in cross-cultural research.

Geoff (1993) reported a study of 52 flight attendants which was designed to

ascertain their own feelings about their work and whether more needed to be done in

training to prepare new workers for the emotional components of the job. It is found

that personal interactions with other people, passengers and crew, elicited both the

most positive and the most negative responses; yet, overall, the respondents reported

considerable job satisfaction. Many flight attendants made a distinction between the

job tasks and the lifestyle nature of the job itself. Training for the emotional

components of competence may require only slight additions to existing practices yet,

as more work draws on skills in this area, this aspect of performance will become

increasingly important.


Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) compared two perspectives of emotional

labor as predictors of burnout beyond the effects of negative affectivity, job-focused

emotional labor and employee-focused emotional labor. Significant differences

existed in the emotional demands reported by five occupational groupings. The use of

surface-level emotional labor or faking, predicted depersonalization beyond the work

demands. Perceiving the demand to display positive emotions and using deep-level

regulation was associated with a heightened sense of personal accomplishment,

suggesting positive benefits to this aspect of work.

Koesten and Miller (2006) investigated emotional labor and emotional work

in the financial planning profession in a web-based survey study of almost 300

professional financial planners and supporting interviews with 14 financial planners.

Results indicated support for existing theory on emotional work, extensions to current

research regarding emotional labor, and important implications for the role of emotion

and communication in a range of professional service roles.

Kinman (2008) assessed relationships between three dimensions of emotional

labour (emotional display rules, and the faking and suppression of emotions) and

strain outcomes (psychological distress, work-life conflict and job satisfaction) in a

sample of 124-cabin crew (face-to-face interaction) and 122 telesales agents (voice-

to-voice interaction). The emotional labour dimensions that are significant predictors

of strain outcomes for both groups are examined by multiple regression. No

significant differences were observed between groups in mean levels of emotional

labour variables. A greater proportion of variance in all types of strain was explained

by the emotional labour components for participants who interact with customers

face-to-face but these differences did not reach statistical significance. The emotional

labour dimensions that predicted each strain outcome varied according to mode of

delivery.


Karim and Weisz (2011) examined the moderating role of emotional

intelligence dimensions in the affectivity - emotional labor and emotional labor-

psychological distress relationships among 210 university teachers and found that (a)

regulation of emotion was a particularly important emotional intelligence dimension

in influencing the use of deep acting, both directly and indirectly through the

interaction with negative affectivity; (b) positive affectivity emerged as an important

affectivity dimension in influencing the use of deep acting both directly and indirectly

through the interaction with self-emotional appraisal; (c) negative affectivity was a

particularly important affectivity dimension in influencing the use of surface acting,

both directly and indirectly through its interaction with emotional intelligence

dimensions of self-emotional appraisal and use of emotion; and finally (d) regulation

of emotion interacted with deep acting to influence the psychological distress arising

from emotional labor requirements.

2.3.3 Studies Relating to Positive Consequences of Emotional Labour

Wharton and Erickson (1993) found that workers find jobs involving

emotional labor more satisfying than do other workers not involved in emotional

labor. She suggested that jobs involving emotional labor attract workers whose

personal qualities are especially suited to working with the public and, subsequently,

these workers have a better fit between job demands and personal qualities. This fit

leads to higher job satisfaction.

Montgomery, Panagopoulou, and Benos (2005) examined the relationship

between surface acting and hiding negative emotions with work interference with

family and family interference with work among Greek health-care professionals. The

research is a cross-sectional study of 180 Greek doctors and 84 nurses using self-

report measures. Results showed that, for doctors, surface acting at work was


positively related to family interference with work and, for nurses, surface acting at

home was positively related to family interference with work.

Meier, Mastracci, and Wilson (2006) hypothesized that employers with

greater emotional labour expectations of their employees will have more effective

interactions with clients, better internal relationships, and superior program

performance. This article tests the effects of emotional labour in a bureaucratic

workforce over time. Multiple regression results showed that organizations with more

women at the street level have higher overall organizational performance.

Additionally, emotional labour contributes to organizational productivity over and

above its role in employee turnover and client satisfaction.

Hsieh and Guy (2009) investigated the relationship between emotional labor

and service outcomes. The survey sample is drawn from caseworkers of the Florida

Network of Youth and Family Services. To measure service outcome, workers' self-

report of their emotion work skills is compared to client satisfaction scores. Findings

revealed that clients rate higher levels of satisfaction when services are provided by

caseworkers who feel capable and comfortable performing emotion work. It is argued

that emotion work skills should be included in job descriptions and performance

appraisals for human service jobs.

2.3.4 Studies Relating to Negative Consequences of Emotional Labour

Abraham (1998) viewed within a contingency framework, the effect of

emotional dissonance on its direct consequences of job dissatisfaction and emotional

exhaustion may vary in their intensity depending on the existence (or lack thereof) of

moderators and mediators. The study presented nine propositions hypothesizing the

impact of these variables to guide future empirical research. As moderators, high


levels of self-monitoring, social support and trait self-esteem may reduce the

deleterious impact of emotional dissonance on job satisfaction and emotional

exhaustion. Alternatively, emotional dissonance may induce job tension and state

negative affectivity, and reduce state self-esteem, which in turn, lead to job

dissatisfaction and emotional exhaustion.

Pugliesi (1999) explored the effects of two forms of emotional labour on work

stress, job satisfaction, and psychological distress-self-focused and other-focused

emotion management workers in a large organization. Results showed that both forms

of emotional labour have uniformly negative effects on workers, net of work

complexity, control, and demands. Emotional labour increases perceptions of job

stress, decreases satisfaction, and increases distress. Self-focused emotion

management has the most pervasive and detrimental impacts.

Erickson and Ritter (2001) examined the conditions under which individuals

experience emotional labor and the effects of such labor on psychological well-being.

Building on prior theory and research, authors argued that the management of

agitation is the form of emotional labor most likely to be associated with increased

feelings of burnout and inauthenticity, and that this negative effect on well-being

should be more common among women. Authors found that managing feelings of

agitation increases burnout and inauthenticity and that inauthenticity is most

pronounced among those experiencing the highest levels of agitation. However, these

effects do not differ by gender.

Cote and Morgan (2002) predicted that the suppression of unpleasant

emotions decreases job satisfaction and increases intentions to quit. Data from 111

workers were gathered at two time points separated by four weeks. Advantages of the

design included the use of longitudinal data and the statistical control for several


personality, job, and demographic factors. Longitudinal regression analyses and tests

of mediation revealed that, as predicted, (a) the suppression of unpleasant emotions

decreases job satisfaction, which in turn increases intentions to quit, and (b) the

amplification of pleasant emotions increases job satisfaction.

Bono and Vey (2005) investigated the relationships between emotional labor

and the outcome variables tested in the literature. They concluded that emotional

labor is related to poor psychological health, and weakly and inconsistently related to

job attitudes such as job satisfaction (r = -.32) and role internalization (r = -.30), with

these last two relationships being negative for surface acting, but small and not

significant for deep acting.

Heuven, Bakkera, Schaufelia, and Huismana (2006) studied a sample of

154 cabin attendants to examine the role of self-efficacy in the performance of

emotion work. Results confirmed that emotionally charged interactions with

passengers are related to emotional exhaustion and engagement through their

influence on emotional dissonance. Furthermore, self-efficacy buffers the relationship

between emotional job demands and emotional dissonance, and the relationship

between emotional dissonance and work engagement (but not exhaustion).

2.3.5 Emotional Labour in Relation to Job Related Factors

Tsai (2001) examined whether the psychological climate for service

friendliness correlated positively with employee displayed positive emotions, and

whether such positive emotional displays influenced customer purchase decision and

customer reactions concerning an organization. Data were collected from 290 sales

clerks in 156 retail shoe stores in Taiwan, and from 284 customers who were served

by one of the sales clerks. Results showed a positive relationship between


psychological climate for service friendliness and employees’ displayed positive

emotions. The study also showed that employees’ positive emotional displays would

increase customer willingness to return to the store and pass positive comments to

friends.

Liu, Perrewe, Hochwarter, and Kacmar (2004) examined individual

difference variables as antecedents of perceived emotional labor, as well as affective

and behavioral consequences. Full time employees who had at least five years of work

experience completed two separate surveys. Results revealed that negative affectivity

and political skill were significantly related to employee perceived emotional labor,

which further influenced employees' use of political behaviors and job-induced

tension.

Montgomery, Panagopolou, Wildt, and Meenks (2006) examined the

relationship between emotional display rules/job focused labor, work-family

interference and burnout among a sample of workers in a Dutch governmental

organization. The research is a cross-sectional study of 174 workers from a Dutch

governmental organization. Emotional display rules and job-focused labor were

related to burnout and psychosomatic complaints. More specifically, the need to hide

negative emotions and engage in surface acting was related to negative outcomes. In

addition, work-family interference partially mediated the relationship between the

hiding of negative emotion/surface acting and burnout/psychosomatic complaints.

Seery, Corrigall, and Harpel (2008) explored how self-focused (i.e., surface

and deep acting) and other-focused (i.e., emotional enhancement and relationship

management) job-related emotional labor are associated with bidirectional measures

of work-family conflict and facilitation. Results revealed that surface acting was

related positively with time-, strain-, and behavior-based work-family conflict and


was associated negatively with work-to-family facilitation. Emotional enhancement

was linked negatively to time-based work-to-family conflict and strain-based family-

to-work conflict. Finally, relationship management was related negatively to both

directions of behavior-based work-family conflict, but was associated positively with

both directions of work-family enhancement. Results support the expansion of job-

related emotional labor to include other- as well as self-focused aspects.

Chau, Dahling, Levy, and Diefendorff (2009) examined how the emotional

labor strategies of deep acting and surface acting directly influence emotional

exhaustion and turnover intentions, and indirectly impact actual turnover among a

sample of bank tellers. Turnover data were collected from organizational records 6

months after participants responded to a survey that measured emotional labor

strategies, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intentions. Results showed that

turnover intentions mediated the relationship between deep acting and actual turnover.

Additionally, surface acting had indirect effects on turnover through emotional

exhaustion and turnover intentions.

Diefendorff, Morehart, and Gabriel (2010) examined the influence of two

interpersonal relationship dimensions, relative power and solidarity (closeness), on

the emotional display rules that employees report they would adopt in work situations

in which they felt happiness or anger. Results demonstrated that display rules

involved more control over emotional expressions (i.e., more deamplification and

masking of emotion and less expressing and amplification of emotion) when the

interaction partner had higher relative power compared to when the interaction partner

had equal or lower relative power. This pattern of results was present for both

happiness and anger, though the effects were larger for anger. Display rules also

involved more control when the interaction partner was low in solidarity compared to


when the interaction partner was high in solidarity, with this effect being similar in

magnitude for anger and happiness.

2.4 Studies on Locus of Control

2.4.1 Locus of Control among Different Occupational Groups

Dailey (1980) analyzed questionnaire responses of 281 research project

leaders and team members with the job diagnostic survey and Rotter's internal–

external locus of control scale. Subjects with greater internal orientation perceived

greater job involvement, satisfaction, motivation, psychological growth satisfaction,

task difficulty, and task variability than subjects with greater external orientation.

However, subjects with greater internal orientation did not perceive the relationships

between task characteristics and work attitudes differently than did subjects with

greater external orientation.

Boone and De Brabander (1996) carried out a study with a sample of 39

small business managers in Holland. They found that locus of control does have a

direct influence on the performance of small firms, with managers’ locus of control

orientation having predictive validity for success or failure of small businesses.

Garson and Stanwyck (1997) used to test the effects of locus of control and

performance-contingent incentives on productivity and job satisfaction of employees

working in self-managed teams. The only performance effect was that participants

with external locus of control (externals) in the incentive condition outperformed

externals without incentive. Participants with internal locus of control (internals) were

more satisfied with their supervisors than were externals.

Hyatt and Prawitt (2001) examined how auditors’ job performance is

influenced by the interaction between individual auditors’ locus of control and the


employing firm’s audit structure. Results revealed that internals perform at a higher

level in unstructured firms than in structured firms, while externals perform at a

higher level in structured firms than in unstructured firms. This implies that locus of

control may interact with characteristics of the work environment and affect job-

related variables.

J. Salazar, Hubbard, and Salazar (2002) investigated hotel managers' job

satisfaction (n=68), internal/external locus tendencies, and the relationship between

the two constructs. The results revealed that variables other than the locus personality

construct may relate to hotel managers' perception of job satisfaction. Additionally,

the results stimulate the ongoing person versus situation debate in job satisfaction

research.

J. Salazar, Pfaffenberg, and Salazar (2006) studied the effects of locus of

control and empowerment on hotel managers' job satisfaction. Sixty-eight participants

at a hotel managers' meeting for a major south-eastern hotel management company

were surveyed. In addition to satisfaction and control queries, some demographic tags

were identified, specifically gender and race. While locus of control was proven to be

directly related to satisfaction, it was not a predictor.

Inegbenebor (2007) investigated whether locus of control distinguished

between pharmacists who chose to become entrepreneurs and those who took up

employee roles in pharmaceutical establishments. The sample consisted of 34

pharmacists who were owners/proprietors of retail pharmacies and 35 pharmacists

employed in retail pharmacies or hospitals. Results revealed that entrepreneur

pharmacists had higher scores on the variable than employee pharmacists indicating

greater locus of control internality. Pharmacists characterized by locus of control

internality are more likely to assume entrepreneurial rather than employee roles in


pharmaceutical undertakings. Such pharmacists are more disposed to adopt innovative

pharmaceutical care philosophy.

J. S. J. Lin, Lin, and Lin (2010) studied employees of domestic Taiwan banks

that had been merged with or acquired by a non-Taiwanese bank. With a total of 303

effective questionnaire surveys returned and multiple regression method used, results

revealed that, in a changing organizational environment, work characteristic change

helps raise employee organizational commitment, and that employee personality

attributes impact upon the actual effect that work characteristic change has on an

individual employee’s organizational commitment. In addition, results found that

work characteristic change has a greater effect on organizational commitment in

employees’ external locus of control personalities than in those with internal locus.

Satija and Khan (2012) examined the university teacher’s job satisfaction

(n=120) internal/external locus tendencies and relationship between the two

constructs. The results revealed that university teachers with internal locus of control

perceive greater job satisfaction than university teachers with external locus of

control. Additionally, findings also pointed out that internals are more satisfied than

externals on all the four areas of job satisfaction (i.e. the job, management, personal

adjustment, and social relations).

2.4.2 Locus of Control Related to Personal Factors

Renn and Vandenberg (1991) suggested that individuals who identify

internals factors for their successes or failures are likely to exhibit greater intrinsic

motivation, are more achievement oriented, and report lower turnover intentions.

These individuals believed they will be successful in obtaining an attractive

alternative and are more likely to act on their turnover intentions than individuals who

identify external causes for their successes or failures.


Perlow and Latham (1993) studied aggressive work behavior of direct-care

workers (158 women and 154 men). Client abuse data were collected over a 2-yr

period. Individuals reporting higher levels of external locus of control and men were

more likely to emit aggressive behavior than were people reporting lower levels of

external locus of control and women. Results supported the hypotheses and suggested

that individual and group differences may be useful in understanding maladaptive,

aggressive work behavior.

Vidhu Mohan, D. Chauhan, and Chauhan (2000) found that internal locus

of control has a negative relationship with stress and positive relationship with role

efficacy. Since stress is inevitable, more so in the case of women in managerial

positions, and it is mainly due to extrinsic factors which exert pressures both in the

work environment and at the home front, over which one does not have much control,

they need to look inwards and identify and rely on intrinsic strengths, such as an

internal orientation and achievement orientation as these can, to a great extent, help

them handle stress in a positive manner and not allow it to adversely affect either their

health or their work performance.

Muhonen and Torkelson (2004) investigated the role of work locus of control

(WLC) for job satisfaction and health in the context of occupational stress of Swedish

telecom company employees. It is observed that external WLC was positively related

to stressors and symptoms of ill-health, whereas it was negatively related to job

satisfaction. These results applied for both women and men. Even though ANOVAs

did not show a gender difference in WLC, the results of the hierarchical multiple

regression analyses indicated that WLC was a significant predictor of both symptoms

of ill-health and job satisfaction, but only for women. Besides these main effects

WLC also acted as a moderator in the stress–health relationship for women. This


indicates that separate analyses for women and men are needed in order to investigate

potential gender differences that might otherwise go unnoticed.

Chen and Wang (2007) investigated the impact of locus of control on

psychological reactions to change. A total of 215 Chinese customs service staff

participated in the present study. The results showed that locus of control can

significantly predict participants’ commitment to a specific change. In particular, the

relationship between locus of control and the three different components of

commitment to change are differentiative: participants with more internal locus of

control were more likely to have high affective and normative commitment to change,

whereas participants with more external locus of control were more likely to have

high continuance commitment to change.

Keller and Blomann (2008) employed an experimental paradigm to document

the causal impact of skills demands compatibility on the emergence of flow and

revealed that participants characterized by a strong internal locus of control (LOC)

were most sensitive to the manipulation of skills demands compatibility and

experienced flow under conditions of a fit of skills and task demands, whereas

individuals with a weak internal LOC did not enter the state of flow. In line with

previous findings, this suggests that distinct personality attributes are of critical

relevance for the experience of flow to emerge.

Vijayashree and Jagdischchandra (2011) analyzed locus of control of the

employees, with the help of ANOVA. Results showed significant variance between

internality and age as well as between externality (chance) and age. There is no

significant relationship between internality and demographic factors like gender and

education. There is no significant relationship between externality (others) and

demographic factors like gender, age and education. There is no significant


relationship between externality (chance) and demographic factors like gender and

education.

2.4.3 Locus of Control in Relation of Job Related Factors

Kasperson (1982) completed a study of hospital employees, which revealed a

high positive correlation between negative attitudes and external locus of control. This

resulted in a low satisfaction level with the job. Those with positive attitudes are

generally more satisfied with outcomes because of the amount of control they have to

make things happen.

Storms and Spector (1987) examined the influence of organizational

frustration and locus of control on emotional and behavioural reactions to frustrating

conditions. Data were collected by questionnaire from 160 employees from all levels

of a community mental health facility. Organizational frustration was found to be

positively related to interpersonal aggression, sabotage and withdrawal. Subgroup

moderator analysis supported the hypothesized moderating relationship of locus of

control on the perceived frustration behavioural reactions relationship. These results

suggested that persons with an external locus of control are more likely to respond to

frustration with counterproductive behaviour than persons with an internal locus of

control.

Parks (1991) using two studies, one cross-sectional (n=617) and one

longitudinal (n=147), and looking at stress from a demand-discretion perceptive, got

results that showed a relationship between work demands and locus of control, with

externals showing that in situations where work demands and discretion were not in

balance, stress levels were high, while this was not the case for internals.

Chebat, Zuccaro, and Filiatrault (1992) studied the relation between

marketing managers’ beliefs about what causes commercial success or failure, and


these managers’ perceptions of the probability of personally being able to influence

success or failure, results revealed direct relation between the managers’ locus of

control and their beliefs about causes of commercial success.

Howell and Avolio (1993) used measures of leadership, locus of control, and

support for innovation to predict the consolidated-unit performance of 78 managers.

Results revealed that 3 transformational-leadership measures were associated with a

higher internal locus of control and significantly and positively predicted business-

unit performance over a 1-yr interval. Transactional measures of leadership, including

contingent reward and management by exception (active and passive), were each

negatively related to business-unit performance. Causal relationships between the

transformational-leadership behaviors and unit performance was moderated by the

level of support for innovation in the business unit.

Kumar, Mishra, and Singh (2004) examined the effects of internal-external

locus of control and various dimensions of work culture in the relationship of

perceived stress (both job and life) and health (general health complaints) among

managerial personnel employed in Indian. The findings of this study highlighted the

following facts: (a) Role conflict negative events (total), responsibility seeking

dimension of work culture, present health and locus of control were important

predictors of somatic health complaints. (b) The three dimensions of work culture

(namely malleability, participation and obligation towards others), personal negative

events and two demographic variables (No. of child and religious beliefs) accounted

significant proportion of variance in the prediction of depression. (c) Locus of control

was the only variable, which accounted significant proportion of variance in the

prediction of general health. Based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded

that work culture and locus of control mediates the relationship between stress and

health of managerial personnel.


Chui (2005) investigated the moderating effects of locus of control on each

model path across internals and externals. The sample comprised 242 professional

staff across a wide range of departments of a large organization in metropolitan

Taipei, Taiwan. Following data collection, structural equation modeling is applied to

conduct data analysis for confirmatory factor analysis. Test results showed that global

job satisfaction influences turnover intentions and organizational commitment is more

for internals than externals. Organizational commitment influences turnover

intentions similarly for both internal and externals. Furthermore, the influence of

perceived job stress on job satisfaction and organizational commitment is stronger for

externals than internals. Finally, leadership support influences job satisfaction more

for internals than externals.

Ng, Sorensen, and Eby (2006) meta-analyzed the relationships between locus

of control (LOC) and a wide range of work outcomes. Authors categorized these

outcomes according to three theoretical perspectives: LOC and well-being, LOC and

motivation, and LOC and behavioral orientation. Hypotheses reflecting these three

perspectives were proposed and tested. It was found that internal locus was positively

associated with favorable work outcomes, such as positive task and social

experiences, and greater job motivation.

Chen and Silverthorne (2008) examined the relationships between locus of

control and the work-related behavioral measures of job stress, job satisfaction and

job performance in Taiwan. The findings revealed that one aspect of an accountants'

personality, as measured by locus of control, plays an important role in predicting in

the level of job satisfaction, stress and performance in Taiwan. Individuals with a

higher internal locus of control are more likely to have lower levels of job stress and

higher levels of job performance and satisfaction.


Srivastava (2009) studied 200 managers belonging to private sector

organisations. Hierarchical Multiple Regression analysis was conducted to find the

results. It was found that organizational role stress was negatively related to

managerial effectiveness and internal locus of control moderated organizational role

stress and managerial effectiveness relationship.

Hung and Hsu (2011) explored structural relationships between

organizational commitment, locus of control and the perceived changes in work load

and career prospects for employees of the two companies. Authors found that work

load change and career prospects change is perceived by employees of the two groups

invariantly; employees of the acquiring company have higher level of organizational

commitment than those of the acquired company; the direct influences of work load

change and career prospects change on organizational commitment are statistically

significant; the direct influences of locus of control on organizational commitment,

work load change, and career prospects change are statistically significant; the

indirect influence of locus of control on organizational commitment is statistically

significant; and the moderating effect of locus of control is not statistically significant.

2.4.4 Locus of Control and Stress

Surti and Sarupria (1981) in their study on women entrepreneurs found that

locus of control dimensions such as external control by others was found to be

positively and significantly associated with all types of role stresses. However, the

only exceptions were self-role distance, role isolation, challenge stress and role

irrelevance. A similar pattern of association was observed between role stresses and

total externality whereas internal control was insignificantly associated with role

stress variables.


Kaur and Murthy (1986) conducted a study on 98 managerial personnel with

the intention of examining the nature of role stress, coping strategies and locus of

control. It was hypothesized that there is no significant difference in the role stress of

people, in the coping strategies adopted by them and in the locus of control of

personnel working at different levels in an organization. Also, there is no significant

interrelationship among role stress, coping mechanisms and locus of control. There is

no significant relationship between demographic variables and role stress, coping

strategies and locus of control.

Palnitkar (1987) attempted to explain occupational stresses in the light of

field independence-dependence, locus of control, job level and length of service

among 275 public works department employees comprising 125 class I and 150 class

II officers. The analysis revealed that field dependence-independence and internal

locus of control was associated positively and significantly with occupational stress in

the case of both groups of public works department officers. Subjects who were field

independent with internal locus of control, and shorter length of service, showed

significantly higher occupational stress than their counterparts. Subjects with internal

locus of control and shorter length of service showed significantly higher

occupational stress than subjects with external locus of control and longer length of

service.

Kedarnath (1988) studied the effect of organizational climate, role stresses

and locus of control on job involvement among banking professionals. The findings

were, the high external locus of control was reported to score significantly low on job

involvement in comparison to the low external locus of control group. External locus

of control was reported to be negatively and significantly associated with job

involvement. The negative relationship between organizational role stress and job


involvement was reported to be higher for the high locus of control group as

compared to that of the low locus of control group.

Mittal (1992) studied the role stresses in relation to coping styles, locus of

control and personality type using a sample of 147 doctors belonging to both private

and government hospital settings. The analysis of the data revealed that, locus of

control was found to be positively and significantly associated with self-role distance,

role ambiguity and role expectations conflict.

2.5 Studies on Role-Based Performance

2.5.1 Role-Based Performance among Different Occupational Groups

Jamal (1985) proposed relationships between job stress and performance. The

study was on middle managers (N=227) and blue-collar workers (N = 283) employed

in a large Canadian organization. Bivariate multiple regression and hierarchical

multiple regression analyses generally supported the prevalence of a negative linear

relationship between job stress and supervisory ratings of performance. Employees'

organizational commitment significantly moderated over 50% of the relationships

between job stress and measures of job performance in both managerial and blue-

collar samples.

Motowidlo, Packard, and Manning (1986) examined occupational stress and

its relation with individual characteristics, job conditions, stressful events, affect, and

job performance of nurses. Findings showed that ratings of interpersonal aspects of

job performance and cognitive/ motivational aspects correlated significantly with self-

reported perceptions of stressful events, subjective stress, depression, and hostility.

Models developed through path analysis suggest that the frequency and subjective

intensity of the 45 events caused feelings of stress, leading to depression and causing

decrements in interpersonal and cognitive/motivational aspects of job performance.


Arnolds and Boshoff (2002) investigated the influence of need satisfaction on

self-esteem and the influence of self-esteem on performance intention (the surrogate

measure for job performance) of top managers and frontline employees. The empirical

results showed that esteem as a personality variable exerts a significant influence on

the job performance of both top managers and frontline employees. These and other

findings provide important guidelines for managers on how to address the

motivational needs of top managers and frontline employees in order to improve their

job performance.

Jimoh (2008) investigated the composite and relative effects of emotional

labour, conscientiousness and job tenure on job performance of University

administrative workers in southwest Nigeria. The findings revealed that the

independent variables (emotional labour, conscientiousness and job tenure) jointly

accounted for 53.1 per cent of the variance in job performance. The results further

showed that the three independent variables had significant predictive effects on the

criterion measure. The relative contributions of each independent variable to the

prediction of job performance are: conscientiousness, emotional labour, job tenure

respectively. On the basis of these findings, it was recommended that, these factors

should be more enhanced among the workers. Personnel psychologists and human

resources managers should take into consideration personality’s attributes and

demographic factors as basis for personnel selection and recruitment.

Mascio (2010) showed that frontline employees’ interpretations of customer

service also matter. Using qualitative and quantitative data, this study found that three

distinct interpretations of customer service, or service models, exist among retail

frontline employees: (1) the act of giving customers what they ask for, efficiently and

courteously; (2) a means to accomplishing immediate objectives, such as sales quotas;


and (3) the formation of mutually beneficial relationships with customers through

problem solving. The findings showed that differences in frontline employees

attitudes, behaviors, and performance can arise from their keeping of different service

models; illuminate individual-level beliefs underlying service typologies, such as

goods- and service-dominant logic; and suggest that frontline employees recruitment

and training should take service models into account.

2.5.2 Role-Based Performance Relating to Personal Factors

Motowidlo and Scotter (1994) Supervisors rated 421 US air force mechanics

on their task performance, contextual performance, and overall performance. Data on

length of air force experience, ability, training performance, and personality were also

available for many of these mechanics. Results showed that both task performance

and contextual performance contribute independently to overall performance.

Experience is more highly correlated with task performance than with contextual

performance, and personality variables are more highly correlated with contextual

performance than with task performance. These results support the distinction

between task performance and contextual performance and confirm that performance,

at least as judged by supervisors is multidimensional.

Babin and Boles (1998) examined the attitudes and behaviors of employees

who provide frontline service and address the extent to which relationships vary

among male and female employees. The overall model predicts effects of role stress

and work/non work conflict on customer-contact employees' job performance, job and

life satisfaction, and quitting intent. Results of structural equations modeling

suggested an important role for work/non work conflict overall as well as two areas of

interesting variation across gender. Specifically, multi sample structural equations

analyses suggested that role stress affects female service providers' job performance


more negatively than it does males', and that job satisfaction is related more highly to

quitting intent among males.

Tuten and Neidermeyer (2004) measured the role of optimism and its effect

on stress in call centers. Service providers at inbound call centers answered

questionnaires designed to measure their personal orientation towards optimism,

perceptions of job stress, work/ non work conflict, performance, absenteeism and

intent to turnover. Authors found that optimists did perceive lower levels of job stress

and lower work/non work conflict. However, pessimists reported higher levels of

performance and satisfaction and lower turnover intent.

Ng and Feldman (2008) provided an expanded meta-analysis on the

relationship between age and job performance that includes 10 dimensions of job

performance: core task performance, creativity, performance in training programs,

organizational citizenship behaviors, safety performance, general counterproductive

work behaviors, workplace aggression, on-the-job substance use, tardiness, and

absenteeism. Results showed that although age was largely unrelated to core task

performance, creativity, and performance in training programs, it demonstrated

stronger relationships with the other 7 performance dimensions. Results also

highlighted that the relationships of age with core task performance and with

counterproductive work behaviors are curvilinear in nature and that several sample

characteristics and data collection characteristics moderate age-performance

relationships.

H. Ahmad, Ahmad, and Shah (2010) surveyed data collected form 310

employees of 15 advertising agencies of Islamabad (Pakistan) to test interdependency

of job satisfaction and job performance, effect of organizational commitment and

attitude towards work on job satisfaction and impact of organizational commitment


and attitude towards work on performance. Response patterns, analyzed by gender,

education, department, income and age are also discussed. Results showed a weak

relation between job satisfaction and performance where as organizational

commitment has strong positive relation with performance and attitude towards work

has a strong positive relation with job satisfaction. The study identified insignificant

impact of organizational commitment on job satisfaction and attitude towards work on

job performance.

Khan, Ahmed Jam, and Ramay (2010) investigated the impact of

organizational commitment on employee job performance from a sample of 153

public and private and public sector employees of oil and gas sector in Pakistan. The

results revealed a positive relationship between organizational commitment and

employees’ job performance. In the comparative analysis of three dimensions of

organizational commitment, normative commitment has a positive and significant

impact on employees’ job performance. Furthermore, the study explored the

employees job performance with four demographic variables, resulting that male

employees are high performer vis-a-vis their female counterparts.

2.5.3 Role-Based Performance Relating to Job Factors

Lusch and Serpkenci (1990) investigated the relationships between four

personal difference variables and job outcomes of retail store managers. They also

investigated the influence of job tension on managerial performance and of the

manager's performance on the financial performance of the retail store. Empirical

results showed that achievement orientation and inner- and other-direction of retail

store managers have important direct as well as moderating influences on key job

processes and outcomes.


Jamal and Baba (1992) tested four different models of the stressor-

performance relationship (including positive and negative curvilinear and linear

relationships). A direct linear negative relationship between stress and performance

was found overall, with those reporting higher levels of stress reporting lower levels

of productivity. The authors also found small differences in the stress-performance

relationship as a function of category of employee, which suggests that the stress-

performance relationship may also be influenced by different functions at work.

Tubre and Collins (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of correlations between

role ambiguity and job performance and role conflict and job performance. Results

revealed a negative relationship between role ambiguity and job performance with

moderating influences due to job type and rating source. A negligible relationship was

observed for role conflict and job performance, a finding consistent across job types

and rating sources.

Beehr et al. (2000) examined job stressors and coworker social support in

relation to both psychological strains and performance. One hundred and ninety-eight

door-to-door book dealers, employed on a seasonal basis, completed self-report

measures of job stressors, psychological strains, coworker social support, and job

performance. Performance data were also obtained from company records. Results

showed that stressors predicted both psychological strains and one of the two

measures of performance. The strongest predictor was a job-specific measure of

chronic stressors. Social support predicted psychological strains, although it was only

weakly related to performance. There was no evidence that social support moderated

the effects of any of the stressors.

Winefield et al. (2003) found that work-related measures of stress were

significantly and negatively linearly related to objective university-based performance


measures such as funding cuts, staff-student ratios, and investment income. Different

relationships between stress and performance was also found by category of

employee, with academic staff reporting slightly higher levels of psychological

distress and lower levels of job satisfaction compared with nonacademic staff.

Jaramillo, Mulki, and Solomon (2006) investigated the effects of ethical

climate on salesperson's role stress, job attitudes, turnover intention, and job

performance. Responses from 138 salespeople who work for a large retailer selling

high-end consumer durables at 68 stores in 16 states were used to examine the process

through which ethical climate affects organizational variables. Results indicated that

ethical climate results in lower role conflict and role ambiguity and higher

satisfaction, which, in turn, leads to lower turnover intention and organizational

commitment. Also, findings indicated that organizational commitment is a significant

predictor of job performance.

Jacobs, Tytherleigh, Webb, and Cooper (2007) used university-based

statistics of performance and self-rated employee productivity to examine the

relationship between stress levels, organizational commitment, health, and

performance. The authors conducted a secondary analysis of data from staff in 13

higher education institutions. The authors found that stressors had a negative linear

relationship with all the performance measures used. However, this relationship was

also influenced by physical health, psychological well-being, and organizational

commitment, and by the measure of performance used. In addition, the authors found

variations in the relationship between performance and stress by category of staff,

which suggests the influence of job factors.

Chughtai (2008) examined the impact of job involvement on the self-report

measures of in-role job performance and organizational citizenship behaviour. The


results revealed that job involvement was positively correlated with both in-role job

performance (r = 0.30, p<0.01) and organizational citizenship behaviour (r = 0.43,

p<0.01). In addition to this it was found that organizational commitment partially

mediated the job involvement performance relationship. Furthermore the findings of

this research uncovered that job involvement exerted a stronger impact on

organizational citizenship behaviour than on in-role performance.

Wallace, Edwards, Arnold, Frazier, and Finch (2009) proposed differential

relationships between challenge stressors and hindrance stressors and role-based

performance, which were expected to be moderated by organizational support. In a

sample of 215 employees across 61 offices of a state agency, the authors obtained a

positive relationship between challenge stressors and role-based performance and a

negative relationship between hindrance stressors and role-based performance. In

addition, organizational support moderated the relationship between challenge

stressors and role-based performance but did not moderate the relationship between

hindrance stressors and role-based performance. This suggests that organizations

would benefit from increasing challenges in the workplace as long as they are

supportive of employees and removing hindrances.

Bashir and Ramay (2010) examined the relationship between job stress and

job performance on bank employees of banking sector in Pakistan. The study tested

the purpose model in relation of job stress and its impact on job performance by using

(n=144) data of graduate, senior employees including managers and customers

services officers of well reputed growing bank in Pakistan. The results are significant

with negative correlation between job stress and job performances and showed that

job stress significantly reduce the performance of an individual. The results suggested

that organization should facilitate supportive culture within the working atmosphere

of the organization.


Jawahar and Raghavendra (2011) examined the perceptual relationship

between the variables in the role-based performance scale developed by Welbourne,

Johnson and Amir Erez (1998) and also identified the difference between genders if

any, in perceiving the relationship in their performance. The primary data was

collected from customer service personnel of a government organization who interact

with customers on a regular basis through a structured questionnaire. Based on the

304 responses, this study found that the Job role and organization role constructs are

perceived together for the male employees and it is distinctly away from career

construct in role based performance. With respect to female service personnel the

constructs organization role, innovation role and job role are perceived together of

which innovation role and organization role are perceived closer.

Miao (2011) examined the relationships of perceived organizational support

and job satisfaction with organizational citizenship behavior and task performance in

China. Employees from two large-scale state-owned enterprises (SOE) completed

measures of perceived organizational support and job satisfaction and their immediate

supervisors completed measures of task performance and four facets of organizational

citizenship behavior. Data analyzed using zero-order correlation and hierarchical

regression analysis showed positive correlations of perceived organizational support

and job satisfaction with task performance, and also showed positive associations of

perceived organizational support and job satisfaction with organizational citizenship

behavior and each of its four dimensions.

Samad (2011) examined the relationship between organizational commitment

and job performance. A self administered questionnaire was employed and distributed

among senior and middle management staff of manufacturing sector specifically in

electrical and electronic companies in Malaysia. 292 samples were randomly selected


in the study. The results revealed that there was as a positive relationship between

organizational commitment and job performance. The hierarchical analysis found that

job satisfaction (both the hygiene and motivator factors) played moderating role on

the relationship between organizational commitment and job performance.

Collins, Mossholder, and Taylor (2012) examined the joint impact of process

fairness and turnover intentions on job performance. Results from two independent

samples suggested that employee turnover intentions moderate relations between

process fairness perceptions and employee job performance. Specifically, the positive

effects of the two types of process fairness on performance were stronger for

employees who planned to stay with the organization than for those who intended to

leave.

Punia (2012) examined the correlation between the attitude and performance

of employees in a scientific research organization. It also explored the impact of

organization culture on performance of employees. Attitude and organization culture

was measured through a questionnaire and performance scores were obtained from

the records. The correlation study showed that both attitude and organization culture

are positively correlated to performance respectively. And the multivariate analysis

showed that attitude contributes significantly towards predicting performance and

organization culture is not a significant predictor of performance. The results of this

study can be used where an organization has to focus on enhancing the performance

of the employees in order to achieve organizational excellence.

2.6 Studies on Role Efficacy

2.6.1 Role Efficacy in Different Occupational Groups

Gupta and Khandelwal (1988) investigated the relationship between quality

of work life and role efficacy. Data from 170 professionals working in government or


public-sector organizations in India showed that supervisory behavior was the most

important dimension of role efficacy.

Klinefelter (1992) explored the relationship between the role efficacy and

selected aspects of job satisfaction of hospital nurses. A total of 354 full-time nurses

from six hospitals in south Florida participated in this pilot study. The survey

instrument covered ten role efficacy components as well as the level of the nurse in

the organizational hierarchy of the hospital and the nurse's perceived level of

satisfaction with feedback from nursing supervisors, physicians, hospital

administrators and the job itself. Results indicated that there was a significant

relationship at the.001 level between role efficacy and each of these variables. The

researcher concluded that the role efficacy concept can be applied to hospital nurses

which could increase job satisfaction and result in higher retention of hospital nurses.

Mukherjee (1997) studied the relationship between organizational role stress,

role efficacy and organizational climate among 71 banking professionals. The

findings summarized that senior level managers scored higher on all the role efficacy

dimensions as compared to junior level mangers. Significant difference were found

between the two groups on the dimensions of proactivity, creativity, helping

relationship, influence, growth and total role efficacy. Role stress variables were

found to be inversely associated with role efficacy in both the groups.

Beauchamp and Bray (2001) examined role ambiguity as well as role conflict

perceptions among elite university athletes from a cross-section of interdependent

team sports (e.g., basketball, rugby, and soccer). Results revealed that athletes who

reported greater levels of role ambiguity and role conflict had lower levels of efficacy

with regard to performing their primary role responsibilities.


Anand (2002) examined reliable contribution of role efficacy towards

polytechnic teachers. The sample comprised 200 teachers of polytechnics of northern

part of India. The findings revealed that polytechnic teachers perceived greater role

efficacy than young teachers.

Karve (2006) showed that role linking subscale was significantly high for

women executives. The results showed that there was no significant difference on

total role efficacy score or on role efficacy index.

Karve and Nair (2010) explored the types of role stress faced by women

executives, and also their coping ability with respect to role efficacy. It also examines

how the different kinds of stress faced by the executives affect their role efficacy and

the impact of role efficacy on role stress. It appears that women executives use role

stress to increase their role efficacy and role efficacy leads to optimization of role

stress. Now-a-days executives seem to be inundated with role stress which in turn has

a negative impact on their role efficacy. If executives become aware of means to

enhance the various facets of role efficacy, they will be able to cope with role stress

and use role stress as eustress.

Karve and Nair (2011) focused on building theoretical linkages between role

efficacy as a means to proactively deal with potential role stress. It further uses the

primary data analysis of 200 women entrepreneurs to find the actual impact of role

efficacy on experience of role stress in dealing with women’s entrepreneurial role.

The paper concludes that role efficacy can indeed be a vehicle for entrepreneurs to

become effective in their entrepreneurial role. Entrepreneurial associations can

organize workshops for budding and existing entrepreneurs in learning to enhance

personal and role efficacy which will help in resolving the various role stresses in a

proactive manner by empowering and enabling the entrepreneurs.


Rastogi, Rangnekar, and Bamel (2012) identified the interacting role of

gender, organizations (public and private) and positions (junior, middle and senior)

held by managers in deciding their role efficacy perception. To pursue this objective a

primary survey was conducted among 216 Indian managers of both public and private

organizations.

2.6.2 Role Efficacy Relating to Demographic Variables

Pandey (1995) conducted study on rail engine drivers of Indian railways to

determine the relationship between their role efficacy and role stress. The study

revealed role efficacy and role stress to be negatively related. The respondents were

found to be suffering from the feeling of role overload, resource inadequacy and

personal inadequacy. Education was found positively related with role stress and

negatively with role efficacy. Advancement in experience was found to enhance

probability of stress as also to have differential impact on drivers. The study

emphasized the need for conducting role efficacy and role stress labs for the workers

(drivers) if the Indian railways want to reduce stress in the jobs of the drivers and

want to increase their performance effectiveness.

Pandey (1997) conducted a study on 61 railway personnel. Results revealed

that experience has shown negative relationship with role efficacy. It is attributable to

no substantial increase in monetary gains with increase in experience. It has shown

negative relationship with role efficacy total and the six dimensions, viz., centrality,

integration, helping relations, superordination, influence and growth. This supports

the finding with regard to relationship of experience with various dimension of role

stress. The relationship of experience with helping relation and growth, being

negative and significant may be explained by the fact that helping relations does not

pay much but may invite danger on the job. Negative relationship with growth can be


explained by the fact that the driver has to do the same work from the date of entry to

the date of retirement.

K.H. Rao, Rao, Kumar, and Anwer (2007) role efficacy was measured for

164 faculty members of the State Agricultural Universities, using the role efficacy

scale. The study reveals the scope for enhancement of overall role efficacy and its

different dimensions. The research puts forth that education and designations have no

relation with any dimension of role efficacy; age and experience have a positive

correlation with proactivity; and the number of training programs attended has a

positive correlation with confrontation. The authors offer suggestions for enhancing

the overall role efficacy and its different dimensions.

2.6.3 Role Efficacy Relating to Job Related Factors

Sayeed (1985) suggested that with the increased role efficacy, burnout was

considerably reduced. Inter-role linkages and helping relationships act as buffers

preventing burnout phenomenon to occur with its usual intensity. Stress proneness

variable related negatively with integration, proactivity, super-ordination, influence

and overall efficacy scores, thereby suggesting that low stress proneness contributes

to role development and one’s being efficacious on the job, whereas high stress

proneness does not go well with the role efficacy. Increased role efficacy results in

lower experience of stress or stress proneness. Stress proneness and role efficacy have

emerged to be inversely related.

Klinefelter (1993) discussed role efficacy and its relation to job satisfaction of

hospital nurses. It describes a role-efficacy model and analyzes nurses' perceptions of

feedback from the job itself, nursing supervisors, physicians, and hospital

administrators. The impact of role efficacy and job satisfaction on improved


recruitment and retention of nurses and the role of staff development in the

improvement process are explained.

Singh and Mohanty (1996) investigated the relationship between role efficacy

(overall dimension) with job anxiety and job status of 100 managers and 100

supervisors working in different units of Bhilai Refractories Plant. Findings revealed

significant negative relationship between role efficacy and job anxiety. Further,

employees having low job anxiety showed more role efficacy than the employees

having more job anxiety whereas managers were found to differ significantly from

supervisors with respect to their role efficacy. The main effect of job anxiety and job

status as well as the interaction effect of job anxiety and job status were also found

highly significant beyond 0.01 level of significance. It is concluded that job anxiety

and job status affects role efficacy.

Pethe and Choudhari (2000) study was undertaken to find out the

relationship between the effectiveness of performing the role (role efficacy), self

belief (self-efficacy) and learned helplessness. Some of the dimensions of role

efficacy showed significant relationship with learned helplessness and occupational

self efficacy.

Zellars, Hochwarter, Perrewe, Miles, and Kiewitz (2001) investigated the

potential moderating influence of collective efficacy on three role conflict work

outcomes relationships job satisfaction, intent to turnover, and exhaustion.

Specifically, Authors posited that individuals who perceived their groups to be

efficacious would experience fewer dysfunctional consequences in environments high

in role conflict. Data were gathered from 188 nurses working in a large metropolitan

hospital. After controlling for age, gender and self-efficacy, results confirmed our

three hypotheses. Individuals reported lower levels of exhaustion and turnover intent,


and higher levels of job satisfaction when collective efficacy was perceived to be

high. Managerial implications, limitations of the current study, and avenues for future

research are provided.

In a study by Anand (2002) it is observed that, the role efficacy was positively

related to the type-4 behavior, achievement in role, power in role, control in role,

affiliation in role and extension in role, achievement motivation climate, extension

motivation climate, power motivation climate, affiliation motivation climate and

negatively related with control motivation climate, organizational role stress and its

dimensions.

Bray and Brawley (2002) hypothesized that role efficacy should be a good

predictor of role performance effectiveness only under conditions of high role clarity.

Individuals reporting higher role clarity were expected to be more efficacious and

perform better than those with lower role clarity. Consistent with hypotheses, role

clarity moderated the prospective relationship between role efficacy and role

performance effectiveness in the predicted direction for offensive role functions.

Individuals who reported higher role clarity also reported higher role efficacy and

performed better than those with lower role clarity.

Bray, Balaguer, and Duda (2004) examined the relationship between role

efficacy and role performance after controlling for the effects of task self-efficacy.

Two hundred and ninety-five Spanish youth soccer players from 20 teams completed

self-report measures of task self-efficacy, role efficacy and role performance at the

mid-point of a competitive season. The 20 team coaches also provided ratings of each

of their players' role performances at mid-season. Consistent with hypotheses,

bivariate correlations showed task self-efficacy and role efficacy was positively

related to role performance ratings. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that role


efficacy contributed significantly to the prediction of athletes' ratings of role

performance after controlling for task self-efficacy. Role efficacy also explained

significant variation in the prediction of coach ratings; however, the effects were less

dramatic and inconsistent.

Beauchamp et al. (2005) examined the relationship between role ambiguity

and role efficacy within the context of sport teams from a multilevel perspective.

Secondary school rugby and field hockey players (n=277) comprising 33 intact teams

completed the role ambiguity scale. Role ambiguity accounted for 20.70% of the total

variance in role efficacy on offence and 22.45% on defence. For both offensive and

defensive models, role ambiguity was able to explain individual- and group-level

variances in role efficacy. However, in both cases, the majority of variance was

captured at the individual level. Results highlighted the explanatory value of

examining nested data using multilevel frameworks when examining cognition,

affect, and behaviour in interdependent environments such as sport teams.

Singh (2006) conducted a study on a sample of 178 participants social work

professionals. The findings depicted role efficacy to be associated positively with

emotional intelligence and internal locus of control, but negatively with external locus

of control. Similarly, emotional intelligence was found to be associated positively

with internality, but negatively related to externality. The findings also revealed that

emotional intelligence alone accounts for 43% of the variance on role efficacy of

social work professionals.

Jyothi and Jyothi (2012) focused on the relationship between role efficacy

and emotional intelligence as related to work- life balance of career women. Sample

consists of 63 career women working in Andhra Pradesh, India. The results showed

that there is a significant impact of factors affecting role efficacy on emotional

intelligence.


2.7 Need for the Study

The present modern life is full of technological advances as well as mode of

transportation that have made the people resulting in heightened expectation for

productivity, speed and efficiency to fly on a national and international basis for

business, commercial and leisure purpose. This puts increasing pressure on those

whose job demands more precised, satisfactory service with greater involvement. This

fact is very much true in case of aircraft professionals such as airline pilots, air-

hostesses, air traffic controllers, airline ticket issuers and aircraft engineers. The

responsibility of aircraft employees towards the safety of passenger is immense.

Being in airline can be a rewarding profession both financially and in terms of

the personal satisfaction it provides. Many consider it to be a dream job but perhaps

have unrealistic idea about what it is really like in practice the job demands a great

deal of efficiency, responsibility, personal commitment and self sacrifice. It is the fact

that aircraft employees are the back-bone of the airline industry. Hence, for the

effective functioning of this industry aircraft employees are expected to play their role

satisfactorily by bringing the best out of them to satisfy the customers and to deal with

the requirements of their profession.

Either the personal or organizational factors such as organizational role stress,

emotional labour, locus of control, role-based performance and role efficacy etc., are

observed to be significant variables to be studied in the aircraft field. In other words

as these aircraft occupation facing several hardships to meet out the expectations of

the customers and general public is responsible for the heightened stress of employees

working for it. These professionals constantly are expected to provide the pleasing

service by hiding their natural expressions of their emotions which will intern make

their experience emotional labour. Compared to any other profession aircraft


employees need to have sound belief in themselves and potentiality without

attributing any happening to other factors. Further, these aircraft employees should

have the clarity of their role and how it is to be performed along with carrying out that

role more effectively. When these aircraft employees are working under so many high

expectation at their work field compared to any other jobs necessitates carrying out

psychological studies on them to understand the prevailing states of them as well as

provide strategies to improve their quality of work life as well as quality of life.

In view of this, some of the specific behaviors of aircraft employees such as

organizational role stress, emotional labour, and locus of control, role-based

performance and role efficacy are to be studied scientifically.

The review of literature reveals the apparent dearth of studies on aircraft

employees especially in India population. Though some studies have been conducted

on western aircraft employees, they are not found to be focusing on the significant

variables which are taken in the present study. Moreover, the increasing aircraft

disasters in the air impels the need for psychological analysis of aircraft employees.

Such studies are expected to provide proper guidance and directions to enhance the

well-being of aircraft employees as well as their contribution to the field. This fact

promoted the investigator to take up this challenge and throw light on the problem

faced by the aircraft employees as well as to provide ways and means to overcome

them in their profession. Hence, the present study is taken up with the following

objectives and hypotheses.

2.8 Objectives of the Study

1. To investigate the prevalence of organizational role stress, emotional labour,

locus of control, role-based performance and role efficacy of different aircraft

employees.


2. To compare organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-

based performance and role efficacy among these different personnel working

for aircraft.

3. To identify the personal and work related factors of aircraft employees, which

significantly contribute to their organizational role stress, emotional labour,

locus of control, role-based performance and role efficacy of aircraft.

2.9 Research Questions

The problem under investigation comprises of the following major questions:

1. Do different aircraft employees (Airline pilots, Air-hostesses, Air traffic

controllers, Airline ticket issuers and Aircraft engineers) differ significantly

among themselves in their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus

of control, role-based performance and role efficacy?

2. Do the personal and work related factors such as age, gender, educational

qualification, early background, religion, caste, length of service, monthly

income, marital status, working status of spouse, number of dependents,

number of siblings, order of birth, health condition, type of exercise, expressed

job satisfaction and overall life satisfaction significantly contribute to their

organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based

performance and role efficacy of the aircraft employees?

2.10 Hypotheses

The following hypotheses are formulated to seek answers for the above raised

research questions. The variation from personnel to personnel in terms of nature of

work, role demand, role expectations, etc., will have varied influence on the

organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based performance

and role efficacy of aircraft employees. Thus it is hypothesized that:


Ha1: Aircraft employees (Airline pilots, Air-hostesses, Air traffic controllers,

Airline ticket issuers and Aircraft engineers) differ significantly among

themselves in their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of

control, role-based performance and role efficacy

In the present study, since five groups of aircraft employees (Airline pilots,

Air-hostesses, Air traffic controllers, Airline ticket issuers and Aircraft engineers) as

well as five dependent variables are included, the following specific hypotheses are

formulated and tested further:

Ha1.1: Aircraft employees (Airline pilots, Air-hostesses, Air traffic controllers,


themselves in their organizational role stress (Dimension wise as well as

overall)



themselves in their emotional labour (Dimension wise as well as overall)



themselves in their locus of control (Dimensions)



themselves in their role-based performance (Dimension wise as well as

overall)



themselves in their role efficacy (Dimension wise as well as overall)


Further in addition to the above hypotheses the differences between groups (in

all possible ways) are also verified with the help of the following hypotheses:

Ha1.1.1: Airline pilots and Air-hostesses differ significantly among themselves in their

organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based

performance and role efficacy (Dimension wise as well as overall)

Ha1.1.2: Airline pilots and Air traffic controllers differ significantly among themselves

in their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-

based performance and role efficacy (Dimension wise as well as overall)

Ha1.1.3: Airline pilots and Airline ticket issuers differ significantly among themselves



Ha1.1.4: Airline pilots and Aircraft engineers differ significantly among themselves in

their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based


Ha1.1.5: Air-hostesses and Air traffic controllers differ significantly among themselves



Ha1.1.6: Air-hostesses and Airline ticket issuers differ significantly among themselves



Ha1.1.7: Air-hostesses and Aircraft engineers differ significantly among themselves in

their organizational role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based



Ha1.1.8: Air traffic controllers and Airline ticket issuers differ significantly among


control, role-based performance and role efficacy (Dimension wise as well as

overall)

Ha1.1.9: Air traffic controllers and Aircraft engineers differ significantly among



overall)

Ha1.1.10:Airline ticket issuers and Aircraft engineers differ significantly among



overall)

Apart from the nature of profession, there are several other personal and work

related factors of aircraft employees which contribute to their organizational

role stress, emotional labour, locus of control, role-based performance and role

efficacy. Hence, in order to know the influence of these factors to each of the

variables, an attempt is made to study by stating the following hypotheses:

Ha2: Age, gender, educational qualification, early background, religion, caste,

length of service, monthly income, marital status, working status of spouse,

number of dependents, number of siblings, order of birth, health condition,

type of exercise, expressed job satisfaction and overall life satisfaction of the

aircraft employees significantly contribute to their organizational role stress,

emotional labour, locus of control, role-based performance and role efficacy

From the above main Ha2, following specific hypotheses are formulated and

tested further:


Ha2.1: Age, gender, educational qualification, early background, religion, caste,




aircraft employees significantly contribute to their organizational role stress





aircraft employees significantly contribute to their emotional labour





aircraft employees significantly contribute to their internality-locus of control

Ha2.4 : Age, gender, educational qualification, early background, religion, caste,




aircraft employees significantly contribute to their externality (others)-locus of

control






aircraft employees significantly contribute to their externality (chance)-locus

of control





aircraft employees significantly contribute to their role-based performance





aircraft employees significantly contribute to their role efficacy

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE - Information and...

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