Rethinking the Conquest : an exploration of the ...
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2015
Rethinking the Conquest : an exploration of the similarities Rethinking the Conquest : an exploration of the similarities
between pre-contact Spanish and Mexica society, culture, and between pre-contact Spanish and Mexica society, culture, and
royalty royalty
Samantha Billing University of Northern Iowa
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2015AllRightsReserved
RETHINKINGTHECONQUEST:ANEXPLORATIONOFTHESIMILARITIESBETWEEN
PRE‐CONTACTSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETY,CULTURE,ANDROYALTY
AnAbstractofaThesis
Submitted
inPartialFulfillment
oftheRequirementsfortheDegree
MasterofArts
SamanthaBilling
UniversityofNorthernIowa
May2015
ABSTRACT
TheSpanishConquesthasbeenhistoricallymarkedbytheyear1521andis
popularlythoughtofasanabsoluteandcompleteprocessofindigenoussubjugation
intheNewWorld.Alongsidethisideacomesthewidespreadnarrativethat
describesabarbaric,uncivilizedgroupofindigenouspeoplebeingconqueredand
subjugatedbyamoresophisticatedandsuperiorgroupofEuropeans.Thereisalsoa
commonmisconceptionthattheConquestresultedinadominanceofEuropean
cultureandalossoftheindigenousheritagethathadprevailedintheNewWorldup
untilthatpoint.
ThismanuscriptexplorestheperiodknownastheConquestinanewway.I
arguethatbylimitingthescopeoftheSpanish‐indigenousinteractioninthe
sixteenth‐centurytoasingleevent,theactualhistoricalnarrativeofthisperiodis
lost.TheSpaniardsdidindeedwinawarin1521,butthiseventdidnotsignifya
conquestoranextinctionofindigenousculture.Instead,thisdatemarkstheendofa
two‐yearwarbetweentheSpaniardsandthepeoplecommonlyknownasthe
Aztecs.Thisgroupofindigenouspeople,theMexicaofcentralMexico,had
dominatedthecentralvalleyofMesoamericaforonlyafewcenturies,buthadbuilt
upanimposingempirecenteredaroundthecapitalcityofTenochtitlan.Their
culturewasnotonlyimpressivebyNewWorldstandards,butitwasremarkably
similartothesocietyandculturefoundinEarlyModernSpain.
Thefocusofthismanuscriptistheconceptofroyalculture,butIalsoexplore
broadertopicsofsocietysuchasreligion,warriorethos,andimperialcontrol.By
lookingatsimilaritiesbetweenthesetwocultures,itiseasytoseewhytheywere
abletocometogetherinsuchauniquewayduringtheColonialPeriod.Thesociety
thatemergedinNewSpainafter1521wasnotwhollyEuropean,norwasitwholly
indigenous;itwasaconglomerationofindigenousandSpanishelementsthattook
thebestconceptsfrombothsocietiesandcombinedthemintoanentirelynovel
culture,whichcanstillbeseeninMexicotoday.
RETHINKINGTHECONQUEST:ANEXPLORATIONOFTHESIMILARITIESBETWEEN
PRE‐CONTACTSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETY,CULTURE,ANDROYALTY
AThesis
Submitted
inPartialFulfillment
oftheRequirementsfortheDegree
MasterofArts
SamanthaBilling
UniversityofNorthernIowa
May2015
ii
ThisStudyby:SamanthaBilling
Entitled:RethinkingtheConquest:AnExplorationoftheSimilaritiesBetweenPre‐
ContactSpanishandMexicaSociety,Culture,andRoyalty
hasbeenapprovedasmeetingthethesisrequirementforthe
DegreeofMasterofArts
___________ _____________________________________________________ Date Dr.FernandoCalderón,Chair,ThesisCommittee
___________ _____________________________________________________Date Dr.BarbaraCutter,ThesisCommitteeMember
___________ _____________________________________________________Date Dr.EmilyMachen,ThesisCommitteeMember
___________ _____________________________________________________Date Dr.AprilChatham‐Carpenter,InterimDean,GraduateCollege
iii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
PAGE
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTIONTOEARLYSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETIES..............19
CHAPTER2:INDIGENOUSSOURCEDESCRIPTIONSOFPRE‐CONQUESTMEXICAROYALTY ....................................................................................................................................................56
CHAPTER3:DESCRIPTIONSOFMEXICASOCIETYBYSPANISHCHRONICLERS........87
CHAPTER4:POST‐CONQUESTMESOAMERICA:THEBLENDINGOFSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETIESANDTHESURVIVALOFINDIGENOUSCULTURE..........................126
CONCLUSION..........................................................................................................................................158
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................................................169
1
INTRODUCTION
In1519agroupofSpanishconquistadorsreachedthecoastofMexicoand
encounteredagroupofNativeAmericanscalledtheMexicawhohadbuiltagreat
imperialcivilizationknowntousastheAztecEmpire.Theydominatedthemajority
ofthelandthatmakesuppresentdayMexicofromtheircapitalcityTenochtitlan,
whichisestimatedtohavehadapopulationofover200,000residents.Whenthe
capitalcityfellin1521,itwasnotonlythelargestcityintheNewWorld,butitwas
oneofthemostpopulouscitiesonearth.Yet,despiteacomparablepopulationsize
toEuropeancitiesandtheamazementSpanishconquistadors(conquerors)
experiencedwhentheyfirstenteredTenochtitlan,contemporaryaccountsquickly
begantofocusonthedifferencesbetweentheMexicaandtheEuropeans.
Differencessuchaslanguageandculture,includingthepracticeofhumansacrifice
andpolytheism,overshadowedthesimilarities.However,theMexicapracticed
medicine,hadroads,weapons,irrigationsystems,palacesandotherarchitectural
worksofastonishingsize.Theyhaddevelopedacalendar,systemsofwritingand
taxcollection,andhadamarketplaceinthecapitalcitywhichattracted60,000
peopledailyaccordingtosomesources.Manyoftheseinnovationsrivaledorwere
evenmoreadvancedthantheirEuropeancounterparts.Inaddition,theMexicahad
2
averystratifiedsocialhierarchy,hereditarynobilityandroyalcourtswhichwillbe
thefocusofthisstudy.1
Iwouldliketointroduceacomparativeapproachtoexplorethesimilarities
betweentheMexicaandEuropeanswithregardstopalaceandcourtlife,royalty
andsocialhierarchy.PreviousgenerationsofscholarshaveconcentratedonSpanish
primarysourceswhenwritingaboutthisperiodoftime.Theytranslatedthese
sourcesandmadethemwidelyavailabletoacademicsacrosstheglobe,however
theirfocuswasone‐sided.2Thenextwaveofscholarsbegantolookatindigenous
sources,especiallythenowinfamouscodices,buttheEuropeanperspective
dominatedandtheindigenouspeoplewerestilldepictedasbackwards,barbarous
andinferior.3Amorenovelapproachbyscholarsisthefocusonindigenoussources
onalargerscale,sourcesthatmayseemmundanebutthatprovideinvaluable
insightsintothelivesoftheMexicabeforeandaftertheconquest.Thisnewview
1MarcoA.Almazán,“TheAztecStates‐Society:RootsofCivilSocietyandSocialCapital,”AnnalsoftheAmericanAcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience565(September1999):165.;LaneF.Fargher,VereniceY.HerediaEspionoza,andRichardE.Blanton,“AlternativePathwaystoPowerinLatePostclassicHighlandMesoamerica,”JournalofAnthropologicalArchaeology30(2011):307.;CharlesGibson,“TheAztecAristocracyinColonialMexico,”ComparativeStudiesinColonialMexico2,2(January1960):169‐171.;ChristianIsendahlandMichaelE.Smith,“SustainableAgrarianUrbanism:TheLow‐DensityCitiesoftheMayasandAztecs,”Cities31(2013):138.;TarmoKulmar,“AbouttheComparisonoftheStateAuthorityandSocialOrganizationbyIncasandAztecs,”Folklore45(June2010):142,144.;MatthewRestall,LisaSousa,andKevinTerraciano,eds.,MesoamericanVoices:NativeLanguageWritingsfromColonialMexico,Oaxaca,Yucatan,andGuatemala(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2005),4,126.;MatthewRestallandKrisLane,LatinAmericainColonialTimes(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2011),12‐13.;J.Rounds.“TheRoleoftheTecuhtliinAncientAztecSociety,”Ethnohistory24,4(Fall1977):352,354.;StuartB.Schwartz,Ed.,VictorsandVanquished:SpanishandNahuaViewsoftheConquestofMexico(Boston:Bedford/St.Martin’s,2000),6.;MichaelE.SmithandFrancesF.Berdan,“ArchaeologyandtheAztecEmpire,”WorldArchaeology23,3(February1992):354.2WilliamH.Prescott,HistoryoftheConquestofMexicowithaPreliminaryViewoftheAncientMexicanCivilizationandtheLifeoftheConquerorHernandoCortes(NewYork:TheHovendonCo.:1842).3MauriceCollis,CortésandMontezuma(London:Faber&Faber,1955).
3
stressesthesimilaritiesbetweenthehighlydevelopedsocietiesofMesoamericaand
theirEuropeancontemporaries.4Thefounderofthisschoolofthought,James
Lockhart,says,“Theextentoftheir[theSpanishgovernmentandfriars]success
dependedpreciselyupontheacceptanceandretentionofindigenouselementsand
patternsthatinmanyrespectswerestrikinglyclosetothoseofEurope.”5Thus,not
onlyweretheMexicacomparabletotheEuropeansinmanyways,butitwasthose
similaritiesthatcanexplainthesuccessoftheSpaniardsinimplementingcertain
practicesinthelargeurbanareasoftheBasinofMexico.
Iarguethatoneofthesesimilaritiesbetweenthetwocultureswastheir
socialstructure,royaltyandcourtlife.ManyindigenousrulersalloverMesoamerica
retainedtheirelevatedstatusaftertheconquestbecausetheSpanishrecognized
theirequivalencetocontemporaryEuropeannobility.Thisledtoanintegrationof
thetwocultures,withchangesonbothsides,ratherthanaone‐sidedconquest
wheretheindigenouspeoplelosteverythingandwerecompletelychanged.The
simplefactthateachculturerecognizeditsequalintheotheriswhyMexicansociety
todayisneitherwhollyEuropeannorwhollyindigenous.MatthewRestallcallsthis
“DoubleMistakenIdentity”andstatesthat“bothSpaniardsandnativesviewedthe
sameconceptsorwayofdoingsomethingasrootedintheirownculture.Inthis 4JamesLockhart,TheNahuasAftertheConquest:ASocialandCulturalHistoryoftheIndiansofCentralMexico,SixteenthThroughEighteenthCenturies(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,1992).;LauraMatthewandMichelR.Oudijk,eds.,IndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMexico(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007).;MatthewRestall,SevenMythsoftheSpanishConquest(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2003).;Restall,SousaandTerraciano,2005.;StephanieWood,TrancendingConquest:NahuaViewsofSpanishColonialMexico(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2003).5Lockhart,4.
4
way,thenativeborrowingofSpanishculturalelementsdidnotrepresentnative
culturelossordecline,butratheradaptabilityandvitality.”6Formystudy,Iwill
focusontheMexica,thedominantimperialrulersofwhatispopularlycalledthe
AztecEmpire,andtheSpanish,thepeoplewhotheycameintocontactwithinthe
sixteenthcenturyandoverhundredsofyearsexchangedmanyculturalelements.
Althoughmyfocuswillbeontheyearsimmediatelysurroundingthecontactperiod,
Iwillalsomovepasttheconquestafewdecadestoshowhowthesesimilarities
playedout.
Background
TheMexicabelongtoarareclassofNativeAmericans.Theybuiltlarge,
complexcities,hadextraordinaryarchitecture,andaverysophisticatedcultureand
society.Atthetimeofinitialcontactin1519,theMexicawerestillnewtothe
sedentarylifestyleandwerestillworkingonshapingandimprovingtheir
government,warriortactics,andideasaboutroyaltyandroyalculture.Whenthe
capitalcity,Tenochtitlan,fellin1521,theempirewasnotquitetwohundredyears
oldandthepeoplewerestilldevelopingtheirideasofclass‐consciousness.Thecity,
astheSpaniardssawit,wasafairlynewalbeitimposingmetropolisonanislandin
themiddleofLakeTexcoco.AlthoughitrivaledthemajorcitiesinEuropeatthe
6Restall,128.
5
timesuchasParis,SevilleandVenice,theMexicawerenottoofar,temporally,from
theirhumblebeginning.7
FollowingthefalloftheToltecs,ofwhomtheMexicaclaimdecent,therewas
alargemigrationofhunterandgatherernationsthatbeganmovingsouthintothe
centralplateauofMexicointhetwelfthcentury.TheMexica,oneofthelatecomers,
didnotreachthelakeuntilabout1250.KnowntousnowastheAztecsaftertheir
mythicalhomeland,Atzlán,theMexicawerenotwelllikedbythepreviously
establishedpeoplelivingonthelandaroundthelake.Pushedtothemarginallands
unwantedbytheothers,theMexicaestablishedthemselvesonafewswampy
islandsinthemiddleofLakeTexcocoandbeganbuildingtheircapitalcityin1325.
Startingfromscratchwithgardensbuiltonmudcoveredwickerraftsandunderthe
overlordshipofmorepowerfulneighbors,theMexicaworkedtheirwayupto
becomethemajorpowerincentralMexico.Undertherulershipofgreatemperors
likeItzcoatl(1426‐1440)andMoctezumaI(1440‐1468)theMexicaexpandedtheir
controltoincludethemajorityofpresentdaycentralMexicoby1470.Although
theiractualpresenceinvariousprovincesvaried,mostscholarsnowagreethat 7JohnCharlesChasteen,BorninBloodandFire:AConciseHistoryofLatinAmerica(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,Inc.,2011),12‐16;IngaClendinnen,“TheCostofCourageinAztecSociety,”Past&Present107(May1985):44.;Collis,48‐49.;CarolineDoddsPennock,“‘ARemarkablyPatternedLife’:DomesticandPublicintheAztecHouseholdCity,”GenderandHistory23,3(November2011):536,541.;Fargheretal.,307.;Martínez,MaríaElena,GenealogicalFictions:LimpiezadeSangre,Religion,andGenderinColonialMexico(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,2008),92‐95.;BarbaraE.Mundy,“MappingtheAztecCapital:The1524NurembergMapofTenochtitlan,ItsSourcesandMeanings,”ImagoMundi50(1998):11,26‐27.;Restall,xiii–xv.;RestallandLane,12‐13.;J.Rounds,“Lineage,Class,andPowerintheAztecState,”AmericanEthnologist6,1(February1979):77.;Schwartz,1,8.;JacquesSoustelle,TheDailyLifeoftheAztecsontheEveoftheSpanishConquest,trans.PatrickO’Brian(NewYork:TheMacmillanCompany,1962),5,34.;CamillaTownsend,Malintzin’sChoices:AnIndianWomanintheConquestofMexico(Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,2006),85,91‐92.
6
whattheMexicahadaccomplishedwithinacouplehundredyearswasquite
remarkable.Althoughtheircontrolofprovinceswasoftenindirect,theirdominance
ofMesoamericacanindeedbeconsideredanempire.Underthelastpre‐contact
emperor,MoctezumaII(1503–1520),theirempirewasstillconqueringand
expanding.WhentheSpanishfirstarrived,comparingTenochtitlantothecityof
Venice,theMexicaEmpirehadnotevencomeclosetoreachingitsfullpotential.8
WhentheSpanishreachedtheBasinofMexico,theMexicadominatedtheir
empirefromtheircapitalcityoraltepetl(city‐state)Tenochtitlan.Theirsocial
hierarchyatthistimewasverystratifiedandcompletelyhereditary.Thedynastic
ruler(tlatoani)ofTenochtitlanwasMoctezumaIIandhehadbeeninpowersince
thedeathofhisuncleAhuitzotlin1503.InMexicansociety,therulerwastechnically
electedbytheothernoblesofthecityofTenochtitlananditspowerfulalliesand
neighborsTexcocoandTacuba(Tlacopan).However,theelectedemperoralways
camefromapoolofcloserelationstotheprevioustlatoani.Hence,thereisadirect
linefromthefirstrulerofTenochtitlan,Acamapichtli,toeveryothersuccessive
ruler.Especiallytowardtheendofthepre‐conquestera,thepatternclosely
8Almazán,166.;C.A.Burland,Montezuma:LordoftheAztec(NewYork:G.P.Putnam’sSons,1973),29‐35.;Clendinnen,45‐46.;FriedrichKatz,“TheEvolutionofAztecSociety,”Past&Present13(April1958):14‐15.;Kulmar,145.;JaimeMata‐Míguezetal.,“TheGeneticImpactofAztecImperialism:AncientMitochondrialDNAEvidencefromXaltocan,Mexico,”AmericanJournalofPhysicalAnthropology149(2012):504.;MichaelA.Ohnersorgen,“AztecProvincialAdministrationatCuetlaxtlan,Veracruz,”JournalofAnthropologicalArchaeology25(2006):1‐4.;RestallandLane,68‐74.;Restall,SousaandTerraciano,4‐5.;Rounds(1979):74‐77.;Schwartz,5‐6.;CarlaM.Sinopoli,“TheArchaeologyofEmpires,”AnnualReviewofAnthropology23(1994):164.;Soustelle,xv‐xvii.;BrianM.TomaszewskiandMichaelE.Smith,“Polities,TerritoryandHistoricalChangeinPostclassicMatlatzinco(TolucaValley,centralMexico),”JournalofHistoricalGeography37(2011):25.Townsend,14‐15.
7
followedthepracticeofpremogenitureinEurope,wheretheeldestsoninherits,
followedbyhisbrothersandsons.9
AlthoughtheSpanishtechnicallytookoverin1521,indigenousrulers
continuedtomaintaintheirtraditionalstatusandauthorityforcenturies.Inthe
wordsofSusanSchroeder,“thekingcertainlydied,butthefour‐partsocio‐political
structureofgovernancewasmaintainedwithtraditionalnoblesasSpanish‐styled
electedofficialsincontrolmuchastheyhadbeenbefore.”10Infact,manyaspectsof
indigenouscultureremainedincludinghousing,farming,clothing,andlanguagein
additiontochoosingtheirownleadersandworshipingthenewreligionof
Christianityinatraditionallyindigenousway.Notonlydidindigenouspeople
recognizesimilaritiesintheSpanishculturethattheycouldselectivelyadaptto
theirownlives,buttheSpanishrecognizedthattheeasiestwayto“conquer”would
betobuilduponalreadyexistingcultural,political,socialandeconomicindigenous
structures.Tenochtitlan,knowntodayasMexicoCity,continuedtoserveasthe
capitalanditcanevenbearguedthatwhatwecallthe“conquest”isstillnotentirely
complete.11
9Restall,SousaandTerraciano,4‐5.10SusanSchroeder,“Introduction:TheGenreofConquestStudies,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,eds.LauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007):12.11Restall,65,75,104.;Wood,5,10.
8
Historiography
CharlesGibsonwrotein1960that,“thereisnosatisfactoryfulltreatmentof
Mexicansocialorpoliticalorganization.”12Sincethen,however,historianshave
takenituponthemselvestofillinthisgap.Somescholars,suchasFriedrichKatz,
claimtheAztecsarewithoutcomparison.Katzsaysthatbecauseofhowadvanced
theirsocietywasdespitethelackofthebasiccommoditiesofOldWorldcivilizations
suchasthewheel,beastsofburdenandmetaltools,theMexicaareinaleagueof
theirown.13Manyscholars,however,usesomemeasureofcomparisonwhen
approachingthetopicofMexicasocietyandthiscontextvariesfromhistorianto
historian.
OnecommonandobviousthemeistocomparetheMexicatoother
indigenousgroupsinLatinAmerica.Thisgroupisfurthersubdividedintotwomain
classesofcomparisons:indigenousgroupsthatpredatetheMexicaorcontemporary
indigenousgroups.ScholarsthatcomparetheMexicatoancientindigenouspeople
tendtofocusontheToltecs,OlmecsandMaya,allofwhomhadtheirpeakpriorto
MexicadominanceinMesoamerica.PatriciaRieffAnawaltdoesthisinher
discussionoftheimperialcloakwornbytheAztecroyalty.Shediscusseshowthe
patternwhichdistinguishesroyaltyfromcommonpeopleisbasedonancientToltec
symbolsofnobility.Shealsodescribesthepatternassharingmanysimilaritieswith
12Gibson,171.13Katz,23.
9
Mayannobleclothing.14NicholasJ.SaundersusescomparisonswiththeOlmecsand
MayatoshowtheimportanceofjaguarsymbolismtoMesoamericanroyalty.15Used
inamultitudeofwaystomakevariousarguments,comparisonsbetweentheMexica
andoneoftheseancientMesoamericancivilizationsisacommonthemeseenin
scholarship.16ComparisonstotheMexica’scontemporaries,theIncas,canalsobe
found.TarmoKulmarcomparestheirsocialorganizationandshowsthatalthough
thesegroupswerebothinpoweratthesametime,theyhadverydifferentwaysof
runningtheirrespectiveempires.17
SomescholarslooktoEuropeastheircomparativetoolinsteadofother
indigenoussocietiesanddosoinvariousways.Anawaltbeginsherarticlebysaying
that,“TheceremonyandgrandeursurroundingthecourtoftheAztecemperor
MoctezumaencompassedadegreeofelaborationunrivaledinEurope.”18However,
shedoesnotgointoacomparisonofthesetwoculturesbutinsteadswitchesto
strictlyindigenouscomparisons.MarcoA.AlmazánalsolooksatEuropeansfor
comparisonsandverybrieflydiscussessomesimilarities.Hearguesthatthebasisof
theMexicastates‐societywasinfactsimilartothatofModernEurope.19Stuart
SchwartzcomparesthehistoriesoftheSpanishandMexicabysayingthat,“Both
weretheheirsofalongprocessofculturaldevelopmentandfusion,bothhada 14PatriciaRieffAnawalt,“TheEmperors’Cloak:AztecPomp,ToltecCircumstances,”AmericanAntiquity55,2(April1990):291,294,297‐298,302‐303.15NicholasJ.Saunders,“JaguarSymbolismandMesoamericanElites,”WorldArchaeology26,1(June1994):105‐108,112‐113.16IsendahlandSmith,132‐143.17Kulmar,148‐149.18Anawalt,291.19Almazán,174.
10
warriorethos,bothheldferventlytoareligiousfaith,andbothjustifiedtheir
imperialexpansionintermsoftheologicalideals.”20NeitherAlmazánnorSchwartz
detailsthesesimilarities.IngaClendinnen,likemanyscholars,remarksonthe
differencesbetweentheAztecsandEuropeanswhilefocusingontherelationship
betweenwarandsocialdistinction.21Thisfollowsthemorecommonwayofusing
Europeancomparisons,asamodelofdissimilaritytotheMexica.22
AlthoughsomescholarshavetouchedontheideaofusingaEuropeanmodel
ascomparison,Idonotbelievetheyhavetakenitfarenough.Ihavethoroughly
studiedavailableworkonAztecsocietyandIthinkadeeperlookatthesimilarities
betweenthesocietyoftheMexicaandthatoftheircontemporaryEuropeansis
lacking.MorespecificallyacomparisontotheSpanish,thepeoplewhoconquered
theMexicaisneeded.EvenLockhart,whoisconsideredthemostinfluentialColonial
LatinAmericanhistoriansaid,“Sixteenth‐CenturySpaniardsfoundincentralMexico
asocietyremarkablyliketheirown.”23Whythenhasthiscomparisonneverbeen
studiedindepth?Lockhartsuggeststhattheremarkablesimilaritiesbetweenthe
twoculturesare“notalwaysemphasizedinthebodyofthestudy,sincetheEnglish
readeralreadyknowstheEuropeanelementsandwillimmediatelyrecognizethe
similarities.”24However,justbecausesimilaritiesareeasilyrecognizabledoesnot
meanthatanindepthscholarlystudyisnotrelevant.Inaddition,scholarlywork
20Schwartz,13.21Clendinnen,55,60,76.22TomaszewskiandSmith,22,26.;Soustelle,40.23Lockhart,1992,94.24Lockhart,1992,429.
11
specificallyfocusingonMexicaroyalty,courtlifeandsocialstructureisvirtually
non‐existent.IhopetocontributenotonlyananalysisofthesetopicsinMexican
societybutalsoadirectcomparisontotheircounterpartsinSpain.Inaddition,Iwill
showhowthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwotranslatedtothepost‐conquestdecades,
theintegrationofthetwocultures,andtheformationofsocietywhichisasmuch
indigenousasitisEuropean.Thisstudywilladdtothenewscholarlyapproachof
historyfromanindigenousperspective,rejectingtheideaofacompleteconquest.It
willalsoaddtothehistoriographyofcontacteraMesoamericanaswellasEarly
ModernEuropeansocietiesandwillberelevanttoscholarsinterestedinthesociety
ofmodernMexicoandhowthecurrentsocietyandcultureemerged.
AnIntroductiontothePrimarySourcesExamined
Thefirstgroupofprimarysourcesthatwillbeexaminedcanbelumped
togetherunderthecategoryofSpanishchronicles.Theleaderoftheconquistadors,
HernánCortés,wroteoneofthemoredetailedaccountsoftheconquestofMexicoin
theformofletterstothekingofSpain,CharlesV.Theseletters,knownastheCartas
deRelación,wereusedtojustifyCortés’continuedexplorationofMexico,the
overthrowofMoctezumaandthesubsequentmassacreofthepeopleof
Tenochtitlan.25BernalDíazDelCastilloalsodescribesthejourneyoftheSpanish
ConquistadorsandtheirfirstencounterwiththepeopleofMexicoinhisworkThe
TrueHistoryoftheConquestofNewSpain.Writtenthirtyyearsaftercontact,the
25HernánCortés,LettersfromMexico,trans.A.R.Pagden(NewYork:GrossmanPublishers,1971).
12
workisafirsthandperspectiveofwhattheSpaniardsperceivedwhentheycame
intocontactwiththeMexicaforthefirsttime.26TheHistoryoftheIndiesofNewSpain
byDiegoDuránisalsoanimportantsourcetoexamine.BorninSpainin1537,
DuránmovedtoMexicoatayoungageandgrewupinTenochtitlan’sneighbor,
Texcoco.Asanadult,hebecameanauthorandwroteaboutthehistoryofthe
Mexicabasedondocumentshehadaccesstoaswellasoralhistories.27These
sourcesareamongthemanyavailableSpanishprimarysourcesthatwillbe
evaluated.28
Ontheotherhand,therearemanyindigenousaccountsthatwillbe
consideredincludingtheaccountbyFrayBernardinodeSahagúnwhichisoneofthe
mostcompletehistoriesoftheMexicaEmpirebeforecontact.ArrivingintheNew
Worldin1529,SahagúnwithateamofeliteNahua29mensetouttointerviewand
recordtestimoniesfromvariousMexicaindividuals.Thisledtothecreationofthe
GeneralHistoryoftheThingsofNewSpain,whichincludestheoriginalNahuatl
alongsideSahagún’sSpanishtranslation.30Anotherimportantindigenoussourceis
26BernalDíazDelCastillo,TheDiscoveryandConquestofMexico,ed.GenaroGarcía,trans.A.P.Maudslay(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandCudahy,1956).27Schwartz,34.;Durán,1994.28Otheraccountsinclude:ThechroniclesofAndrésdeTapia,FranciscodeAguilar,andtheAnnonymousConquistadorwhichcanbefoundinPatriciadeFuentes,ed.,TheConquistadors:First‐PersonAccountsoftheConquestofMexico(Norman,Oklahoma:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1993);ToribioMotolinía,Motolinía’sHistoryoftheIndiansofNewSpain,ed.andtrans.ElizabethAndrosFoster(Berkeley:TheCortésSociety,1950).29NahuatlwasthelanguagethemajorityofpeopleinMesoamericaspokeduringthetimeofcontact.ItwasthelanguageusedbytheMexicaandwasalsousedasortof“universallanguage”forpeoplewithintheempireandthosetheydidbusinesswith.Theword“nahua”isgenerallyused,andisusedhere,todescribepeoplewhowereNahuatlspeakers.30BernardinodeSahagún,GeneralHistoryoftheThingsofNewSpain:FlorentineCodex,Volumes1‐12,trans.ArthurJ.O.AndersonandCharlesE.Dibble(SantaFe:SchoolofAmericanResearch,1970).;
13
TheCodexMendozawhichisacollectionofMexicapictographsdepictingthehistory
oftheirpeople.Composedtwentyyearsaftertheconquest,itincludestraditional
AztecpictographseachwithSpanishexplanations.31TheCodexChimalpahin,Códice
deTlatelolco,andtheCódiceCozcatzinareamongmanyotherprimarysources,
whichtellusaboutthepre‐conquesterathroughanativepointofview.32Although
mymainfocusforthisstudywillbeonMexicasociety,theirsocialstructureand
hierarchy,royaltyandcourtlife,thecomparativecontextofusingaEuropeanlens
willnecessarilyincludeadescriptionofSpanishsocietyaswell.33
AnalyticalapproachestothetopicofSpanish‐indigenouscontactandcolonial
societyinNewSpainhaveproceededinphaseswhichIdiscussedinthe
historiographysection.ThefirstwavefocusedsolelyonSpanishsourcestotella
one‐sidedstoryandthesecondgroupbegantointegratenowcommonindigenous
sourcesbutstilldepicteditasacomplete“conquest”andatriumphofEuropean
culture.Thenewestapproach,andtheoneIwilltake,istoconsiderallavailable
sourcesincludingtheSpanishchroniclesandpreviouslytranslatedindigenous
KevinTerraciano,“ThreeTextsinOne:BookXIIoftheFlorentineCodex,”Ethnohistory57,1(Winter2010):58‐60,64‐65.31KurtRoss,ed.,CodexMendoza:AztecManuscript(London:RegentBooks,1984).32ChimalpahinQuauhtlehuanitzin,donDiegodeSanAntónMuñón.CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1&2.EditedandtranslatedbyArthurJ.O.AndersonandSusanSchroeder.Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1997.);JamesLockhart,ed.andtrans.,WePeopleHere:NahautlAccountsoftheConquestofMexico(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1993).;AnaRitaValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandRafaelTena,CódiceCozcatzin(MexicoCity:InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria&BeneméritaUniversidadAutónomodePuebla,1994).;PerlaValle,CódicedeTlatelolco(MexicoCity:InstitutoNacionaldeAntropologíaeHistoria&BeneméritaUniversidadAutónomodePuebla,1994.);33JohnEdwards,FerdinandandIsabella(NewYork:Pearson/Longman,2004).;Mariéjol,Jean‐Hippolyte,TheSpainofFerdinandandIsabella,trans.BenjaminKeen(NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,1961.)
14
sources.Thesesourcescanbelookedatinanentirelynewwaybyconsideringhow
theyarewrittenandwhatthatcantellusaboutcolonialsociety,inasense“reading
betweenthelines”.Forexample,whentheindigenouspeopledescribetheir
interactionswiththeSpanishandtheimplementationofSpanishinstitutions,itis
clearlyconveyedthattheyarenotoverawedbytheSpanishoroverwhelmedbythe
newstructures.Infact,theyusuallyfindaparallelintheirownsocietyinorderto
explainthenewphenomenon.Thesetypesofdiscoursesinindigenousdocuments
tellusalotmoreabouttheindigenousperspectivethanwhatisseenwhenonly
takenatfacevalue.IwillalsofollowinthefootstepsofscholarssuchasJames
Lockhart,StephanieWood,andMatthewRestallwhoseekoutsourcesnotas
commonlyusedandwhichmayseemmundanetosomebutwhichprovide
importantobservationsofpre‐andpost‐conquestsociety.
AnIntroductiontotheContextofthisManuscript
AsIsaidbefore,thefocusofthebodyofthisworkisontheideaofroyalty,
royalculture,courtlife,andtheimportanceofsocialdistinction.However,when
workingwithatopicsuchasthis,itisnecessarytoincludedescriptionsofother
aspectsofMexicasocietyinordertosupplementthemaintheme.Forthisreason,
thefirstandlastchaptersdonotconcentratestrictlyonroyalculturein
MesoamericaandSpain.Thefirstchapterservesasanindepthbackgroundtoboth
ofthesesocieties.Iinclude,inadditiontoadescriptionofroyalsociety,explanations
ofotheraspectsofSpanishandMexicasocietywhichwerestrikinglysimilar.This
15
chapterrevealsthatbothsocietieswereconquerors,withstrongwarrior
characteristics.Thisconqueringmentalitywasonereasonwhythetwosocieties
cametogether,andoftenworkedtogetherduringconquestexpeditions,intheyears
followingtheConquest.NotonlydidtheMexicaandothernativesofcentralMexico
wanttocontinuetheirconqueringexpeditionstoincreasetheirterritory,the
Spaniardswantedtotakepartinconquestsaswellsotheycouldimplementtheir
controlovermorepeopleoftheNewWorld.Thiscommoninteresthadmany
interestingrepercussionsinthepost‐Conquestyears.
Chapter1alsodescribeshowthereligionsofSpainandTenochtitlanmay
havehadsomedifferences,butthattheimportanceofreligionineachsocietywas
extremelycomparable.TheSpaniardsmayhavethoughtthattheywereconverting
thenatives,butreally,theindigenouspeopleofMesoamericaweresimply
incorporatingsomeaspectsofChristianityintotheirownpracticesbecausethey
recognizedthemashavingparallelsintheirownreligion.Theirmethodsofimperial
controlwerealsoverysimilarinthesetwosocieties.BoththeMexicaandthe
Spaniardshighlyrespectedandidolizedtheirroyalty,butthegovernmentalcontrol
outsideofthemajorcitieswasveryindirect.MostpeopleinMesoamericawhowere
undercontroloftheMexicaEmpirestillhadtheirownrulersandmaintainedalotof
theirowncontrol.ThiswasareproductionofthesituationinSpainandthis
similaritybetweenthesetwosocietieswouldliveontobepracticedintheColonial
years.ThismeantthatalthoughtheSpaniardsclaimedtheyhadjurisdictionintheir
16
colonyofNewSpain,atthelocallevel,indigenoushereditaryrulerswerestillin
power.ThesearebutafewexamplesofwhatwillbediscussedinChapter1,butthe
overallargumentisthatthesepre‐contactsimilaritiesgreatlyaffectedthewaythe
SpaniardsandMexicareactedtooneanother.Bothgroupsrecognizedrelationships
betweenthetwosocietiesandreadilyincorporatedcertainaspectsofoneanother’s
society.ThisledtoaninterestingColonialperiodinNewSpainandhasalottodo
withthecultureweseeinMexicotoday.
Chapter2and3bothfocusontheimportanceofroyalcultureinbothSpain
andMesoamerica,butusedifferentsourcestodoso.Chapter2focuseson
indigenoussourcematerial,whichtendstohighlightlocaldynasties,royal
intermarriages,thesuccessofroyalchildren,andterritorialconquests.Through
thesesourceswelearnthathereditarynobilitywasextremelyimportanttothe
peopleofcentralMexico.ThelastemperoroftheMexicabeforetheConquest,
Cuauhtemoc,wasadirectdescendentofthefirstemperor,Acamapichtli.Thelineof
rulerspassedflawlesslyfromfathertoson,brothertobrother,uncletonephew,or
cousintocousin.TheMexicaalsousedmarriageasatooltocementalliances.
Daughterswereoftenmarriedofftotherulersorheirsofothercity‐states,and
emperorsandheirstotheMexicathronealwaysmarriedwomenofroyalbirth.
Often,thewomenthatMexicaemperorsmarriedweremembersoftheirown
extendedfamily.Royalchildrenweregivenprominentposts.Malesoftenbecame
partoftheroyalcouncilorheldotherhigh‐rankingpostsinTenochtitlan.Ifthispath
17
wasnotpossibletheyweresetupasarulerofacity‐stateundertheruleofthe
Mexica.Allofthesepracticesregardingroyalculturearealmostexactreplicasofthe
waythingsworkedinSpainduringthistime.
Chapter3discussessimilarconcepts,butfocusesinsteadonSpanishsource
materialincludingthewritingsofconquistadorsandearlySpanishhistorians.From
thesesourceswegettoseetheamazementtheSpaniardsexperiencedwhenthey
encounteredthecultureoftheMexica.TheMexicaheldincredibleswayovermost
oftheterritoriestheSpaniardshadtopassthrough,andthefearofMoctezumaII’s
subjectswasverycleartoCortésandhismen.ThecityofTenochtitlanitselfwas
moreincrediblethananycityinEuropeatthattime.Thearchitectureandthe
civilizednatureofthepeopleamazedtheSpanishconquistadors.TheSpanish
sourcesalsoshedalotoflightontheceremonialpracticessurroundingtheemperor
onadailybasisandtherespectshowntohimbyeverysinglepersoninthecity.He
heldcourtlikeaEuropeanking,wascarriedfromplacetoplaceinanelaborate
litter,andnoonewasallowedtolookhimintheeyeonpainofdeath.Manyofthese
practicesrecordedintheSpanishdialoguesareverysimilartopracticesseeninthe
royalcourtsofEurope.EventheSpanishchroniclesacknowledgedmanytimes
duringthecourseoftheirwritinghowimpressedtheywerewiththissophisticated
cityanditspeople,andnotedhowremarkablyfamiliarmanyofthesepracticeswere
tothem.
18
ThepurposeofChapter4istoconsideralltheinformationprovidedinthe
otherchaptersandwhatallofitmeansfortheColonialsocietyinNewSpainafter
theConquest.Hereitisarguedthattheculturethatemergedintheyearsfollowing
theConquestwasonethatwasneithercompletelyEuropeannorcompletely
indigenous.ItwasamiraculousblendofbothSpanishandnativeculturalelements.
Sincethesetwosocietiesweresosimilartooneanothertheyreadilyborrowed
ideas,adaptedtheirownpracticestofitthenewColonialorder,andcametogether
inawaythatwasveryrareforColonialprojectsintheNewWorld.Thischapter,like
Chapter1,hasabroaderfocus.RoyalcultureanditscontinuationintotheColonial
periodare,ofcourse,discussed.Otheraspectsofnativeculturalsurvival,suchas
religion,indigenousconquistadors,andgovernment,arealsoincludedinthispartof
themanuscript.Insum,thischapterfocusesontheearlypost‐Conquestyearsand
theinstitutionsthataroseduringthistime.Muchofnativeculturesurvivedthe
Conquest,andthisisclearlyshowninthesocietyofsixteenthcenturyNewSpain.In
whatwaysweretheculturesofSpainandcentralMexicosimilartooneanother?
Whatisthesignificanceofexaminingrelationshipsbetweentheconquerorsandthe
conquered?HowisthisimportanttotheColonialperiodinNewSpain?Andwhat
doesthishavetodowiththecultureofMexicotoday?Thesearesomeofthe
questionsIintendtoanswerindetailintheremainderofthismanuscript.
19
CHAPTER1
INTRODUCTIONTOEARLYSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETIES
BeforeIgetintothepurposeofthiswork,whichistofocusonthe
significanceofroyaltyinbothSpanishandMexicasociety,Ifirstwanttogiveabrief
backgroundonthesetwocultures.Inadditiontohavingmanysimilaritieswith
regardstoroyalculture,thesetwosocietiesalsohadmanyothershared
characteristics.Theywerebothwarriorandconquerorsocieties,considered
religiontobethemostimportantfactorintheirdailylives,andbroughtthesetwo
ideastogethertocreateadivinerighteousnessoftheirconquests.Assimilaras
thesetwosocietieswereatthemomentofcontact,theirhistoriesinthepreceding
centuriessharemanysimilaritiesaswell.Theearlybeginningofthecountriesthat
wenowknowasSpainandMexicoisthefocusofthischapter.
Thetimelineforthispartoftheanalysisbeginswiththeturnofthenew
millennium.TheeleventhcenturyinMesoamericamarkedthebeginningofa
declineofthereigningdominantgroupincentralMexico,theToltecs.InSpain,the
poweroftheMuslimMoorshadpasseditspeakandwasalsobeginningtodeclinein
power.Thisleftavoidinbothoftheseareasthatwouldleaveroomfornewpowers
tocomeintoplay.InMesoamerica,theMexicabegantheirpushsouthwardand
withinafewcenturieshadestablishedthemselvesasaforcetobereckonedwith.In
theIberianPeninsula,thedividedChristiannationsalsobeganapushsouthward.
ThefamousReconquista(reconquest),whichcontinueduntil1492,re‐established
20
ChristiandominanceintheIberianPeninsulaandformedtheframeworkfor
modernSpain.
TheMexicaintheeleventhcenturywereanomadic,warriortribeinwhatis
nowtheSouthwesternUnitedStates.Theirearlyoriginsareknownbecauseoftheir
closerelationswiththeTarahumaranativeswhostillresideinnorthernMexicoand
theHopitribesinpresentdayNewMexicoandArizona.Theiroralhistoriesclaim
thattheirhomelandwascalledAztlán,whichiswherethepopularnickname‘Aztec’
originates.TherewereanumberofsmalltribessimilartotheMexicainthese
northernregionsduringtheperiodofToltecdominance,butafterthissocietybegan
itscollapse,manyofthesesmallnomadictribesbegantheirmarchtowardtheBasin
ofMexico.AccordingtoChimalpahin,theyleftAztlánin1064;othersourcesplace
thebeginningoftheirmigrationabitlater.Regardlessoftheirinitialdeparture,the
MexicawereoneofthelatecomerstotheValleyofMexicoandwereatfirst
subjugatedbytheirmorepowerfulneighbors.TheyfinallyreachedtheedgeofLake
Texcocoin1299wheretheysettledforatimeinCulhuacanandwerevassalsand
subjectsofthisearlypowerhouse.1
1GordonBrotherston,ImageoftheNewWorld:TheAmericanContinentPortrayedinNativeTexts,translatedincollaborationwithEdDorn(London:ThamesandHudson,1979),24.;DonaldE.Chipman,Moctezuma’sChildren:AztecRoyaltyUnderSpanishRule,1520‐1700(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,2005),6‐7.;ChimalpahinCodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,29,67,69,181.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,19.;DiegoDurán,TheAztecs:TheHistoryoftheIndiesofNewSpainbyFrayDiegoDurán.translatedbyDorisHeydenandFernandoHorcasitas(NewYork:OrionPress,1964),9.;DonDiegodeSanAntónMuñónChimalpahinQuauhtlehuanitzin,AnnalsofHisTime,editedandtranslatedbyJamesLockhart,SusanSchroeder,andDorisNamala(Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress,2006),117,119.;Martínez,92‐92.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,4.;Schwartz,5.;Townsend,14‐15.
21
Theirmovesouthwardwasslow,andtheystoppedandbrieflysettledin
varioustownsalongtheway.Fromthesesettledindigenouspeoplesthattheycame
intocontactwith,theylearnedmanythingsthattheywouldadoptandmakepartof
theirowncultureincludingagriculture,religiousbeliefs,warriortactics,and
architecture.Beforetheirarrival,theareaofcentralMexicowasextremely
advancedandwellcivilizedandtheMexicaquicklyincorporatedaspectsofthese
othersuccessfulcivilizations,includingtheMayaandthepeopleofTeotihuacan,into
theirownsociety.TheyespeciallyrespectedandidolizedthesocietyoftheToltecs,
whosecultureinfluencedmanynewlyarrivedpeoplesintheValleyofMexico,so
muchsothatmanyethnicgroups,includingtheMexica,claimedtobetheir
descendants.2
TheMexicacontinuedtobebuffetedaroundtheBasinofMexicoformany
yearsaftertheirarrivalintheValleyofMexico.Theybecamevassalsand
mercenariesofestablishedcity‐statesincludingColhuacanandAtzcapotzalcoand
remainedsubjugatedfordecades.Finally,in1325theysettledonsomeswampy
islandsinthemiddleofLakeTexcocoandbeganbuildingwhatwouldbecometheir
2Chipman,3‐6,8.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,77,85,89,91,185‐209,221‐227.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,19‐31,69‐73.;Durán,9.;EloisQuiñonesKeber,CodexTellerianoRemensis:RitualDivinationandHistoryinaPictorialAztecManuscript(Austin:UniversityofTexasPress,1995),201‐209,270‐271,295‐302.;Chimalpahin,Annals,119‐125.;Martínez,92‐93.;Schwartz,4.;Townsend,14‐15.;AlonsodeZorita,LifeandLaborinAncientMexico:TheBriefandSummaryRelationoftheLordsofNewSpain,translatedbyBenjaminKeen(NewBrunswick:RutgersUniversityPress,1963),3.
22
capitalcity,Tenochtitlan.3Duringthetimewhentheyweresubjectsofneighboring
city‐states,theymaintainedtheirownidentityastheMexica.Althoughthey
incorporatedmanyideasofthesemoreestablishedcommunities,theyremained
loyaltotheirowncultureandpeople.Theideaofloyaltytoone’sowncommunity
andpeopleisapopularpatternseenthroughoutMesoamericaduringthisperiod.
EvenwhentheMexicagrewinpowerandconqueredalargeareaofterritory,the
peopletheyconqueredretainedtheirowncommunalidentity.Becauseofthis,war
wasadominantfactorincentralMexicointheyearsbeforecontact.Each
community,whetheradominantpowerorasubjectstate,owedtheirloyaltyand
allegiancefirstandforemosttotheirownlocalrulers.4Thesecommunitiesoften
rebelledagainstthecontroloftheiroverlordsandfoughtamongstthemselvesfor
landandwealth.Thisinstabilityduetolocalautonomyandcommunityloyaltyis
mirroredintheIberianPeninsuladuringthepre‐contactperiod.
TheideaofaMesoamericancity‐stateisextremelyimportantandsoitis
necessarytoexplainthisconceptabitfurtherbeforemovingontoSpanishculture
andsocietyduringthisperiod.ThecenteroforganizationinMesoamericaduring
thistimewasknownasthealtepetl,whichreferstoanethnicstateorcommunity.
Eachaltepetlconsistedofacentralcommunity,orcity,surroundedbyaterritoryof
whichitheldsomeswayover.Everyoneinthisarealookedfirsttotheirlocalruler,
3Chipman,8.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,31,71,103,105,211,227.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,107.;Ross,18.;Durán,22.;Chimalpahin,Annals,29,125.;Motolinia,27‐28.;Shwartz,5.;Townsend,14‐15.;Zorita,4.4Chipman,6.;Lockhart,1992,1.;Zorita,73.
23
althoughmanyaltepetlwereunderthecontrolofother,morepowerfulcity‐states.
Followingthisthread,centralMexicobeforethecontactperiodwasa
conglomerationofvariousethnicstatesthatwererelatedtooneanotherthrough
tributeagreements.Inthisarea,variousdominantgroupshadcomeandwent,but
manyaltepetlsurvivedthevariouschangesinoverlordship.EvenwhentheSpanish
cametothearea,mostpre‐Conquestaltepetlsurvivedandbecamethebasisof
pueblos(towns)inColonialNewSpain.Thesevariouscity‐stateswererelatedvia
ethnictiesbecauseofeconomicneedandsocialandpoliticalfactors,butwereinno
wayaunifiedwhole.5
IntheIberianPeninsuladuringthisperiod,therewerealsogroupsmoving
southandconqueringnewterritories.TheseSpanishkingdomswereunitedby
similarlanguage,culture,andreligion,butwerenotunitedwithoneanother.Infact,
Spainasweknowittodaywasnotactuallyuniteduntilmanycenturieslater.Even
undertheCatholicMonarchs,FerdinandandIsabel,theIberianPeninsularemained
primarilyunderthecontroloflocalnobles,whoroseupagainstthecrownoften,
andfoughtamongstoneanotherconstantly.Localruleandautonomymadethepre‐
contactperiodinSpainextremelysimilartoMesoamericawithcontinuouswarfare
andtheabsenceofanytruecentralpower.AlthoughcommunitiesintheIberian
Peninsulaweretechnicallyunderthecontrolofthemonarchy,theycontinuedto
givetheirloyaltyfirstandforemosttotheirlocalrulers.Thisdisunityledtoa
5Lockhart,1992,14.;Lockhart,1993,14.;Martínez,92‐93.;MatthewandOudijk,14,49.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,4‐6,24.;Schwartz,4.;Townsend,3,13‐14,43.;Wood,106.
24
continuationoflocalcontrolandthepersistenceoflocallydistinctcultures.This
diversitycanstillbeexperiencedinSpaintodaywhereeachregionmaintainsits
ownlocalhistory,language,andculturalpractices.6
OfthecountiesthatmakeupEurope,thoselocatedontheIberianPeninsula
haveoneofthemostdiverseanduniqueculturalhistories.ThevariousSpanish
kingdomsduringtheturnofthemillenniumwerenotverycloselytiedtoEuropean
culturesincethePyreneesMountainchainseparatesIberiafromtherestofWestern
Europe.However,thesouthernmostpointoftheIberianPeninsulaislocatedonly
fifteenkilometersfromthecoastofAfrica.Becauseofthis,Iberiansocietywas
heavilyinfluencedbytheculturesoftheMoorishpeoplewhoconqueredthe
majorityofthepeninsulaandmaintainedcontroluntiltheeleventhcentury.7When
Islamicpowerandcontrolbegantodecline,thesmallChristiankingdomsbegan
theirpushsouthward.ItisimportanttonotethattheseSpanishkingdomswerenot
unitedintheirconquest.DuringthecenturiesofIslamicdominance,theChristian
statesremainedisolatedfromoneanotheranddevelopeduniqueculturalpractices.
TheyhadacommongoalofreestablishingChristiandominance,butremained
separateentitiesformanyyearstocome.8
Overthenextcoupleofcenturies,theCatholickingdomsslowlybegantoally
withoneanother.Castile,León,andPortugalunitedin1230;soonaftersodidthe
6J.N.Hilgarth,TheSpanishKingdoms:1250‐1516(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1976),Vol.1,vii.;Mariéjol,3,329..7Hilgarth,Vol.1,3‐4.;Mariéjol,3.8Hilgarth,Vol.1,4‐5.;Mariéjol,4.
25
kingdomsofCataloniaandAragon.Evenwhenkingdomsunited,eachpolity
retaineditsownseparateinstitutions.Despitebeingpoliticallyunited,the
populationsofCastileandLeón,forexample,didnothaveanoverallsenseofunity,
andwhatmatteredmosttothepeoplewastheirowncity.Thiswasapatternthat
wouldcontinueforcenturiesalloverthepeninsula.9
Althoughalliancesbegantoemerge,thegeographicallocationofeachmajor
kingdomheavilyinfluenceditsculturalpractices.Castiliansociety,forexample,
maintainedstrongtieswiththeIslamicstateofGranadaandcontinuedtobe
influencedculturallybytheMuslimMoors.TheconquestofAndalusiaandSevilleby
theCastiliansmeantthatmanyofCastile’smajorcitieshadastrongIslamicpastand
largeMoorishpopulations.ThekingdomsofCataloniaandAragonturnedtheir
focustotheMediterraneanandthereforebegantomakeculturaltieswiththerest
ofEurope.Twooftheirmajorcities,BarcelonaandValenciawerelocatedonthe
coastoftheMediterraneanandweremajorportsofEuropeantrade.Workingtheir
wayEasttosecuretraderoutes,theCrownofAragonconqueredtheMediterranean
islandofMajorca,andspreadtheirconquesttoItalybyacquiringSicilyandSardinia.
ThisdividebetweenCastileandAragonwouldcontinuepoliticallyuntilthefifteenth
century.Culturally,thesetwokingdomswouldremainuniquefromoneanotherfor
muchlonger.10EvenaftertheCastilian‐Aragonesealliance,whichdominateda
majorityofthelandinIberia,thepeninsulawasnotcompletelyunited.Thekingdom
9Hilgarth,Vol.1,299.10Hilgarth,Vol.1,4‐5,11,18,233.
26
ofPortugalremainedseparate,asdidtheFrenchsatelliteofNavarre,andthe
MuslimkingdomofGranada,whichwasnotconquereduntil1492.11Thediversityin
theIberianPeninsulawentverydeepandwasexpressednotonlyinpolitics,but
alsoinculturalpracticessuchasliterature,language,andart.12
Thefabricofsocietyduringtheyearsbeforethecontactperiodin
MesoamericaandtheIberianPeninsulawasmarkedbydisunityandlocalconflict.
Theimportanceoflocalcommunitiesandthelackofcentralcontrolwasakey
similaritybetweenthetwocultures.WhentheSpanishconqueredTenochtitlan,it
waseasyforthemtocontinuetorecognizetheautonomyoftheMesoamericancity‐
statesbecauseitwasafamiliarsituationtothem.TheSpaniardsweretheperfect
newoverlordsformanyindigenouscommunitiesbecausetheyexercisedtheir
controlinmuchthesamewayastheMexicahad.Thismeantthatlocal
Mesoamericancommunitieswereabletomaintaintheirownculture,localrulers,
andsenseofcommunalidentity.Thisissimplyoneexampleofthewayinwhichthe
SpaniardsandthepeopleofMesoamericarecognizedcommonalitiesinoneanother.
ThisrespectandunderstandingledtoauniqueearlyColonialculture,whichwillbe
discussedindetailinChapter4.
11Hilgarth,Vol.1,18.;Mariéjol,59.12Hilgarth,Vol.1,14‐15.
27
TerritorialExpansionintheIberianPeninsulaandMesoamerica
AnotherimportantsimilaritybetweenMexicaandSpanishsocietywastheir
conqueringmentality.Bothculturesbeganassmall,ineffectualcommunitiesthat
usedtheirsuccessfulwarriortacticstoslowlyconquerlargeareasofland.Bythe
timethetwoculturescameintocontactwithoneanother,theywerebothimperial
powersthatexercisedaformofindirectcontrol.Theirpatternofconquestwas
similar;boththeSpaniardsandtheMexicamovedslowlysouthward,incorporating
newlyconqueredterritoriesintotheirpoliticalauthorityastheywentalongand
leavinglocalcommunitieswithsubstantialautonomy.
TheMexicaconquestdidnotbegintheminutetheysettledinTenochtitlan.
Althoughtheyhadtheirowncityandland,theywerestillsubjugatedbytheir
neighbors.However,theydiddecideatthispointtoelecttheirownlocalrulerand
begintheirowndynasty.Thepositionastheirfirstkingfelltoamanfrom
ColhuacannamedAcamapichtli.Colhuacanwasoneofthedominantpowersin
MesoamericaatthistimeandtheywereoneoftheremainingremnantsoftheToltec
Empire,ofwhomtheMexicaclaimeddescent.DuringtheirmigrationtoLake
Texcoco,theMexicahadstayedinColhuacanforafewdecadesandmanyoftheir
peoplehadsettledandintermarriedthere.Anexampleofthiswasamannamed
OpochtliIztahuatzin,whowasaMexicawarriorandcaptain.Hemarrieda
Colhuacanprincess,adaughteroftheking,andfromthisunioncameasonnamed
Acamapichtli.TheMexicadecidedtomakeAcamapichtlitheirfirstkingandthe
28
Mexicadynastybegan.TofurthercementtheirlegitimacyviaToltecblood,
AcamapichtlialsomarriedintotheColhuacanroyalfamilybymarryingthesisterof
theking.13ThroughouttheperiodofMexicadominancethatfollowed,allrulers
weredirectdescendantsofAcamapichtli.
However,Acamapichtli,alongwiththenexttwokings,Huitzilihuitland
Chimalpopoca,didnotdomuchconquering.Duringthesethreereigns,theMexica
werestillestablishingthemselvesintheirnewcityandpayingtributeto
neighboringcommunities.Mexicaimperialexpansionreallybeganwiththefourth
king,Itzcoatl,whowasanillegitimatesonofAcamapichtli.Duringhisreign,the
MexicaroseupagainsttheiroverlordsfromAzcapotzalcoandalsobegan
conqueringnearbycitiesintheValleyofMexicoincludingTlacopan,Coyoacan,
Cuernavaca,Tepequacuilco,Huexotzinco,Xochimilco,andCuitlahuac,.14After
Itzcoatl’sdeathin1440,MoctezumaI,asonofthesecondking,Huitzilihuitl,was
electedasthenextemperor.15Duringhisreign,theMexicabegantosettheirsights
onareasoutsideoftheBasinofMexico.DuringMoctzuma’sreign,theyconquered
theprovincesofChalco,Tehuantepec,Xolotla,Toluca,Xiquipilco,tonameafew,and
areasasfarawayasthepresentdaystateofOaxaca.16
13Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,35‐37,113‐115.;Durán,33‐34.;Keber,214.14Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,41,131,213.;Durán,58,62,68,73,78,81,83,84.;Ross,24.;Keber,215‐216.;Chimalpahin,Annals,129.15Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,43.16Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,51,213.;Durán,98‐100,105,117‐118,128.;Keber,306.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,129‐131.
29
ThenextthreerulersoftheMexicawerebrothers,bornfromtheunionof
MoctezumaI’sdaughterandItzcoatl’sson.ThefirstofthesewasAxayacatl,the
youngestofthebrothers,whoconqueredmanyterritoriesincludingTlatelolco,
Tzinacantépec,Tlacotépec,Teotenanco,Tecalco,Tototlan,andMixtlan.Thisspread
theMexicadominancefurthernorthinMesoamericaandalsooutwardstowards
bothcoastlines.Axaycatl’solderbrother,Tizoc,thenextruler,alsoexpandedthe
reachoftheempire,butwasnotawarrioratheartandsohisconquestswerenotas
vastormemorable.17However,thethirdofthesebrothers,Ahuitzotl,wasan
extremelysuccessfulwarrior.Duringhisreign,overfortyprovincescameunder
Mexicacontrol.TheseincludedTeloloapan,Acatépec,Huehuetlan,Mazatlan,
Chiapan,Acapulco,andMiahuatlan.Mexicarulewasnowfirmlyentrenchedonboth
coastsandhadpenetratedasfarsouthasthenorthernareasofpresentday
Guatemala.18
Thefinalpre‐contactruler,MoctezumaII,wasthereigningemperorwhen
theSpanisharrived.HewasasonofAxayacatlandduringhisreigntheMexica
conqueredtheprovincesofHuilotépec,Tlachinollan,Amatlan,Tiltépec,Caltépec,
andCihuatlan.19Theseconquestsbuiltuponpreviouslysubjugatedterritoriesand
expandedtheMexicadominanceevenfuther.Althoughthesecity‐stateswere
17RafaelTena,trans.,AnalesdeTlatelolco(MexicoCity:DirecciónGeneraldePublicaciones,2004),43.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,51,139.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,51.;Durán,157.;Chimalpahin,Annals,131.18Tena,43‐45.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,53,215.;Ross,32‐33.;Durán,200,202,216.;Keber,306‐307.19Tena,45.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,55.;Ross,33.;Durán,226.;Keber,307.
30
conquereditdidnotmeanthattheMexica’sworkwasover.Manynative
communitiesrebelledagainsttheMexica,sometimesmultipletimesasisseeninthe
caseofChalcowheretheMexicahadtoputdownarebelliononfourseparate
occasions.20ThesuccessofMoctezumaII’sruleshowsthattheMexicahadnotyet
reachedtheirfullpotentialwhentheSpaniardsarrived.Theempirewasstill
expanding,establishingcontrol,andlearningfrompastmistakesinordertocement
theirimperialpower.TheconqueringmentalityoftheMexicawasstillwell
entrenchedandnotyetsatisfiedwhenthesetwoculturesfinallycameintocontact
withoneanother.
TheconqueringmentalitywasasmuchaspartoflifeintheIberianPeninsula
asitwasinMesoamerica.AsImentionedbefore,theSpanishKingdomsatthistime
werenotaunifiedwhole.Attimes,however,theydidallywithoneanotheragainsta
commonenemy.UsuallythisinvolvedanalliancebetweenthevariousChristian
kingdomsandhadareligiousundertone,butthiswasnotalwaysthecase.For
example,inthe1270s,GranadaandCastilejoinedforcesinordertokeeptherulers
ofMoroccofromconqueringanylandintheIberianPeninsula.Sotherewere
instancesofrulersofdifferentreligiousbeliefsjoininguptoprotectthecommon
homelandofIberia.21
AstheChristianReconquistaslowlymovedsouthtoconquermoreandmore
ofthePeninsula,citieswerethemajortarget.TheChristianstendedtosettleand
20Ross,23.21Hilgarth,Vol.1,20‐21.
31
occupyfortifiedcitiesastheywentalongandtheyclaimedthesurrounding
countrysideastheirsalso.However,evenwhenterritoriesweretakennominally
underChristiancontrol,themajorityofthecountrysideremainedpopulatedby
Muslims.AnexampleofthisistheterritoryofValencia,whichwasconquered
between1232and1245bythekingdomofAragon.ForcenturiesaftertheChristian
conquest,thepopulationofValenciaremainedmostlyMuslim.22FromtheirMuslim
subjects,therulersoftheChristiankingdomslearnedmanynewtechniques,suchas
irrigation,whichaidedintheprosperityoftheevergrowingChristiankingdoms.23
TotrytopromoteChristiansettlement,newinhabitantsofconquered
territoriesweregivenhouses,land,andfarms.Theamountofpropertyreceived
obviouslydependeduponone’srankinsocietysothatleadingnobles,menofthe
church,andmembersoftheroyalcourtweregiventhelargestproportionof
conqueredterritories,whereassoldiersfromtheReconquistaweregivenanamount
oflandbasedontheirmilitaryrank.However,byfailingtoattractmanyChristian
commonerstosettlethesenewlyconqueredareas,thegrowingChristiankingdoms
wereheavilyreliantontheirMuslimsubjects.ManyMuslimcommonersremained
intheirhomesaftertheReconquistaassemi‐freelaborersworkingthelandsforthe
Christiannobility.OtherMuslimsdecidedinsteadtomigrateandeitherendedupin
theMuslimstrongholdofGranada,ormadetheirwaytoNorthAfrica.24Oftenduring
theReconquista,conqueredterritorieswerethereforeabletomaintainsomeformof
22Hilgarth,Vol.1,28.23Hilgarth,Vol.1,33.24Hilgarth,Vol.1,22,24,27.;Mariéjol,278‐280.
32
autonomy.Forexample,whenCastileconqueredtheMuslimcityofMurica,the
Moorishkingremainedincharge,butbecameavassaloftheCastilianKingdom.25
BecauseofthelackofcentralcontrolandSpanishpresence,manynewly
conqueredterritoriesretainedtheirtraditionalculturalpractices.Evensomething
asbasicasthecharacterofdifferentcitieswascompletelyuniquetoeachareaofthe
IberianPeninsula.Inthenorth,citiesweremoreChristianizedsincenorthern
territorieshadremainedChristianstrongholdsduringIslamicdominance.These
citieshadmoreorganizedstreetplansandthehousesemphasizedthefaçadesince
itwasimportanttoimpresspeoplewhowerepassingby.Thesoutherncitieswere
extremelyMuslimincharacterandwereknownfortheirdisorganizedstreetplan.
Thehouseswerealternativelybuiltfortheinhabitantsratherthantoimpress
passers‐by.Entranceswerehidden,andthefaçadewasplainwhiletheinteriorwas
whereonecouldshowoffhisfamily’swealthandprestige.Thesecharacteristics
remainedinplacelongaftertheReconquistaandlocalcharacterandculturenever
completelyfadedaway.26Thismeantthatinthepre‐Contactera,theIberian
Peninsula,muchlikeMesoamerica,wasaterritoryofimmenselocaldiversity.
CitiesduringthisperiodintheIberianPeninsulaweremuchlikethecity‐
statesofMesoamerica.Theywereself‐sufficient,hadtheirownorganizationand
wayofsupportingandprovisioningthemselves,andretainedtheirownrulers,
whichwerechosenbythepeopleoftheterritoryratherthantheimperialmonarch.
25Hilgarth,Vol.1,25.26Hilgarth,Vol.1,66‐67.
33
Barcelona,asanexample,hadtherighttolevyitsowntaxesandwasvirtuallynon‐
reliantonthecrown.Themonarchy,however,washeavilyreliantonitsmajorcities,
suchasBarcelona,forrevenue.27Thisisamirrorofthecity‐statesetupin
MesoamericawhereTenochtitlantechnicallyhadcontrolovervastareasofland,but
eachcity‐statemaintaineditsownautonomyandprovidedmoreforthecapitalcity
thanitreceivedinprotectionorrewards.
OnefundamentalaspectofIberiansocietythatemergedduringtheChristian
conquestswastheideaofacitybeingastatewithinastate.Theoverwhelming
trendofcontrolintheperiodfollowingtheReconquistaisthedominanceandpower
ofthelocalnobility.Lackofcontrolbythekingofaterritoryledtoeachcitybeing
runbyitsownlocalrulerswhomaintainedalotofpowerovertheirownterritory.
Theyalsohadsomepoweroverthemonarchbecausemostofthemoneyinthe
economywascenteredinthemajorcities.Thismeantthatwhenthemonarchwasin
needoffundsforthecrown,theyoftenmadedealswithlocalrulersinorderto
securefinances.Inexchangeformoneyandloyaltyfromacertaincity,themonarch
wouldrecognizetheautonomyandpowerofthecityandnotinterfereinlocal
government.28Citiesduringthisperiodalsohadastrongmedievalcharacterthat
wasbasedonmilitarystrategy,meaningthatmanycitiesoftheIberianPeninsula
werewalledoffandwellguarded.Eachlocalcity‐statewastrulyprotectedfrom
27Hilgarth,Vol.2,65.28Hilgarth,Vol.1,69,288.;Mariéjol,280.
34
outsiders,welldefendedfromimperialmeddling,andabletoretainanindependent
characterundertheblanketofanimperialkingdom.29
Agooddescriptionofpeninsularsocietyinthefourteenthcenturycomes
fromacitizenofBarcelonanamedRamonSavall.
Helamentsthedisintegrationofsociety.Noblesdislikegoodgovernment.Alltheywantiswar.Theleadingbourgeois…‘behaveasiftheywerekings’.Merchantsparadetheirwealthonhorseback.Artisansspendtheirtimeineatingandblasphemy.Peasantsuniteinbands,readytomassacreanyonewhoprovokesthem.Abovethisscenethereroseamonarchy…whichhadceasedtosummontheCortsGeneralssince1389,violatedtheprivilegesofcities,andwasswayedbyacliqueofcorruptcourtiers.30
Thisworldthathedescribesisoneofupstartsandmarkedbysocialandpolitical
upheaval.Everythinginsociety,includingpositionsandtitles,wasforsale.31
ThesedescriptionsofMexicaandSpanishsocietiesintheyearsbefore
contactshowustwodifferentworldsthatwerestrikinglysimilarincharacter.The
ideaofcommunalloyaltywasverystrong,andlocalrulersorgovernorsusuallyhad
alotofpowernotonlyovertheirownterritory,butalsooverthemonarch.
Monarchsusuallyreliedheavilyontheselocalrulersforfundsandmilitarysupport
whenneeded,butlocallordscouldbefickleandwouldriseupagainstthemonarch
inamomentifitsuitedtheirinterests.Thisledtoacultureofinternalstrugglesand
warasthesekingdomsexpanded.BoththeSpanishandMexicaconqueredlarge
areasoflandduringthepre‐contactperiod,buttheircontrolwasfarfromfirm.This 29Hilgarth,Vol.1,70.30Hilgarth,Vol.2,46.31Hilgarth,Vol.2,46.
35
setthestageforeachofthesetwogroupsofpeopletorecognizesimilaritiesinone
anotherandeasedthemergeofthesetwosocietiesinNewSpainduringtheearly
ColonialPeriod.
TributeDemands:ThePriceofAutonomy
InbothMesoamericaandtheIberianPeninsula,thedominantstatesrelied
heavilyongoodsfromsurroundingareasforsustenanceandeconomicprosperity.
InMexico,thesegoodscameintheformoftrade,butalsointributedemandsfrom
conqueredprovinces.Tenochtitlanwasanisolatedislandinthemiddleofalakeand
didnotproducemuchofitsowngoods.Thepeopleoftheislandhadtorelyon
goodsproducedinoutlyingterritoriesfortheirdailyneeds.Themonarchsadorned
themselveswithfinejewels,feathers,preciousmetals,anddecorativecloths,which
theydemandedfromareaswherethesethingswerelocallycollectedorproduced.In
theIberianPeninsula,theSpanishkingdomsreliedheavilyontradewithothersin
thepeninsula,buttheyalsotradedwiththerestofEuropeandwerehighlyinvolved
inMediterraneantradenetworks.Theeconomicsuccessofaterritorydepended
uponthesuccessofthetradeagreementsthatpolityhadmade.Thismadeforan
extremelymaterialisticsocietyinbothSpainandMexico.Especiallyamongstthe
upperandroyalclass,theimportanceofrichanddecorativethingstoshowone’s
rankwasakeyfactorofroyalculture.
BythetimetheSpaniardsarrivedinMesoamerica,theMexicawere
collectingtributefromovertwohundredandseventytownsacrosscentralMexico.
36
AlthoughtheMexicahadsubduedalloftheseprovinces,therestillwasnotmuch
directcontrol.Instead,Moctezumaruledbyinstillingfearinhisconqueredsubjects.
Manyofhisnewlyacquiredcity‐stateschafedunderhisstricttributedemandsbut
fearedgoingagainsthimbecausehewouldthreatenthemwithmilitaryviolence.Ifa
city‐stateresistedconquestorrebelledafterbeingconquered,theyoftenlosttheir
autonomy.TheMexicawouldsometimeswipeoutentiretowns,repopulatethem
withpeoplefromthecentralvalley,andinstalltheirowngovernorstorulethese
rebelliousterritories.Ontheotherhand,manycity‐statesmaintainedsomeformof
autonomybecausetheycooperatedwiththeMexicaandmettheirtributedemands
withoutresistance.Iftheydidnotrebelorresist,theywereusuallyabletokeep
theirowndynasticrulersandlivetheirlivesinmuchthesamewayastheyalways
had.ThismeantthatalthoughtheMexicacontrolledmuchofcentralMexico,
individualculturesstillsurvived.32
AsImentionedbefore,tributedemandsweightedheavilyonthegeneral
populousofMesoamerica.Commonersalreadyhadtopaysomesortoftributeto
theirlocalrulersinordertosupporttheeconomyoftheircommunity.Whentheir
citywasconqueredbytheMexica,itputanevenheavierburdenonlocalworkers
andfarmers.33BecauseofthelocationoftheMexicacapitalcity,inthemiddleofa
lakelocatedinavalleysurroundedbymountains,Tenochtitlanitselfdidnot
producemuchofitsownfoodstuffsandothergoods.TheMexicareliedontribute
32Ross,104.;Díaz,78‐79,88‐89,102,117,156‐157.;Zorita,6,112.33Zorita,73.
37
fromtheirvastterritoriestogivethemahugevarietyofeverythingproducedin
Mesoamerica.However,tributewasnotonlylimitedtofoodandothergoods;
peoplewerealsoapartofthetributedemands.Accordingtoonelocalrulerofa
conqueredprovince,“alltheprovincespaidtributeofgoldandsilver,feathers,
stones,clothandcotton,andIndianmenandwomenforsacrificeandothersfor
servants.”Moctezumawas“suchagreatprincethathepossessedeverythinghe
coulddesire…thehouseswherehedweltwerefullofriches…allthewealthofthe
countrywasinhishands.”34
ThevarietyofgoodsreceivedbytherulersofMexicowasrecordedingreat
detailintheCodexMendoza.Thislistincludeslargemantles,loin‐cloths,smaller
coloredmantles,tunics,skirts,honey,planks,wood,copal,copper,war‐dresses,
shields,grain,gold,turquoise,cacao,maize‐flour,beans,bowls,incense,rushmatts,
rushseatswithbacks,standards,headdresses,bagsoflime,livebirds,salt,sage,
copperaxeheads,ornamentalstones,redseashells,cotton,varnish,canes,deer
skins,perfumes,cochineal,diadems,headbands,necklaces,bracelets,lipornaments,
amber,rubberballs,tiger‐skins,cups,andchilipeppers.35Thetributerequiredfrom
eachcommunitydependedonthegoodsproducedinthatspecificareaofthe
empire.Withtheirvastcontroloversuchalargeareaofland,theMexicarulershad
accesstoeverygoodproducedinMesoamerica.Tributewasalsopaidintheformof
laborinwhichsubjectswouldservethecapitalbyconstructingandmaintaining
34Díaz,157.35Ross,37,41,42‐44,46‐47,51,53,58‐60,62‐63.
38
royalresidences,publicbuildings,temples,dikes,andotherfortifications.Atthe
locallevel,commonerswereresponsibleforservingintheirlord’shouseholdby
providingfuel,water,fieldlabor,andmilitaryservice.Inreturn,therulerwould
providehishouseholdservantswithlodgings,meals,andwages,andpromisedto
defendandprotectthem.36Thisisremarkablysimilartothefeudalsystem,which
existedinEuropeandwasjustbeginningtodecreaseinprevalenceduringthepre‐
contactperiod.
ThecommonersofTenochtitlanhadtheirowntributetopayaswell.Ona
rotatingbasis,twoneighborhoodsofthecapitalcitywereresponsibleforproviding
woodforfiresburneddailytohonorthegods.Thisdemandwasaheavyburdenfor
theneighborhoodsthatwerechosen,butafterayearthisresponsibilitymovedonto
anothertwoneighborhoods.37Soatanygiventime,theaveragepersonwas
responsibleforpayingatributetotheirownlocalcommunityingoodsorservices,
aswellasprovidingaformoftributetothecapital.Thiswasaprecarioussituation
formostandmeantthatthehardworkingcommonfolkwereverypoorandlived
simplelives.Whennaturaldisasterstruck,itrockedthisdemandingbalancetoits
core.Commonerswhowerenotabletomeettributedemandsbecauseofcrop
failureoftenhadtosellthemselvesortheirchildrenintoslaverytopaytheir
debts.38
36Zorita,73,74,105.37Zorita,73.38Zorita,75.
39
IntheIberianPeninsula,theabundanceandvarietyofgoodswasalsovery
importanttotheeconomicsituation.EachkingdomofSpainestablisheditsown
traderouteswithpolitiesoutsideofthePeninsula,whichmeantthatgoodswere
broughtinfromallovertheknownworld.Castiletradedmostlywithother
EuropeankingdomssuchasFlanders,IrelandandItaly.Portugalbroughtingoods
suchascloth,grains,minerals,silks,andspicesfromItalyandcountriesinthe
easternMediterranean.Aragonhadthemostadvancedanddiversetraderouteand
establishedtradingpartnershipswithSicily,Sardinia,Italy,France,NorthAfrica,
Alexandria,Cyprus,Constantinople,Morocco,England,Beirut,andFlanders.39In
general,thekingdomsofSpainexportedrawmaterialsandreceivedmanufactured
goodsfromplacessuchasnorthernEurope.SoSpainitselfwasnotveryindustrial,
anditsruralandurbaneconomieswereheavilyreliantontradenetworks.40The
monarchyalsoreliedheavilyontradeforitswealth.Thecrownleviedtaxeson
tradeandthiswasamajorsourceofrevenuefortheroyalfamilyandtheir
government.41Becauseoftheimportanceoftradetothewealthandsuccessofthe
Spanishkingdoms,theIberianPeninsulaatthistimeisbestdescribedasavast
seriesofinterwovenmini‐economiesthatwerehighlyreliantononeanotherfor
goodsandwealth.42
39Hilgarth,Vol.1,41.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,20‐27.40Hilgarth,Vol.2,36‐40.41Hilgarth,Vol.1,293.42Hilgarth,Vol.2,32.
40
Inadditiontorevenuemadethroughcustomsdues,therewasalsoaformof
tributepaymentinthekingdomsofSpain.Themajorityofthepopulationlivednot
withinthewalledcities,butinthecountrysideandmadetheirlivingoffoffarming
andlabor.Usually,theyfarmedsomeCrownlandsasaformoftributetothe
monarchy,butalsohadobligationstotheirowncityorcommunity.Onefarmer
oftenhadvaryingobligationstodifferentgovernmentalentitiesandwasoftena
subjectofmorethanonelayorecclesiasticallord.Inaddition,everysevenyearsall
individualsnotbelongingtothenobilityorhigherclergywererequiredtopaya
regulartaxtothemonarchy.TheCrownalsocollectedtributefromconquered
provincesthatwerenotyetundertheircontrol.Forexample,thekingdomofCastile
collectedtributefromGranadabeforeitfellin1492.Thiswasinadditiontothetax
revenuesfromtaxingthepopulace,andmoneyrequiredintributefromtheChurch
andfromtheJews.Duringaperiodofwar,subjectsalsoowedastributetheir
serviceinthemilitary;sotributewasvaried,andessentialtothemaintenanceof
Iberiansociety.43
Theimportanceoftradeandtributetoeconomicandgovernmentalsuccess
wasvitalinboththeIberianPeninsulaandMesoamerica.Thisisjustanother
exampleofsomethingthatthetwoculturescouldeasilyrelatetooneanotherwith.
WhensettingupthecolonialgovernmentinNewSpain,Spanishofficialsdidnot
havetoimplementtheirownpolicies.Traderoutesgenerallyremainedinplaceand
tributerelationshipscontinuedastheyhadbefore.Theonlydifferencewasnow 43Hilgarth,Vol.1,83,292.
41
mostoftherevenuewenttoSpanishofficialsratherthanindigenousnobles.Some
nativesoftheroyalfamilydidretainquiteabitofwealthandprivilege,butthepost‐
Conquestperiodwillbediscussedinmoredetailinthefourthchapter.
TheImportanceofReligioninSpanishandMexicaSociety
ItisvirtuallyimpossibletotalkaboutthesocietiesofSpainandMexico
withoutincludingatleastabriefdiscussionoftheimportanceofreligion.Although
thereligiouspracticesdiddifferbetweenthetwoinmanyways,theyareactually
moresimilarthanmostpeoplerealize.Oneofthemoststrikingsimilaritiesissimply
theimportancereligionheldineachofthesecultures.Eventhoughspecificaspects
ofChristianityandreligioninMesoamericadiffered,theimpactofreligiononthe
dailylifeofsocietywasverysimilar.EachculturebelievedthattheirGod(orgods)
controlledeveryaspectoflifebeginningwithone’sbirth,andtopleasethesegods
worship,penance,andofferingswerenecessary.Therewereobviouslysome
differencesinthepracticesoftheMexicaandtheSpaniards.Thepeopleof
Mesoamericabelievedinmultiplegodsandpracticedhumansacrifice.Buteven
thesepracticescanberelatedtosimilaronesseeninEuropeanChristianity.
Inadditiontheoverallsignificanceofreligioninbothcultures,thereare
somespecificsimilarities,whichIwillnowdiscussbriefly.ThegodHuitzilopochtli,
whotheMexicahonoredwiththeirlargesttempleinTenochtitlan,hadhislegendary
beginningsinawaywhichmirrorsthebirthofJesusintheChristiantradition.
AccordingtoMexicalegend,HuitzilopochtliwasborntoawomannamedCoatlicue
42
inatownnearTula(thecapitalofthefallenToltecEmpire).Oneday,Coatlicuewas
performingpenancetothegodsbysweepingwhensuddenlysomefeathersbeganto
fallaroundher.Shepickedthesefeathersupandputtheminherclothingnearher
waist.Whenshehadfinishedsweeping,shewasgoingtotakethefeathersbackout
andrealizedthattheywerenolongerthere.Insteadoffeathers,Coatlicuewasnow
carryingachild,Huitzilipochtli.44Thislegenddoesnotrequiremuchexplainingto
seethesimilaritieswiththeChristianbeliefsoftheVirginMary.Immaculate
conceptionofaprinciplepersontoworshipwasakeyfeatureofbothMexicaculture
andChristianity.
TheMexicaalsohadideasconcerningtheafterlifeandwhatpeoplewere
requiredtodoonearthinordertoreachtheirversionofHeaven.InMesoamerican
religion,therewerethreeplacesthatonecouldgoaftertheydied.Ifsomeonedied
ofsomesortofillness,theywenttotheplaceofthedead.Itwassaidthatinthis
placetherewereobsidianbladedwindsthatlastedforfouryears.Becauseofthis
belief,thedeadbodywasburnedalongwithmanyofhisorherbelongingsincluding
shields,swords,capes,andclothing.Theseitemswouldbeusedbythedeadperson
intheafterlifetoprotectthemselvesagainsttheobsidianbladedwinds.Afterthe
fouryearshadpassed,theywenttotheplaceofthedeadandcrossedthebroad
riverwiththehelpofadog,whichwasalsoburnedwiththedeceasedperson.When
theymadeitacrosstheriver,theymetwiththegodMictlantecutliwithwhomthey
wouldspendtherestoftheireternity.Becauseofthesebeliefs,theMexicatook 44Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.3,1‐2.
43
greatprideindogbreedingsotheycouldprovidedeceasedpeoplewithguidancein
theafterlife.Thisbeliefalsoencouragedpeopletobesuccessful;formenthismeant
goingtowarandtakingcaptivesandforwomenthismeantlearningtoweave,sow,
andmakecloths.Themoreworldlygoodsapersonhad,themoreprotectionthey
wouldhaveduringthefouryearsofdangerouswinds.45Soitwasimportanttobe
successfulinlife,nomatterwhatone’spositioninsocietymightbe.
ThesecondplacethatsomeonecouldgotointheafterlifeiscalledTlalocan.
Thisistheplacewheretheraingods,theTlalocs,dweltanditwasaplaceofgreat
wealthandnosuffering.Thisistheplacewherepeoplewouldgoiftheydiedfrom
skinsores,festering,gout,dropsy,drowning,oriftheywerestruckbylightning.
Whenthesepeoplediedtheywerenotburned,butwereinsteadburiedwithgreat
ceremony;theirbodieswerepaintedandimageswereburiedwiththem.46
Thethirdandmostprestigiousplacesomeonecouldgointheafterlifewas
theplaceofthesun,whichwastheclosestequivalenttoheaven.Thisultimate,
eternalparadisewasreservedforthosewhohaddiedawarrior’sdeath.This
includedmenwhodiedinwar,weretakencaptive,orweresacrificed.Thisisalso
wherewomenwhodiedinchildbirthwouldgo.InMexicasociety,givingbirthtoa
childwasasprestigiousastakingacaptiveinwar.Ifawomandiedwhilegiving
birth,shewasconsideredtohavediedawarrior’sdeath.Hereeveryonelivedina
45Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.3,41‐44.46Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.3,47.
44
placelikeadesertforfouryearsandthentheyeachbecamepreciousbirdsandlived
foreverinthehomeofthesun.47
Ofcourse,therearesomedifferencesbetweenthepracticesofMexicaand
Christianity.InChristiantraditiontherewasaheavenandhell,andinCatholic
traditionthereisalsoapurgatorythatsomepeoplehadtopassthroughontheway
toheaven.Whenlookedatinabroadway,thesetworeligiouscultureswerevery
similarinthisbelief.Theybothbelievedthattherewasaneternalrestingplacefor
thedeadandwhereadeceasedpersonwentdependedonhisorherachievements
onearth.ThepathtothemostdesiredrestingplacedifferedabitinMexicaand
Spanishculturebuttheconceptbehindthesebeliefsisverysimilar.Bothcultures
believedinasortofintermediaterestingplace,likeapurgatory,whereonemay
sufferforabitbeforereachinghisorherfinalrestingplace.Funeralpracticeswere
highlyceremonialandprayersforthedeadwereimportanttohonorthedeceased
person’ssoulandhelpthemreachtheultimateeternalparadise.
InSpain,religionwasalsocentraltotheeverydaylivesofitspeople.One
descriptionfrom1407describesagoodChristianassomeonewho“frequented
churches,heardtheDivineOffice,gavealms,confessedonceayear,andreceived
friarsinhishouse.”48Similartohowreligiousdeedsdefinedanindividualin
Mesoamericansociety,intheIberianPeninsula,goodChristiansweredefinedby
47FlorentineCodex,Vol.3,48.48Hilgarth,Vol.2,112.
45
theirexternalactivities.49Onemajorpointatwhichmanypeoplefinddiscrepancies
betweenreligiouspracticesinSpainandMesoamericaisthepracticeofpolytheism
bytheindigenouspeopleoftheNewWorld.However,aparallelcanbefound
betweenthemanygodsworshipedbythepeopleofMexicoandthelonglistof
saintsworshipedbyIberianCatholics.IntheSpanishkingdomsdifferentgroups
favoreddifferentsaintsanda“cultofsaints”wasextremelyapparentinChristian
tradition.ItistruethatChristiandoctrinepreachedthatthereisonlyoneGod,but
mostMesoamericansocietiesalsohadoneprimarygodwhowasaboveallthe
others.50
OneaspectofMexicasocietythattrulyterrifiedtheSpaniardsandmade
themjudgethepeopleofMesoamericaasbarbaricanduncivilizedwastheir
practiceofhumansacrifice.TheMexicabelievedthattohonortheirgods,theymust
feedthembyofferingthebloodofhumans.TohonortheTlalocgods,theysacrificed
manychildren,believingthatbydoingthisthegodswouldgivethemrain.51War
captiveswerealsoregularlysacrificedinthetemples.Theirheartswereusuallycut
outwhiletheywerestillaliveandtheirbloodwasofferedtothegods.Sometimes
themanwhohadtakenthecaptivewouldweartheflayedskinofthedeceasedfora
whileaftertheceremony.Othertimes,thebodywasdismemberedandthefleshof
thecaptivewaseaten.52Oneofthemostimportantcelebrationswasthatwhich
49Hilgarth,Vol.2,112.50Hilgarth,Vol.2,113.51Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,1.52Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,3‐4.
46
honoredthegodnamedTitlacauanwhowasconsideredthegodofallgods.“Inhis
honor,theyslew,inthisfeast,achosenyouthwhomighthavenoblemishedupon
hisbody,[whowas]rearedinallluxuriesforthespaceofayear,[and]trainedinthe
playing[ofmusicalinstruments],andinsinging,andinspeaking.”Oncethey
sacrificedthisyoungman,
“theyatonceproducedanother,whowastodieafteroneyear.Hewalkedeverywhereinthetownfinelyarrayedwithflowersinhishand,andwithpeoplewhoaccompaniedhim.Hegreetedwithgoodgracethosewhomhemet.AllknewthatthisonewasthelikenessofTezcatlipoca,andtheybowedbeforehimandworshipedhimwherevertheymethim…Twentydaysbeforethisfeastcame,theygavethisyoungmanfourcomelyyoungwomenrearedfor[thepart],withwhomforallthetwentydays,hehadcarnalrelations…Fivedaysbeforehewastodie,theycelebratedfeastsforhimandbanquets…Manyoftheleadingmenaccompaniedhim.Onthearrivalofthedayhewastodie,theytookhimtoapyramidorsanctuary.…Thewomenwithdrewandlefthim…heascendedthestepshimself;oneachofthemheshatteredoneofthefluteswhichhehadplayedashewalked,allduringtheyear…theythrewhimuponthesacrificialstone;theytoreouthisheart;theybroughtdownthebody,carryingitintheirhands;below,theycuttheheadandranthroughit[thecrosspieceoftheskullrack].”53
ThisisjustoneexampleofthewaytheMexicahonoredtheirgods.Onthesurface,it
mayseemthatthepracticeofhumansacrificemakesreligioninMexicoandSpain
completelydifferentfromoneanother.
However,whenexaminingtheconceptofsacrifice,andthereasonsbehindit,
itisindeednottoodifferentfromsomeSpanishbeliefs.Thebloodofsacrificial
victimswasconsideredthemostsacredthingthatcouldbeofferedtothegods.
However,theMexicaalsoofferedtheirgodsthebloodofanimals,food,incense,and
53Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,9‐10.
47
flowers.Theirofferingswerealsoaccompaniedbycelebrationsmarkedbydancing,
singing,andfeasting.Prayerandpenancewerealsoessentialtoreligiouswell‐being
inMesoamerica,asitwasintheIberianPeninsula.54InIberia,thereareexamples,
especiallyaftertheBlackDeathof1348ofsimilarlymacabrepracticesbyChristian
devotees.Forexample,inPortugalin1466,Christianswereobservedduringa
funeraltobeburningbreadandwine,aswellaslivinganimals.55
IntheSpanishkingdoms,appointmentstohighpositionsinthechurchwere
usuallyreservedformembersoftheroyalfamilywhoweretoofarremovedfrom
thesuccessiontohavemuchhopeofsuccessingovernment.Theseroyalappointees
weregivenlandandjurisdictionoveracertainarea,buthardlyeverresidedintheir
territoriessincetheywerestillforthemostpartattachedtotheroyalcourt.Because
thehigherclergywasgenerallydrawnfromthepoolofroyalornoblegentlemen,it
wasnaturalthatthechurchidentifiedwiththeroyalty.56Thiswasalsoseenin
Mesoamericawhereroyalchildrenwereraisedwithinthereligiousprecinct,in
housesoverseenbypriestsandpriestessesofthetemple.Ifaroyalsonwasnot
chosenasemperor,hecouldalwaysfindahighpositioninreligioussociety,which
gavehimimmenseprivilegesandwealth.
Specificaspectsofreligioninthesetwoculturesmayhavediffered,butthe
rolethatreligiouspracticesplayedinthedailylivesofpeopleinbothMesoamerica
54Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,2,5,7,14‐16,36‐38.55Hilgarth,Vol.2,114‐115.56Hilgarth,Vol.1,93,108.
48
andtheIberianPeninsulawasextremelysimilar.Inthisway,althoughsomeofthese
differencesmayhavebeenpointsofconcernfortheSpaniards,manyindigenous
peoplewereeasilyabletoadoptChristianitybecauseofitssimilaritywiththeirown
religiousbeliefs.ThisactuallyledtoanewformofChristianitybeingdevelopedin
NewSpain,whichincorporatedmanyindigenouselements.ThechurchinNew
SpainwasquitedifferentfromtheofficialchurchinEuropebecauseitwasablend
ofthesetwocultures.ThisconceptwillbeexaminedfurtherinChapter.4.
OtherRemarkableFeaturesofMexicaSociety
ThelargecivilizationsinMesoamericawererenownedfortheirhighsenseof
cultureandloveofbeauty.TheNahuatllanguageitselfwascomplex,ornate,and
wasdescribedashavingamusicalqualityaboutit.ThepeopleofcentralMexico
wrotepoetryandcomposedsongsandenjoyedmusicanddancing.Likesocietiesin
Europe,thecityofTenochtitlanwasknownasmuchforitsbeautyandcultureasfor
itswarriormentality.InTenochtitlan’sneighboringcity,Texcoco,King
Nezahualcoyotl(1418‐1472)wasahugepatronofthearts.Hewouldinvitethe
mostrenownedartistsandcraftsmentohiscityandestablishedcompetitionsthat
wouldregularlyjudgevariouspiecesofartandawardprizestothemost
outstanding.57ThisideaofahighlycivilizedandculturedsocietyincentralMexico
wasechoedintheconquistador’sownaccountsoftheearlycontactperiod.These
willbeexploredmoreindepthinChapter3,butitisworthnotingbrieflythatthe
57Zorita,5.
49
SpaniardswhoaccompaniedCortésonhisexpeditionwereblownawaybythe
peopleofcentralMexicoandhighlyimpressedatwhatthesenativeshad
accomplished.
TheMexicaalsohadaformofwritingandtheyusedfigbarkastheirwriting
surfaceasasortofpapersubstitute.Thistraditionofwritingwaswelldevelopedin
MesoamericabeforetheMexicaarrived,buttheyuseditfortheirownpurposesand
keptrecordsoftributeandjurisdiction.58Theyalsokeptrecordsoftheirconquests,
theirhereditarynobility,andothermajoreventssuchasnaturaldisasters.Using
thissystemofwriting,theMexicacreatedaverycomplexcalendar,whichdictated
almosteveryaspectoftheirdailylives.59
AlloftheserecordswerepictorialinnaturesincetheMexicadidnotyethave
aformofalphabeticwriting.Becauseofthis,therewasahighpositioninindigenous
societythatwasheldbyanextremelyintelligentindividualwhowasinchargeof
learningandmemorizingthehistoryoftheirpeople.Theyusedthepictographic
descriptionsasasortofpromptforthemtoelaborateonintheformofanoral
tradition.Thesewisemenwerealsoinchargeofinstructingyoungintellectualswho
wouldalsodedicatetheirlivestolearningabouttheirhistoryandmemorizingit.
Theywereinasense,walkinghistorybooks,andweregreatlyrespectedbyearly
58Brotherston,10.59Motolinía,25,29.
50
colonialSpaniardswhowereinterestedinlearningaboutpre‐Conquestcultureand
society.60
TheMexicacalendar,likemanyotheraspectsoftheirculture,wasborrowed
frompreviouslyestablishedpowersinMesoamericasuchastheToltecsandthe
Maya.Thiscalendarwasa260‐day“bookofdays”anditwasextremelyimportant
forreligionbecauseitdictatedthespecificdayforeachceremony.Therewere
twentydaysigns(Crocodile,Wind,House,Lizard,Serpent,Death,Deer,Rabbit,
Water,Dog,Monkey,Grass,Reed,Flower,Eagle,Vulture,FlintKnife,Rain,Motion,
andOcelot)whichwereeachrepresentedbyaspecificimage.Thesedaysignswere
combinedwithanumericalcoefficientfromonetothirteenrepresentedbydots.61
EachdayhaditsownsignificanceinMexicaculture.Thedaydeterminedfeasts,
rituals,ceremonies,fasting,andsacrifices.62
Eachdaywasbelievedtobecontrolledbyacertaingodorgroupofgodsand
thismadesomedaysluckyandothersunlucky.Theluckofacertaindaysignwas
alwayscarefullyconsideredwhendecidingonadayforawedding,coronation,or
thebeginningofawar.Whenababywasborn,thedaysignofhisbirthwastaken
intogreatconsiderationbecauseitwasthoughttodeterminethecourseoftheirlife.
Ifachildwasbornonanunluckydaysign,hisbathingceremony(whichresembled
aChristianbaptism)wasusuallyputoffuntiladaywithabetterfortuneassociated
60Motolinía,25,29.61Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.4&5,1‐2,5.;Keber,133.62Keber,135.
51
withit.Ifachildwasbornonadayfullofluck,heorshewasbathedandnamed
immediatelysothattheluckoftheirdaysignwouldfollowthemfortheirwholelife.
However,itwasstillimportantintheMexicaculturetodopenancetothegodsand
tobehaveinarespectablemanner.Ifsomeonewasbornonaluckydaysign,butdid
nothonortheirgodsoractedinaninappropriateway,thentheycouldtainttheir
daysignandwouldnotbeprosperous.Likewise,ifsomeonewasbornonanunlucky
daysign,butalwaysdidtheirpenanceandbehavedthewaysocietyexpectedthem
to,theycouldinsomewayschangethefateoftheirdaysignintosomethingmore
beneficial.63
Marriagesandinheritancewerealsoimportantpartsofpre‐Colonial
Mesoamericanculture.Royalmarriageswereofcourseimportantandusedto
cementalliances.But,marriagesingeneralwereanimportanttraditionandhad
strictceremonialpracticesassociatedwiththem.Eachpartnerbroughtinhisorher
ownpropertytothemarriageagreement.Iftwopartnersseparated,theyeach
simplytooktheirownpropertybackforthemselvesandthemarriagewasended.
DivorcewasamoreacceptablepracticeincentralMexicothanitwasinSpain.
PolygamywasalsopracticedinMesoamerica,butitwasapracticeonlyallowedifa
manwaspartofthehighestechelonofsociety.Ifamandidhavemorethanone
wife,therewasusuallyonewomanwhowashisprimarywife.Shewasthemost
63FlorentineCodex,Vol.4&5,2,5‐7,19,30,34.;Keber,153‐154.
52
well‐breadofhiswivesandsothechildrenbornbyherweretheman’sprinciple
heirs.64
InMesoamerica,weddingsweredonewithastrictadherencetocultural
practicesandtraditions.Whenparentssawthattheirsonwasoldandmature
enoughformarriage,theytookhimawayfromtheschoolforyoungmenand
decidedamongsttherelativeswhichwomanhewouldmarry.Afterchoosinga
bride,theparentssummonedsomeold,wisewomenwhowereknownasthe
marriage‐makersandtoldthemoftheirwish.Themarriage‐makerswouldthengo
speaktotheparentsoftheyoungwomanandrequestherhandinmarriage.Once
bothpartiesagreed,thenadatewaspickedoutbythemarriage‐makerswhowould
chooseadaythathadgoodluckassociatedwithit.Theceremonyitselffirstinvolved
feastingatbothhouseholds.Thentheyoungwomanwascarriedinasolemn
processiontothehouseoftheparentsofhergroom.Thebrideandgroomwere
seatedbythehearthandthemothers‐in‐lawbothinturncoveredthebrideand
groomwithclothingandtiedthecornerofthegroom’scapetothecornerofthe
bride’sshift.Thisconcludedthemarriage,andcelebrationscontinuedwithfeasting,
drinking,anddancing.65
Althoughthespecificpracticesmayhavedifferedabit,inbothSpainand
Mesoamericatheinstituteofmarriagewasanextremelyimportantpartofthe
culture.Inbothsocieties,itwasdecidedbytheparentswhenandwhomtheirchild
64Brotherston,53.65Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.2,40‐41.
53
wouldmarry.AlsoinbothSpainandMexicothereweretraditionalpractices
associatedwithmarriagethatmustbecompletedinorderforthemarriagetobe
legitimate.Bothsocietieshadasystemofwritingandareligiousandceremonial
calendarthatdeterminedeventsforeachday.AlthoughtheSpanishsystemof
writingwasmoreadvanced,thepeopleofMesoamericadidhaveanexceptionally
sophisticatedculture.ThisculturewassoremarkablethattheSpanishchroniclers
couldnothelpbutcommentonitingreatdetailandexpresstheiradmiration.Their
accountswillbethefocusofChapter3,wherethiswillbediscussedinmoredetail.
Conclusions
Thischapterfocusedongivingabroadoverviewofthepre‐Colonialsocieties
inbothMesoamericainSpain.Theemphasisofcourseisonthesharedsimilarities,
ofwhichthereweremany.Bothbeganassmallkingdoms,orgroupsofindividuals,
andextendedtheirpowertoencompasslargeareasoflandbythefifteenthcentury.
Despitetheideaofimperialdominance,monarchsofboththeSpanishKingdoms
andtheMexicaEmpireexercisedaveryindirectformofcontrol.Mostlocalpower
wasgiventoindividualrulersandgovernorsandtheselocalleaderswereoftenat
oddswithoneanother.Thiscreatedanunstableanddangeroussocietyintheyears
precedingcontactforbothoftheseregions.Alongwiththeirconquerormentality
andwarriorethos,bothSpainandMesoamericansocietiesputmuchemphasison
theirreligion.Religiondictatedalmosteveryaspectoflifeandwasusedasa
justificationforwar.Anideaofdivinerightofkingsandadivinerighttoconquer
54
waspopularinbothMexicaandSpanishculture.Thesesimilaritieshaveoftenbeen
overlooked,buttheyaresoveryimportantfortheunderstandingoftheemergence
ofcultureincolonialNewSpain.
WhatIhopetoaccomplishwiththisworkistopromoteanewdialogueon
thehistoryoftheMexicathatreexaminestheirlevelofcivilizationand
sophisticationwhencomparedwiththeircontemporarySpaniards.Thesetwo
societiesarepopularlybelievedtohavebeenextremelydifferent,butinmanyways,
theywereactuallyquitesimilar.Bylookingatsomeofthesepopulardifferences
throughanewperspective,manysimilaritiescanbefoundthatshowthatthesetwo
culturesonawholesharedmanyideasandculturalconceptswhichIbelievehelped
themmergeafterthecontactperiod.Withoutthesesimilarities,colonialNewSpain
mayhaveturnedoutinmuchthesamewayasothercolonialprojects.Most
Europeanandindigenoussocietiesdidnotcometogetherinsuchawayasdidthe
SpanishandtheMexica.Ibelievethismergeofculturesisduetothefactthateach
grouprecognizedmanysimilaritiesinoneanother.Indigenouspeoplewereeasily
abletoincorporatemanySpanishpracticesbecausetheywerenottoounliketheir
own.Ontheotherside,Spanishcolonialofficialskeptmanyindigenousinstitutions
inplaceaftertheConquestbecausetheyweresimilarenoughtowhatwasdonein
Spain.TheMexicahadaprettygoodsystemofdominance,tributecollection,and
warriorethos,andtheSpanishrespectedthisandincorporateditintotheirnew
colonialstructure.Thefinalchapterwilltalkmoreaboutthispost‐Conquestmerge
55
ingreatdetail.Leavingthebroadframeworkofthischapter’sanalysis,thenexttwo
chapterswilldigmoredeeplyintotheprimarysourcematerials.Thefocusofthese
chapterswillbetheimportanceofroyalcultureinbothSpanishandMexica
societies.
56
CHAPTER2
INDIGENOUSSOURCEDESCRIPTIONSOFPRE‐CONQUESTMEXICAROYALTY
BeforetheConquest,thepeopleofMesoamericahadsophisticatedpictorial
writingsystemsinplace.Thepictographswerenotoverlydescriptiveorelaborate
butthereweremembersofthenobilitywhoweretrainedinreadingand
interpretingtheseimages.Theywerechosenfromamongtheeliteandweretrained
fromaveryyoungageattheschoolforthenobility,whichwasrunbypriestsin
Tenochtitlan.Bymemorizingthehistoryoftheirpeople,theywereabletousethese
pictographsasasortofprompttoelaborateonwhatwasbeingsaid.Whenthe
Spanisharrived,theytaughtindigenousnoblemenhowtowriteNahuatlin
alphabeticform.Thesenobleindigenousscholarsbegantoproducedocumentssuch
ascodices,whichwerepictorialandbasedonpre‐Conquesttradition,butwere
accompaniedbyglossesinSpanishorNahuatlsotheywouldbemoreeasily
interpreted.Spanishfriarsalsoproducedanumberofdocumentsbyinterviewing
peoplefromthecommunitiesintheearlypost‐Conquestyearsandwritingdown
theirhistory.Eventually,indigenouscommunitiesbegantoproducetheirown
manuscriptsandlocalhistories,awayfromthepryingeyesofanySpanishofficials.
Allofthesedocuments,althoughproducedaftertheConquest,focusonpre‐
Conquestyearsandrelyonoraltraditionoflocalhistoryandpre‐Conquest
documents.Throughthemwegetasenseoflifeandsocietybeforethesetwo
culturescollided.Itisimportanttounderstandthateventhoughthedocuments
57
examinedinthisstudywereproducedaftertheConquest,theycanstilllendinsight
intocertaininstitutionsthatexistedbeforethesetwosocietiesevercameinto
contactwithoneanother.Eachdocumentisbrieflydescribedbelowinorderto
demonstrateitsrelevancetothepre‐Conquestyearsanditsusefulnessasasource
fortheperioddirectlyprecedingcontact.
ThefirstsourceexaminedisbyDiegoDurán,aSpaniardwhotraveledtothe
NewWorldatayoungageandgrewupinoneofTenochtitlan’sneighboringcities,
Texcoco.ThroughouthischildhoodDuránwassurroundedbyindigenouspeople,
becamefluentinNahuatl,anddevelopedaninterestinthehistoryoftheMexica.In
the1570shebeganwritinghisseminalwork,HistoriadelasIndiasdeNuevaEspaña
eIslasdeTierraFirme,byrelyingonpre‐Conquestdocuments,oralhistoryand
interviewswithpeoplewhohadresidedintheareabeforetheSpanisharrived.1
AlthoughhewasentirelySpanishbyblood,Duránwasraisedinthecentralvalleyof
MexicointheearlyyearsaftertheConquest.Henotonlyknewthepeoplehe
interviewed,buthecareddeeplyforthemandwasveryinterestedinpreserving
theirhistoryandpresentingtheirculture.Hisworkisnotbyanindigenousperson,
butitpresentsanarrativebasedonindigenoussources,whichiswhyitisincluded
inthispartofthemanuscript.
AnotherSpaniardwhotookituponhimselftowriteaboutthehistoryofthe
indigenouspeopleoftheNewWorldwasFrayToribioMotolinía.HewasaSpanish
1Durán,xxiii–xxvi.
58
friaroftheFranciscanorderandwasoneofthefirsttwelvetobesenttoNewSpain
in1524.HetraveledalloverMesoamericaforhismissionaryworkandwasvery
interestedintheindigenouspeople,theirhistory,andthecountryinwhichthey
lived.Hebeganwritinghisdetailedmanuscriptin1536andmostofhisaccount
focusesonhisownobservationsandthusisapost‐Conquestnarrative.However,he
doesincludesomebriefsectionsonthepre‐Conquestyearsandthisinformation
likelycamefrompeoplehewasinteractingwithonaday‐to‐daybasisthathadlived
inpre‐Colonialtimes.2This,again,isaSpanishpost‐Conquestnarrative,butbased
onthesourcesutilizedforthesectionsonthepre‐Colonialyears,Ihaveplacedit
withtheotherindigenoussources.Motoliníahadnothimselfexperiencedlifeinpre‐
ConquestMesoamerica,butduringhistravelsasafriar,heundoubtedlymetmany
peoplewhohad.Theirvoiceistoldthroughhismanuscript.
TheCodexChimalpahinisanotherimportantsourceforinformationonthe
pre‐Conquestyears.Theauthor,donDomingodeSanAntónMuñónChimalpahin
Quauhtlehuanitzin,wasanindigenousNahuaannalistwhowroteonthehistoryof
MexicoCityandthesurroundingareasinthelatesixteenthandearlyseventeenth
centuries.Hecollectedandcopiedmanydocumentsbyotherauthorssohiswork
containswritingsofhisownaswellasvariousindividualaltepetl(Mexicacity‐state)
histories.Heutilizedmyriadsourcessuchaspictorialmanuscripts,oralinterviews,
andhisownobservations,andcoversthepre‐Conquestperiodaswellaseventsin
2Motolinía,1‐2,7‐10,13‐18.
59
hisowntime.3Thiswork,likethatbyDuránwasproducedmanyyearsafterthe
conquest.However,thesourcesitreferencesforinformationarepre‐Conquest
sourcesthatarenolongerextant.Thisworkisararelookintothepre‐Conquest
years,andalsothetimeimmediatelyfollowingtheConquest.Itisalsoindicativeas
towhataspectsofMexicasocietywereimportanttoindigenousintellectualsduring
theearlyColonialperiod.TheamountofnarrativeontherulersofTenochtitlanand
othercities,theirroyalfamilies,intermarriages,andconquestsshowsthatrespect
andadmirationforindigenousroyalswasstillveryimportanttonativepeoples
livinginthenewSpanishcolonialsociety.
Oneofthemostwell‐knownsourcesofindigenousMesoamericanhistory
beforetheConquestistheworkknownastheFlorentineCodexbyFrayBernardino
deSahagún.HearrivedinNewSpainin1529asamemberoftheFranciscanorder,
learnedNahuatl,andtrainedyoungMexicanoblemeninSpanish,Latinandwritten
Nahuatl.Hebeganworkingonhisfamousmanuscriptinthe1540sandcontinuedto
writeandedititforthenextthreedecades.Itthoroughlycoversthehistoryand
cultureofthepeopleoftheBasinofMexicointhepre‐Conquestyears.Sahagún
interviewednative“informants”whohadlivedbeforetheConquestandhadhis
youngindigenousscholarswritedowntheiranswersinNahuatl,whichhelater
translatedintoSpanish.4Thisworkisinterestingandrelevantforanumberof
reasons.Itwasofcourse,ultimatelyeditedbyaSpaniard,buttheoriginalwritings
3Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,5‐10.4Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,IntroductoryBook,9‐19.
60
inNahuatlarethoughttobequiteauthentic.Thescholarswhoweretrainedtowrite
thismanuscriptwereprobablyveryyounganddidnotremembertheConquestfirst
hand,buttheywerestillbornintoindigenousculture,andhadalotofknowledgeon
pre‐Conquesttimes.ByinterviewingacquaintancesthathadresidedinTenochtitlan
beforetheConquest,thesemencomposedanincomparableandheavilydetailed
pieceofliteratureonthesociety,culture,andpracticesofpre‐Conquestindigenous
peoples.
CodexTellerianoRemensisisanotherindigenouswork,whichconsistsof
MexicapictorialdrawingsaccompaniedbydescriptionsinSpanish.Theartistswere
clearlyindigenousandthemenannotatingtheworkarethoughttobebothnative
andSpanish.Theonlyknownannotator,PedrodelosRíos,wasoftheDominican
orderanditislikelythattheotherannotatorswerehiscolleagues.Thecodexwas
finishedintheearly1560sandconsistsofthreesections:anindigenousceremonial
calendar,aritualhandbook,andahistoricalchroniclewhichcoversthemigrationof
theMexicatotheBasinofMexicoandthepre‐Hispanicreignsofkingsbeginning
withAcamapichtliandendingwithMoctezumaII.Thedrawingsinthecodexare
believedtobebaseduponpre‐Conquestdocumentsthatarenolongerextant.5This
isanotherexampleofapre‐ConquestworkthatwascompiledbyamixofSpanish
andindigenousscholars.Thedrawingsinthecodexareextremelyindigenousin
nature,andareentirelypictorial.Thewritingsthataccompanythepictographsare
inSpanishandgivesomeexplanationastowhatthedocumentistryingtosay. 5Keber,115‐116,121‐129.
61
However,byinterpretingtheactualpictographsthemselves,thewealthof
knowledgeinthismanuscriptisrevealed.Itisanincredibleworknotonlyfor
learningaboutpre‐ConquestcentralMexico,butitisalsovaluableforstudying
indigenouspictorialwritingbeforeitwastooheavilyinfluencedbySpanishculture
andpractices.
Thenextsource,theCodexMendoza,isapictographicmanuscriptnamedfor
themanwhocommissionedit,thefirstViceroyinNewSpain,AntoniodeMendoza.
HehadthishistoryoftheMexicapreparedsohecouldsendittotheKingofSpain,
CharlesV.ItwaspaintedbyMexicaartists,usingtheirownformofpictographic
writing.InorderforCharlesVtounderstandthenativedrawings,aSpanishpriest
whounderstoodNahuatlandtheMexicawritingsystemaddedexplanationsofeach
pictureinSpanish.Itcontainsthreesectionsbeginningwithacopyofapre‐Hispanic
chroniclethatnolongerexistswhichdepictsalltheMexicankingsandthetowns
theyconqueredfrom1325to1521.ThesecondpartistheTributeRoll,alsoacopy
ofapre‐Hispanicdocument,whichshowsthetypeoftributepaid,theamount,and
howfrequentlyitwasdeliveredtoTenochtitlan.Thethirdpartofthecodex
describesday‐to‐daylifeeventsoftheMexicapeople.6Thisdocumentisusefulfora
numberofdifferentthings,andgivesinformationonthepre‐Conquesteraandthe
peopleofTenochtitlan.ItalsogivesthemostdetaileddescriptionoftheMexica
tributecollectionsystem,thegoodsavailableinMesoamerica,andthenumberof
citiesunderthecontrolofMoctezumaII. 6Ross,11‐12.
62
AfinalmanuscriptexaminedforthisstudyistheCozcatzinCodex.This
documentwascomposedinthelatesixteenth‐century,mostlikelybymultiple
indigenousscribes.ItbeginswithalistoflandgiventoindigenouspeoplebyItzcoatl
in1439andisthoughttobepartofalanddisputethatoccurredin1572.Thesecond
part,andthepartrelevanttothisstudy,iscomprisedofportraitsoftherulersof
TenochtitlanandTlatelolcofromthepre‐HispanicperioduntilwellintotheColonial
years.Becauseitispartofanindigenouslanddispute,thisdocumentwasmost
likelycompiledbyindigenousauthorsonly.AlthoughtheyusedLatinalphabetic
scriptandtheirartworkisclearlyinfluencedbyEuropeanstyles,thisismorethan
anythingatrueindigenoussource.Itrepresentsalocalhistoryofthecentralregions
oftheBasinofMexico.7Unlikemostofthedocumentsusedforthismanuscript,the
CozcatzinCodexwaslikelynotdoneunderthescrutinyofSpanishgovernmentalor
churchofficials.Itisoneofthemostauthenticindigenoussourcesthatscholarshave
accessto.
Thesesourcesrepresentavarietyofindigenoushistoricaldocuments.Some
arebasedonpre‐Conquestpictorialsthatarenolongerextant,andothersrely
heavilyonlocaloraltraditions.Thoseproducedintheyearsimmediatelyfollowing
theConquestutilizeinterviewswithpeoplewholivedintheBasinofMexicobefore
theSpanisharrived.Althoughproducedinthepost‐Conquestyears,Ibelievetheyall
offerextremelyimportantinsightintothesocietyoftheMexicaEmpireintheyears
precedingcontact.Conceptsofroyalty,suchastheimportanceofhereditary 7ValerodeGarcıaLascurainandTena,33.
63
nobility,royalintermarriages,andceremonialpracticesareclearlyillustratedin
theseindigenousdocuments.
HereditaryNobility
MexicansocietywasverysophisticatedwhentheSpanisharrivedonthe
scene.Theyhadaroyalfamilyfromwhichalltheirkingswereselected.Unlikein
Spain,whereprimogeniturewasthedominatingpractice,theMexicaheldelections.
However,theelectionswereheldbythehighest‐rankingnoblesandtherewereonly
fourmentochoosefrom,thosewhomadeuptheroyalcounciloffour.Thesefour
menwerealwayscloserelativesofthecurrentemperor,usuallybrothers,sons,or
nephews,andweregiventhetitles,Tlacochcalcatl,Tlacatecal,Ezhuahuacatl,and
Tlilancalqui.8Ofthesefour,theonewhohaddistinguishedhimselfthemostwas
chosenasthenextruler.Throughouttheirshorthistoryasanempire,theMexica
hadelevenrulersandtheyallweredirectdescendantsofthefirstking,
Acamapichtli.
AcamapichtliwasthesonofaMexicanlordandawomanfromtheroyal
familyofColhuacan.Hisreignisestimatedtohavebegunbetween1364and1384
andendedbetween1387and1404.Afterhisdeathhewasfollowedonthethrone
byhisson,Huitzilihuitl,whoruleduntilapproximately1415.Huitzilihuitlhadmany
sons,themostprominentofwhichwereChimalpopoca,Tlacaelel(futurecihuacoatl
orsupremecouncilor),andthefutureruler,MoctezumaI.Ofhissons,Chimalpopoca
8Durán,72.
64
waschosentosucceedonthethrone,buthisreignwascutshortwhenhewaskilled
bytheTecpanecpeopleofAzcapotzalco.Thenextkingwaselectedin1424‐28.This
wasItzcoatl,anillegitimatesonofAcamapichtli.Itzcoatlruledonlyfourteenyears,
butduringthistimehesubjugatedtheentireareasurroundingLakeTexcocowith
thehelpofhisnephewTlacaelel,whowasgiventhetitle,cihuacoatl.Itzcoatldiedin
1440andwassucceededbyhiscousinMoctezumaI.Itzcoatldidhaveason,
Tezozomoctzin,whodidnotfollowhimonthethrone.Heisdescribedasaprince,
whichprobablymeansthathewasoneoftheroyalcounciloffour.Hemarried
Moctezuma’sdaughter,Atotoztli,andfromthatunioncamethreeMexicakings,
Axayacatl,Tizoc,andAhuitzotl.9
DuringthereignofMoctezumaI(1440‐1469)theMexicaEmpireexpanded
outsidethebasinofMexicoinalldirections.Moctezuma’sson,Iquehuatzin,was
captaingeneralandamemberoftheroyalcounciloffour,averyprestigious
positioninMexicasociety.However,Moctezumawasinsteadfollowedonthethrone
byhisgrandson,Axayacatl(1469‐1481).Hisshortreignlastedonlythirteenyears
andisrememberedbecauseofhissubjugationofthepeopleofTlatelolco,
Tenochtitlan’sclosestneighbor.Hehadmanychildrenincludingthefuture
emperors,MoctezumaIIandCuitlahuac.Axayacatl’sgrandson,donDiegoHuanitzin,
alsobecamearulerinTenochtitlaninthepost‐Conquestyears.AfterAxayacatl’s
9Ross,19,22,25.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,35‐43,113‐115,119,123‐125,129‐133,211‐213,229‐233.;Durán,33‐34,38,41‐49,51‐53,60,84,91.;Keber,61‐64,66,211‐214,216,271‐272;Motolinía,28.;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,1,15.;ValerodeGarcıaLascurainandTena,45‐46,97.
65
deathin1480,hisbrotherTizocwaselectedasthenextemperor.Rumorsofhis
deathclaimthathewaspoisonedbyhisownnoblemenbecauseofhislackof
ambitionandwarriorattitude,sohisquickreignendedin1486.Hewasfollowedon
thethronebyanotherbrother,Ahuitzotl.Duringhisreign,theempireexpanded
evenmoretoreachbothcoasts,andextendedsouthallthewayintothesouthern
regionsofpresentdayMexicoandnorthernGuatemala.AlsoduringAhuitzotl’s
reign,Tlacaeleldied.Hehadbeenthesecondmostimportantmanintheempire
sincethereignofItzcoatl.HiseldestsonCacamatzinhadthetitle,tlacochcalcatl,one
oftheroyalcounciloffour,andanotherson,Tlilpotonqui,becamethenext
cihuacoatl.Tlacaelel’sgrandson,Tlacotzinwasalsocihuacoatlduringthetimeofthe
Spanishandwasthelastonetoholdthatposition.Hewaseventuallybaptizedand
renamedJuanVelásquezandbecamerulerofTenochtitlanintheColonialperiod.10
In1503Ahuitzotldiedandleftmanychildren.Ofhissons,Chimalpilliwasthe
rulerofEcatepec,Atlixcatzinwastlacateccatlandcaptaingeneral,andCuauhtemoc
wouldbecomethelastpre‐ConquestruleroftheMexica.Ahuitzotlwassucceeded
byhisnephewMoctezumaII.Althoughhewasasuccessfulruler,heisprimarily
rememberedbecauseduringhisreigntheSpanishcame.Hewaskilledin1520
whilebeingheldprisonerbutmanyofhischildrensurvivedtheConquestandlived
amongtheSpaniardsinMexicoandSpain.TheyintermarriedwiththeSpanishand
enjoyedmanybenefitsduetotheirroyalblood.MoctezumaII’sbrother,Cuitlahuac,
10Ross,25,28,29.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,47‐53,57,133‐135,141,149‐155,169,213‐215,235.;Durán,150‐151,159,178‐180,183,208,222.;Keber,72,76,80‐82,220‐222,224‐227,273‐274;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,2.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,46,97.
66
waschosenasthenextemperorbutruledforonlyeightydaysbeforedyingofthe
smallpoxepidemic,whichhitTenochtitlanin1520.Hewasfollowedonthethrone
byCuauhtémoc,whowasinpowerwhenTenochtitlanfelltotheSpanishin1521.He
continuedtoreignaftertheSpanishtookoverbutwaskilledonlyacoupleyears
laterbyCortésbecauseofhissupposedinvolvementinarebellionplot.11Thereign
ofthisMexicadynastylastedalmosttwohundredyearsandthereisadirectline
fromthefirstking,Acamapichtli,tothelastemperor,Cuauhtémoc.
WhenlookingatSpanishroyaltyduringthistime,somesimilaritiescanbe
found.Spanishsocietypracticedprimogeniture,whichmeansthattheeldestmale
heirinheriteduponthedeathofhisfather.However,therewasasysteminplace
whereagroupofpeople,knownasthecortes,neededtoapprovethenextruler.So,
liketheMexica,theSpanishhadawayofcontrollingthesuccession.Whenthe
SpaniardsfirstbeganexploringtheNewWorld,Spainwasnotyetanationbut
brokenupintoanumberofterritories.Themostimportantoftheseterritorieswas
CastileandthemonarchatthistimewasIsabella.ShewasmarriedtoFerdinand,the
KingofaneighboringterritorycalledAragon.Aftertheirdeaths,theirtwokingdoms
unitedformingthebasisforwhatisnowmoderndaySpain.
IsabellawaspartofthehouseofTrastámaraandtheirruleinCastilehad
startedaroundthesametimeAcamapichtlibecamethefirstkingoftheMexica.
11Ross,33.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,53‐57,157‐159,165‐167,217,235.;Durán,218,220,224,301,322‐323.;Keber,85,227‐228,274.;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,2,4.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,46‐47,97‐98.
67
DuringthestartofAcamapichtli’sreign,therewasastruggleforthecrownanda
majorcivilwarhappeninginCastile.Theking,AlfonsoXI,haddiedin1350andhis
son,Pedro,wasthenewking.However,in1369,Alfonso’sillegitimateson,Enrique
ofTrastámara,killedhishalf‐brotherandtookthethrone,beginningtheTrastámara
dynasty.RulingasEnriqueIIuntil1379,hewasfollowedasKingofCastilebyhis
sonJuanI(1379‐1390).Juan’ssonEnriqueIII(1390‐1406)becamethenextking
followedbyhissonJuanII(1406‐1454).JuanIIhadthreechildren:theeldestson
becameEnriqueIV(1454‐1474),thesecondsondiedwhenhewasonlyfifteen,and
thethirdchild,Isabella,becameQueenofCastilein1474.WhentheSpanish
conqueredTenochtitlan,Isabella’sgrandsonCharlesVwasontheSpanishthrone.
Withthebeginningofhisreignin1516,theTrastámaradynastyendedandthatof
theHapsburgsbegan.12
ThesystemofhereditarynobilitywasfirmlyentrenchedinbothMexicoand
SpainbeforetheConquest.TheSpanishfollowedprimogeniture;however,aruler
couldnottakethethronewithoutthepermissionofthecortes.InMexico,theeldest
sondidnotnecessarilyinheritbuttheheirwasalwaysacloserelativeofthe
emperorwhohaddistinguishedhimselfabovetheothercandidates.Likethecortes
inSpain,theroyalcounciloffourinMexicohadtoapprovethenextruler.The
12PeggyK.Liss,IsabeltheQueen:LifeandTimes(Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2004),xv,10.;AngusMacKay,SpainintheMiddleAges:FromFrontiertoEmpire,1000–1500(NewYork:St.Martin’sPress,1977),121‐122,133,141.;TownsendMiller,TheCastlesandtheCrown:Spain:1451‐1555(NewYork:Coward‐McCann,1963),22.;GlynRedworth,GovernmentandSocietyinLateMedievalSpain:FromtheAccessionoftheHouseofTrastámaratoFerdinandandIsabella(London:TheHistoricalAssociation,1993),24‐25.;ChristopherStorrs,TheResilienceoftheSpanishMonarchy,1665‐1700(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2006),11.
68
dynastyofAcamapichtliandhisheirsparallelsalmostdirectlytheTrastámara
dynastyinSpain.Therewasaclearroyalfamilyinbothsocietiesandfromthis
familyalltherulerswereselected.Thus,heimportancegiventoahereditaryruler
wasstrikinglysimilarinbothcultures.
StrategicRoyalMarriages
AnotherimportantelementofMexicasocietythatwasparalleledinEuropeis
theimportanceofintermarriageswithotherstatesinordertocementalliances.The
Mexicaintermarriedwithotherindigenousroyalfamiliesfromneighboring
domainsthewaythattheSpanishmarriedintotheroyalfamiliesofPortugal,
France,andEngland.TheMexicaroyalsalsomarriedverycloserelatives,whichwas
commonlypracticedthroughoutEurope.OnemajordifferenceisthatMexican
noblemenwereallowedtohavemultiplewives.Thismakestheirwebofroyal
intermarriagesevenmorecomplex.
InMexicothisbeganwithAcamapichtliwhowasmarriedtoanoblewoman
fromColhuacan,namedIlancueitl.ChimalpahinclaimsthatAcamapichtli’swifewas
sterile,sohewasgiventhedaughtersofmanyhighrankingmenintheareato
produceoffspringwhowerefittorule,sincetheydidnotconsiderhisfirstson
Itzcoatlalegitimateheir.Ofthesechildren,onewasthesecondking,Huitzilihuitl,
onemarriedthedaughterofthekingofTlacopan,andanothermarriedtherulerof
Chalco.HuitzilihuitlmarriedadaughteroftherulerofTlacopan,Miyahuaxochtzin,
whowasthemotherofChimalpopoca.Healsomarriedthedaughterofthekingof
69
Quauhnahuac,apparentlytosecuretheimportofcotton.OneofHuitzilihuitl’s
childrenmarriedtherulerofItztapalapaandhadadaughter.ThisItzapalapan
princesseventuallycamebacktoMexicotomarryherfirstcousin,theEmperor
Axayacatl.HuitzilihuitlalsohadadaughterwhomarriedtherulerofCoatlIchanand
anotherwhomarriedthekingofTexcoco.MoctezumaI’sdaughterwasmarriedto
hercousin,asonofItzcoatl.AnotherdaughtermarriedanoblemanfromTepexic
MixtlanandbecausehemarriedaMexicanprincess,Moctezumaconfirmedthis
noblemanasthenextrulerofTepexicMixtlan.13
AxayacatlhadchildrenwithanoblewomanfromTollan.Oneofhissonswith
herwenttoruleinTollansincehismotherwasthedaughterofthepreviousruler.
AxayacatlalsohadchildrenwithCuetlaxxochitzin,thedaughteroftherulerofTicic
Cuitlahuac.OneofhisdaughtersmarriedtherulerofTecamachalcoandherson
eventuallybecametherulerofthatcity.DuringthetimewhenTlatelolcowas
conqueredbyTenochtitlan,theTlatelolcanruler,MoquihuixwasmarriedtoKing
Axayacatl’ssister.Thenextruler,MoctezumaII,marriedhisfirstcousin,the
daughterofAhuitzotl.HealsohadasecondwifewhowasthedaughterofTlacaelel,
anothercloserelation.WhenMoctezumaIIconqueredthecityofTehuantepecinthe
areaofpresentdayOaxaca,hegaveoneofhisdaughterstobemarriedtotheheirof
thatkingdomtohelpcementthenewalliance.Cuitlahuacmarriedagranddaughter
ofNezahualpilli,rulerofTexcoco.ThesonfromthisunionalsomarriedaTexcocan
13Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,37‐39,43‐51,119,123‐125,133.;Durán,34,37,41‐42.
70
noblewoman,anothergranddaughterofNezahualpilli.14Cuiltahuacwasalso
marriedtoMoctezumaII’sdaughter,doñaIsabel.AfterCuitlahuac’sdeath,she
marriedthenextruler,Cuauhtemoc.So,shefirstmarriedherfather’sbrother,and
thenherfather’scousin.15
Theconfusingwebofintermarriageswithintheroyalfamilyandwithrulers
ofotherstatesisseeninSpanishsocietyaswell.EnriqueIII,thethirdKingofCastile,
wasmarriedtoCatherine,sisterofHenryIVofEngland.Theirson,JuanIIwas
Isabel’sfather.Hisfirstwife,MaríaofAragonwashisfirstcousin,andhissecond
wifewasaprincessofPortugal.IsabelwouldeventuallymarryFerdinand,whose
fatherwasthebrotherofJuanII’sfirstwifeMaría.EnriqueIV’sfirstwifewasa
princessofNavarre.TheydivorcedwithouthavinganychildrenandEnrique
subsequentlymarriedthesisteroftheKingofPortugal,PrincessJuana.Asachild,
IsabelwaspromisedtotheheirofthekingdomofNavarreandonhisdeathin1461,
shewasproposedasawifefortheKingofPortugal,AlfonsoV.Isabelwasalso
covetedbytheKingofFranceLouisXIwhowantedtomarryhertohisbrotherand
heir,theDukeofBerri,andwasproposedasawifeforthefutureRichardIIIof
England.However,shetookmattersintoherownhandsandonOctober19,1469,
shemarriedFerdinandofAragon.16
14Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,55,135,149,151,165,167.;Durán,152,154,228.;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,7.15Chipman,40‐41.16Hillgarth,Vol.2,350.;Liss,xv,57.;MacKay,123.;Miller,24,28,44‐45,55,63.
71
OfIsabellaandFerdinand’schildren,allofthemhadroyalmarriages.Their
eldestson,Juan,marriedthedaughterofMaximilianI,HolyRomanEmperor.Their
daughterJuanamarriedPhilip,alsoachildofMaximilianI.Anotherdaughter,Isabel,
firstmarriedAlfonso,aprinceofPortugal.Uponhisdeathshewasforcedtomarry
hisuncle,Manuel,whobecameKingofPortugal.Isabeldiedsoonafterandhersister
MaríamarriedManuel.Finally,theyoungestdaughter,Catherine,marriedArthur,
heirtotheEnglishthrone.However,whenhediedshemarriedhisbrother,Henry,
whobecametheinfamousHenryVIII.HenryandCatherine’sdaughterMarywould
eventuallymarrybackintotheroyalfamilyofSpainwhenshewedKingPhilipII.He
wasthesonofCharlesV(sonofJuanaandPhilip)andIsabel(daughterofMaríaand
Manuel).PhilipII’sparentswerefirstcousins,hisgrandmothersMaríaandJuana
weresisters,andtheirsisterCatherinewasthemotherofhiswifeMary.17
Thesewebsofintermarriagesareconfusingatbestyetverysignificant.They
showtheimportanceofroyaltyinbothcultures.Marryingacommonerwasnot
somethingeithersocietypracticed.Theyheldroyaltytoadifferentstandardanda
verydistinctbarrierseparatedtheroyalfamilyfromeveryoneelseinsociety.In
bothSpainandMexico,marriageallianceswithotherstateswereextremely
common.Thissuggeststhatbothoftheseculturesrecognizedthedivinerightofall
rulers,notjustthoseoftheirownsociety.Thesimilarityinthissensebetweenthe
MexicaandtheSpaniardsexplainstherespectshowntoindigenousnobilitybythe
SpanishbothduringandaftertheConquest. 17Hillgarth,Vol.2,350.;Liss,xv,248‐249,378,380,387.;Miller,68,106.
72
InaLeagueoftheirOwn:DistinguishingRoyalty
AnothersimilaraspectofbothMexicaandSpanishsocietywasthe
importanceofdistinguishingthenobilityfromthecommoners.Notonlywasit
importanttomarryandreproducewithothernoblestocontinueapurebloodline,it
wasalsoimportanttodistinguishtheroyalclassfromeveryoneelse.Thisincluded
specialprivilegesforroyalrelatives,includingland,titles,andotherhonors.In
additiontothisseparationofclasses,itwasalsoimportantfortheKing(orQueen)
tobeevenonestephigher.Inbothsocieties,theultimateroyalindividualwastobe
inaclassofhisorherown,distinguishedfromnotonlythelowerclasses,butfrom
thelowerrankingroyals.KingsandQueenswerelookedonasgod‐like,evenGod’s
representativeonearth.IntheMexicasociety,thesedistinctionsaredescribedin
manytexts.HereIwillpresentthewayindigenoussourcesdescribedtheseroyal
privilegesandinthenextchapterIwillshowhowthesedistinctionsaredescribed
inSpanishcolonialtextsaswell.
AsIhavepreviouslydescribed,theroyalfamilyincentralMexicowasvast.
Theyintermarriedwithothercity‐statesalloverMesoamericatoformacomplex
webofnobility.However,becauseofthisandthepracticeofpolygamy,therewas
oftenaplethoraofroyalmentochoosefromasthenextheir.Ofcourse,onlyoneof
thesemencouldbechosenastheEmperoroftheMexica.OtherMexicanoblemen
werethuspresentedwithothertitlesandhonors.Forexample,duringtheinitial
andaggressivelysuccessfulexpansionperiodunderKingItzcoatl,thetitleofcaptain
73
forthevariousconquestexpeditionswasgiventoItzcoatl’snephewsandbrothers.
Whenlandsweresuccessfullyconquered,thebestlandwasdistributedamongst
theseroyalrelatives.Thisnewlyacquiredlandcamewithanimportanteconomic
prizeaswell:tribute.Thesecousins,brothers,andnephewsofItzcoatlweregiven
land,peasantstoworkthatland,andtributepaymentsfromtheirnewlyacquired
city‐states.18Alongwithlandandtribute,thesemenweregiventitles.Durán
describesthetitlesassimilartohow“theKingofSpaingivestitlestohisgreatmen,
suchasthatofDuke,Count,Marquis,Viscount,Archduke,MasterofaMilitaryOrder
andGovernorofaConqueredProvince.”19
OneoftheprovincesthatwasconqueredduringItzcoatl’stimewasthe
neighboringlakesidecityofXochimilco.SincetheXochimilcanrulerdecidedto
surrender,Itzcoatlgrantedhimtheprivilegeofbecomingoneofhiscouncilors,
whichallowedhimtoattendtheEmperor’smealsandeatinhispresence.Itzcoatl
alsoproclaimedthattherulersofTexcocoandTacuba(Tlacopan)weretobethe
secondandthirdrankingmonarchsinthearea,respectively.Thiswasthebirthof
theTripleAlliancebetweenthesethreecities.EachofthemembersoftheTriple
allianceruledovertheirowndomain,buttheMexicawereultimatelythemost
powerfulandthustheywereincharge.ThemonarchsofTexcocoandTacubawere
alsograntedtheprivilegeoftakingpartintheelectionofanewMexicaruler.Itis
believedthatItzcoatlmarriedhissistertotherulerofTexcocoduringthistime.
18Durán,58‐60,70,72.19Durán,70.
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Theyhadason,Nezahualcoyotl,whowouldbecomethenextTexcocanking.His
descendentsruledinTexcocountilthepost‐Conquestperiod,thusensuringMexica
bloodonmultiplethrones.20
DuringthereignofMoctezumaI,astrongernotionofclass‐consciousness
androyaldistinctionwasdeveloped.Everymemberofsocietywastohavehisorher
ownspecificrankandeveryonewastobetreatedinawaythatwasappropriateto
thatstatus.Thesedistinctionswererigorouslyenforcedanddescribedindetailby
Durán.
…inthepalaceswerespecialroomsforpeopleofdifferentrank,andwhenonevisitedthepalaceoneknewhisplaceandwenttheredirectly.Thecommonpeoplehadnobusinessenteringtheroyalbuildingsandneverdidsounlessitwastheirturntorenderpersonalservicessuchasscrubbing,sweepingandothermenialtasks.Onlythelords,noblemenandchiefwarriorsworesandalsontheirfeet.Therestofthepeopledidnotdreamofdoingsosincethereweregravepenaltiesinvolved.21
Moctezumaevendeclaredanewsetoflawsinordertothoroughlydescribethese
distinctionssotheywereclearandenforceable.Includedamongthesenewlawsare
thefollowing:
1.Thekingmustneverappearinpublicunlesstheoccasionisextremelyimportant
2.Onlythekingmaywearagoldendiademinthecity,thoughinwarallthegreatlordsandbravecaptainsmaywearsuch.Itisconsideredthatthosewhogotowarrepresenttheroyalperson.
20Durán,80,84,90.21Durán,122.
75
3.OnlythekingandthePrimeMinisterTlacaelelmaywearsandalswithinthepalace.Nogreatchieftainmayenterthepalaceshod,underpainofdeath.Thegreatnoblemenaretheonlyonesallowedtowearsandalsinthecityandnooneelse,withtheexceptionofmenwhohaveperformedsomegreatdeedinwar.Butthesesandalsmustbecheapandcommon;thegilded,paintedonesaretobeusedonlybynoblemen.
4.Onlythekingistowearfinemantlesofcottonembroideredwithdesignsandthreadsofdifferentcolorsandfeatherwork.Heistodecidewhichtypeofcloakmaybeusedbytheroyalpersontodistinguishhimfromtherest.
5.Thegreatlords,whoaretwelve,maywearcertainmantles,andtheminorlordswearothers.
6.Thecommonsoldiermaywearonlythesimplesttypeofmantleandisprohibitedfromusinganyspecialdesignsorfineembroiderythatmightsethimofffromtherest.
7.Thecommonpeoplewillnotbeallowedtowearcottonclothing,underpainofdeath,butonlygarmentsofmagueyfiber.Themantlemustnotbewornbelow
thekneeandifanyoneallowsittoreachtheankle,hewillbekilled,unlesshehaswoundsofwaronhislegs.
8.Noonebutthegreatnoblemenandchieftainsistobuildahousewithasecondstory,underpainofdeath.Nooneistoputpeakedorroundgablesuponhishouse.Thisprivilegehasbeengrantedbythegodsonlytothegreat.
9.Onlythegreatlordsaretowearlip‐plugs,ear‐plugsandnose‐plugsofgoldandpreciousstones,exceptstrongmen,bravecaptainsandsoldiers,buttheirornamentsmustbeofbone,woodorotherinferiormaterials.
10.Onlythekingandthesovereignsoftheprovincesandothergreatlordsaretoweargoldarm‐bands,anklets,andgoldenrattlesontheirfeetatthedances.…Theyalonemayadornthemselveswithchainsofgoldaroundtheirnecks,withjewelryofthismetalandofpreciousstones,suchasjade.Theothervaliantwarriorsmaywearcommongarlandsandeagleandmacawfeathersontheirheads.Theymayputonbonenecklacesandthoseofsmallsnails…andsmallcheapstones.
11.Intheroyalpalacetherearetobediverseroomswheredifferentclassesofpeoplearetobereceived,andunderpainofdeathnooneistoenterthat
76
ofthegreatlords.22
Inadditiontothis,thekingwastoeatalone.Hewastoeatfirstandafterhefinished,
otherroyalsweregiventheplatesthatwereleftover.Itwasconsideredanhonorto
eatfromplatesthatwere“remaindersfromtheroyalmouth.”23
MoctezumaIIfollowedinhisnamesake’sfootstepsandinstitutedanumber
ofhisownreforms.Whenhewaselectedhedismissedallofthehouseholdservants
whohadservedtheformerking,hisuncleAhuitzotl.Ahuitzotlhadputpeoplewho
werenotofnoblerankinhishousehold,somethingthatMoctezumadidnotagree
with.Hedeclaredthatthiswasundignifiedandwouldonlybeservedbymenwho
werehighranking,likehimself.Hedidthisinpartbecausehefoundhisuncle’s
servantsunworthy,butalsobecausehewishedtoteachhisyoungroyalrelatives
courtlypracticesandmanners.Healsowishedfortheseyoungmentolearntheart
ofrulingtheempireincaseoneofthemwaschosenasthenextking.Theseyoung
noblemenweretobedrawnfromthevastpoolofroyalnephews,cousins,and
brothers,buthisservantsalsoincludedthesonsofrulersfromconquered
provinces.NosonsofillegitimateunionswereallowedtoserveMoctezuma,evenif
theywerehisownbrotherssinceheconsideredbastardsunworthytobeinhis
presence.Moctezumaalsohadstrictrulesastohowpeopleweretoshowtheir
respectandreverence.Nocommonerwastolookathim.Ifheappearedinpublic,
thepeopleweretolowertheireyestothegroundinrespectandprostrate
22Durán,131‐132.23Durán,142.
77
themselveswhilehepassed.Ifsomeonedisobeyedthisruleofetiquette,theywould
bekilled.Duránclaimstohaveinterviewedamanwhohadlivedduringthereignof
Moctezuma.HeaskedthismanwhatMoctezumahadlookedlikeandtheman
responded,“Father,IwillnotlietoyouortellyouaboutthingswhichIdonotknow.
Ineversawhisface!”24
LikeexcessMexicanoblemen,SpanishandotherEuropeanroyalswhowere
notdestinedtoinheritthethroneweregivenotherpositionsofpowerandprestige.
Forexample,oneofFerdinand’sillegitimatesons,Alonso,wasmadeArchbishopof
Zaragozaattheearlyageofsix.Theheirtothethrone,Juan,wasofcourseprepared
forhisroleasfutureking.Hewasgivenhisownminiaturecourt,whichwas
comprisedofnoblechildrenclosetohisagewhosharedhiseducationandhelped
himpracticeforhisfuturerole.Theroyaldaughters,asdiscussedintheprevious
section,weremarriedofftoheirsofotherkingdomstocementalliances.Ferdinand
andIsabella’sdaughtersMaríaandCatherineeventuallybecamethequeensof
PortugalandEngland,respectively.WhenFerdinandmarriedIsabella,hisfather
wasstillaliveandKingofAragon.Becauseofthis,Ferdinandwasgivenother
positionsuntilheinheritedthethroneincludingthetitleofKingofSicilyandNaples.
OtherEuropeancountriesgavesimilartitlestoheirsandotherroyalfamily
members.FerdinandandIsabella’sdaughterJuanamarriedthesonandheirof
Maximilian,HolyRomanEmperor.Thiscouple,asheirstotheAustrianthrone,had
thetitlesDukeandDuchessofFlanders.InEngland,Catherinewasmarriedtothe 24Durán,233,224
78
PrinceofWales,heirtotheEnglishthrone.Shewaslikewisegiventhetitleof
PrincessofWales.25
SimilartoMexicasociety,Spanishsocietywashighlystratified.TheKingand
Queenwereofcourseatthetop,inaclassoftheirown.Therewerethenvarious
groupsofrankednobilitywhousuallyownedanddominatedlargetractsoflandin
theIberianPeninsula.Thesenoblesweregenerallyrelativesofthemonarchsand
hadbeengivenlandbecauseoftheirstatus.Undertheroyalclasswas,ofcourse,
variouslevelssocietytowhichthecommonersbelonged.InSpain,high‐ranking
nobleswereoftenexemptedfromcertaintaxesthesamewaythatMexicanobles
wereexcludedfromtributepayments.Thesenobleswhoownedlandandwere
exemptfromtaxeswerealso,inaway,“given”thepeopleofthelandsthey
controlled.TheyweresimilartoMexicanoblemenwhoweregivengovernorshipsof
recentlyconqueredlandsinMesoamerica.Theirlandswereworkedforthem,they
collectedtaxes,whichgavethemahugesourceofincome,andtheyhadsemi‐
autonomouscontrolovertheirownmini‐kingdom.Thesenoblesweresubjecttothe
KingorQueen,inthesamewaythatrulersofalliedorsubjectcity‐statesincentral
MexicoweresubjecttotheMexicanEmperor.26
RoyalprivilegeandprestigewasextremelyimportanttobothMexicaand
Spanishsocieties.Theirrulerswerealwaysatthetopofthesocialhierarchy,above
everyoneelseintherealm.Kings,Queens,andEmperorswereconsideredgod‐like,
25Miller,56,153,159,160,173.26Redworth,6,10,11.
79
chosenbyGod,andthegods’representativesonearth.Othermembersoftheroyal
familyalsoheldprestigioustitles,whichusuallyincludedgiftsofland,tribute,tax
exemption,andcontroloversmallareasofthekingdomorempire.Butofupmost
importancewasthatthesenobleswerestillsubjecttothecrown.Thesesocial
distinctionsbetweenclassesmadeiteasierforthesetwoculturestomergewhen
theycameincontactwithoneanother.Spanishofficialsrecognizedtheprestigeof
theMexicaroyalsandoftengrantedthemspecialprivilegesinthepost‐Conquest
society.ThisintegrationofMexicanroyaltyintoNewSpain’scolonialsocietywillbe
discussedmoreinChapter4.
‘PompandCircumstance’:RoyalCelebrations
Foranymajorevent,suchasafuneralorcoronation,anelaboratecelebration
washeldwhosepurposewastoshowoffroyalgrandeurandpower.Thiswas
commonlypracticedinboththeMexicaEmpireandinSpain.Notonlydiditgivethe
royalsachancetoshowoff,italsogavethecommonersareasontocelebratetheir
royalfamilyandevencatchaglimpseoftheirelusiverulers.Thesecelebrations
wereoftenbasedontraditionalpracticesandwereaveryimportantpartofeachof
thesepre‐Conquestcultures.Someoftheactualpracticesduringthesecelebrations
differedbetweentheMexicaandSpaniards,buttheimportanceofcelebrationwas
clearinbothsocieties.Someofthepractices,suchascoronations,wereactually
strikinglysimilarbetweenthetwo.
80
Mexicacoronationceremoniesevolvedovertimetobecomemoreelaborate,
butevenwiththefirstking,Acamapichtli,therewassomeformofcelebration.
Whenhemarriedhiswife,Ilancuitl,thecouplewasbroughttoTenochtitlan.They
werewelcomedbyallthepeopleofthetownandwerecarriedthroughthecityto
theirroyalapartmentswheretheywereseateduponaMexicanvariationathrone
anddeclaredrulersofMexico.Thepeopleofthecityvowedloyaltyandobedience
anddiademswereplacedupontheirheads.Whenthesecondking,Huitzilihuitl,was
elected,hewaslikewisetakentotheroyalpalace,seated,andcrownedwitha
diadem.Hewasalsoanointedwithoil,whichwasusedbytheMexicatoanointthe
statueoftheirgodHuitzilopochtli.Thiswasnotonlyasimilarpracticetooneseenin
Europeancoronationceremonies,buttheuseofthesameoiltoanointboththenew
kingandtheirprimarygodshowcasesthebeliefthattheirrulersweregod‐like
creaturesandaboveeveryoneelse.Whenthethirdruler,Chimalpopoca,was
elected,similarceremonialpracticeswereheld.Inaddition,onehewasseated,
crowned,andanointed,hewasgivenashieldandaswordtohold.Theseweapons
representedaspecificgod,whichtheMexicahopedwouldberepresentedthrough
theirking.27
WhenMoctezumaIbecameruler,alltheusualceremonieswereobserved.
Followingthemourningoftherecentlydepartedking,thecitybegantorejoiceand
celebratetheirnewkingwithdancingandsinging.Atthispoint,theempirehad
beguntoexpandandsoalsopresentattheseceremoniesweretherulersofsubject 27Durán,34,35,40,47.
81
andalliedcity‐statessuchasNezahualcoyotl,thekingofTexcoco.Thesekingscame
toacknowledgethenewrulerandhispreeminenceoverthelandandpeopleof
centralMexicoandbroughthimgiftstocelebrate.Coronationswerealsousedasan
economicstrategy.WhenAxayacatlwaselected,heinvitedrulersfromcoastal
townsthathadnotyetbeenconquered.Thiswasdonebecauseiftherulersrefused
theinvitation,theMexicawouldhavereasontowagewaronthoselandsand
conquerthem.ThesecoastallandshadresourcestheMexicadidnotyethaveaccess
tosotheywerelookingforareasontosubjugatetheseareas.Duringthecoronation
ofthenextking,Tizoc,therulerofTexcocobegantotakeamoreprominentrolein
theceremony.Hewastheonewhocrownedthenewkingandalsoceremoniously
piercedhisnoseandearswithgoldandjadejewelry.Tizocwasledtohisthrone,
whichwasdecoratedinjaguarskinsandeaglefeathers.ThekingofTexcocoand
othernoblemenpickedupthethroneandcarriedthekingtothemainpyramid.At
thepyramid,Tizocprickedhimselfwithaknifemadeofjaguarboneandofferedhis
ownbloodaspenancetothegods.Atthispoint,self‐sacrificeandthesacrificeof
warcaptivesbecameanimportantpartofcoronationceremonies.AfterTizoc
offeredhisownbloodtothegods,theMexicawagedwaronMetztitlaninorderto
obtaincaptivestoofferassacrificesforthecoronationceremony.Rulersofallied
andsubjectprovinceswereinvitedtothesefestivitiesandthiscoronationpractice
continueduntilthereignofthelastpre‐Conquestking,MoctezumaII.28Infuture
28Durán,87,163,178,179.
82
coronationceremonies,neighboringprovinceswereaskedtoprovidetheirown
victimsfortheMexicatosacrificeinordertocelebratetheirnewking.
Althoughcoronationsaretheceremoniesdescribedinthemostdetailin
indigenousaccounts,itisclearwhilereadingthesesourcesthatotherroyalevents,
suchasfuneralsandthebirthofroyalchildrenwerealsocelebratedwithgreat
pomp.InMexicaculture,thesecelebrationsoftenincludedfeasts,dancing,and
humansacrifice.ItwasimportantthatallMexicanoblesbepresent,butitwasalso
imperativethatnoblesofalliedandsubjectstatesbepresentaswell.Theserulers
wereoftenexpectedtobringgiftsandthissometimesincludedtheirown
individualstoofferassacrifice.29Thispracticeshowstheimportanceoftheir
religioninalltheirroyalceremonies.Religionwasapartofeveryevent,andwas
incorporatedintoeachmajorroyalfestivity.
ThisblendingofreligionintoroyalceremonieswasalsoseeninSpain.When
EnriqueIVdied,hissisterandheirIsabellaarrangedandattendedafuneralmass.
Changingquicklyoutofhermourningclothesshechangedintohercoronation
robestogetreadyforthenextceremony.Inherjeweledcoronationgown,she
processedthroughthestreetsofSegoviafollowedbytheentireclergyofthatcity.
Shewaspresentedwithaswordinthetownplazaandthenclimbedupaplatform
thathadbeenpreparedandseatedherselfontheroyalthroneforallofthecityto
see.Shewascrownedandthenledanotherprocessiontothecathedralfortherest
29Durán,43,47,150,174‐178,218.
83
ofthecoronationceremony.Followingthecoronation,anewroyalcourthadtobe
formed.SimilartohowMoctezumaIIreplacedhispredecessor’sentouragewithhis
own,Isabellasurroundedherselfwithservantsthatshehandpickedandknewshe
couldtrust.AreligiousbasedceremonywasalsoseenwiththebirthofFerdinand
andIsabella’sfirstandonlyson,Juan.InIberianculture,abaptismwasheldafter
thebirthofachild.Foraroyalbabyandheir,highrankingchurchofficialsandother
membersoftheroyaltyservedasgodparents.ForJuan,thisincludedthePapal
ambassadorandtheDuchessofMedinaSidonia.Therewasanotherprocession
throughthecitytothecathedraltocontinuethecelebrationandgivethankstothe
ChristianGodfollowedbyabullfighttoentertainthemassesofthecity.30
Juan’sweddingtoMargaret,thedaughteroftheHolyRomanEmperor,was
likewisecelebratedwithtremendoussplendor.ThewholetownofBurgoswas
prepared.Streetswerecarpetedandbalconiesweredecorated;therewere
fountainsofwine,fireworksandjouststocelebrate.Followingtheweddingwasa
grandbanquetwitharoyalfeastanddancing.Solemnevents,suchasfunerals,also
calledforelaborateceremonies.WhenQueenIsabelladiedinMedinaSpainin1504,
shewasrichlydressedbeforebeingplacedinhercoffin.Theroyalcourtthen
undertookathree‐weekprocessionthroughSpain,visitingcitiesimportantto
variouseventsinIsabella’slife,beforereachingGranadawherethefuneral
ceremonytookplaceandIsabellawasfinallylaidtorest.Isabella’sheirwasher
daughterJuana,whowasmarriedtothesonandheirofMaximilian,HolyRoman 30Miller,81,82,85,104,105.
84
Emperor.WhenJuana’shusbandPhilipdied,therewasalsoagrandceremony
practicebeginningwithaprocessionwherethebodywascarriedthroughthecityto
thereligiouscenteroftown.SincehewasheirtotheAustrianthrone,hisfuneral
ceremoniesweredoneintheAustrianfashion.Hisbrainwasremovedfollowedby
hisheart,whichwassentinagoldboxtoFlanders,wherePhilipandJuanahadbeen
dukeandduchess.31
TherearesomesimilaritiesbetweentheMexicaandSpanishwithregardsto
ceremonialpractices.Mostobviously,ceremonieswereofgreatimportancetoboth
culturesandcelebratedwheneveraroyaleventtookplace.Bothsocietiescelebrated
theirroyalfamily’smarriages,royalbirths,andfuneralsinagrandfashion.Religion
wasalsooftheupmostimportancetobothcultures,soitwasacentraltotheseroyal
celebrations.Althoughtheirreligiousbeliefsdifferedinmanyways,mostnotably
theMexica’spracticeofpolytheismandhumansacrifice,bothsocietieslookedto
religionandreverencetotheirgod(s)asthesinglemostimportantthing.
Processionsthroughthecitytoshowofftheroyalperson’sprestigeandimportance
werepracticedbyMexicaandSpanishroyals.Thiswasoftenfollowedbylavish
feastswithdancingandcelebration.WhiletheMexicapracticedhumansacrifice,the
Spaniardsalsocelebratedwithgrislypracticessuchasbullfights.Theseceremonies
werenotonlymeanttocelebratecertainroyallifeevents,butalsotogivethe
commonpeopleareasontocelebrateandshowtheirloyaltyandreverencetotheir
sovereigns. 31Miller,172,234,264,265.
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Conclusion
TheideaofroyaltyinbothMexicaandSpanishculturewasfundamental.
Therewasastrictconceptofaroyalfamilyandthatfamilydominatednotonlythe
imperialcrownbutintegrateditselfintoneighboringstatesaswell.Inboth
societies,thiswebofnobilitywaswoventhroughthestrategicintermarriageswith
otherroyalfamilies.InSpain,thisincludedothercountriessuchasEngland,France
andPortugal.IntheBasinofMexico,theMexicaemperorsmarriedtheirchildrenoff
torulersalloverMesoamerica.Sometimesthiswastocementafriendshipwithan
alliedterritory.Othertimes,theMexicaconqueredanareaandeitherinstalledone
oftheirownnobilityasthenewrulerorlettheexistingrulerremainbutonlyon
conditionthathemarryaprinceorprincessofMexico.Instancesofmarryingclose
relativeswerealsoverycommoninbothcultures.Keepingtheroyalbloodlinepure
seemstohavebeenextremelyimportanttobothgroups.Thesesimilaritiesarewell
documentedinpost‐Conquestsources.Unfortunately,mostpre‐Conquest
documents,especiallyintheBasinofMexico,weredestroyedduringtheSpanish
Conquest.However,earlySpanishandindigenousscholarstookituponthemselves
topreservesomeofthishistory.Theyreliedonpre‐Conquestsourcesfortheir
writings,whichincludeddocumentsthatarenolongerextantandoralinterviews
withpeoplewholivedinpre‐Colonialtimes.Becauseofsourcessuchastheones
examinedforthischapter,weareabletocatchaglimpseintopre‐Conquestroyal
society,whichwasremarkablysimilartoitsEuropeancounterpart.Chapter3will
86
continuethisdiscussionoftheideaofroyaltyinSpainandcentralMexico,butwill
insteadconcentrateonSpanishcolonialsources.
87
CHAPTER3
DESCRIPTIONSOFMEXICASOCIETYBYSPANISHCHRONICLERS
Thepurposeofthisanalysisistoemphasizetheremarkablesimilarities
betweentheMexicaandSpanishculturesbeforeandduringthecontactperiod.The
previouschapteremphasizedtheinformationwecangetfromindigenoussources,
andcomparedaspectssuchashereditarynobility,royalintermarriages,andthe
importanceofcelebration.Thischaptercontinuestofocusonroyalty,butfocuses
insteadoninformationgainedfromsourceswrittenbySpanishconquistadors.
ThesesourcesareextremelyimportantbecausethemenofCortés’expeditionwere
abletoseeMexicasocietybeforeitwaseverinfluencedbyEuropeanculture.Itisa
rawlookatroyalculture,imperialcontrol,thecityofTenochtitlan,andtheEmperor
Moctezumahimself.Spanishsourcesalsohaveadifferentfocus.Forindigenous
historians,itwasimportanttoemphasizecertainaspectsoftheirhistory,especially
importanteventsandpastrulers.Spanishsourceshaveadifferentfocus,onethat
emphasizestheirownexperiencesandobservations.Theytellusmoreaboutthe
controltheMexicahadovertheirneighborsandgiveusmoredetailedaccountsof
thecityofTenochtitlan,itspeople,anditsruler.Theyshowusabitofeverydaylife
inTenochtitlanandhowthishighlyadvancedsocietyfunctioned.Thetwosidesof
thenarrativefocusondifferentaspectsofMexicasociety,andtogethertheygiveus
amorecompleteviewofthecultureofcentralMexico.FromtheseEuropean
accountswecanseethatfirstandforemosttheSpanishconquistadorshadfound
88
somethingworthwritingabout.TheymarveledatTenochtitlan,atthefearand
respectinspiredbyMoctezuma,andthewayceremonyseemedtobeapartofevery
aspectoftheemperor’slife.ManyofthesethingswerealsoseeninSpanishsociety
andamoreindepthanalysisofthesesocietalaspectsshowsanevenclearerpicture
ofthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwocultures.
AnIntroductiontotheSourcesExamined
EachoftheSpanishsourcesusedforthispartoftheanalysiscomefrommen
whowerepartoftheCortésexpedition.Theywereabletoseethecontrolthe
Mexicaheldoverneighboringlandsastheymarchedtowardthecityof
Tenochtitlan.Theystayedformanymonthsinthecapitalcityanddescribedtheir
experiencesinbrilliantdetail.MostofthesemenmetMoctezumaandknewhim
personally.Morestrikingly,thesechroniclersseemedtoholdMoctezumaandthe
peopleofTenochtitlaninveryhighregard.Thesedescriptionsarenotfrommen
whowereunimpressedbytheirsurroundings.Theconquistadorswereamazedand
whattheysawandmarveledatthisculturethathaddevelopedinthisremotearea
oftheworld.IwillfirstintroduceeachofourSpanishauthorsbeforedivingintothe
first‐handdescriptionsofMexicasocietyandthesimilaritiesthatcanbefoundwith
contemporarySpain.
HernandoCortés,leaderoftheexpeditionthatwouldoverthrowtheMexica
capitalcityofTenochtitlaninAugustof1521,wroteanumberofletterstothe
Spanishmonarchsduringthedifferentstagesofcontactwiththepeopleof
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Mesoamerica.KnownastheCartasdeRelación,thesearepoliticaldocumentsthat
detailCortés’sinterpretationofevents.However,hisnarrativeoftheConquestis
oftenembellishedormanipulatedinordertojustifyhimselfandhisexpeditionto
theSpanishmonarchs.Heexaggeratesthewealthofthecountrytoshowthathis
effortsarelucrativeandoveremphasizesthestrangepracticesofthenativepeoples
inordertojustifyhistreatmentofthem.Despitethis,hislettersclearlyshowahigh
degreeofappreciationandamazementatthisrichandsophisticatedculture.
NumeroustimesinhisletterstoSpain,CortéscomparesaspectsofMexicaculture
andsocietytotheirparallelsinSpain,andthispracticewascommonamongstmost
SpanishChroniclerswhowerepartoftheCortésexpedition.1
Spanishchronicler,BernalDíazdelCastillo,suppliesanothernarrativeofthe
periodofcontactwiththepeopleofMexico.Hearrivedin1514,likemany
conquistadorswiththehopeofgettingrich,andwaspartoftheCortésexpeditionin
1519.Hiswork,theTrueHistoryoftheConquestofMexico,waswrittensomeforty
yearsaftertheeventsitdescribes,itisstillausefulworkforscholarsbecauseitis
oneofthemostcompleteaccountsoftheConquest.WithlesstoprovethanCortés,
Díaz’saccountmaybeconsideredabitmoretrustworthy.2
AndrésdeTapiawasanotheroneofCortés’militarycaptainswhorecorded
hisexperience.Hewastwenty‐fourwhenhesetoutonhisfirstexpedition,andwas
oneofCortés’mosttrustedmen,givinghimaccesstosomeofthemostimportant
1Cortés,xxi‐xl.2Díaz,xiii,xv,xvii,xix‐xx,xxiv‐xxvi.
90
eventsthatoccurred.AlthoughhisaccountstopsabruptlybeforetheSpanish
expulsionfromTenochtitlanin1520,itstillgivesaclearanddetailedaccountofthe
Spaniards’firstexperienceswiththepeopleofcentralMexicoandtheirawe‐
inspiringcity.3
AnotherimportantSpanishchroniclewehaveaccesstoisbyFrayFrancisco
deAguilar.HecametothenewworldasaconquistadorandwaspartoftheCortés
expedition.Bydistinguishinghimself,hewasprivytotheinnermostaspectsofthe
conquestanditsevents.OneofhisassignmentswasguardingtheMexicaemperor,
Moctezuma,sohehadfirst‐handknowledgeoftheMexicancourtanditspractices.4
OneofthemostintriguingSpanishaccountsisthatofthemanknownas“the
anonymousconquistador.”Althoughhenevergiveshisname,itiswidelybelieved
thathewasanimportantfigureduringCortés’expedition.Hedescribesthingsthat
areoverlookedinotheraccountsandseemstoknowtheMexicapre‐Conquest
cultureandpracticesquitewell.Hegivesvividdescriptionsoftheland,cities,
people,andpractices,whichsuggestafirst‐handexperience.Thelackof
identificationontheauthor’spartmakesthisauniqueConquestnarrative.Asstated
before,conquistadorsgenerallyusedthechroniclegenreasawaytogainfameand
3AndrésdeTapia,“ChronicleofAndrésdeTapia,”inTheConquistadors:First‐PersonAccountsoftheConquestofMexico,editedandtranslatedbyPatriciadeFuentes(NewYork:TheOrionPress,1963),17‐18.4FrayFranciscodeAguilar,“TheChronicleofFrayFranciscodeAguilar,”inTheConquistadors:First‐PersonAccountsoftheConquestofMexico,editedandtranslatedbyPatriciadeFuentes(NewYork:TheOrionPress,1963),134.
91
prestige.Thatbeingsaid,thisaccountlacksalotofthebiasthatisinevitablyfound
intheotherSpanishaccounts.5
‘Whocantherebewhoisnotavassalofthatlord?’:
Pre‐ContactDescriptionsandMoctezuma’sImperialControl
BeforeCortésandhismenevermarcheddownthatcauseway,camefaceto
facewithMoctezuma,orbeheldTenochtitlanforthefirsttime,theywerealready
describingthecityanditspeopleinamazement.Thefascinationisobviousinthe
numeroustimesCortésquestionedthepeoplehecameintocontactwith.Whether
theywereallies,enemies,orscaredtributaries,theotherindigenousgroupsheld
MoctezumaandthepowerofTenochtitlaninhighregard.Inadditiontoshowingthe
controlwieldedbytheMexicaking,thetimetheSpaniardsspentinMesoamerica
beforeenteringthecapitalcityoftheMexicaalsoshowsushowMoctezumawent
aboutobservingandtryingtounderstandthesenewcomers.Itisclearfromhis
behaviorthathedidindeedperceivethemassomesortofthreat,butthathealso
viewedthemthesamewayhewouldhaveanyothergroupofoutsiders.Withoutthe
contextofknowinganothercontinent,thewaytheSpaniardshadknowntheNew
Worldforalmostthirtyyears,Moctezumahadnochoicebuttotrytofitthe
Spaniardsintotheonlyworldheknew.Tohim,theywerejustsimplyanothergroup
5AnnonymousConquistador,“TheAnonymousConquistador,”inTheConquistadors:First‐PersonAccountsoftheConquestofMexico,editedandtranslatedbyPatriciadeFuentes(NewYork:TheOrionPress,1963),165‐166.
92
offoreignersandtheMexicahadplentyofexperiencedealingwiththistypeof
situation.
Inhisletters,Cortésdescribesthebeautifulcountryhepassesthroughand
thepeopleheencountersonhismarchtowardTenochtitlan.6Díazdescribesthe
peopleofthispartasintelligent,withsophisticatedarchitecture,andsimply
superiortotheotherindigenousgroupstheyhadencounteredbefore.7Tapia
focusesonthecontroltheMexicaseemedtohaveoverothercity‐states.Thewayhe
describedit,eachindigenouscommunityhaditsownlordorgovernor,butthatthey
wereallvassalsofMoctezuma.8Onelordhequestionedrepliedbysaying,“Andwho
cantherebewhoisnotavassalofthatlord?”9Anotherdescribedtherespectand
fearMoctezumainspiredbysaying,“Heislikeourgods,whoknowall;thereisno
usedenyingittohim.”10Aguilar,inhisaccount,emphasizesthefeelingoffearfeltby
indigenouspeopleandSpaniardsalikebecauseofMoctezumaandthecityof
Tenochtitlan.Whetheritwasfearfeltbythepeopleofsurroundingareasthatwas
passedontotheSpaniardsorafearthatAguilardevelopedduringhisyearsof
participatingintheconquest,thepowerfulemotioninstilledbythepowerofthe
Mexicawasformidable.TheSpanishwerecautionedbytheirindigenousalliesmany
timestonotgotoTenochtitlansincethecitywassowellfortifiedandprotected,the
6Cortés,29.7Díaz,7.8Tapia,24.9Tapia,28.10Tapia,36.
93
armysofierce,andthekingwily,vicious,andfearedbyall.11Becauseoftheirearly
interestinthecapitalcity,SpanishchroniclersdescribeTenochtitlan,withoutever
havingseenit,asacitybuiltwithremarkableskilluponagreatlakeandunderthe
controlofapowerful,feared,andrespectedlordandking.
Fromquestioninglordsofnearbycity‐states,theSpanishconquistadors
learnthatTenochtitlanisagreatfortressandcanonlybeenteredbyfourcauseways
thatconnectittothemainland.12Fromthiscity,theMexicacontrolledalargearea
ofMesoamericaviaintimidationandfear.TheSpanishnoticethiscontrolontheir
journeyfromthecoastandarewellreceivedinmanytownsbecauseMoctezuma
hasorderedthelordstofeedandsheltertheSpaniards.WhattheSpanishdonot
realizeisthesemenofMoctezumaarealsospiessenttolearnasmuchastheycan
aboutthesenewcomersandreportbacktohim.13Inthisway,Moctezumahadsetup
quitealargeintelligencesystemthroughouthisconqueredlandsbythetimeofthe
Spanisharrival.HehadinfactknownabouttheSpaniardssincetheyhadfirst
landedontheYucatanPeninsulayearsearlier.Hisagentswereimmediately
informedofCortés’arrivalandcametoobserveandpaintpicturesofthe
newcomersandbringthisinformationbacktoMoctezuma.14
BasedonnumerousSpanishnarrativesrecordingtheirmarchinland,
Moctezumabegantorealizethatdespitetheirsmallnumber(onlyafewhundred
11Aguilar,144‐145.12Cortés,47,Díaz,24,117.13Cortés,50,55‐56.;Díaz,69.14Díaz,72‐73.
94
menaccompaniedCortés),theSpaniardswerecontinuingalongrelatively
unscathedandhaddefeatedanumberofMexicantributaries.Byanalyzinghis
behavior,itisclearthatMoctezumabegantoseetheSpaniardsasalegitimatethreat
thatneededtobedealtwith.Mexicamessengersemphaticallyencouragedthe
Spaniardstoturnaroundandgobacktowheretheycamefrom.15Moctezuma
offeredtheKingofSpainanannualtributeandagreedtobecomeoneofhisvassals,
butonlyiftheSpaniardsdidnotenterhiscity.16Manyscholars,andgenerationsof
indigenousMexicans,haveperceivedtheseactionsascowardlyandnotfitbehavior
forastrongrulerofanempire.However,placingtheseactionsinthecontextof
Mesoamericanhistory,whereconqueredpeopleoftenbecamevassalsandpaid
tribute,hisbehaviorisinfactveryappropriate.IntheworldoftheMexica(who
themselveswereusuallytheconquerorsandnottheconquered),ifagroupof
peoplegaveintoaconqueringforcewithoutafight,thelocalrulerswouldgetto
keeptheirownauthorityandwouldusuallyretainsomeautonomyinreturnforthe
paymentofayearlytribute.Iftheyputupafight,however,theMexicawould
slaughtertheirwarriors,takecaptivesandslaves,deposetherulers,anddesecrate
theirtemplesandhomes.17So,forMoctezuma,thiswasnotcowardicebutan
appropriatereactiontoathreatandanintelligentmoveofself‐preservation.
AsMoctezumacontinuedtostrugglewithhowbesttohandlethisnovel
situation,theSpaniardscontinuedtheirjourneytowardTenochtitlanand
15Díaz,75‐76.16Cortés,69.17Tapia,24.
95
encounteredpeoplealongthewayfromnumerousMesoamericancity‐states.Some
oftheseareaswerealliesoftheMexicaandpaidanannualtribute,otherswere
subjectstatesthathadbeenbrutallyconquered,andanotherfewwereunconquered
regionsandfierceenemiesofthepeopleofTenochtitlan.Regardlessoftheir
relationshipwiththeMexica,otherindigenousgroupstheSpanishencountered
usuallydescribedMoctezumaassomeonetoberespected,albeitusuallygrudgingly.
WhilestayinginoneofMoctezuma’ssubjecttowns,Cortésaskedthelocallordifhe
wasMoctezuma’svassal.Themanwasapparentlyverytakenbackbythisquestion
“andaskedwhowasnotavassalofMutezuma,meaningthathereheiskingofthe
wholeworld.”18
However,notalltownstheSpaniardspassedthroughfeltthisway,andthis
wasoneofthemostcrucialaspectsofSpanishConquest:MoctezumaandtheMexica
hadenemies,andlotsofthem.EvenpeoplewhowerevassalsoftheMexica,people
fromCempoala,Cholula,Chalco,andmanyothers,complainedbitterlytothe
SpaniardsabouttheirtreatmentatthehandsofMoctezuma.Some,likethe
Cempoalans,hadrecentlybeenconquered;alltheirvaluablemetalsandjewelshad
beentaken,theirpeopleweredemandedforsacrificeinTenochtitlan,andthey
feareddoinganythingagainstMoctezuma’swishes.19Inadditiontotributaries
chafingunderimperialcontrol,theMexicaalsohadsomefierceenemies,most
notablytheTlaxcalans.TheMexicaandTlaxcalanshadalong,bitterhistoryand
18Cortés,56.19Cortés,50‐51.,Díaz,88,101.
96
Cortésknewhowtomanipulatetheserivalries.BydoingsowiththeTlaxcalans,he
securedthemostvaluableassettheSpaniardswouldhaveintheconquestof
Tenochtitlan:thousandsandthousandsofindigenousallies.Cortés,throughoutthe
periodofinitialcontact,playedonthegrievancesandrivalriesabundantin
Mesoamericainordertogaintheupperhand.WithapromiseofSpanishprotection,
alargenumberofindigenouscity‐statesagreedtoallythemselveswithCortésashe
madehiswaytowardsTenochtitlan.20
FromtheseSpanishaccountswelearnthattheMexicadidnothavedirect
controlovertheirsubjectstatesandmanyoftheirterritoriesmaintainedsome
autonomyintheirowncommunities.Howevertherewassomeformofcontrol
whichwaswidespreadandcouldnotbeescaped,andthatwasfear.Whenanalyzing
thesesources,itiseasytocomparetheimperialnatureandadministrationofthe
MexicawiththatofthecontemporarySpaniards.Spain,before,during,andafterthe
Conquest,isnottheSpainwethinkabouttodayandwasdefinitelynotaltogether
united.Mostcitiesduringthisperiodwerepredominantlyself‐governingandself‐
sufficient.Acityhaditsownarmytodefendthesurroundingterritoriesit
controlled,itsownadministrationandorganization,anditsownrulerswhowere
electedeachyearbyacitycouncil.21Asanexample,thecityofBarcelonahadthe
powertolevytaxesonitssubjectpeoplewithoutthepermissionoftheking.22Local
governorswereabletokeepsomeorallofthetaxestheycollected,whichmade 20 Cortés, 50, 51.; Díaz, 88, 101. 21Hilgarth,Vol.1,80.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,65.;Mariéjol,282.22Hilgarth,Vol.2,65.
97
themextremelywealthy,andalsoallowedthemtopayforcityupkeep.Rulers
generallyrespectedtheprivilegestheybestowedupontheirgovernors,which
allowedthesenoblementohavealmostroyalhonorsincludingtheirowndomains
andvassals,inreturnforobediencetotheultimateseatofpower.23
OneofthemoststrikingsimilaritiesbetweentheSpanishandMexicawas
theirconqueringmentalityandhowtheyrewardedtheirloyal,noblesubjects.In
Mesoamerica,Mexicakingsgavenewlyconqueredlandstotheircloserelationsand
fiercestwarriors.InSpainduringtheReconquista,newlyacquiredlandswere
likewisegiventopeopleofhighrankwhohaddistinguishedthemselvesinwar.The
nobility,whohadtheirownminiroyalcourtsandjurisdictionovertheirsubject
landsandpeople,dominatedcityadministrationinbothsocieties.Theselocal
governorsweretreatedinawaythatfittheirpositionaspseudo‐rulersandwere
surroundedbypeoplewhoservedthemandtreatedthemwithappropriate
deference.24Thesenoblemenwerenotonlygivenlands,titles,andpower,butalso
manyotherprivilegesincludingtax‐exemption.Theyweregenerallynotjudgedas
harshlyforcrimesandwerenotallowedtobetortured.Inreturn,thesenobleswere
responsiblefortheupkeepoftheircityandweretaskedwithlookingafterthe
wellbeingoftheirsubjects.Theyhadtheirownprivatearmies,whichwereused
mainlyforlocalprotection,butwerealsoattheserviceofthecrowniftheywere
calledtowar.However,becausethesecitieswereruledastheirownmini‐states,
23Mariéjol,272,277.24Hilgarth,Vol.1,63.;Mariéjol,247,266,280.
98
therewasalotofrivalrybetweencompetingnobilityforpowerandprivatewars
betweencitieswasseenasrelativelynormal.Thecitieswereunitedintheir
reverencetotheCrown,butnotunitedwithoneanother.25Sometimesthenobility
woulduniteinrebellionagainsttheCrownandthepeopleandsoldiersofthecities
generallyfollowedtheleadoftheirrespectiverulersratherthanmaintainingan
allegiancetotheSpanishmonarchs.26Whenexaminedinthisway,itseemsthatthe
Spanishrulersdidnothavedirectcontrolovertheirterritories,andruledindirectly
inawaysimilartothepracticesseeninMexico.RivalriesbetweenSpanishnobility
mimickedtherivalryseenbetweencity‐statesinMesoamerica.Inbothinstances
therewasalotoflocalautonomyandthefirstandmostimportantloyaltywasthat
toone’sowncommunity.
BothSpanishandMexicarulersdidnothavecomplete,centralizedcontrol
overtheirterritories.Theydesignatedmenofrankastheirgovernorstorulemany
oftheirterritoriesforthem.UnliketheMexica,whohadanestablishedroyalcapital
city,theSpanishdidnotyethaveacapitalbutmovedaroundbetweenmajorcities
throughouttheirland.Theroyalcourt,duringthisperiod,wasvirtuallyamoving
cityanditsceremoniesandgovernmentwereheldwherevertherulerhappenedto
beatthetime.ThiswasacommonmedievalpracticeofEuropeankingswhichhad
thepurposeofbringingtheroyalfamilyintocloserproximitywithmoreofits
25Hilgarth,Vol.1,60.26Hilgarth,Vol.2,73.
99
subjectsinordertoquellrebellionsandmaintainloyalty.27Incomparison,the
Mexicausedfearofattack,whichtheirpowerfulmilitaryinstilled,astheirformof
controlandtherulerstayedmostlyinhiscapitalcityexceptwhenatwar.Whenthe
Spanishmovedcourttoanewlocation,theyestablishedtheroyalgovernment,fora
time,inthatcity,butwhentheylefttheresponsibilitiesandgovernmentfellbackto
thelocalnobilityandruler.28Insum,bothsocietiesexercisedarelativelyun‐
centralizedcontroloftheirterritories.Althoughtheyhadthegeneralobedienceof
eachcity,localgovernorsweretherulersoftheirownsmallerstatesandwere
lookedonasroyaltyandtheholdersofallthecontrolbythepeopleoftheir
community.
ARoyalWelcome:FirstImpressionsofLakeTexcocoandthecityofTenochtitlan
Inthissectionmorethananyother,itisdifficulttodoaside‐by‐side
comparisonoftheMexicaandtheSpaniards.TheSpanishdescriptionsoftheirfirst
glimpsesofTenochtitlanaredescribedindetailinalmostallofthechronicles.We
donothaveacounterpartofthesedescriptionsfromMesoamericanchroniclers
becauseofthefewMexicathatweretakentoSpainintheearlyyears,norecordof
theirfirstimpressionsofSpainandEuropeancitieshasbeenfound.Whatcanbe
usedinsteadasacomparisontoolforthispartofthechapterarethecomparisons
thataremadebytheSpanishchroniclersthemselvesthatdescribethesimilarities
betweenSpanishandMesoamericancities.Spanishconquistadorsreadilycompared
27Hilgarth,Vol.1,51.;Mariéjol,238,243.28Edwards,135.
100
TenochtitlananditspeopletoSpainandotherEuropeancities.Cortéshimself
describedthecityinthefollowingway:
ThisgreatcityofTemixtitan[sic]isbuiltonthesaltlake…Therearefourartificialcausewaysleadingtoit…ThecityitselfisasbigasSevilleorCórdoba.Themainstreetsareverywideandverystraight;someoftheseareontheland,buttherestandallthesmalleronesarehalfonland,halfcanals…Allthestreetshaveopeningsinplacessothatthewatermaypassfromonecanaltoanother…Thecityhasmanysquareswheretradingisdoneandmarketsareheldcontinuously.ThereisalsoonesquaretwiceasbigasthatofSalamanca…morethansixtythousandpeoplecomeeachdaytobuyandsell,whereeverykindofmerchandiseproducedintheselandsisfound.29
HowtheMexicawouldhavereactedtoencounteringaSpanishcityinthesameway
issomethingwedonotknow.WouldtheyhaveregardedSpanishcitieswith
amazementthewaytheSpaniardsregardedTenochtitlan?Perhaps.ButtheSpanish
reactionsdosuggestahugeappreciationandanimpressiverespectforwhatthe
peopleofcentralMexicohadcreated.Itmusthaveindeedbeenamagnificentsight
tobeholdifmenwhohadseenConstantinople,Paris,Granada,andRomedescribed
itinthisway.
Ofallthechroniclers,BernalDíazdescribestheSpaniards’firstimpressions
inthemostdetailedandentertainingways.Whentheyfirstcamewithinsightof
LakeTexcocoandthecitiesbuiltuponitanditsshores,Díazsays,“wewereamazed
andsaidthatitwasliketheenchantmentstheytellofinthelegendofAmandis,on
accountofthegreattowersandcuesandbuildingsrisingfromthewater,andall
29Cortés,102‐103.
101
builtofmasonry.Andsomeofsoldiersevenaskedwhetherthethingsthatwesaw
werenotadream.”30ThefirstcityonthelakethattheSpaniardsstayedinwas
Chalcowheretheywerehousedinanewlybuiltdwellingsolargethatitwasableto
comfortablyhousealltheSpaniardsplusthenativeallies,whichCortésestimatedto
bearoundfourthousandatthispoint.31Continuingtheirjourney,theyhaltednextat
Iztapalapa,alakesidecityruledbyMoctezuma’sbrotherCuitlahuac.Thiscitywas
ontheedgeofLakeTexcocowherehalfofitwasbuiltonlandandtheotherhalfon
water.TheSpanishwerelodgedinspaciousmulti‐storypalacesthatwerebuiltof
stoneandwood,anddecoratedwithstonecarvings,statues,paintings,and
elaboratecloths.InsidethepalaceofIztapalapawasasplendidgardenwithalarge
diversityoftreesandflowers,andapondthatwasconnectedtothelakebyan
openinginthebuildingsothatthepalacecouldbeenteredbywater.32
FromIztapalapa,theSpanishcontinuedtowardsMexicobycrossingalong
man‐madecausewaythatstretchedfromthelakeshoreallthewaytoTenochtitlan.
Díazagaingivesusafirst‐handaccountoftheawestruckSpanish:“Gazingonsuch
wonderfulsights,wedidnotknowwhattosay,orwhetherwhatappearedbeforeus
wasreal,forononeside,ontheland,thereweregreatcities,andinthelakeeverso
manymore…andinfrontofusstoodthegreatCityofMexico.”33Thefactthat
Tenochtitlanwasbuiltinthemiddleofthelakenotonlymadeitunique,
30Díaz,190‐191.31Cortés,79.32Cortés,82‐83.;Díaz,191.33Díaz,192.
102
captivatinglybeautiful,andawe‐inspiring.Italsomadeitawell‐defendedfortress,
whichtheSpaniardsweresoontofindout.Alongthelongcausewaysweredeep,
widegapscoveredwithwoodenbridges.Duringanattack,thesebridgescouldbe
removedtokeepenemiesoutor,aswhathappenedtotheSpanish,toprevent
enemiesfromescaping.Enteringthisformidablecity,Aguilarclaimedthathecould
seeoveronehundredthousandhousesinthecity,andapopulationthishugewas
notonlyimpressivetotheSpaniards,itwasalsoterrifying.34
Reachingthelakesidecities,theareaunderdirectMexicacontrol,gavethe
SpaniardstheirfirstlookatthesplendorofMexicanceremonialpractices.These
menofhumblebirthinSpainwerenowthesubjectsofanelaborateroyalwelcome.
AlthoughtheymayhavewitnessedthistypeofroyalprocessionbytheSpanish
nobility,theconquistadorshaddefinitelynoteverbeenapartofsomethingso
grand.AstheSpaniardsapproachedthecityofTenochtitlan,thelakewasfilledwith
canoesofonlookersandtherooftopswerefullofeagercitizenshopingtowitness
thesemysteriousnewcomers.Twocolumnsofpeopleapproachedthe
conquistadors,onealongeachsideofthecauseway,andalldressedinawaythat
suggestedtheywerepartofthenobility.Betweenthecolumnsofrichlydressed
lordscameanelaboratelitterdrapedwithembroideredcottonmantlescarrying
Moctezuma.Supportedbythelordsofhiscity,Moctezuma’sroyallitterapproached,
andtheSpaniardsnoticedthatallthepeople,includingthenobility,avertedtheir
eyesinrespect.Precedingtheemperorcameamanwithalongstafftosignalto 34Aguilar,146.
103
everyonethatMoctezumawasapproachingandbehindthelittercameanother
entourageofgreatMexicanoblemen.WhenMoctezumadescendedfromhislitterto
greetCortés,thegroundwassweptinfrontofhimashewentalong.Hewaseasyto
pickoutinthecrowdashewasmorerichlydressedthananyother,andwasthe
onlyoneallowedtowearsandalsonhisfeet.Thetwomenexchangedgiftsamicably,
butwhenCortésleanedintoembraceMoctezuma,theMexicalordsstoppedhim
immediatelybecausetheybelievedthattouchingthebodyoftheiremperorwasa
greatindignity.35
AsIsaidbefore,itisimpossibleheretodoacomparisonoffirstimpressions
sincewedonothaveanypersonaldescriptionsbyMexicapeopleofSpanishcities.
However,somecomparisonmaybedoneabouttheactualcitiesthemselves.In
general,SpanishcitieswerenotquiteasgrandasthoseofcentralMexico.Therewas
definitelynotaSpanishcitythatwasasuniqueandremarkableasTenochtitlan.
ThiscanbewidelyattributedtothefactthatSpaindidnothaveacapital,butthe
rulersinsteadmovedaroundfromcitytocity.Thus,theirroyaltyandsplendorwas
displayedmorethroughclothinganddecoration,ratherthanthrougharchitecture.
Jewelsofgoldandpreciousstonesandextravagantclothingwerecommoninboth
societies,butfortheSpanishmonarchs,thiswastheirmainwaytoshowtheir
superiorityoverpeopleoflowerrank.36InSpain,theidealking“shouldbeGod’s
imageandrepresentativeonearth…Heshouldstandoutvisually…bybeingmore
35Aguilar,146.;Cortés,84.;Díaz,193.;Tapia,38.36Hilgarth,Vol.1,52.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,48.
104
finelydressedthanhiscourtiers.”37AlthoughwrittenaboutSpanishmonarchs,this
quoteisequallyapplicabletothesocietyoftheMexicaandcouldeasilybeusedto
describetheideaofroyaltyinMesoamerica.
Withregardstocitylayout,theidealcityinSpainwastobesquare,with
straightstreetslaidoutinanorganized,efficientway.However,manySpanishcities,
especiallythoseconqueredfromtheMoors,werebuilthaphazardly,withno
organization,andcrookednarrowstreets.ThecityofTenochtitlan,incomparison,
wasbuiltonanislandandunlikeanycityintheSpanishterritories.Itwasnot
square,likeanidealSpanishcity,butwasextremelywelllaidoutandorganized,
withstraight,well‐kept,andcleanroads.AlthoughsomecitiesinSpain,suchas
BarcelonaandValencia,werevisuallystrikingtoforeigntravelersofthetime,the
awewithwhichtheSpanishconquistadorsdescribeTenochtitlanandothercentral
Mexicancitiesshowstheircomparability,ifnotexcellence,whencomparedwiththe
citiesinSpain.38
IntheSpanishterritories,townsandcitieswerenotextremelypopulous
duringthistimesincetheyhadaveryagriculturalandruralsocietythatwas
leftoverfromfeudaltimes.Houseswerenotbuiltinanyregularalignmentand
streetswerenotverywellkept,oftenmakingtraveldifficult.However,duringthe
reignoftheCatholicMonarchs,IsabellaandFerdinand,whowererulingatthetime
ofColumbus’discovery,architectureandcityplanningwerebecomingincreasingly
37Hilgarth,Vol.1,50.38Hilgarth,Vol.2,66,67.
105
moreimportant.Themonarchsbuiltoversevenhundredbridgesduringtheirreign
andincreasinglyelaboratearchitecturebegantobeimportantforsecularbuildings,
whereasbeforethistimeitwasreservedmainlyforreligiousestablishments.39So
althoughcitieshadnotbeenanimportantpartofMedievalSpain,andastonishing
architecturalfeatswerestillanovelidea,thesethingswerebeginningtogain
importanceduringtheyearsbeforetheConquest.JustlikeinMexico,Spanish
societywasstillcomingtogetherandremarkablecitieswereahugepartofthisnew
process.
‘BeholdtheSplendor’:TheArchitecture,People,andCityofTenochtitlan
AfterbeingwelcomedintoTenochtitlan,theSpaniardswerelodged
magnificentlyinapalacethathadbelongedtoMoctezuma’sfather,Axayacatl,the6th
EmperoroftheMexica.Thenewcomerswereescortedtothepalacebytwoof
Moctezuma’snephews,theLordofTexcocoandtheLordofCoyoacan.Thepalace
waslargeenoughtohousetheentireSpanishentourageandwasdecoratedwith
elaborateclothcanopies.40Thiswelcomingofforeignleadersintothecapitalcity
wasnotanoveloccurrence.ManytimesintheMexica’shistory,foreignlords,both
alliesandenemies,hadbeenwelcomedintothecityandhousedinroyalpalacesfor
diplomaticandcelebratoryreasons.TheSpaniards,intheeyesoftheMexica,were
simplyanotherforeigngroupandweretreatedassuch.Theyclaimedthattheywere
39Mariéjol,227.40Aguilar,146.;Cortés,85.;Díaz,194.;Tapia,38.
106
emissariesofagreatkingandsotheyweretreatedthewayforeignemissarieswere
customarilytreatedinthecityofTenochtitlan.
LikeEuropeankings,Moctezumahadmanypalacesandpersonalresidences
athisdisposalbothinsideandoutsidethecapitalcity.41Hehadpalacesin
Tenochtitlanwheremostofhisbusinesswasconductedandwherehereceived
foreignanddomesticentitiesandheldcourt.Hislandholdingsoutsidethecitywere
moreforpleasurepurposesincludingaprivateislandwhereonlyhewasallowedto
hunt.42Inthecityhehadahousewhereallofhistributerecordswerekeptand
anothertwothatwerefullofeverykindofweapon,manyelaboratelydecorated
withstonesandgold.43Healsohadapersonalaviarythathousedeagles,parrots,
ducks,andallothertypesofbirdsfoundinMesoamerica.Thesebirdswereusedfor
Moctezuma’spleasuresohecouldgovisitandenjoythemwheneverheliked,but
theywerealsokeptfortheirplumage,whichwasusedtodecorateroyalclothing.44
Anotherhousekeptmanyotherwildanimalsincludinglions,tigers,wolves,and
snakes,andwasusedasapersonalzooforMoctezumatovisit.Inordertocarefor
theseanimals,overthreehundredmenweregiventhisjobastheirofficialcourt
position.45Moctezumahadanotherhouseinwhichhekeptdeformedorunusual
41Cortés,91.42Cortés,91,Díaz,23843Díaz,211.44Díaz,212.;Tapia,40.45Cortés,110.;Díaz,213.;Tapia,40.
107
menandwomenincludinghunchbacks,dwarfs,andalbinos,whichwerealsocared
forbyhundredsofindividualsandusedforentertainment.46
HisresidentialpalacesinsidethecityweresomagnificentthatCortéssaid
thatdescribingtheirgrandeurandexcellencewasimpossiblebutthat“inSpain
thereisnothingtocompare.”47Aguilarsaidthathehadwalkedaroundoneof
Moctezuma’spalacesfourdifferenttimes,simplytomarvelatit,andhadexploredit
forhoursbuthadneverbeenabletoseeitallbecauseofitsgrandsize.48Intheroyal
bedchambers,“therewerecanopiedbedswithmattressesmadeoflargemantles,
andpillowsofleatherandtreefiber;goodquilts,andadmirablewhitefurrobes;
alsoverywellmadewoodenseats,andfinematting.”49Mostofthesehouses
containedlavishgardenswithalltypesofflowersandtreesorganizedaround
walkways,andpondsfilledwithfishandsmallbirds.Balconiesandcorridors
surroundedtheseindoorparkssothatMoctezumacouldwalkaroundandenjoy
themathisleisure.50
Inadditiontotheroyalresidences,theMexicahadahugemarketplaceheld
dailyintheneighboringislandtownofTlatelolco,whichhadbeenincorporatedinto
thecapitalcityyearsbefore.BernalDíazwas“astoundedatthenumberofpeople
andthequantityofmerchandisethatitcontained,andatthegoodorderandcontrol
46Cortés,111.;Tapia,40‐41.47Cortés,109.48Aguilar,180.49Aguilar,147.50Cortés,110.;Díaz,214.
108
thatwasmaintained,”fortheSpaniards“hadneverseensuchathingbefore.”51All
typesofgoodscouldbefoundatthismarket,asitwasacentraltradinghubforallof
Mesoamerica.TheSpaniardssawcloth,animalskins,vegetablesandanimalmeat
forconsumption,herbs,timber,paper,tobacco,preciousmetals,andpottery.Itwas
allwellcontrolledbyasmallgroupofleadingmenwhosawtothemaintenanceof
themarketplace.Localofficialspatrolledthemarket,inspectedthemerchandise,
andreportedanyilldoingtotheselocalmagistrateswhopresidedoverthe
marketplacefromabuildingsimilartoacourthouse.52
ThegreatpyramidandreligiouscomplexofTenochtitlanwasalsoasightto
behold.Themaintemplewasreachedbyclimbingoverahundredstonestepsand
wassurroundedbytwolarge,stonewalls.Insidethewallswasanimpressivepaved
courtarea,whichaccordingtoSpanishchronicleswaslargerthantheplazaof
SalamancainSpainandcouldfitinitsprecinctatownoffivehundredinhabitants.53
Inthiscomplexwereanumberoftallbeamswherehumanskullsfromsacrificial
victimsweredisplayed,whichofcoursedisturbedtheSpaniardsgreatly.Fromone
account,itisestimatedthattherewereover136,000skullsondisplayinthe
religiouscomplex.54Fromthetopofthetemple,thewholecityofTenochtitlancould
beseenandDíaz,inhisloquaciouswaydescribesthisexperience:
51Díaz,215.52Aguilar,178‐179.;Cortés,103‐105.;Díaz,216‐217.53Aguilar,179.;AnnonymousConquistador,168,175.;Cortés,105.;Díaz,217.;Tapia,41.54Tapia,41‐42.
109
Sowestoodlookingaboutus,forthathugeandcursedtemplestoodsohighthatfromitonecouldseeovereverythingverywell,andwesawthethreecausewayswhichledintoMexico,thatisthecausewayofIztapalapabywhichwehadenteredfourdaysbefore,andthatofTacuba,andthatofTepeaquilla,andwesawthefreshwaterthatcomesfromChapultepecwhichsuppliesthecity,andwesawthebridgesonthethreecausewayswhichwerebuiltatcertaindistancesapartthroughwhichthewaterofthelakeflowedinandoutfromonesidetotheother,andwebeheldonthatgreatlakeagreatmultitudeofcanoes,somecomingwithsuppliesoffoodandothersreturningloadedwithcargoesofmerchandise;andwesawthatfromeveryhouseofthatgreatcityandofalltheothercitiesthatwerebuiltinthewateritwasimpossibletopassfromhousetohouse,exceptbydrawbridgeswhichweremadeofwoodorincanoes;andwesawinthosecitiesCuesandoratoriesliketowersandfortressesandallgleamingwhite,anditwasawonderfulthingtobehold.55
Aroundthelargepyramidandwithinthereligiousprecinctwereanumberof
beautifulbuildingswhichwereelegantandelaboratelydecoratedhousesforthe
religiousmentolivein.56AccordingtoTapia,overfivethousandmen,similarto
Spanishpriests,livedandservedinthistemplecomplexandwererankedinaway
thatmimickedtheClericalhierarchyinSpain,withthehighpriestbeingtheonethat
alltheothersobeyed.57
Inadditiontotheroyalandreligiousdwellings,therewerenumerousother
magnificentlivingquartersthatcaughttheeyeoftheSpaniards.Thesehouseswere
largerthanthatoftheaveragecitizen,hadmultiplestories,andbeautifulroomsand
gardens.ThesewerethepersonalhousesofnoblelordswhoservedMoctezuma.
BothlordswhopermanentlyresidedinTenochtitlanandthosewhogoverned
55Díaz,218.56Cortés,105.;Díaz,224.57Tapia,41.
110
anotherterritory,suchastherulerofTexcoco,hadhousesinthecapitalwherethey
wererequiredtoresideforaperiodoftimeeachyear.Forcinghisleadingmento
spendpartoftheiryearnearhiscourtandinhiscapitalcitygaveMoctezumaa
betterrelationshipwithhisnobilityandalsolethimkeeptabsonsomeofthemost
powerfulandimportantmeninhisland.58ThiswassimilartoEuropeannoblemen
havingahouseinthecity,orroomsattheroyalcourt,wheretheystayedforpartof
theyearinadditiontoahomeinanothercityorthecountryside.Manysonsofthe
nobility,domesticandforeign,wereintheserviceofMoctezumaandlivedeitherin
theroyalpalaceorhadaresidencenearby.Thisagaingavetheemperorsome
controlofoutlyingterritories.Theseyoungmenwouldgrowuptobegovernorsor
lordsofsubjectdomainsandwouldalwayshaveaconnectiontothecapitalcityand
itsemperorsincetheywerebroughtupinhisservice.59Rulersofbothsocieties
usedthissystemofacentralroyalcourttoimposecontrolovertheirpowerfuland
dangerousnobility.
AnotheraspectofMexicasocietythattheSpanishchroniclersdescribedin
splendiddetailwerethepeoplethemselves.Cortéssaysitbeautifullyinoneofhis
letterstotheKingofSpain:
Thepeopleofthiscityaredressedwithmoreeleganceandaremorecourtlyintheirbearingthanthoseoftheothercitiesandprovinces,andbecauseMutezuma[sic]andallthosechieftains,hisvassals,arealwayscomingtothecity,thepeoplehavemoremannersandpoliteness…IwillsayonlythatthesepeoplelivealmostlikethoseinSpain…andconsideringthattheyare
58Aguilar,180.;Cortés,107.59Cortés,109.
111
barbarousandsofarfromtheknowledgeofGodandcutofffromallcivilizednations,itistrulyremarkabletoseewhattheyhaveachieved.60
AguilarsaidthatthepeopleofTenochtitlanwerethemostcleverandskillfulpeople
intheworldandcouldpickupanytaskafteronlyobservingitonetime.Becauseof
thisthereweremanydifferenttradesthatthecommonpeoplecouldmakealiving
atandtherefore,therewerevariedgoodsandservicesavailablethecitiesand
everyoneseemedtohavetheirownspecificplaceinthiswell‐organizedsociety.61
MexicarulersandthemonarchsofSpainseemtohavehadsimilardesires
whenitcametotheirpalaces.Althoughtheirmovementsdiffered–themonarchsof
SpainmovedfrompalacetopalaceandtheMexicarulerstendedtostayin
Tenochtitlan–bothhadnumerousroyalresidencesthatwererichlydecoratedand
filledwiththingstopleaseanddivertthemonarchs.Royalpalacesinbothsocieties
wereusednotonlytohousetherulersbutalsotoentertainguestsandtakecareof
importantmattersofstate,suchasreceivingforeignembassies.Thesepalaceswere
usedinbothsocietiestobringupnoblechildrenandteachthempropercourt
etiquette.Moctezumadidthisbyusingsonsofnoblemenashisprimaryservants.
QueenIsabellainSpainraisedthedaughtersofnoblefamiliesinherownhousehold
andgavethemtheeducationthatwasrequiredofladiesofnoblebirth.Asnon‐
religiousarchitecturewasbecomingmoreimportanttotheSpanishmonarchsinthe
yearsprecedingtheConquest,thedecorationoftheirpalacesbecameasimportant
60Cortés,108.61Aguilar,181.
112
asclothingforthemtodistinguishtheirrank.Bydecoratingthepalacesfromfloor
toceilingwithpaintingsandtapestries,arulercouldshowhisorherauthorityto
peoplewhoweredeemedimportantenoughtovisittheroyalresidence.62From
theirmanyrecentconquestsintheIberianPeninsula,theSpanishmonarchshad
alsoinheritedbeautifullybuiltandlavishlydecoratedMoorishpalaces,whichthey
happilyusedtoholdtheirroyalcourtandstageelaboratecelebrations.63
Havingpleasantdiversionsfrommattersofstatewereimportanttothe
rulersofbothsocieties.AmajorpasttimeofMoctezumawasalsothemostpopular
diversionoftheSpanishrulers.Spanishrulerslovedtohuntandwereraisedtodo
sofromaveryyoungagesincehunting,whichwasrelatedtotheartsofwarfare,
wasseenasoneofthekeypartsofanoble’seducation.64Otherroyaldiversions
includedthosefoundwithinthewallsoftheroyalpalaces.Similartotheroyal
residencesofTenochtitlan,theSpanishrulers’privatehousesincludedelaborate
gardenswithinitswallsandmanyofthemcontainedtheirownprivatezoos.The
Spaniardsimportedlions,leopards,wolves,camelsandotheranimalstofillthese
privatemenageries,manyofwhichcamefromAlexandria.65
Twootheraspectsofarchitectureandcityplanningarealsoremarkably
similarinthesocietiesoftheSpanishandtheMexica.Bothculturesputahuge
emphasisontradeandreligion,tokeeptheirterritoriesprosperousandtheirgods
62Hilgarth,Vol.1,51,56.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,50‐51.;Mariéjol,237.63Mariéjol,244‐245.64Hilgarth,Vol.1,51,56,62.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,51.65Díaz,205.
113
happy.LiketheMexica,theSpanishalsohadregularlyheldandhighlyregulated
markets.AnofficialknownastheMustacafpresidedovertheSpanishmarketsand
madesuretheywererunlegallyandsmoothly.Heinspectedthegoodsforsale,
controlledtheprices,andmadesuretheguildswerefollowingCrownandcity
regulations.Mostofthetimethesemarketswereheldinlargesquaresorplazasin
thecenterofthemajorcities.Withthegrowthofcities,theseplazasbecameeven
moreimportant,andmanymore,largersquareswerecreatedduringthereignof
JuanII(1406‐1454),IsabellaofCastile’sfather.Theywereusednotonlyfor
markets,butalsoforprocessionsandotherentertainmentssuchasplaysand
tournaments.66
Thedominanceofreligionwasalsoveryapparentinthearchitectureofboth
SpanishandMesoamericancities.InTenochtitlan,themaintempleandsurrounding
religiouscomplexdominatedtheskylineandwasinthemostcentrallylocatedand
importantpartofthecity.InSpain,religiousbuildingswerethemostbeautifuland
elaborateuntilthefifteenthcenturywhenseculararchitecturebecameimportantas
well.IntheSpanishroyalcourt,religionwasthecenterofeverydaylife.Therewasa
RoyalChapelinmostpalacesthatwasusedfordailyactivitiessuchasMassand
Hours,whichwerecelebratedthroughouttheyear.Itwasalsothesceneofreligious
celebrations,includingChristmas,Easter,andHolyWeek.CelebrationsoftheVirgin
MaryandotherSaintsalsofilledupthereligiouscalendarsoftheCatholicmonarchs.
66Hilgarth,Vol.1,80.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,67,73.
114
Attheseservices,offeringswerealwaysmade,usuallyintheformofmoneyorgifts
tothechurch.67
Withinthechurch,thereligiousmenmadeuptheirownsocietyandhadtheir
ownroyaltyandclasssystem.Therewasastricthierarchyinthechurch,which
resembledthesecularhierarchyofkings,nobles,andcommoners.TheArchbishop
ofToledowasthemostimportantchurchmaninSpainandrankedonlybelowthe
kingandqueeninhiswealthandpower.Belowhimwerethenoblemenofthe
church,thehighclergy.Thishigherechelonofreligioussocietywasgenerallymade
upofmenofnoblebirth.Forexample,KingFerdinand’sbastardsonAlonsowasthe
ArchbishopofZaragosa.Thesetitleswereofteninherited;inthecaseofAlonso,his
Archbishopricwaspassedtohisillegitimatesonafterhisdeath.Youngersonsof
kingsandothernobles,whowerelowerinthelineofsuccession,oftenenteredthe
churchastheirsourceofpowerandwealthandweregivenprioritywhenchurch
officeswererewarded.68
Overall,SpanishandMexicacitiessharedmanysimilarities.Thetwomost
importantthingsinbothsocietiesweretherulersandreligion.RulersinSpain
showedtheirgrandeurprimarilybywearingfancyclothing,butelaborately
decoratedpalacesalsobecameanimportantdistinguishingfactor.InMexico,the
emperoralsodressedinafashionthatdesignatedhisrankandmadesurethathis
palaceswerethemostexceptionalofalltheresidentialbuildingsinTenochtitlan.
67Edwards,130,132‐135.68Edwards,129‐130,132,134.;Hilgarth,Vol.1,108.;Mariéjol,251,254.
115
Rulersinbothsocietiesenjoyedprivategardensandzoosintheirownpersonal
palaces,butalsorelishedescapingfromthecityforawhiletoenjoytheroyalpast
timeofhunting.Mainsquareswithwell‐regulatedmarketsmadeitpossibleforthe
generalpublictohaveaccesstoallthegoodsofthelandandplazasalsogavethema
placetocelebratemajorfestivalsandcatchglimpsesofroyalprocessions.Aboveall
otherbuildingsstoodoutthosededicatedtoreligion.Religiouscomplexeswerethe
homeofmanymenofrank,andtheleadingnoblesoccupiedthehighestpositionsin
religioussociety.ThehierarchyofSpanishroyalsocietywasreplicatedinthe
hierarchyofthechurchandthiswasseeninMexicoaswell.
AMesoamericanRoyalCourt:CourtlyGrandeurinTenochtitlan
ThecourtlypracticesoftheMexicawereveryelaborateandspecifically
adheredtoinawaythatechoedpracticesinEuropeatthetime.Moctezuma
receivedguests,suchasCortésinaspecialhallinhispalacewhereonlycertain
membersofMexicasocietywereallowedtogo.Inthisaudiencechamber,
Moctezumawasattendedtobyhisnephews,brothers,andothercloserelations.No
otherlords,howeverimportant,wereallowedtoenterthissacredspace.Thiswas
wherehereceivedCortésforthefirsttimeinthepalace,whichshowstheregardhe
heldfortheSpanishleader.InhispalaceMoctezumahadalargeguardtoprotect
andconversewithhim,whichwasmadeupofovertwohundrednoblemen.Mostof
thesemencametothepalaceeverydaybutwerekeptinseparaterooms,where
theyconductedbusinessamongstoneanother.Whentheydidenterthepresenceof
116
theemperortheywererequiredtotakeofftheirrichlydecoratedclothesandtoput
onsomethingmoreplain.Theyhadtoentertheaudiencechamberbarefootand
withtheireyesloweredtowardsthegroundinreverenceandrespect.Theywould
bowthreetimesbeforespeakinganduponleavingthechamberwerenotpermitted
toturntheirbackontheking,butwereforcedtobackoutoftheroomwhilekeeping
theireyesontheground.69
Royalmealswerealsoelaborateaffairswiththeirownrulesandregulations.
Foreverymealtheroyalcookspreparedoverthirtydishes,whichwereplacedover
potterybrazierssothatthefoodwouldnotgetcold.Moctezumasatonalow,richly
decoratedstoolatalargetablecoveredwithbeautifulcloths,napkinsanddishware.
Beforeeatinghewasbroughtawaterbasintowashhishands,andwhenhebegan
toeatascreenwasputupinfrontofhimtogivehimprivacy.Hisfourchiefadvisors,
themenoftheroyalcounciloffour,kepthimcompanyduringhismealsandate
standingupatMoctezuma’sside.70Thetowelsheusedtodryhishandsandthe
platesandbowlsheatefromweresosacredthataftertheywereusedtheycould
neverbeusedagain.71Atthesemealstheresometimeswasentertainmentincluding
hunchbacks,jesters,acrobats,orotherperformances.WhenMoctezumawas
finishedwithhismealthetablewascleared,andMoctezuma’shandswerewashed
withgreatceremony.Afterthis,alltheothernoblemenintheantechamberswould
69Aguilar,147.;Cortés,111‐112.;Díaz,208‐209.70Cortés,111.‐112.;Díaz,209‐210.;Tapia,40.71Cortés,112.;Tapia,40.
117
beabletoeat.Leftoversfromthenobles’mealsweregiventotheservantsand
entertainers.72
TheEmperorMoctezumahimselfwasextremelyhygienicandbathedtwo
timeseachday,whichmadehimmoreconcernedwithhiscleanlinessthanany
Europeanruler.Hehadmanywivesandmistresses,alldaughtersorniecesofother
great,noblelords.Thispracticeofpolygamywasreservedforonlymenofnoble
rank.Commonerswereonlyallowedtohaveonewifeandadulterywaspunishable
bydeath.Moctezumachangedclothesfourtimesadayandneverworethesame
clothestwice.Hisclothingwasbroughttohimwrappedinclothsothatitwouldnot
betouchedbythehandsofhisservants.73WheneverMoctezumaleftthepalace,he
alwaysdidsowithgreatpompandceremony.Hewouldexitthepalaceinarichly
decoratedlittercarriedbysomeofhisgreatlordsandnoblemen.Thisprocession
wasprecededbymencarryinglong,decoratedpolesthatsignifiedtoonlookersthat
theiremperorwasapproaching.Noonehepassedwasallowedtolookhiminthe
face.Thecitizensbowedtheirheadsorprostratedthemselvesuntilhislitterhad
passedby.74
EvenwhentheSpaniardstookMoctezumaprisoner,hewasstilltreatedina
mannerthatfithisposition.HewaswatchedoverbySpanishguardsbutwasstill
allowedtoholdcourtandhaveanyamusementorentertainmentthathewished.He
72Díaz,210‐211.73Aguilar,147.;Cortés,112.;Díaz,208.;Tapia,40.74Díaz,215,238.
118
stillhadallofhisattendantsandcontinuedhisusualdailypractices,suchashis
twice‐dailybaths,elaboratemeals,andmeetingswithdomesticandforeignofficials.
Hecontinuedtoentertainhimselfwithbanquetsandotherelaboratefestivities.75
Fromhis“prison”hestillpunishedrebelMexicanobleswhoweretryingto
overthrowtheSpaniards,andreceivednewsaboutactivitiesinhisterritoriesthe
samewayasbefore.WhenanothergroupofSpaniardsreachedthecoast,withthe
aimofarrestingtherebelliousCortés,Moctezumaheardabouttheirlandingthree
daysbeforeCortés’menfoundout.76
Whileincaptivity,theSpanishseemedtoholdMoctezumainhighregard.
Fromtheirdescriptions,theyseemedtohavegenuinelylikedhimasapersonand
respectedhimasanoblemanofaroyalfamily.Díaz,whowasforatimeplacedasa
guardoverMoctezuma,describeshisimprisonmentinthefollowingway:
Wheneverwepassedbeforehim,evenifitwasCortéshimself,wedoffedourmailedcapsorhelmets…andhetreatedusallwithpoliteness…itwasnotnecessarytogiveorderstomanyofuswhostoodguardoverhimaboutthecivilitythatweoughttoshowtothisgreatcacique;hekneweachoneofusandevenknewournamesandourcharactersandhewassokindthattoallofushegavejewels…wheneverIwasonguard,orpassedinfrontofhim,Idoffedmyheadpiecewiththegreatestrespect.77
ThisrespectforMoctezumaisaveryimportantaspectoftheconquest.Notonlydid
theconquistadorsseemtomarvelathim,hiscity,anditspeople,buttheyalso
75Tapia,40.;Aguilar,147‐148.;Cortés,92.;Díaz,230‐231.76Díaz,243,257.77Díaz,233,236.
119
seemedtogenerallylikeMoctezumaasaperson.Theyacknowledgedhimasa
legitimaterulerfromaroyalfamilyandtreatedhimassuch.ThisrespectforMexica
nobilityissignificantespeciallysinceitcarriedthroughtothepost‐Conquestyears
whereindigenouspeopleofroyaldescentweregivenhighpositionsinthecolonial
society.Thisaspectofpost‐Conquestsocietywillbediscussedmoreinthenext
chapter.
AsinMexico,allaspectsofcourtsocietyinSpainwereattendedtowiththe
upmostpompandceremony.Thegrandnessoftheroyalcourtwasmeanttoshock
andawe,butalsotoshowthemonarchs’powerandauthority.Othernobleshad
theirownpalacesaswell,whichweregenerallyasmaller,lessgrandversionofthe
royalcourt.ItwasveryimportantinSpanishsocietyforpeopletodressandact
accordingtotheirrankandnottodisplaythemselvesinawaythatwasabovetheir
currentstation.Forexample,inthefifteenthcentury,womenwiththerankof“lady”
couldweardresseswithtrainstwiceaslongasthoseofwomenwithoutatitleof
nobility.Mostnobletitleswereinherited,butthekinghadthepowertogranttitles
suchasduke,marquis,count,andbaronforexceptionalservice.Althoughcertain
clotheswereonlyallowedforthehighestmembersofsociety,noteventhehighest
rankingnoblewasallowedtooutshinethemonarch.78
AglitteringcourtlifethatisassociatedwithEuropeanroyaltyreallybeganto
developinSpainduringthereignofIsabellaandFerdinand.Isabellalovedhaving
78Hilgarth,Vol.2,48.;Mariéjol,268‐269.
120
thenoblemenandladieswithheratcourtsoshecouldalwaysplayherroleas
queenwithasmuchpompassheliked.Herclosestservantsweremembersofthe
nobleclass,andmanygovernmentalofficesatcourtwerealsoreservedforthoseof
thearistocracy.Havingthesepeopleclosetoheratcourtwasnotonlyforvanity;it
alsohadadiplomaticpurpose.Keepingthenoblefamiliesatcourtandappointing
themtothebestofficesmeantthatnotonlycouldthemonarchskeeptheireyeson
themembersofthenobleclass,theycouldalsouseimportantpositionsasrewards
forloyalty.Havingaroyalcourtsocietywasawaytokeepsocietyasawhole
intact.79Othermembersoftheroyalfamilysometimeshadtheirowncourtstolook
after.ThisincludedthesonandheirtoIsabellaandFerdinand,Juan,whohadhis
ownpalacesandroyalcourtthatmimickedthecourtofhisparentsbutonasmaller
scale.80
Intheroyalhouseholds,everythingwasdoneforthemonarchsfrom
morninguntilnight.Theywereneveralone,butwerealwaysaccompaniedby
servantsofsomesort.Becauseofthis,thereweremanypositionsavailableatthe
royalcourtandeveryservanthadhisorherownplaceandduties.Oneofthe
highestpositionsonecouldhaveatcourtisthatofmayordomomayor,themanwho
oversawallpalaceexpensesandmanyoftheofficesofthecourt.Everymealwas
attendedtobyservantswhomadesurethateachroyaldiningexperiencewasdone
withappropriateceremony.Therewereservantstopreparetheroyalbedchambers,
79Mariéjol,37.80Hilgarth,Vol.1,52.;Mariéjol,238.
121
setthetables,cleanthepalace,andevendresstheroyalfamily.Therewere
cobblers,barbers,peopleinchargeofwardrobeandentertainmentssuchasbooks,
physicians,cooks,andallothersortsofpositionsthatwerenecessaryfor
maintainingaroyalhousehold.Themonarchswerealwayssurroundedbyroyal
guardsandhigh‐rankingknightswereassignedspeciallytowatchtheroyal
bedchamberatnightandaccompanytheroyalfamilywherevertheywent.81
Themonarchswentoutamongsttheirpeopleoftenforprocessionsand
ceremonies.ItwasdeeplyimportantfortheSpanishkingandqueentobevisibleto
theirpeopleandbeseentobegenerous,compassionate,andpowerfulrulers.They
generallywentoutcarriedinlittersandwereaccompaniedbyaprocessionofcourt
figures.Theroyalmonarchsreveledingoingamongsttheirpeopleinroyalsplendor
andalsoenjoyedhostingelaborateceremoniesduringwhichthecourtsparedno
expense.Formalceremonysurroundedthemonarchsenteringthecityandother
royalprocessions,receptionsofforeigndiplomats,andtheopeningoftheCortes,the
SpanishversionofParliament.Isabellaespeciallyloveddressingthepartforthese
royaleventsandtakingpartinthedancingandothercourtlyactivities.82The
grandestceremoniesoftheyear,apartfromreligiousfestivals,wereonesthat
centeredonthenoblefamilythemselvesincludingbaptisms,weddings,and
funerals.Religionwasoftenthebasisofmostceremonies,butafterthereligious
solemnitieswereobserved,exuberantcelebrationwouldfollow.Therewere
81Edwards,135‐136.;Mariéjol,239‐243.82Hilgarth,Vol.1,50.;Mariéjol,244‐245,247.
122
banquetswithmusicanddancing,bullfights,plays,andtournaments.Thecity
populationalsocelebratedthesemajoreventsbywatchingtheroyalprocessions
andthenholdingtheirowncelebrationsinthemainplaza.Anotherimportant
aspectofcourtcelebrationswastheideaofchivalry.Spainwasaverywaroriented
societyandlikedtocelebrategreatvictoriestoencourageaknightlyculturethat
promotedenthusiasmforwars,suchastheReconquista.Becauseofthistherewere
oftenjoustsandotherknightlygames,whichwereentertainingbutalsoserveda
biggerpurpose.83
WhenlookingatthesocietiesoftheMexicaandSpanishside‐by‐side,itis
easytoseethegreatimportancebothplacedintheideaofaroyalcourt.Thecourt
servedmanypurposesfromentertainmenttopolitics.Itwasawayforthemonarchs
toshowtheirstatus,tothecommonclassofcourse,butalsotothenobilitywhom
theysurroundedthemselveswith.Usingthegiftsofcourtpositions,rulerscould
securealliancesfromsomeofthemostpowerfulfamiliesinthekingdom.They
couldalsoshowofftheirroyaltyandpoweratcelebrations,whichwereregularly
heldthroughouttheyear.Everyaspectoftheirdailyliveswasoverseenbyservants,
andthehighestpositionsinthehouseholdweregenerallyrecruitedfromtheupper
echelonsofsociety.Youngnoblemenandwomenweresometimesraisedand
trainedintheroyalpalacetoimplementloyaltyfromayoungageandtoteachthe
nextgenerationthewaysofcourtlifeandrulership.Thegrandceremonieswere
meantforentertainmentbutusuallyalsohadsomesortofreligiousundertone, 83Edwards,133,136.;HilgarthVol.2,64.
123
sinceeachsocietyheldreligioninsuchhighregard.Bothsocietieswerealsowarrior
culturesanddisplayedthisfactasoftenastheycould.
Conclusions
Itiseasytoseebyexaminingsomeofthesesocietalaspectsthatthecultures
oftheMexicaandtheSpanishsharedsomestrikingsimilarities.Theyboth
controlledhugeareasofland,yetmostterritoriesmaintainedsomesortof
autonomy.InMesoamerica,theMexicamonarchsruledbyfearandmaintainedtheir
powerbypromotingastrongwarriorcultureandmaintainingapowerfularmy.The
Spanishmonarchs,ontheotherhand,usedtheirpresencetokeepoutlying
territoriesincheckandtraveledthroughtheirlandsthroughouttheyear,stayingin
citiesalloverthepeninsula.
Whenitcomestothecitiesthemselves,theconquistadorsadmittedthat
therewasnothinginSpaintorivaltheMexicacapitalcityofTenochtitlan.InSpain,
therewasnocapitalcityandsonoonecityhadyetbeensingledoutandmade
exceptionallygrand.Spanishsocietyhadtheirideaofaperfectcity,squareandwell
laid‐out,butmostcitiesdidnotmeetthesestandardssincemanyhadbeenrecently
conqueredfromMoorswhohadhaphazard,unorganizedcityplanning.TheMexica,
ontheotherhand,hadanextremelywelllaidoutandmaintainedcity,withstraight
rowsofstreetsandcanals,whichmadetravelthroughoutthecityextremelyeasy.
Religiousbuildingsdominatedthearchitecturalfeatssincebothsocietieswere
heavilybasedonreligion.Royalpalaceswerethesecondmostimpressivebuildings
124
inbothSpainandMexicoandwereusedasastatussymbolfortheroyalfamilies.
Theywerealsothehomeoftheroyalcourts,whichformedanintegralpartofboth
societies.Royalcourtswereusedasthebackdropofextravagantceremonies.
Servantsconstantlysurroundedtheroyalfamilyinbothsocietiesandtheywere
attendedtoeverymomentofeveryday.Everyaspectoftheirdailyliveswastreated
togreatceremonyandtheywerealwaysprotectedbyaroyalguard.Thepalaces
werealsothehomeofmanyothernobleswhoservedthemonarchsinreturnfor
titlesandahigherrankinsociety.Celebrations,usuallywithreligiousandsecular
parts,werecelebratedtoshowthecourtlygrandeurandgivethecommonpeoplea
reasontocelebrateaswell.Royalprocessions,andbeingamongstthepeoplewere
alsoimportanteventssinceitgavethecommonpeopleachancetoseetheir
monarchsandcementedloyalty.
Thischapterfocusesontheseaspectsofsocietyfromtheviewpointofthe
firstEuropeanstocomeintocontactwithsuchahighlyadvancedindigenous
civilization.Theconquistadors’accountsaresouniquebecausetheywereamong
thefewEuropeanindividualswhowereabletoseetheMexicaEmpire,Moctezuma,
thecityofTenochtitlan,andtheMexicapeoplebeforeitwaseverinfluencedby
Spanishculture.TheysawtherawcharacterofMesoamericansocietyasitwasin
thetimebeforetheConquest.Theseaccountsareinvaluableforthedescriptions
theygiveus,andaresodetailedandremarkable,thattheyeasilypaintapictureof
pre‐ConquestMesoamerica.Theygiveusexceptionalnarrativesaboutthegrandeur
125
oftheMexicaroyalcourtbecausetheyfounditremarkableandfelttheneedto
recordtheirexperiencesingreatdetail.
WiththeirdescriptionsweareabletoseethattheMexicacities,architecture,
ceremonies,andcourtlypracticessharedmanysimilaritieswiththoseseeninSpain.
Insomecases,especiallywhenitcametotheexceptionalcityofTenochtitlan,the
MexicaseemtohaveoutdonetheircontemporarySpaniards.Cortéswasso
impressedwiththecitythatheissaidtohavebeenheartbrokentocausesomuch
destructiontoit.Díazalsoreflectsinhisoldagethesadnesshefeelsatthe
destructionofsucharemarkablecity.“OfallthesewondersthatIthenbeheldto‐
day(sic)allisoverthrownandlost,nothingleftstanding.”84Thecapitalcityof
Spain’snewterritorywasbuiltontopoftheruinsofTenochtitlan,whichshowsthe
regardtheSpaniardsheldforthelostcity.Tenochtitlanmayhavebeendestroyed,
butnotallaspectsofindigenousroyalculturevanishedaftertheconquest.This
continuationofindigenousnobleauthorityisdiscussedmorefullyinthefollowing
chapter.
84Díaz,109.
126
CHAPTER4
POST‐CONQUESTMESOAMERICA:THEBLENDINGOFSPANISHANDMEXICASOCIETIESANDTHESURVIVALOFINDIGENOUSCULTURE
ThesocietyofcentralMexicointheyearsfollowingtheconquestwasnotone
markedbyindigenousdefeatordesolation.Tenochtitlanmayhavebeendestroyed
andtheMexicaEmpireoverpowered,butthepeopleofMesoamericadidnotsee
themselvesasconquered,vanquished,orsubordinated.1Inreality,1521isnota
yearthatmarksthe“Conquest”ofMesoamerica;itinsteadsignifiestheendofatwo‐
yearwarbetweentheSpaniardsandthepeopleofTenochtitlan.Italsomarksthe
beginningoffurtherconquestexpeditionstogaincontroloftherestofNewSpain.
TheruinedcapitalcityoftheMexicaEmpirewasrebuiltandbecamethecapitalcity
ofthenewSpanishcolony.ThemainplazainMexicoCitywasbuiltoverthegreat
centralsquareofTenochtitlan,Cortéshadhishomebuiltinthesameplacewhere
Moctezuma’spersonalpalacehadbeen,andthecathedralofMexicoCitywasbuiltin
thesameplacewheretheMexicagreattemplehadoncestood.2Therebuilding
effortofthenewcityofMexicowasdonebypre‐HispanicresidentsofTenochtitlan
andthesurroundingareas.Theseindigenoussurvivorsalsomadeupthemajorityof
thepopulationofthenewcity.Soinaway,Tenochtitlansurvived,althoughasthe
1Wood,142.2Martínez,2,105.;Restall,65,70.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,8.;Schwartz,214.;Townsend,132.
127
capitalofNewSpainitwasundoubtedlyinaverynewformthanithadbeeninpre‐
Conquestyears.3
Overtime,theSpanishpresenceinMexicoCityandtherestofMesoamerica
increasedasnewlyconqueredterritorieswereincorporatedintothenewcolony
andcolonialinstitutionsweresetup.TheSpaniardstriedsettinguptheirown
institutionsinthesenewareas,butoftenfoundthatworkingwithintheframework
alreadyestablishedbytheindigenouspeoplewasthemostefficientandeffective.
ThefollowingquotebySpanishhistorianandchroniclerAlonsodeZoritaexplains
howpeopleinColonialtimesviewedtheresilienceofnativecommunitiesand
culture:
WhenNewSpainwasconqueredbytheSpaniards,thismodeofgovernmentofthenativeswasretainedandcontinuedforsomeyears.Moctezumaalonelosthiskingdomanddominion,whichwerevestedintheroyalCrownofCastile.SomeofhistownsweregiveninencomiendatoSpaniards.Alltheotherlordsofprovinces,boththosewhoweresubjecttohimandthosewhowereindependent,includingtherulersofTexcocoandTacuba,possessed,ruled,andgovernedtheirlands,buttheydidthisasrepresentativesofYourMajestyorofencomenderos.Theselordsdidnothaveasmuchlandorasmanyvassalsastheyhadoncehad,butthepeoplebroughtthemtributeofproduceandotherthingsasbeforetheConquest,andtheywereobeyed,feared,andrespected.4
TheencomiendasZoritamentionsrefertograntsofnativelaborandtribute,which
wereawardedtoCortés’sfavoritesandafewevenwenttoindigenousnoblesin
3Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,7.4Zorita,113.
128
recognitionoftheirstatus.Inarelayfashion,newlyconqueredterritorieswereused
aslaunchingpadsforsuccessiveconquesteffortsandnewcolonieswereexploited
fortheirresources,funding,andpeopleasworkers,tributepayersandwarriors.
WarsaimedatconqueringindigenouspeoplesinLatinAmericapersistedwellinto
thetwentiethcenturyanditcanevenbearguedthatwhatisknownas“the
Conquest”isstillincomplete.5TheSpaniardsmayhavethoughtthatindigenous
peopleswerecompletelyloyaltotheCrown,butnativessawthemselvesassubjects
oftheirownlordsfirst,andtheSpanishkingsecond.6
IntheyearsfollowingtheConquest,thenativepopulationsinNewSpain
continuedtogreatlyoutnumberthepopulationsofSpanishsettlers.Butbecauseofa
numberoffactors,includingthedisunityofindigenouscommunities,Spaniards
wereabletocontinuetheirconqueringexpeditionswithgreatsuccess.Epidemics
alsohelpedtheSpaniardsgainfootholdsintheirnewcolonyandallowedthemto
notonlysettleinthesenewareas,butalsomadetheircontrolofnativecommunities
abiteasier.Someestimatessuggestthatnativepopulationsdeclinedbyasmuchas
90percentinthecenturyaftersmallpoxandotherdiseaseswerefirstintroducedto
Mesoamerica.Duringthistime,indigenouscity‐statesoftenlosttheirownrulers,in
additiontothehugemajorityoftheirpopulation,sothenewSpanishcolonial
5Martínez,2,105.;Restall,65,70.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,7.;Schwartz,214.6Restall,76.
129
governmentwasabletogainastrongerfootholdthantheywouldhaveinthe
absenceofsuchepidemics.7
Becausethepopulationdensityoutsideofthemajorcitieswasrelativelylow,
alargenumberofpeoplesurvivedthewavesofepidemics.Thesepeoplelivingin
ruralareaswerealsonotasdirectlytouchedbySpanishcultureandweretherefore
abletopreservetheirpre‐Conquestwayoflife.Undoubtedly,indigenousculture
waschangedbyEuropeaninfluence,butinmanyareasofMesoamericatheculture
remainedmoreindigenousthananythingelse.8Evenintheurbanareas,native
culturesurvived.Nativeelites,especially,faredwellinthenewculturalsettingif
theywerewillingtotakeadvantageofthenewsituation.9Anexampleofthisisthe
rulersofTlaxcalawhowereabletonegotiatethemselvesintotheroleofSpanish
alliesaftertheinitialbattlesdidnotgotheirway.Thismayseemalmostlikea
betrayalofindigenousinterests,butfornativenoblemen,thiswasthemostrealistic
pathtosurvivalandsuccessinthenewColonialorder.10Soforindigenouspeoples
tosucceed,theyhadtoworkwiththeSpaniards.However,thispracticewentboth
ways.TheSpanishcolonialprojectonlyworkedwellinMesoamericawhenit
coincidedwithpre‐existingpractices.Whenitdidnot,itwasmetwithfierce
resistance.Sothiswasreallyatwowaystreet.Bothculturesrecognizedsimilarities
7Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,7.;Townsend,147.8Wood,10.9Restall,102.10Wood,106.
130
inoneanotherandtheyalsorealizedthattheonlywaytosucceedinColonialNew
Spainwastoworktogetherandadapt.11
Post‐ConquestSociety:AnOverview
OutsideofthefewcitieswhereSpaniardssettledandestablishedtheir
presence,manyindigenouspeoplecontinuedtoliveinpredominantlynative
communitiesduringtheColonialperiod.Theycontinuedspeakingtheirown
languages,learnedtowritetheselanguagesusingRomanletters,dressedthesame
waythattheyhadinpre‐Colonialtimes,farmedandatetraditionalMesoamerican
cropssuchasmaizeandbeans,andbuilthousesusingtheirownarchitectural
techniques.12Formanycommunities,thismeantthatlocalautonomywasnotlostin
1521,butslowlyerodedoverthecenturies.Fromtheperspectiveofmanynativesis
Mesoamerica,theConquestwasnotasingle,dramaticevent,butalong,drawnout
processofadaptationandevolution.13
OnereasonforthispersistenceofnativeculturewastheSpaniards’tunnel
visionwhenitcametoChristianizingtheirnewindigenoussubjects.Thespreading
ofChristianitywas,afterall,theultimatejustificationfortheirconquestcampaigns
andsubsequentrepressiveandoftenviciousbehavior.Butbecausethe
Christianizationprojectwassoimportant,everyotheraspectofnativeculturewas
secondary,andoftennotimportant.Forexample,therewerenomajoreffortsonthe
11Restall,104.;Townsend,144.;Wood,59.12Wood,10.13Restall,74.
131
partoftheSpanishtomakenativepeopleslearntheSpanishlanguage.Infact,
Spaniards,especiallyfriars,wereencouragedtolearnindigenouslanguagesinorder
tomoreeasilyspreadtheteachingsofChristianity.Thisledtothedevelopmentof
writtenindigenouslanguagessothatreligiousliteraturecouldbeprintedinlocal
nativevernacular.Privileged,upperclassmenwereofteninstructedinthewriting
oftheirownlanguages,leadingtothenumeroussurvivingindigenousdocumentsin
archivestoday.NativedresswasanotheraspectofMesoamericanColonialsociety
thatremainedrelativelyunchangedaftertheConquest.Itslowlychangedand
adaptedoverthecomingcenturiesandwasevenadoptedbySpanishsettlerswho
foundindigenousclothingmoreappropriateforColoniallife.Thecomplete
HispanizationofnativepeopleswasnotaconcernfortheSpaniardsduringthe
Colonialyears,andwasnotimplementedinfulluntilwellintothenineteenth
Century.14
Becauseofthis,somanyaspectsofpre‐Conquestindigenoussocietysurvived
intotheColonialperiod,eitheruntouchedorbarelyinfluencedbyEuropeanculture.
FactorsthatweresoimportanttoeachsocietybeforetheConquest,includingthe
ideaofroyalty,theimportanceofreligion,andthewayofgovernancewereeach
detailedindepthinthepreviouschaptersandwillalsobethefocusofthispost‐
Conquestnarrative.Manycommunitiesretainedtheirtraditionalrulinginelitein
theColonialperiodandstillhighlyrespectedtheroyalfamiliesofpre‐Conquest
times.ChristianitywasofcourseimposeduponthenativesofMesoamericabythe 14Restall,74‐75.
132
Spaniards,butthereligionthatwaspracticedinMesoamericawasaChristianity
heavilyinfluencedandshapedbytraditionalMesoamericanspirituality.Colonial
governmentwaslikewiseablendofbothculturesandevenhadseparateSpanish
andIndigenousinstitutionswherethenativesofMesoamericaenjoyedquiteabitof
autonomywhenitcametotheirowngovernanceatthelocallevel.15Another
importantaspectofColonialsocietythatwillbeexploredistheideaofindigenous
peopleastheirownconquistadorsintheyearsafterthefallofTenochtitlan.Allof
thesesocietalandculturalaspectsshowtheperseveranceofindigenousheritage,
theadaptabilityoftheMesoamericannatives,andthesurvivaloflocalculture.
TheSurvivalofRoyalIndigenousLineagesandPrestige
ThemajorthemeofthischapteristhesurvivalofMesoamericanculturein
thewakeofdefeatandconquest.Oneofthemostimportantaspectsofthisisthe
continueddominanceoftraditionallynoblelineages.Indigenousroyalsnotonly
continuedtodemandrespectfromtheircommunities,theywerealsohighly
respectedbytheSpanishconquistadors.ThefamilyofMoctezuma,forexample,was
recognizedasbeingworthyofroyaldistinction.Theyreceivedtitlesofnobility,
weregivenSpanishencomiendasfromwhichtheyearnedtribute,andwere
generallyexemptfromtaxes.16InTenochtitlan,thelastindependentMexicaruler
wasCuauhtemoc,whosurrendered(orwascaptured,dependingonthesource)in
1521.HewasabletocontinueasrulerofTenochtitlanevenaftertheConquestuntil
15Wood,10.16Chipman,xx,xxii.;Martínez,2.;Wood,142.
133
hewasexecutedin1525,supposedlyforplottingrebellion.17Followingthispattern,
theSpaniardswerequicktoexecutelocalrulerswhowerenotflexibleand
amenabletoSpanishinterests.However,rulerswhocooperatedandacceptedthe
newColonialorderoftenfoundthemselvesinthesameseatofpowertheyhad
alwaysoccupied,withoutmuchinterferencefromthenewEuropeanpower.18
DescendantsofthefirstMexicaemperor,Acamapichtli,continuedtooccupy
placesofpowerinMexicoCityforoverfourdecadesaftertheConquest.The
emperoroftheMexicaatthetimeofthefallofTenochtitlanwasCuauhtemoc.After
theConquest,hewasallowedtoremainastheruleroftheMexicaandwasbaptized
andrenameddonHernandodeAlvarado.19Afterhisdeathin1525,Cortéselecteda
manknownasJuanVelásquezTlacotzincihuacoatl.Hewasthelastcihuacoatl
(secondincommandaftertheemperorinMexicasociety)beforetheconquest,and
wasthegrandsonofthegreatcaptain,andfirstcihuacoatl,Tlacaelel.Heonlyliveda
littleoverayearafterhiselectionandonhisdeathhewasreplacedbyaMexica
privatecitizennameddonAndrésMotelchihtzin.20Thenextruler,donPablo
Xochiquentzin,wasanoblemanbutnotamemberoftheroyalMexicafamily.He
ruledforonlythreeyears,andafterhisdeath,theruleofMexicowasreturnedtothe
royalfamilywhendonDiegoHuanitzinwaschosenasrulerofTenochtitlan.Hewas
17Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,59,169.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,39,79.;Chimalpahin,Annals,135.;Lockhart,1993,148–150.;Schwartz,215.;Townsend,120,127,159.18Martínez,111.;Restall,124.19Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,57.20Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,57,59,169.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,39.;Chimalpahin,Annals,135,147.
134
agrandsonofAxayacatl,thesixthemperoroftheMexica.21Hewasfollowedasruler
ofTenochtitlanbydonDiegodeSanFranciscoTehuetzquititzinwhowasagrandson
ofTizoc,theseventhruleroftheMexica.22Heruledforthirteenyearsandwas
succeededbydonCristóbaldeGuzmánCecetzin,whowasasonofdonDiego
Huanitzin,andagreat‐grandsonofAxayacatl.Afterhisdeath,donLuisdeSanta
MaríaNacacipactzinbecamethelastindigenousrulerofTenochtitlantocomefrom
theMexicaroyaldynasty.Hisdeath,in1565markedtheendofthisgreatdynasty
begunbyAcamapichtlialmosttwohundredyearsearlier.23
ThedescendantsofMoctezumaIIwereundoubtedlythenativepeoplewho
faredthebestinthenewColonialsociety.Afterthetwo‐yearbattlewiththe
Spaniards,thedevastationanddestructionofTenochtitlan,andwaveafterwaveof
epidemics,onlyafewofMoctezuma’schildrensurvived.Thosewhodidwere
treatedlikeroyaltyandtheSpanishCrownrecognizedthemassuchandinsisted
thattheirroyalbloodbehonoredandrespected.Ofhissurvivingchildren,theone
whowasconsideredhisprincipleheirwasagirlnamedTecuichpotzin.Bornaround
theyear1509,TecuichpotzinwasabouttenyearsoldwhentheSpaniardsfirst
enteredTenochtitlan.HerimportanceinMexicasocietyisshownbyherfirstthree
21Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,171.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalplahin,Vol.2,39,41.;Chimalpahin,Annals,135,137,147.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena45,47.;CódiceCozcatzin,foja13verso.22Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,173.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,41.;Chimalpahin,Annals,137,147.;CódiceCozcatzin,foja13verso.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,45,47.23Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,175.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,41,43.;Chimalpahin,Annals,137,139,147.;CódiceCozcatzin,foja14recto.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,45,47.
135
marriagestoMexicaprinceswhowereinlinetoinheritthethrone.Shewasfirst
marriedtoAtlixcatzinwholittleisknownabout,butthe“tzin”attachedtohisname
signifieshisplaceasroyalty.HersecondhusbandwasheruncleCuitlahuac,who
followedMoctezumaonthethronebutonlyreignedeightydaysbeforesuccumbing
tothesmallpoxepidemic.Tecuichpotzinwasthenmarriedtoherfather’scousin,
Cuauhtemoc,thefinalMexicaemperorelectedbeforetheConquest.Hermarriageto
thesethreemenissignificantbecausebymarryingher,CuitlahuacandCuauhtemoc
wereabletolegitimizetheirrighttothethrone.SinceTecuichpotzinwas
Moctezuma’sprincipleheirandbornfromtheunionwithhisprimarywife,shewas
usedasawaytosecureandconfirmthesenewlyelectedemperors’claimtothe
Mexicathrone.24
AftertheConquest,herpositiondidnotdiminish.Shewasbaptizedandgiven
theChristiannameIsabelandwasquicklywidowedathirdtimewhenherhusband
CuauhtemocwasexecutedbyCortésforhissupposedinvolvementinaplotto
revolt.AfterthisshewassubsequentlymarriedtothreedifferentSpaniardswhoall
heldahighplaceinthenewColonialsociety.Isabel’sfirstSpanishhusbandwasa
conquistadorandloyalfriendofCortés’namedAlonsodeGrado.Afteronlyayear,
IsabelwaswidowedforafourthtimeandmovedintoCortés’householdwhereshe
soonbecamepregnantwithhischild.ShewasquicklymarriedoffagaintoPedro
GallegodeAndrade,anotherconquistador.SixmonthsafterhermarriagetoGallego,
24Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,55–57,163.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,87.;Chipman,xxi,40,64.;CódiceCozcatzin,foja1recto.;Martínez,111.;Townsend,95.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,35.
136
IsabelgavebirthtoCortés’childwhowasnamedLeonorCortésMoctezuma.The
childwastakentoberaisedbyarelativeofCortésandIsabelsoonbecamepregnant
again,thistimebyherhusband,andgavebirthin1530toasonnamedJuande
AndradeMoctezuma.Gallegodiedsoonafterthechild’sbirthandthetwenty‐one
yearoldIsabelwasawidowforthefifthtime.Hersixthandfinalmarriagetook
placein1532andlasteduntilIsabel’sdeathin1550.Fromthisunioncamefive
morechildren:PedroCanodeMoctezuma,GonzaloCanodeMoctezuma,JuanCano
deMoctezuma,IsabelCano,andCatalinaCano.25
InadditiontoarrangedmarriageswithSpanishColonialofficials,Isabelalso
receivedoneofthewealthiestencomiendasinNewSpain.Asencomenderaof
Tacuba,acitythathadoncebeenpartoftheMexicaTripleAlliance,Isabelreceived
tribute,labor,andwealthfrom1,240tributaryunits.26Receivinganencomiendain
NewSpainwasararehonor.Cortéswasinchargeofdistributingtheencomiendas,
someofwhichhekeptforhimself.Therestofthegrantswenttohisfavorite
countrymenandconquistadors,andtwoofMoctezuma’sdaughters.27Inadditionto
Isabel,anotherdaughterofMoctezuma,christenedMariana(laterknownas
Leonor),receivedtheencomiendaofEcatepec,anotherimportantcityincentral
Mexico.MarianawasthedaughterofMoctezumaandhissecondarywife,which
placedherbelowIsabelinthehierarchyoftheroyalfamily.However,shealsofared
25Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,55‐57,163‐165.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,87.;Chipman,49,51‐52,58‐59,95.;CódiceCozcatzin,35.;Martínez,111.;Townsend,164–165.26Chipman,xxi,49.;Martínez,111.27Chipman,45‐46.
137
verywellintheColonialEra.InadditiontotheencomiendaofEcatepec,Mariana
wasalsomarriedtosuccessfulSpaniards.28Herfirstmarriage,whichtookplacein
1527toJuanPazdidnotlastlongsincePazdiedsoonafter.Marianathenmarried
CristóbaldeValderramaandwithhimhadadaughternamedLeonordeValderrama
yMoctezuma.29
ThethirdandfinalheirofMoctezuma’swhowasrecognizedbytheofficials
ofNewSpainwasknownasPedroMoctezuma.BornfromtheunionofMoctezumaII
andthefemaleheirofTula,Pedroisthoughttohavebeenabouteighteenwhen
Tenochtitlanfell.HewassettoinheritthethroneofTulaatthistimeandwas
thereforemostlikelyresidinginthatcityandwasthereforeawayfromTenochtitlan
duringthewars,destruction,andepidemics.BecauseofhisstatusasMoctezuma’s
onlyrecognizedsonwhosurvivedtheConquest,Pedrowasgiventheencomienda
andgovernorshipofTula.30Hemarriedthreetimesduringhislife(allthreeofhis
wiveswereindigenous)andheeventraveledtoSpainonmultipleoccasions.Once
waswithCortésin1528andasecondvoyagetookplaceinthe1530s.Duringthis
venturehemetwiththeEmperorCharlesVwhograntedhimacoatofarmsbearing
thirty‐twogoldcrownsthatsymbolizedthemanyterritoriesMoctezumahadhad
controlover.31
28Chipman,xxi.29Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,143,163.;Chipman,70‐71.30Chipman,81–82,84.31Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,161.;Chipman,85,89.;CódiceCozcatzin,35.;Townsend,188‐189.
138
ThisfirstgenerationoftheMoctezumafamilywasnottheonlygroupof
indigenousroyalstoreceivespecialtreatment;thefamilyname“Moctezuma”
continuedtoholdsignificantcloutintheColonialEraandbeyond.Isabel’stwo
daughtersbecamenuns,whichwasanunusualfateforindigenouswomensince
thesepositionswereusuallyreservedforwealthySpaniards.Isabel’seldestson,
JuandeAndradeMoctezuma,becameherheirandinheritedthemajorityofher
Tacubawealth.32Herthirdson,GonzaloCano,marriedaSpanishwomannamedAna
dePradoCalderónandremainedinNewSpaintoinherittheencomiendaofTacuba
afterthedeathofhishalf‐brotherJuandeAndradeMoctezuma.GonzaloCano’s
grandsoneventuallyenteredintoaprestigiousmilitaryorderin1620whenhe
becameaknightofSantiagoinSpain.ThisbranchoftheMoctezumafamily
continuedtoreceivemonetarypaymentsfromthegovernmentofMexicountilthe
1930s.Isabel’smostsuccessfulsonwasJuanCanodeMoctezumawhomovedto
SpainandmarriedElviradeToledoin1559.Thisbranchofthefamilybecamepeers
oftheSpanishnobilityandearnedthetitlesofCountsofEnjaradaandFuensalida
andDukesofAbrantesandLinares.33Isabel’sillegitimatedaughter,LeonorCortés
Moctezumawasgivenlargedowriesfrombothhermotherandfatherandmarried
JuandeTolosa,averywealthySpaniardwhohaddiscoveredsilverminesinthe
ZacatecasregionofNewSpain.TheirsonbecameavicarinNewSpainandoneof
32Chipman,65–68.33Chipman,xiv,72–73,139,140‐141.
139
theirdaughters,IsabeldeTolosaCortésMoctezuma,marriedthefutureadelantado
ofNewMexico,JuandeOñate.34
AnotherdescendantofMoctezuma,DiegoLuis,sonofPedroMoctezuma,
inheritedhisfather’sgovernorshipinTulaandmarriedaSpanishheiress.Diego
Luis’swifewasFranciscadelaCuevayValenzuela,whowasalady‐in‐waitingtothe
queenofSpainandagranddaughteroftheDukeofAlburquerque.Aspartofthe
Spanishnobility,DiegoLuisandhiswifedidnothavetopaytaxestotheCrown.
Theirprincipleheir,PedroTesifónbecameamemberofaSpanishmilitaryorder
andmarriedintoanothernoblefamilyinSpain.Hiswife,GerónimadePorrasy
CastillowasadaughterofaMarqués.PedroTesifónbecamenobilityinhisownright
whenPhilipIVgrantedhimthetitleofViscountofIlucanin1627.Pedrorequested
thatthistitlebechangedtoCountofMoctezumadeTulayTultengo,reflectingthe
importanceofhisindigenousroyalheritage.Whenhedied,Pedrowasnotonly
ViscountofIlucanandCountofMoctezumadeTulayTultengo,hewasalsoaKnight
ofSantiago,LordofTula,LordofPeza,andperpetualRegidorofGuadix.Thisbranch
ofthefamilycontinuedtopassthesetitlesfromgenerationtogeneration,andalso
addedtoitthetitleofMarquesesdeTenebrón.Pedro’sgranddaughterGerónima
MaríadeMoctezumaLoaysadelaCuevamarriedJosephSarmientodeValladares,
whoeventuallybecametheViceroyofNewSpaininthelateseventeenthcentury.35
34Chipman,68,101–103,105.35Chipman,91,94–95,124,126,129,131–133,137.;Martínez,111.
140
ManyofthesetitlesofnobilitythatweregrantedtothedescendantsofMoctezuma
arestilltothisdayheldbymembersofthatindigenousroyalfamily.36
NotonlydidthelineofroyaltycontinueinTenochtitlanaftertheConquest,
butalsoheirsofMoctezumaexcelledgreatlyinthenewColonialEra.Membersof
theMexicaroyalfamily,aswellasnoblesfromotherindigenouscities,were
recognizedastheequalstotheSpanishtitlesofduke,marquis,andcount.They
wereusuallyexemptfrompayingtributetotheSpanishCrownandobtainedgreat
wealthfromcollectingtributefromtheirowncommunities.Moctezuma’sdaughters
weresomeoftherichestpeopleinthecolonyofNewSpainandtheirdescendants
becamegovernorsofNewSpainterritoriesandpeersintheSpanishnobility.Most
ofMoctezuma’ssonswereeitherkilledduringtheConquestwarsordiedof
epidemicdiseases,buttheonewhodidsurviveinheritedvastwealthinNewSpain
andhisdescendantsachievedgreatsuccessaswell.Spanishpeersandwealthy
familiesinMexicostillclaimdescentfromtheseroyalindigenouslineagesandcan
tracetheirancestrybacktothatgreatemperorofMexico,MoctezumaII.37
IndigenousNobilityinthePost‐ConquestYears
Aswasdiscussedinpreviouschapters,indigenousrulersinpre‐Conquest
timeswereextremelypreoccupiedwithdistinguishingthemselvesfromothersin
thecommunitybywearingcertainclothingandjewelsanddemandingrespectin
36Chipman,xiv,147.37Chipman,xiii–xxii.;CódiceCozcatzin,41.;Martínez,107,111.
141
veryceremonialways.IntheColonialperiod,manyofthesepracticesremainedin
place.Thehereditaryrulerswerestillinpowerinmanyareas,theycontinuedto
visuallydistinguishthemselves,anddemandedtherespectoftheirsubjectsinmuch
thesameway.Theserulersalsoadoptednew,Spanishwaysofdistinguishing
themselvesfromthecommonpeople.Itisimportanttonotethattherewere
differenthierarchiesintheColonialsociety.Therewasanindigenoushierarchy,
whichhadsurvivedfrompre‐Conquesttimes,whichdistinguishednativenobles
andcommonersfromoneanother.Therewasalsoaracialhierarchythatplaced
Spaniardsaboveindigenouspeoplesandinbetweenthetwowasagradientof
peopleofmixedancestryknownasmestizos.38
AnexampleofindigenousdistinctionintheColonialtimesisnaming
practices,whichweredifferentamongthevarioussocietalclasses.Inpre‐Conquest
times,Mesoamericannameswereoftenbasedonnativecalendarsorphysical
characteristics.However,earlyonintheColonialperiod,manyindigenouspeople
begantoadoptSpanishstylenamingpatternsinordertoreflecttheirstatusinthe
newColonialsociety.PeopleofthelowerclassesusuallytookcommonSpanish
namesfortheirfirstnameandsurname,whereasindigenousnobilitytookaSpanish
nameastheirfirstnameandcombineditwithapre‐Hispanicsurname.Thisnot
onlyshowedtheirrankinthenewColonialsociety;italsosignifiedtheimportant
nobleorroyalfamilythattheyweredescendedfrom.High‐rankingindigenous
38Martínez,2,106.
142
nobleswerealsogiventheprivilegeofattachingtheSpanishprefixesdonanddoña
totheirnames.39
Anotherimportantwaynativepeoplesdistinguishedthemselvesasbeingofa
higherrankinColonialsocietywastotrytopassasaSpaniard.Thiswasaprivilege
reservedonlyforindigenouspeopleofveryhighsocialstandingandthesenative
noblesadoptedmanyaspectsofSpanishmaterialculturetoflaunttheirposition
includingclothingandweapons.40TheTlaxcalteca,forexample,wereallowedtouse
SpanishweaponsinreturnforaidingtheSpanishintheirsiegeofTenochtitlan.
UsingSpanishstylevisualdistinctionsalsomadeitclearwhichsideofthebattlethe
differentindigenousgroupswereon.BybearingcertainEuropeanmaterial
elements,groupssuchasthepeoplefromTlaxcalawereclearlystatingwhichside
theywerefightingfor.41
Spanish‐stylecoatsofarmswerealsoadoptedbyindigenouscitiesandtheir
rulersasawaytosignifytheircontinuedsocialstatusinthenewColonialworld.An
exampleofthisisMoctezuma’ssonPedrowhowasgrantedaSpanishcoatofarms
bytheEmperorCharlesVin1539.Inrecognitionofhisfather’ssuccessand
dominanceinMesoamerica,Pedro’scoatofarmsincludedthirty‐twogoldcrowns,
39Martínez,107‐108.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,10,127.;Wood,59.40FlorineG.L.Asselbergs,“TheConquestinImages:StoriesofTlaxcaltecaandQuauhquecholtecaConquistadors,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),79.;Martínez,107.;Schroeder,22.;Wood,59.41Asselbergs,79.
143
whichrepresentedthevariousmajorcitiesthatMoctezumahadcontrolled.42
Indigenouspeoplehadasimilarwayofdistinguishingdifferentcitiesduringthe
pre‐Conquestyears.Warriorsofdifferentcity‐states,andevendifferentregions
withineachcity,worecertainclothestosignifytheircommunity.Standardsand
clothingwerealsousedtodistinguishdifferentrankswithinthemanycompaniesof
fightingmen.CoatsofarmsintheEuropeanstylewereadoptedasanewformof
socialdistinction,whichstillmimickedpre‐Colonialpractices.Theygenerally
includedsomeaspectoftheSpanishRoyalcrest,alongwithindigenousdepictions
andsymbols.Coatsofarmshadtobegivenbythecrown,somanyindigenous
leadersandcommunitiesappliedforthemandreceivedpermissiondirectlyfrom
Spain.Thisnewadaptationshowednotonlysocialrankbetweenindigenouspeople,
italsoshowedthatsomeindigenousnobleswererecognizedasbeingequalinstatus
toSpanishnatives.Theywerenotonlyallowedtohavetheirowncoatsofarms,but
werealsoallowedtowearSpanish‐styleclothing,armor,hats,andusehorsesand
Spanishweapons,butonlyiftheywereapprovedtodosobytheSpanishCrown.43
Whenitcomestotheideasofroyaltyandnobility,bothSpanishandMexica
cultureshadarelativelysynonymousviewoftheseconcepts.Thismeantthatinthe
newColonialorder,certaincommonpractices,suchasthedistinctionofclasses
basedonvisualmaterialbelongings,continuedtothrive.Whetheritwasvia
clothing,furniture,ornamingpractices,bothSpaniardsandindigenouspeoplein
42Chipman,85‐121.43Asselbergs,74.;Wood,57‐58,90.
144
NewSpainsoughttoshowofftheirsocialstanding.Thisideawasintricatelylinked
tobloodties,ancestry,andcommunityhistories,whichwereimportantdocuments
thatwerecreatedenmasseduringtheColonialperiod.Byrecognizingindigenous
royalsasauthenticpre‐Conquestdynasties,Spanishsocietyallowedindigenous
nobleculturetosurvivethroughouttheColonialperiod.44Visualremindersofthis
elevatedstatusareimportanttostudy,buttheideasbehindthesepracticesshow
anotherthreadofcommonculturethatbroughttheSpaniardsandMexicatogether
intheColonialyearsandwhichhelpedcreateacultureofblendedidentitiesinNew
Spain.
ANewChristianity?
OneofthemostimportantthingstheSpaniardswishedtocompleteinthe
NewWorldwastheconversionofindigenouspeoplestoChristianity.Friarsand
priestssetupSpanishparishes,whichwerebasedontheorganizationalready
establishedinMesoamerica.Eachparishgenerallycoincidedwithapreviously
establishedindigenouscity‐stateandnewchurcheswereoftenconstructedinthe
sameareawhereindigenoustempleshadbeen.Knownasthe“SpiritualConquest”
thiseffortwastheprimefocusofthenewColonialgovernmentandthe
Hispanizationproject.Thefocusonconversionisonereasonwhymanyother
aspectsofindigenouscivilizationandculturestillsurvived.Convertingto
Christianitywasseenasthemostimportantelementtoacceptanceinthenew
44Martínez,95,105‐106.
145
Colonialorder,butwhenitcametomostotheraspectsofindigenouslife,people
weregenerallyleftalone.ItmayseemthereforethattheSpiritualConquestwas
complete,andthoroughlywipedoutindigenousreligion.However,recent
scholarshiphasshownthatthisisnotthecase.45
SomescholarsarguethatbehindafaçadeofconformitytoChristian
practices,indigenouspeoplestillcontinuedtoholdnativereligioninhighregard
andcontinuedcertainceremonialpractices.Otherscholarshavesaidthatduringthe
ColonialperiodinNewSpain,anewformofChristianitywascreated;onethat
blendedaspectsofnativeandEuropeanreligions.MatthewRestallarguesthatthe
soundestargumentisonethatcombinesbothoftheseelements.“Natives
accommodatedandunderstoodChristianityanditsplaceintheirworldinwaysthat
weareonlyjustbeginningtograsp…Fewwoulddisagreethatthespiritual
conquest,asconceivedalmostfivecenturiesago,remainsverymuchincomplete.”46
IwouldagreethatthisexplanationfitstheatmosphereofColonialNewSpainthe
best.Christianitycertainlydidnotdominate.Itwascombinedwithindigenous
elementstocreateanewformofChristianityintheSpanishcoloniesoftheNew
World.However,strictlynativepracticesnevercompletelydisappeared,andmany
indigenouspeoplecontinuedtocovertlyworshiptheirowngodsintheirownway.47
45Restall,74.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,9,174‐175.46Restall,74.47Townsend,147.
146
Ofcourse,thepracticeofnativereligionswasnottakenlightly,andthose
whowerecaughtwerefacedwithtriedandtrueSpanishmethodsofdealingwith
heretics:prosecutionforheresy,publichumiliation,andexecution.Oneofthemost
popularexamplesofthiswasthegrandsonofthemostfamousrulerfromthecity‐
stateofTexcoco,Nezahualcóyotl.Thisnativelord,baptizeddonCarlosdeTexcoco,
wasfoundtobeencouraginghispeopletocontinuepracticingtheirancientbeliefs
andrejectCatholicism.Hewastriedforheresy,convictedofbeinganidolateranda
heretic,andwassubjugatedtoanembarrassingpublicprocessionandceremony
whichresembledthepopularInquisitionmethodknownastheautodefe.48
Withallthisbeingsaid,itisclearthattheSpiritualConquestinNewSpain
wasneverentirelycompleteandthiswas,toalargeextent,duetothefactthat
despitetheirdifferences,EuropeanandMesoamericanreligionsactuallyshareda
numberofcharacteristics.ByrecognizingsimilaritiesbetweenChristianityandtheir
ownreligion,indigenouspeopleswereabletoincorporateChristianideasintotheir
previouslyheldbeliefsfairlyeasily.Indoingthis,indigenouspeoplesof
MesoamericamadeChristianityinNewSpainadistinctreligionfromtraditional
ChristianitypracticedinEurope.Theystillcelebratedtheirreligiononthesame
groundtheyalwayshad,asthenewchurcheswerebuiltoutofstonesfromtheold
templesandlocatedinthesameplaceinthecity.Nativeelitesweregivenmostof
thepositionsinthechurch,andthesemenhadoftenhadsimilardutiesintheirown
templesinpre‐Conquesttimes.Spaniardsintroducedtheircultofsaints,whereeach 48Martínez,101.
147
communityhadtheirownpatronsaints.Mesoamericansreadilyadoptedthis
practicesinceitcoincidedsodirectlywiththepre‐Conquestpracticeofeachcity
havingitsownpatrondeity.TraditionalMesoamericanfeastsandreligious
celebrationsweremadetocoincidewithreligiouseventsontheCatholiccalendar.
TheSpaniardslearnedquicklythatthepracticesmostreadilyadoptedbythe
indigenouspeopleoftheNewWorldwereonesthatcoincidedwithpre‐Conquest
religiousbeliefs.Becauseofthis,manyindigenouspeopledidnotbelievetheywere
rejectingtheiroldgodsandcontinuedtoworshipintheirownwayandtreat
Christianityasanewformoftheirtraditionalreligion.Inthisway,theconversionof
theindigenouspeoplesofMesoamericawasincomplete.Thenevergaveuptheirold
beliefs;rathertheymanipulatedChristianitytofittheirownpurposes.49
Post‐ConquestGovernment
VerysoonafterthefallofTenochtitlan,theSpaniardssetuptheircolonial
governmenttooverseeandcontroltheirinterestsintheNewWorld.They
establishedtheoldMexicacapitalasthenewcapitalcityfortheViceroyaltyofNew
Spain.Thehighestpositioninthisnewgovernmentwasthatoftheviceroy,whowas
therepresentativeoftheCrown’sinterestsinNewSpain.Thismeantthatthe
viceroywasinchargeoftheViceroyalty,butwasultimatelyloyalandresponsibleto
theKingofSpainandtheCrown.Incities,Spanishofficialswereelectedtooversee
theCrown’sinterestsatthelocallevelandcollecttaxestosupportthenew
49Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,174–176.
148
governmentandtoboosttherevenuesoftheSpanishEmpire.However,despitethe
physicalpresenceofSpanishofficials,especiallyinthemajorcities,theindigenous
citizensmaintainedalotofautonomyandwereonlycontrolledindirectlybythe
Crown.Nativepeoplesmadeupthevastmajorityofthepopulation,sotheSpaniards
hadlittlechoicebuttoallowindigenousnoblestocontinueexercisingtheirown
controlovertheirpeople.50
ForcenturiesaftertheConquest,indigenouscommunitieswereableto
exercisesubstantialgovernmentalautonomyatthelocallevel.Spanishofficials
recognizedthatthebestwaytoestablishcontrolwastoworkwithlocalindigenous
institutionsthatwerealreadyinplace.ThismeantthattheSpanishcontrolledthe
governmentattheuppermostlevels,butatthelocallevel,controlremainedinthe
handsoflocalindigenouselites.Thesecommunitiescontinuedtospeaktheirown
languages,electtheirownrulers,andlivingtheirlivesastheyalwayshad.Sincethe
Spanishsettlersweregenerallynotfarmers,butinsteadworkingclassartisansor
skilledlaborers,theylefttheagriculturallandtotheindigenouscommunities.
Obviously,thissystemworkedbestwheretherewasalreadyawell‐established,
sedentary,agriculturalsociety.Thisiswhymajorurbanareas,suchasTenochtitlan,
werethefocusofcolonialefforts.However,thisalsomeantthatoutsideofthemajor
cities,indigenouslifewasgenerallyleftalone.Becauseofthis,nativecommunities
50Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,8,158.
149
wereabletopersevereasself‐governingcity‐statesandtheircultureremainedalive
andflourished.51
OneofthemostinterestinganduniqueaspectsoftheColonialprojectinNew
Spainwastheimplementationofadualmodemodelofsocialandgovernmental
organization.InthecitiesandtownsofNewSpain,thereweretwoseparatepolities
or“republics”thatultimatelyworkedinconjunctionwithoneanotherwhen
necessary,butremainedindependent.Therewas,ofcourse,theSpanishRepublic,
whichwasinchargeoftheSpanishsettlersinNewSpainandwasalsoinchargeof
thehighestofficesintheColonialgovernment.Alongsidethiswasanother
institutionknownastheRepúblicadeIndios(IndianRepublic),whichrepresented
theinterestsoftheindigenouspeopleinthenewColonialorder.Theheadofthe
IndianRepublicwasgenerallyanativegovernorwhowasapartofthelocaldynasty
orroyalfamilythathadbeeninpowerbeforetheConquest.Atthesametimethatit
subjugatedtheindigenouspeopletotheruleroftheSpaniardsbyitslower
placementintheColonialgovernment,italsogavenativepeopleofNewSpainsome
autonomyandaspecialstatusasvassalsoftheSpanishCrown.Inexchangefor
theserepublicspayingtributetothecrownandconvertingtheirsubjectstothe
Catholicfaith,theindigenouscommunitieswereallowedtomaintaintheirown
51Martínez,98.;Restall,73.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,8–10,158.;Schroeder,12.;Townsend,146–147.
150
nobilityandinternalhierarchies,keeptheirtraditionallands,andforthemostpart
governtheirpolitiesinmuchthesamewayastheyhadinpre‐Conquestyears.52
IndigenousConquistadors
Anothermajorthemewithintheideaofnativeculturalsurvivalistheroleof
indigenouspeopleas“conquistadors”ratherthantheoneswhowereconquered.
WhenlookingatindigenoussourcedocumentsfromMesoamericathatdepict
regionalhistoriesitisclearthattheConquestwasnotalwaysdefinedastheSpanish
defeatoftheMexicain1521.Mostindigenousrecordsdonothaveclearpre‐
Conquestandpost‐Conquestsections,butinsteadtendtomoveseamlesslyfrom
yeartoyearevenduringthefallofTenochtitlan.Theserecordsoftenshowthelocal
migrationstories,foundingofcommunities,andlocalrulers,butleaveoutoronly
brieflymentiontheseizureofpowerbytheSpaniards.Followingthisthread,
indigenouslocalhistoriestendtoplacethecommunityinquestionattheheadofall
activity.ThismeansthatindocumentsfromtheColonialperiod,manyindigenous
communitiesportrayedthemselvesnotastheconqueredpeople,butastheones
doingtheconquering.Theirdefeatisnotonlydenied,buttheentireideaof
conquerorandconquerediscompletelyinverted.53
52Martínez,5,92.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,8,13,62–63,71,158.53Asselbergs,86.;LauraE.Matthew,“WhoseConquest?Nahua,Zapoteca,andMixtecaAlliesintheConquestofCentralAmerica,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),103.;Restall,123.;Wood,143.
151
IntheyearsfollowingtheconquestofTenochtitlan,nativeallieswerejustas
importantinthespreadofSpanishpowerandinfluence.Indigenouswarriors,
mostlyNahuatl‐speakersfromcentralMexico,wereusedinthecampaignsto
conquerthelandsofpresentdayCentralandSouthAmerica.TheSpanish
conquistadorscontinuedtochooseindigenouswarriorsfromtheareassurrounding
theformercapitalcityoftheMexicaEmpirebecausetheybelievedthatthese
nativesweremorecivilized,intelligent,andcapablethantheotherindigenous
populationsinMesoamerica.Thesenativeswereoftenchosenbecauseoftheir
abilitiesaswarriorsandwereoftenfromtheupperclass.Theywerecarefully
selectedsothattheywouldbeabletousetheirhighsocialrank,intelligence,and
civilityassettlersinthenewlyconqueredterritories.Theywereexpectedtospread
themorehighlyadvancedformofcivilizationofthenativesofcentralMexicoto
otherareasinMesoamerica.Indigenouswarriorsintheseconquestswereoften
underthedirectionandinfluenceoftheirownnativecaptainsandbecauseofthis
theysawthemselvesaspartakingintheirownconquestexpeditionsratherthan
workingforanyEuropeanpower.54MatthewRestallputsitwellwhenhesaysthat
“inmanyways,thesecampaignswereacontinuationoftheMexicaexpansionism
thathadgonealmostuncheckedforacenturybeforeSpanishinvasion.”55Itisclear
thattheseindigenouswarriorswerenotfightingsolelytoassisttheSpaniards,but
54JohnF.ChuchiakIV,“ForgottenAllies:TheOriginsandRolesofNativeMesomamericanAuxiliariesandIndiosConquistadoresintheConquestofYucatan,1526‐1550,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),198–199,211.;Matthew,103,105,120.;Restall,123.;Townsend,128–129.55Restall,123.
152
wereperusingtheirownlocalinterestsandcontinuingpre‐Colonialexpansion
efforts.
AstrikingsimilaritybetweentheSpanishandMexicainthepre‐Conquest
yearscanbefoundinthetacticsusedinconquestandexpansionefforts.One
exampleofthisthatcontinuedtobeheavilyusedinthepost‐Conquestyearswasthe
sequentialstrategyofexpansion,whereanewlyconqueredlocation,itsresources
andwarriors,wasusedasasortofsteppingstoneforthenextconquest.Local
rivalriesandantagonismswereoftenexploitedtobenefittheconquerorandboth
SpanishandMexicaconquistadorsusedintimidationasoneoftheirforemost
tactics.56ThesimilarconquestpracticesusedbybothEuropeanandindigenous
societiesmeantthatduringthevarious“conquests”madebytheSpaniards,their
indigenousallieshadadifferentideaaboutwhatwastakingplace.Whenthe
SpaniardsclaimedthattheyhadconqueredtheMexicaEmpire,indigenousallies
suchasthepeoplefromTlaxcala,sawitasanindigenousvictory.Indigenousallies
oftheSpaniardsoftensawthemselvesasthevictorsandconsideredtheirpeoplethe
conquerors,nottheSpanish.Itisimportanttorealizethenthattheimportanceof
conquests,andthesimilarpracticesseeninbothofthesesocieties,ledtoa
continuationoftheconqueringmentalityinthenewcolony.AlthoughtheSpaniards
oftensawthemselvesasthevictors,indigenousgroupshadtheirownmotivesfor
participatingintheconquestexpeditions.ItwasnottohelptheSpaniards,butto
56MichelR.OudijkandMatthewRestall,“MesoamericanConquistadorsintheSixteenthCentury,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),46.
153
increasetheirown,ortheircommunity’s,prestigeandpower.57TheSpanish
thoughttheywerecontrollingandmanipulatingthenatives,butreally,the
indigenouspeopleofMesoamericawereusingtheSpaniards,andtheirmore
advancedweaponry,fortheirownselfishpurposes.
ThepresenceofcentralMexicanindigenouscultureinnewlyconquered
areasfarfromtheBasinofMexicoisshowninmanyways,includingthefactthat
Nahuatlbecamealmostasecond“official”languageofNewSpainduringthe
Colonialyears.AnotherevidenceofNahuapresenceisthatmanycitiesin
Guatemala,whichhadbeenprimarilyMayaninculture,weregivenNahuatl
names.58ColoniesformedbycentralMexicanconquistadorsinotherareasof
Mesoamericawereusuallynamedafterthecity‐statethattheconquerorshad
originatedfrom.Theyformedsatellitecommunitiesawayfromtheirhomeland,but
continuedtopracticetheirownculturalcustomsandkeptalivetheirown
traditions.59AnexampleofthisistheuseoffamiliesfromTlaxcalatosettleonthe
frontiersofNewSpain.Theywerelookedonasanadvancedculturebecausethey
weremoreHispanicizedthanotherindigenouspeoplesincetheywereoneofthe
firstgroupstoallythemselveswiththeSpaniards.Theyhadalsoaccepted
Christianityandwereahighlyadvancedandcivilizedsedentaryagricultural
community,whichmadethemaperfectgroupofpeopletohelpcivilizeother
57Asselbergs,84.;Matthew,103.;OudijkandRestall,54.58Asselbergs,83.;Restall,123.;Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,17–18.59Asselbergs,71.
154
indigenouspeoplefromareasoutsidetheBasinofMexico.60Becauseofthis,Nahua
culturewasevenmorewidespreadinthepost‐Conquestyearsthanithadbeenin
theyearsprecedingit.ThisbegsthequestiontheniftheMexica,andNahuaculture
weretrulyconqueredin1521.Thisisobviouslynotthecasesincetheirculture
continuedtospread.
Indigenouswomenalsoplayedanimportantroleintheconquestoflandsin
Mesoamerica.Womenfromthelocalnobilitycouldbeespeciallyusefultotheir
communitiesbecausetheyweregiventoSpanishmeninordertocementalliances.
Ontheotherhand,theSpaniardsalsobenefitedfromthisarrangementbecause
princessesoflocalnoblefamiliesdemandedalotofrespectfromthecommunity.An
exampleofthisisfoundinthecityofTlaxcalawherethekingXicotencatlgavetwo
ofhisdaughters,DoñaLuisaandDoñaLucíatoPedrodeAlvaradoandhisbrother
Jorge.BecauseofthepositiontheyheldintheTlacaltecasociety,theseprincesses
gaveauthenticitytoconquestexpeditionsandwereusedtoencouragelocal
warriorstopartakeinconquestsalloverMesoamericaandSouthAmerica.61Using
marriagestocementalliances,asdiscussedindepthinChapter2,wasapractice
60BretBlosser,“’BytheForceofTheirLivesandtheSpillingofBlood’:FlecheroServiceandPoliticalLeverageonaNuevaGalaciaFrontier,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),291.;YannaYannakakis,“TheIndiosConquistadoresofOaxaca’sSierraNorte:FromIndianConquerorstoLocalIndians,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),237.61RobisonA.Herrera,“ConcubinesandWives:ReinterpretingNative‐SpanishIntimateUnionsinSixteenth‐CenturyGuatemala,”inIndianConquistadors:IndigenousAlliesintheConquestofMesoamerica,editedbyLauraE.MatthewandMichelR.Oudijk(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,2007),121,129,131–133.;OudijkandRestall,45.;Schroeder,20.
155
seeninboththeIberianPeninsulaandMesoamerica.Thispracticeisanother
exampleofasimilaritybetweenthetwosocietiesinthepre‐Conquestyears,which
translatedtotheColonialperiodandcontinuedtobeusedtothebenefitofboth
groupsofpeople.62
Conclusions
OnTuesday,the15thofFebruaryoftheyear1600,donJuanCanodeMoctezuma,aSpaniard,produced[arepresentationof]thelateMoteucçoma.DonHernandodeAlvaradoTezozomoctzinimpersonatedMoteucçoma.Theycarriedhimonaplatformandwentshelteringhimwithacanopy.Inhispresencepeoplewentdancingashecameinfrontofthepalace…theSpaniardscelebrated.63
ThisquotefromoneofChimalpahin’smanyworksshowsthesurvivalofrespectfor
indigenousnobilityduringacelebrationofthegreatemperor,MoctezumaII.Juan
CanodeMoctezuma,thesonofIsabelMoctezumaandgrandsonofMoctezumaII
carriesarepresentationofhisgrandfatherthroughthecrowdsinMexicoCity.
Anothermemberoftheoldindigenousnobility,HernandodeAlvarado
Tezozomoctzin,isdresseduptoimpersonateMoctezuma.Heiscarriedonacanopy‐
coveredplatform,whichishowMoctezumahadgoneaboutthecityandis
celebratedbythepeopleofthecity.Notonlywashestillbeingcelebratedbythe
indigenouspeopleofcentralMexico,butChimalpahin’stestimonystatesthateven
theSpaniardswerecelebrating.HewasrespectedbyCortésandbelovedbymanyof
62Asselbergs,83.;OudijkandRestall,45.63Chimalpahin,Annals,67.
156
theSpanishmenwhowerekeepinghimhostage.Thisrespectandhonorlivedinto
theColonialperiodwiththetreatmentofhisdescendants.Moctezumamayhave
beenkilledandhiscitydestroyed,butindigenouscultureinMesoamericawasalive
andwellforalongtimeaftertheeventknownastheConquest.
Beforebeginningthismanuscript,Ihadastrongsensethatmanyofthe
scholarlysourceswhichclaimedthatthecultureoftheMexicawasbarbaricand
uncivilized,thattheSpaniardsweresuperiorineveryway,thattheMexicawere
devilworshiperswithnosenseofreligion,andthattheConquestcompletelywiped
outthecultureofnativeMesoamericans,weremissingafewkeyelements.Nowthat
theresearchprocessisalmostover,Icandefinitivelysaythatalloftheseclaimsare
indeedwrong.TheMexicawereextraordinary.Theircivilizationwasremarkably
sophisticated,theirreligionextremelyadvanced,theirculturesoadaptablethatit
notonlysurvivedtheConquestbutisstillalivetoday,andtheywereinmanywas
superiortotheircontemporarySpaniards.Infact,theirculturewasremarkablylike
thatoftheir“conquerors.”ThisallowedtheColonialsocietyinNewSpaintomerge
thetwocultures,blendtheirpractices,andformaveryuniqueidentity.
TheColonialexperienceinNewSpainwasuniquebecauseindigenous
culturewasnotoverpoweredandreplacedbythecultureoftheSpanish
conquerors.Likewise,thetwocultureswerenotentirelyisolatedfromoneanother
either.BecauseMesoamericansandSpaniardshadagreatdealofculturaltraitsin
common,theyeasilysawparallelsinoneanother’spractices.Thisallowedfor
157
indigenouscultureandsocietytosurviveintotheColonialperiod,onlygradually
changingasitincorporatedSpanishideas,yetstillremainedrecognizableasthe
civilizationthathadexistedinthepre‐Conquestyears.InMesoamerica,indigenous
culturenotonlysurvived,butitthrivedandreadilyadaptedandevolved.Inorderto
keeptheirculturealive,indigenouspeopleofcentralMexicosoughtoutfamiliar
aspectsofthenewEuropeancultureandincorporatedintotheirownsocieties.By
selectivelyadaptingtocertainaspectsofSpanishculture,theywerefulfillingthe
colonialgovernment’swishesofbecoming“Hispanicized.”Ontheotherhand,by
reworkingnewideastofittheirowntraditionalbeliefsandvalues,thenewly
introducedculturewascompletelyredevelopedintosomethingentirelynovel.64It
wasneitherEuropeannorindigenousculture;itwasauniqueblendoftwosocieties
moresimilarthanmostpeoplewouldcaretoadmit.
64Restall,Sousa,andTerraciano,10.;Wood,10.
158
CONCLUSION
TheSpanishConquestofMexicohasoftenbeenreducedtoasimple,singular
event.BecauseoftheimportanceofimpressingtheSpanishCrownandsecuring
royalfunds,earlySpanishconquistadors(mostnotablyCortés)emphasizedthe
incivilityofthenativesoftheNewWorldandtheabundantrichestobefoundinthe
newlands.EarlyhistorianscontinuedtofollowthisHispanicizednarrativeandfor
manycenturies,theindigenousvoicewassuppressed.Nativepeopleswere
portrayedasbarbaricandbackwards,aseasilyconqueredandmanipulated,andas
completelyabsorbedintoSpanishculture.Byfocusingonsimilaritiesbetweenthe
SpanishandMexicaculturesintheyearsbeforetheConquest,Ihopetoshowthat
therelationshipbetweenthesetwosocietieswasmuchdifferentthanwhatis
popularlybelieved.
Theyear1521markstheendofatwoyearwarandthefallofTenochtitlan,
butitdoesnotsignifytheendofindigenouscultureinMesoamericaorthe
disappearanceofMexicasociety.BecausetheMexicaandSpaniardshadsomany
culturalaspectsincommon,indigenousculturewasallowedtosurvivewithinthe
newcolonialorder.Inthepre‐Conquestyears,boththeSpanishandMexicawere
conqueringsocieties;astheSpanishKingdomsstruggledtoregaincontrolofthe
IberianPeninsuladuringtheinfamousReconquista,theMexicamigratedtocentral
Mexico,builtanimposingcapitalinthemiddleofalake,andgainedcontrolover
159
muchofcentralMexico.Bothofthesecultureswerealsoextremelyreligious.They
bothbelievedthatahigherbeingcontrolledeveryaspectofanindividual’slife.
Praying,givinggiftsandsacrifices,andperformingpenancesforsinswerecommon
practicesseenthroughoutEuropeandMesoamerica.Whenfocusingonthespecifics,
therewereofcoursesomedifferencesbetweenthereligionsthesetwogroups
practiced,butbylookingatthebiggerpicture,itisclearthattheimportanceof
religionwasthecentralfactorinbothSpainandMexico.
Theimportanceofroyaltyinbothsocietieswasalsoakeysimilarityinthe
pre‐ConquestyearsthattranslatedintoColonialsociety.Forthisaspectofsociety,I
havedelveddeeperintosomeofthespecificsimilarities.BothSpaniardsandthe
Mexicahadastrictformofroyalinheritanceandgavepreeminencetothedynastic
royalfamily.InSpain,thiswastheTrastámarafamilywhichbegantheirreignwhen
anillegitimatesonstolethethronefromhisbrotherin1369.Thisfamilypassedon
theruleofCastilefromfathertoson(andbrothertosister)untilCharlesVcameto
thethronein1516andbegantheHapsburgdynastyinSpain.1Theinheritanceofthe
royalcrownfollowedasimilarpatternintheMexicaEmpirebeginningwith
Acamapichtli,whotookthethronesometimebetween1362and1384.Theruleof
centralMexicowaspassedfromfathertoson,brothertobrother,anduncleto
nephewinadirectlineofmaledescendants.ThefinalMexicarulerbefore
1Liss,xv,10.;MacKay,121‐122,133,141.;Miller,22.;Redworth,24‐25.;Storrs,11.
160
Tenochtitlanfellin1521wasCuauhtémoc,agreat‐great‐grandsonofAcampaichtli.2
Thedirectlinewithinaroyalfamily,andtheimportanceofkeepingthecrown
withinthatspecificdynastyissomethingthattheSpanishandMexicareadily
recognizedassomethingtheyhadincommon.Inthepost‐Conquestyearsthis
meantthattheSpanishgreatlyrespectedthedescendantsoftheMexicadynastyand
theseindigenousnobleswereabletofindsomesuccessinthenewcolonialorder.
Tokeepthebloodlinespure,marriageswereoftenmadewithintheextended
royalfamily.Marriagewasalsousedinbothculturesasastrategytocement
allianceswithotherpolities.Thissimilarityinthepre‐Conquestyearswascarried
onintotheColonialeraandrepresentedablendofthesetwoculturesandtheir
practices.TheSpaniardsreadilymademarriageallianceswithindigenous
noblewomeninordertocementfriendshipandgainthecooperationofthenative
people.ThebestexampleofthisisthemarriageofMoctezumaII’sdaughterIsabel
tothreehigh‐rankingSpaniardsinquicksuccession.3ThekingofTlaxcala,
Xicotencatl,alsogavetwoofhisdaughterstoSpanishconquistadorsinorderto
cementthealliancebetweentheSpanishandtheirindigenousallies.4Sothisideaof
bloodpurity,andkeepingtheroyalfamilypureandalsousingdaughterstomake
strategicmarriagealliancesreadilybecameapartofColonialsocietysinceithad
2Ross,19,22,25,33.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,35‐43,53‐57,113‐115,119,123‐125,129‐133,157‐159,165‐167,211‐213,217,229‐233,235.;Durán,33‐34,38,41‐49,51‐53,60,84,91,218,220,224,301,322‐323.;Keber,61‐64,66,85,211‐214,216,227‐228,271‐272,274.;Motolinía,28l;Sahagún,FlorentineCodex,Vol.8,1,2,4,15.;ValerodeGarcíaLascuráinandTena,45‐47,97‐98.3Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.1,55‐57,163‐165.;Chimalpahin,CodexChimalpahin,Vol.2,87.;Chipman,49,51‐52,58‐59,95.;CódiceCozcatzin,35.;Martínez,111.;Townsend,164‐165.4Herrera,121,129,131‐133.;OudijkandRestall,45.;Schroeder,20.
161
alreadyexistedinbothcultures’pre‐Conquestpast.Marriagealliancesbetweenthe
Europeansandindigenouswasoneofthemostimportantsolidifyingfactorsinthe
earlyColonialyears,andledtothemestizajecharacterofLatinAmericathatstill
existstothisday.
Anotheraspectofpre‐contactculturethatwasapparentinbothsocietieswas
thedistinctionbetweenclassesandespeciallythevisualdistinctionoftherulersand
theroyalfamily.Membersoftheroyalfamilywhowerenotcloseenoughtothe
thronetohaveahopeofrulingwereoftengivenotherprestigiouspositionsin
societytoshowtheirstatus.InSpain,thisincludedpositionsinthechurchandnoble
titlessuchasduke,count,andmarquis.InMexico,extramaleheirswereoftenpart
oftheroyalcounciloffour,whichhadthepowertoelectrulersandmakemajor
governmentalpositions.Thesenoblemenwerealsogivenlargetractsofconquered
landstoruleintheirownrightandwereoftengiventhelordshipoverneighboring
city‐states.5ThesepracticescreatedverycomplicatedwebsofnobilityintheIberian
PeninsulaandMesoamericaandweremergedandincorporatedintothenew
Colonialorder.Visualdistinctionssuchasclothingwerealsoimportanttoboththe
SpanishandMexicaandcontinuedtobeanintegralpartofsocietyintheColonial
period.
Pomp,ceremony,andshowingoffroyalprestigeandpowerinaelaborate
publicwaywasahugepartofthecultureintheIberianPeninsulaaswellasin
5Durán,58‐60,70,72.;Miller,56,153,159,160,173.;Redworth,6,10,11.
162
Mesoamerica.Especiallyeventssurroundingthereligiouscalendarandtheroyal
family(suchasweddings,funerals,androyalbirths)werenotonlycelebratedbya
grandfeastattheroyalpalace,butwerealsocelebratedbythecommonpeople.The
royalsusuallyusedtheseeventsasanexcusetostageelaborateprocessionthrough
themajorcitiestoshowthemselvestotheirsubjectsandgivetheirpeopleareason
tocelebratetheirreign.6TheseceremonialpracticesdidnotstopaftertheConquest.
TheSpanishbroughttheirowncelebrationstotheNewWorldandtheindigenous
peopleadoptedmanyaspectsofSpanishceremonialculture.Yettheindigenous
peoplealsocontinuedtocelebratetheirownimportanteventsandpeopleanddid
sointraditionalnativeways.
AnotheraspectofsocietythatwassimilarinboththeIberianPeninsulaand
Mesoamericaistheimportanceofcities,localcommunitiesandgovernance,and
regionalautonomy.IncentralMexico,theMexicaruledavastareaoflandfromtheir
capitalcityTenochtitlan.However,theregionsthattheyhadcontroloverstill
maintainedmuchoftheirautonomyandweregenerallyallowedtokeeptheirown
localdynasticrulersinplaceandcontinuetraditionalregionalpractices.7Thisform
ofindirectimperialcontrolhasoftenledscholarstodismisstheideathatwhatthe
Mexicahadbuiltupwasindeedanempire.However,theirformofcontrolwas
normalforMesoamericaandwasevenreplicatedintheSpanishKingdoms.The
royalcourtmovedaboutintheIberianPeninsulaandsotheyhadnocapitalcity.
6Durán,34,35,40,43,47,87,150,168,174‐179,218.;Miller,81,82,85,104,105,172,234,264,265.7Tapia,24,28.
163
Whentheywereresidinginamajorcity,theimperialgovernmenttookoverthe
reignsforatime,butassoonastheroyalcourtmovedon,governmentalcontrolwas
restoredtolocalofficials.Inthisway,mostcitiesandregionsoftheIberian
PeninsulawereunderthecontrolofthekingsandqueensoftheSpanishKingdoms,
butotherthanowingloyaltyandtribute,thesecitieswereself‐governing.8Theidea
ofacitybeingitsownstate,withinthelargerimperialstate,wasapopularpractice
inbothSpainandMexicointhepre‐Conquestyears.After1521,thecity‐statesof
MesoamericaoftenremainedintactandrelativelyautonomousinthenewColonial
order.MajorindigenouscitiesbecametheframeworkofnewSpanishcolonialcities
andoutlyingtownsweregenerallylefttotheirowndevices.Localrulersremained
incontroloftheregiontheirfamilyhadtraditionallyheldpowerover,andsoforthe
averageperson,locallifeinthenewSpanishsocietywasnotanydifferentthanit
hadbeenbefore.
Cityarchitecturewasjustasimportantasthecitiesthemselvesandthemajor
infrastructuresofthecitiesinbothSpainandMexicoshowcasedthetwomost
importantaspectsofsociety:religionandroyalty.Royalpalaceswereofenormous
significancetotheMexicarulers,andastheSpanishMonarchsbegantoestablish
morecontrol,theyalsorealizedtheimportanceofthisvisualrepresentationof
wealthandprestige.InTenochtitlan,Moctezuma’spalaceswerethegrandest
residentialmonumentsinthecities.Theywerecompletewithroomstoholdcourt,
conductgovernment,andhadelaborateroyallivingquarters.Thesepalacesalso 8Edwards,135.;Hilgarth,Vol.1,51,80.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,65.;Mariéjol,238,243,272,277,282.
164
containedelaborategardens,aviaries,andzoosfortherulerstodistractthemselves
fromthedemandsofgovernance.9Spanishrulersalsobuiltelaborateand
extravagantpersonalresidences,whichtheyusedinthesamewaythattheMexica
usedtheirs,toconductbusinessbutalsotoentertainthemselvesandothers.10
Religiousarchitecturewasalsoverydominantinbothsocieties.InbothSpanishand
centralMexicancities,thereligiouscomplexwaslocatedatthecenteroftownand
dominatedtheskylineofthecity.11Theimportanceofreligionforshowcasing
power,wealth,andtheimportanceofreligionwascarriedonintothepost‐Conquest
years.ThenewCatholiccathedralwasbuiltonthesiteoftheoldMexicapyramid
usingthestonesfromthedemolishedindigenoustemple.Cortés’shomewasbuilt
onthesamesitewhereMoctezuma’spalacehadbeen,showingthattheSpanishnot
onlyrecognizedtheimportanceofthesestructuresandlocations,butrespectedthe
importanceofthemfortheindigenouspeople.
Withintheroyalpalacesofthecities,anotherimportantaspectofroyal
culturewasstrictlyobservedandthatwasthepracticeofcourtlyceremonies.Tobe
aroyalpersoninbothSpainandMexicomeantthateachaspectofone’sdailylife
wasstrictlydictatedbyceremony.Eachmealwasanelaborateaffairwhichwas
carriedoutwithadherencetostructuredsequentialevents.Apersonofnon‐royal
birthhadtobehaveinacertainwayandmakeobeisancestotherulerifallowedto
entertheroyalpresence.Theideaofcourtlypracticeswasoneofthefirst
9Aguilar,146,147,180.;Cortés,85,91,109,110.;Díaz,194,211‐215.;Tapia,38,40.10Hilgarth,Vol.1,51,56,62.;Hilgarth,Vol.2,50‐51.;Mariéjol,237,244‐245.11Augilar,179.;AnnonymousConquistador,168,175.;Cortés,105.;Díaz,217,218.;Tapia,41,42.
165
similaritiesInoticedbetweentheSpanishandMexicaandwhichpromptedthe
desireforthismoreindepthstudyofthesimilaritiesbetweenthesetwocultures.
Becauseofthesesimilarities,theSpanishknewhowtotreatMoctezumawhenthey
firstapproachedhimandwerewillingtoshowhimtherespectthathedeserved.
Bothculturesdictatedthatrulersweredivinepeopleandtherepresentativeofthe
godsonearth,andsothisconceptwaseasilyadheredtowhentheSpanishfirst
enteredTenochtitlanandcamefacetofacewiththeMexicaemperor.12
Alloftheseaspectsofpre‐ConquestculturesurvivedintotheColonialEra.
TheimportanceofthesimilaritiesbetweenSpanishandMexicacultureisevidentin
thesocietythataroseintheearlyColonialyears.Itwasnotanoverarching
Europeancultureandindigenouspracticesdidnotdisappear.Therelationships
betweenthesetwocivilizationsinpre‐Colonialtimesmeantthatmanyaspectsof
societythataroseafter1521wereacombinationofbothEuropeanandindigenous
culture.ThenewSpanishsettlerslearnedalotfromtheindigenouspeople,andthis
processoflearningwentbothways.Thesetwoculturescametogetherinawaythat
wasuniqueforcolonialprojects.Theydidnotcompletelyisolatethemselvesfrom
oneanother,andoneculturedidnotdominate.Instead,theSpanishandMexica
knewthatthemostsuccessfulrouteforeachoftheirsocietieswastoworktogether
tocreatethenewinstitutionsofcolonialNewSpain.Theyobservedoneanother,
12Aguilar,147,148.;Cortés,92,111,112.;Díaz,208‐211,230,231,233,236.;Hilgarth,Vol.1,50.;Mariéjol,37,244,245,247.;Tapia,40.
166
borrowedideas,andmeshedtheirtraditionsintoabrandnewsocietyintheNew
World.
Thismanuscriptonlyscratchesthesurfaceoftheworkthatcanbedonewith
regardstorelationshipsandsimilaritiesbetweenpre‐contactSpanishandMexica
societies.SomeideasthatIonlytouchedonbriefly,suchasreligionandwarrior
ethos,canandshouldbeexaminedinfull.Manyworkshavebeendoneon
MesoamericanreligionandmanyhavealsofocusedontheSpiritualConquestinthe
NewWorld.Butacomparisonbetweenthetworeligionsintheyearsbeforecontact
islackingandwouldbeagreatendeavorforfurtherstudyontherelationships
betweenthesetwocultures.
ThisworkisnotonlyimportantforscholarsofMesoamericaandearly
ColonialNewSpain.Anewapproachtounderstandingthedevelopmentand
implementationofcolonialprojectscanbeappliedtocolonizationacrosstheworld.
BylookingattherelationshipsbetweenindigenousinhabitantsandtheirEuropean
conquerors,weasscholarscanbetterunderstandtheinteractionsbetweenthe
conquerorsandtheconquered.Wecanuserelationshipstounderstandwhy
colonialstatesusethetacticstheydo,whyandtowhatextentindigenouspeople
resist,andwhatthisallmeansforthecountriesofthemodernworld.Insum,
MesoamericanhistoriansandscholarsofearlyColonialNewSpaincanusethiswork
andapproachtocolonialsocieties,butitcanalsobeusefultoscholarsstudying
colonialismallovertheglobe.Itisalsorelevanttothestudyofmodernnationsthat
167
evolvedfromcolonialprojects.Thecolonialpastofacountryorregioncantellalot
abouthowthatareaevolvedintothenationitisinthemodernday.Ihopethatthis
workcanbeusedasaplatformforotherstudiestofurthertheunderstandingofthe
MexicaofTenochtitlan,theirrelationshiptocontemporarySpanishsociety,andwhy
thiscolonialexperienceledtothecountryweknowasMexicotoday.These
questionscanbeansweredbyexploringtherelationshipsduringthecolonialpastof
thesixteenthcentury.
InfurtherprojectsIwouldliketoexaminefurthertheinstitutionsthatarose
inTenochtitlanandthesurroundingareaofcentralMexicointheearlyyearsof
colonialisminNewSpain.Thefocuswillcontinuetoberoyalty,royalculture,and
courtlylife,butwillmovefrompre‐Conquestsimilaritiestopost‐Conquestrealities.
HowdidindigenousroyaltysurviveintheColonialyears?WhichaspectsofMexica
societywereadoptedbytheSpaniardsandwhichonesweremanipulatedintoa
moreEuropeanform?WastherestillaroyalcourtinearlyColonialMexicoCity?
Thesequestionscanbeansweredbylookingfurtherintothecolonialdocumentsof
NewSpainandwillshedmorelightontheintegrationofbothEuropeanand
indigenouscultureintothenewcolonialorder.
IwouldalsoliketocomparethecolonialexperienceincentralMexicowith
othercolonizationprojectsacrosstheworld.Thiswillincludelookingatother
SpanishcoloniesinCentralandSouthAmericaandtheCaribbean.Iwillalsoexplore
otherEuropeanimperialculturessuchasEnglandandtheirexperiencesinNorth
168
America,Belize,Australia,andIndia,andFranceinNorthAfrica,SouthAmerica,and
theCaribbean.Portuguesecolonizationwillalsobeafocusofthisstudy,andtheir
colonialprojectsinAfricaandBrazilwillalsobeusedforcomparison.Thefocusof
thislargecomparativeglobalcolonialstudywillbetherelationshipsbetween
EuropeanandIndigenousculturebeforecontactandhowsimilarities(orlack
thereof)contributetothesocietythatisfoundincolonialstates.Understanding
colonialsociety,andpre‐contactsimilarities,iscrucialfortheunderstandingof
modernnationstatestoday.WiththisprojectandtheonesIhopetoexploreinthe
future,Iintendtocontributetothecolonialnarrative,andhelpshedlighton
indigenousviewpoints,culturalsurvival,andsuccess.
169
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