RESEARCH METHODS_MGS_2010-FULL

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Course Coordinator: Pou Sovann (PhD)

Tel: (855-12) 839-940

E-mail: [email protected]

Updated December 2010

Cambodian Mekong University

Graduate School

mailto:[email protected]

References

Main Textbooks

• CARE. (December 2007). Ideas and Action: Addressing the Social Factors that Influence Sexual and

Reproductive Health. Care, Atlanta, USA.

• Cooper, D. and Schindler, P., (2008). Business Research Methods. Tenth edition. McGraw-Hill

• FHI (2002). Qualitative Methods: A Field Guide for Applied Research in Sexual and Reproductive Health. FHI, USA.

• O’Leary, Z (2004). The Essential Guide to Doing Research. London, Sage.

Secondary Textbooks

• Bordens, K and Abbott, B. (2008). Research Design and Methods: A Process Approach.Seventh edition, McGraw Hill.

• Green, S. (2008). Business Research Methods

• Punch, F. (2000). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative

Approaches. Sage Publication.

Grading System

• Participation and attendance: 10%

• Team assignment: 20%

• Quiz: 10%

• Mid-term exam: 20%

• Final exam: 40%

------

TOTAL: 100%

Discussion Questions

1. Why study Research?

2. What is Research Methods and Research Methodology?

3. What is qualitative research?

4. What are the differences between qualitative and quantitative research?

5. Tell your own experiences in doing qualitative research: what topic, when, where, how to do it?

Course Expectations

what are your expectations to this course?- Can do research on poverty and other topics

- Be a good researcher, evaluator and monitor the project and run the project through several survey

- Write a good research report

- Write a research proposal, want to get proposal doc.

- Research methodology

Main Contents

1. Introduction to general research

2. Overview: Qualitative Research

3. Applying Scientific Thinking to Management

4. Research Process

5. Research Proposal

6. Ethics in Research

7. What is Literature Review?

8. Qualitative Research Design

9. Practical issues in conducting interviews, focus group discussions, participant observation

10. Qualitative Data Analysis

11. Presenting research report

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO GENERAL RESEARCH

Why study Research?

• Provide knowledge and skills to solve the problems and meet the challenges of a fast-paced decision making environment.

• Needed for all functional areas: student in business, not-for-profit and public organizations

• Two factors stimulate an interest in more scientific decision making: manager’s increased need for more and better information, and availability of improved techniques and tools to meet this need.

Why Managers need Better Information

• Global and domestic competition is more vigorous

• Organizations are increasingly practicing data mining and data warehousing

What is Research?

Research is any organized carried out to provide

information for solving problems. Business research is a

systematic inquiry that provides information to guide

business decisions. This includes reporting, descriptive,

explanatory, and predictive study.

A systematic Inquiry whose objective is to provide

information to solve managerial problems.

The Manager and Researcher Relationship

IMPORTANT

Both share the obligation of making a

project meaningful.

The Value of Acquiring Research Skills

• To gather more information before selecting a course of action

• To do a high-level research study

• To understand research design

• To evaluate and resolve a current management dilemma

• To establish a career as a research specialist

Types of Studies Used to do Research

• Reporting

• Descriptive

• Explanatory

• Predictive

The Manager-Researcher Relationship

• Manager’s obligations– Specify problems

– Provide adequate background information

– Access to company information gatekeepers

• Researcher’s obligations– Develop a creative research design

– Provide answers to important business questions

Manager-Researcher Conflicts

• Management’s limited exposure to research

• Manager sees researcher as threat to personal status

• Researcher has to consider corporate culture and political situations

• Researcher’s isolation from managers

When Research Should be Avoided

• When information cannot be applied to a critical managerial decision

• When managerial decision involves little risk

• When management has insufficient resources to conduct a study

• When the cost of the study outweighs the level of risk of the decision

On the basis of Application, Research may be classified as:

1. Policy Research

2. Applied Research

3. Fundamental Research (Pure or Theoretical Research)

POLICY RESEARCH

• Basically the research with Policy Implications.

• Results of such researches are used for policy

Formulation and Implementation.

• More of Practical Utility than of Theoretical

Knowledge.

APPLIED RESEARCH

• Meant for testing the known theories.

• Established theories need to be tested in a different situation (Population, time , environment etc.)

• Better Generalization is Possible.

• Validity of the theory increases.

• Greater contribution to knowledge within limited means.

FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH

• Are original and investigative studies.

• Area of Investigation would be New.

• Fresh investigation would be carried out to originate a new theory.

• Throws additional light on the existing theory or body of knowledge.

Its contribution can be two-fold:

1. Developing New Theory

2. Improving upon the existing theory.

What is Good Research?

• Following the standards of the scientific method

– Purpose clearly defined

– Research process detailed

– Research design thoroughly planned

– Limitations frankly revealed

– High ethical standards applied

What is Good Research? (cont.)

• Following the standards of the scientific method (cont.)

– Adequate analysis for decision-maker’s needs

– Findings presented unambiguously

– Conclusions justified

– Researcher’s experience reflected

The Manager-Researcher Relationship

• Manager’s obligations– Specify problems

– Provide adequate background information

– Access to company information gatekeepers

• Researcher’s obligations– Develop a creative research design

– Provide answers to important business questions

Manager-Researcher Conflicts

• Management’s limited exposure to research

• Manager sees researcher as threat to personal status

• Researcher has to consider corporate culture and political situations

• Researcher’s isolation from managers

When Research Should be Avoided

• When information cannot be applied to a critical managerial decision

• When managerial decision involves little risk

• When management has insufficient resources to conduct a study

• When the cost of the study outweighs the level of risk of the decision

CHAPTER 2:

OVERVIEW ON QUALITATIVE

RESEARCH

Qualitative Research

• Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and sometimes counterdisciplinary field. It crosses the

humanities and the social and physical sciences. Qualitative research is many things at the same time. It is

multiparadigmatic in focus. Its practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach. They are committed

to the naturalistic perspective, and to the interpretative understanding of human experience. At the same time, the

field is inherently political and shaped by multiple ethical and political positions.

• Nelson et al’s (1992, p4)


• ‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what

people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what

they say they think and how they say they feel. This

kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings

and impressions, rather than numbers’

• Bellenger, Bernhardt and Goldstucker, Qualitative Research in Marketing,

American Marketing Association


Qualitative research is multi-method in focus,

involving an interpretative, naturalistic approach

to its subject matter.

Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people

and their thoughts) in their natural settings,

attempting to make sense of, or interpret,

phenomena in terms of the meanings people

bring to them.


• Qualitative research involves the studied use and

collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study,

personal experience, introspective, life story, interview,

observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-

that describe routine and problematic moments and

meanings in individuals lives.

• Deploy a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping

always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.

Positivist Paradigm

• Emphasises that human reason is supreme

and that there is a single objective truth that

can be discovered by science

• Encourages us to stress the function of

objects, celebrate technology and to regard

the world as a rational, ordered place with a

clearly defined past, present and future

Non-Positivist Paradigm

• Questions the assumptions of the positivist

paradigm

• Argues that our society places too much emphasis

on science and technology

• Argues that this ordered, rational view of consumers

denies the complexity of the social and cultural

world we live in

• Stresses the importance of symbolic, subjective

experience

The Five moments of Qualitative Research

Traditional Period: 1900’s-World War II

• Wrote objective colonising accounts of field experiences that were reflective of the positivist scientist paradigm

• Concerned with offering valid, reliable, and objective interpretations in their writings.

• The ‘subject’ who was studied was alien, foreign, and strange.

The Modernist PhasePost war-1970’s

• The modernist ethnographer and sociological participant observer attempted rigorous, qualitative studies of important social processes, including social control in the classroom and society

• Researchers were drawn to qualitative research because it allowed them to give a voice to society’s ‘underclass’

Blurred Genres1970-1986

• Researchers had a full complement of paradigms, methods and strategies

• Applied qualitative research was gaining in stature

• Research strategies ranged from grounded theory to the case study methodology

• Methods included qualitative interviewing and observational, visual, personal and documentary methods.

• Computers were becoming more prevalent

• Boundaries between the social sciences and humanities had become blurred

• Social science was borrowing models, theories and methods of analysis from the humanities

• Researcher acknowledged as being part of the research process

Crisis of RepresentationMid 1980’s-Current Day

• Caused by the publication of a book called Anthropology as

Cultural Critique (Marcus and Fischer, 1986)

• Made research and writing more reflexive and called into

question the issues of gender, class and race.

• Interpretative theories as opposed to grounded theories were

more common as writers challenge old models of truth and

meaning

• Crisis of Representation and Legitimisation

The Fifth MomentCurrent Day

• Defined and shaped by the dual crisis of representation and legitimisation

• Theories now beginning to be read in narrative terms as ‘tales of the field’

• Concept of an aloof researcher has finally been fully abandoned

• More action oriented research is on the horizon

• More Social criticism and social critique

• The search for grand narratives is being replaced by more local, small-scale theories fitted to specific problems and specific situations

Qualitative v.'s Quantitative

Qualitative

Research

Quantitative

Research

Type of questions Probing Limited probing

Sample Size small large

Info. Per

respondent

much varies

Admin Requires skilled

researcher

Fewer specialist

skills required

Type of Analysis Subjective,

interpretative

Statistical

Type of research Exploratory Descriptive or

causal

Popularity of Qualitative Research

1 Usually much cheaper than quantitative research

2 No better way than qualitative research to understand in-depth the motivations and feelings of consumers

3 Qualitative research can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of quantitative research

Limitations of Qualitative Research

1 Marketing successes and failures are based on small differences in the marketing mix.

Qualitative research doesn’t distinguish these differences as well as quantitative research can.

2 Not representative of the population that is of interest to the researcher

3 The multitude of individuals who, without formal training, profess to be experts in the field

Qualitative Research as a Process

• Theory

• Method

• Analysis

• All three interconnect to define the qualitative research process

Theoretical ApproachDeductive

• Deductive Theoretical Approach

• Seek to use existing theory to shape the approach which you adopt to the

qualitative research process and to aspects of data analysis

• Analytical Procedures

• Pattern Matching

• Involves predicting a pattern of outcomes based on theoretical

propositions to explain what you expect to find

• Explanation Building

• Involves attempting to build an explanation while collecting and analysing

the data, rather than testing a predicted explanation as in pattern

matching

Inductive Approach

• Inductive Theoretical Approach

• Seek to build up a theory which is adequately grounded in a number of

relevant cases. Referred to as Interpretative and Grounded Theory

• Art of Interpretation

• Field Text: Consists of field notes and documents from the field

• Research Text: Notes and interpretations based on the filed text

• Working interpretative document: Writers initial attempt to make sense

out of what he has learned

• Public Text: The final tale of the Field

Qualitative Data Collection Techniques

• In depth Interviewing

• Focus Groups

• Participant Observations

• Ethnographic Studies

• Projective Techniques

Analysis Qualitative Data: An Approach

• Categorisation

• Unitising data

• Recognising relationships and developing the categories you are using to facilitate this

• Developing and testing hypotheses to reach conclusion

Interactive Nature of the Qualitative Process

Data collection, data analysis and the development and verification of relationships and conclusion are all interrelated and interactive set of processes

Allows researcher to recognise important themes, patterns and relationships as you collect data

Allows you to re-categorise existing data to see whether themes and patterns and relationships exist in the data already collected

Allows you to adjust your future data collection approach to see whether they exist in other cases

Tools for helping the Analytical Process

• Summaries

• Should contain the key points that emerge from undertaking the specific activity

• Self Memos

• Allow you to make a record of the ideas which occur to you about any aspect of your research,as you

think of them

• Researcher Diary

CHAPTER 3

APPLYING SCIENTIFIC THINKING TO

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

Sources of Knowledge

Empiricists attempt to describe, explain, and make predictions through observation

Rationalists believe all knowledge can be deduced from known laws or basic truths of nature

Authorities serve as important sources of knowledge, but should be judged on integrity and willingness to present a balanced case

The Essential Tenets of Science

• Direct observation of phenomena

• Clearly defined variables, methods, and procedures

• Empirically testable hypotheses

• Ability to rule out rival hypotheses

• Statistical justification of conclusions

• Self-correcting process

The Value of a Theory

• Narrows the range of facts we need to study

• Suggests which research approaches will yield the greatest meaning

• Suggests a data classification system

• Summarizes what is known about an object of study

• Predicts further facts that should be found

CHAPTER 4

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The Management-ResearchQuestion Hierarchy

Management Dilemma

Measurement Questions

Investigative Questions

Research Questions

Management Questions

Management Decision

1

23

45

6

OR RESEARCH PROCESS

Define

Research Problem

Review Concepts

and Theories

Review Previous

Research Finding

Formulate

Hypotheses

Design Research

( including sample design)

Collect Data

(Execution)

Analysis Data

(Test hypotheses if any)Interpret and Report

Working with the Hierarchy

• Management Dilemma

– The symptom of an actual problem

– Not difficult to identify a dilemma, however choosing one to focus on may be difficult


• Management Question Categories

– Choice of purposes or objective

– Generation and evaluation of solutions

– Troubleshooting or control situation


• Fine tune the research question

– Examine concepts and constructs

– Break research questions into specific second-and-third-level questions

– Verify hypotheses with quality tests

– Determine what evidence answers the various questions and hypothesis

– Set the scope of your study


• Investigative Questions

– Questions the researcher must answer to satisfactorily arrive at a conclusion about the research question


• Measurement Questions

– The questions we actually ask or extract from respondents

Other Processes in the Hierarchy

• Exploration

– Recent developments

– Predictions by informed figures about the prospects of the technology

– Identification of those involved in the area

– Accounts of successful ventures and failures by others in the field

Research Process Problems

• The Favored Technique Syndrome

• Company Database Strip-Mining

• Unresearchable Questions

• Defined Management Problems

• Politically Motivated Research

Designing the Study

• Select a research design from the large variety of methods, techniques, procedures, protocols, and sampling plans

Resource Allocation & Budgets

• Guides to plan a budget

– Project planning

– Data gathering

– Analysis, interpretation, and reporting

• Types of budgeting

– Rule-of-thumb

– Departmental or functional area

– Task

Evaluation Methods

• Ex Post Facto Evaluation

• Prior Evaluation

• Option Analysis

• Decision Theory

CHAPTER 5

THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Purpose of the Research Proposal

• To present the question to be researched and its importance

• To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related questions

• To suggest the data necessary for solving the question

The Research Sponsor

All research has a sponsor in one form or another:

• In a corporate setting, management sponsors research

• In an academic environment, the student is responsible to the class instructor

What are the Benefits of the Proposal to a Researcher?

• Allows the researcher to plan and review the project’s steps

• Serves as a guide throughout the investigation

• Forces time and budget estimates

Types of Research Proposals

• Internal

• External

Proposal Complexity

3 levels of complexity:

• The exploratory study is used for the most simple proposals

• The small-scale study is more complex and common in business

• The large-scale professional study is the most complex, costing millions of dollars

How to Structure the Research Proposal?

• Create proposal modules

• Put together various modules to tailor your proposal to the intended audience

Modules in a Research Proposal• Executive Summary

• Problem Statement

• Research Objectives

• Literature Review

• Importance of the Study

• Research Design

• Data Analysis

• Nature and Form of Results

Qualifications of

Researcher

Budget

Schedule

Facilities and Special

Resources

Project Management

Bibliography

Appendices

What to include in the Appendices?

• A glossary of concepts, constructs, and definitions

• Samples of the measurement instrument

• Other materials that reinforce the body of the proposal

Evaluating the Research Proposal

• Proposal must be neatly written in appropriate writing style

• Major topics should be easily found and logically organized

• Proposal must meet specific guidelines set by the sponsor

• Technical writing style must be clearly understood and explained

Example: Research Proposal (common sample)

Chapter 1 -- The Proposal

To repeat, your proposal, when approved by your

advisor, becomes chapter 1 of the research paper.

• Chapter 1 is the blueprint for what will be included in the remaining chapters. Like a good blueprint for a building that is to be constructed, chapter 1 will contain a brief but detailed guide to everything that will be included in the paper.

The purpose of chapter 1 is to introduce the

reader to what is being studied, and how it will be

investigated. It contains:

• Background of the study

• A statement of the general problem investigated. A statement of why and to whom the problem is important

• The objective (purpose) of this particular study

• The main question of the study. An enumeration of the component questions, or, if it is a quantitative study, the hypotheses that the researcher will answer in order to answer the main question of the study

• Methodology, which tells the reader briefly what research procedures, will be used to answer the component questions or to test the hypotheses

• Scope and Limitation of the Research: Under the statement of the problem, above, the researcher tells his reader what he will investigate. Here, he sets forth what was not investigated (things relevant but for stated reasons intentionally excluded)

• Definitions: Operationally define terms that appear in the Main Question, and in the component questions or hypotheses

• Expected Results: Based upon the findings of previous studies that have been performed, it was expected that

• Overview of Remaining Chapters: To illustrate what is contained here, the following example is given:

Chapter 2, Review of Related Literature, offered a historical perspective of the problem, current knowledge related to the problem, and information that related specifically to each of the component questions posed.Chapter 3, Methodology, described how

the sample was selected, how the questionnaire that was utilized was constructed and validated, and how the data was gathered and analyzed.Chapter 4, Findings, presented the results,

which corresponded to each component question of the study.

• Chapter 5, Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations, provided a summary of the study, conclusions based upon the findings, and recommendations based upon the conclusions of the study.

The proposal is usually approximately five to ten double-spaced pages long.

Write the proposal in the past tense, as if the study had already been completed (eg., this study examined rather than this study will examine). Since the proposal becomes chapter 1, when approved, and since the paper is written in the past tense, it will save you having to rewrite the proposal (in past tense form) after your proposal has been approved.

Further, write the paper in the third person (e.g., theauthor of this paper investigated. Rather than Iinvestigated).

MRC-CMU Thesis Guideline

Look at the graduate Thesis Handbook developed by MRC of the Cambodian Mekong University

CHAPTER 6

ETHICS IN RESEARCH

What are Research Ethics?

• Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with others

• The goal is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities

Ethical Treatment of Participants

• Begin data collection by explaining to the participant the benefits expected from the research

• Explain to the participants that their rights and well-being will be adequately protected, and say how this will be done

• Be certain that interviewers obtain the informed consent of the participant

Deception

• The participant is told only part of the truth or when the truth is fully compromised

• To prevent biasing the participants before the survey or experiment

• To protect the confidentiality of a third party

Issues Related to Protecting Participants

• Informed consent

• Debriefing

• Right to Privacy/Confidentiality

• Data Collection in Cyberspace

Ethical Issues related to the Client

• Sponsor non-disclosure

• Purpose non-disclosure

• Findings non-disclosure

• Right to quality research

Ethics Related to Sponsor

• Sometimes researchers will be asked by sponsors to participate in unethical behavior.

• To avoid coercion by sponsor the researcher should:

– Educate sponsor to the purpose of research

– Explain researcher’s role

– Explain how distortion of the truth leads to future problems

– If necessary, terminate relationship with sponsor

Ethical Issues related to Researchers and Team Members

• Safety

• Ethical behavior of assistants

• Protection of anonymity

CHAPTER 7:

WORKING WITH LITERATURE

What should I be reading and what do I do with it all?

The Literature Review is…

• A discussion of your knowledge about the topic under study

• A discussion of your knowledge that is supported by the research literature

• A foundation for the study

The Literature Review is not…

A study-by-study, or article-by-article, description of studies previously done

A re-statement of the studies previously done

A brief overview of articles

Learn more onLiterature Review

• A good literature survey is expected. Generally, the purpose of a review is to analyze critically a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles.

Website related to a literature review paper: http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html

The Importance of Working with Literature

Working with literature is an essential part of the research process that:

– generates ideas

– helps form significant questions

– is instrumental in the process of research design

Working with literature

Working with

Literature

Find it! Manage it! Use it! Review it!

Knowing the

literature types

Reading

efficiently

Choosing your research

topic

Understanding the

lit review’s purpose

Using available

resources

Keeping track

of references

Developing your

question

Ensuring adequate

coverage

Honing your

search skills

Writing relevant

annotations

Arguing your

rationale

Informing your work

with theory

Designing

method

Writing

purposefully

Working on

style and tone

Finding literature

Finding relevant literature can be made easier if you are able to readily access and draw on a wide variety of resources such as:

– reference materials

– books

– journals

– grey literature

– official publications

– archives

Finding literature

Don’t go it alone!!

When looking for literature be sure to call on the experts such as:

– librarians

– supervisors

– other researchers

– practitioners

Intersecting Areas of Literature

BODY PIERCING

▪

TEENAGERS

▪

RITES OF PASSAGE

▪

FOUCAULT

▪

▪ background literature

moderate relevance

high relevance

highest relevance

Managing the literature

It also pays to be organized and diligent when it comes to keeping references.

– Keep and file copies of relevant books, articles, etc.

– Avoid lending out your ‘only copies’

– Find out about the recommended referencing style and use it from the start

– Consider using bibliographic file management software such as Procite, Endnote, or Reference Manager

Annotating Sources

Annotating your sources provides you with a record of relevant literature. It should include:

– the citation

– articulation of the author and audience

– a short summary

– critical commentary

– notes on relevance that remind you of the significance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited

Using the Literature

Literature is used for disparate purposes throughout the research process. Whether it be:– focusing interests

– defining questions

– arguing a rationale

– theoretically informing your study

– developing appropriate design, or writing a formal literature review

every stage of the research process demands literary engagement

The Formal Literature Review

Most find the writing of a literature review a difficult task that takes patience, practice, drafts, and redrafts

The Formal Literature Review

The formal literature review is a very specific piece of writing designed to:

– inform your readers of your topic

– establish your credibility as a researcher

– argue the need for, and relevance of, your work

Reviewing the Literature vs. ‘The Literature Review’

Writing your Literature Review

A good literature review is an argument that is more purposeful than a simple review of relevant literature


Writing a good review requires you to:

– read a few good reviews

– write critical annotations

– develop a structure

– write purposefully

– use the literature to back up your arguments

– review and write throughout the research process

– get feedback

– and be prepared to redraft

First Subtopic

Discussion should in-

clude:

How is the subtopic connected to the

problem?

Your knowledge, based on the literature

you have studied

Specify subtopics (if any)

Summary &

transition

Mission & Pur-

pose

Goals &

objectives

(planning)

Task units

So, given all that,

yaddah, yaddah,

it is important to

note the role of…

Effective

Organizational

Structures

In order for the coor-dination of services

to be effective, a struc-ture must exist within which service units are organized

and can operate. Yaddah, yaddah,

yaddah…

Long range strategic

planning characterizes

organizations with ef-

fective internal struc-

tures (Brown, 1997).

Key to such an effort is

the identification of…


Style and Tone…

• Writing a good literature review can be likened to holding a good dinner party conversation

• They both require individuals who can engage, learn, debate, argue, contribute, and evolve their own ideas, without being hypercritical or sycophantic

Writing

• Use APA style & format

• Have your work proofread before submitting

• Follow all format guidelines

• Must be a thorough review, reflected by the depth of the discussion

• Should begin prior to the implementation of the study

Learn more on References

• APA format: See the website below. http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPAReferences.html

• http://www.lib.usm.edu/research/guides/apa.html

• http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

• Electronic source: Go to http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html

• Include all the information such as full names of author(s), article title, journal name, volume number, issue number, year, & page numbers.

http://www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/DocAPAReferences.html

http://www.apastyle.org/elecref.html

CHAPTER 8:

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

DESIGN

Elements of the Research Process

DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive thinking (Quantitative)

THEORY

HYPOTHESIS

OBSERVATION

CONFIRMATION

Elements of the Research Process (Cont.)

Inductive thinking (Qualitative)

OBSERVATION

PATTERNS

HYPOTHESIS

THEORY

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE

Research process is

deductive.

Research process is

inductive.

Measure objective facts. Social reality, meaning is

constructed.

Focus on variables. Focus on in-depth

meaning.

Value-free research. Values are present &

explicit (empathy).

Independent of context. Contextual importance.

Many cases, subjects. Few cases, participants.


Statistical analysis Thematic analysis

Objective instruments of

data collection.

Researcher as the central

tool for data collection.

Highly structured

research process.

Loosely structured

research process.

Researcher is detached

(outsider).(Adapted from Neuman, 1997: 14)

Researcher is immersed

(insider).


result oriented process oriented

particularistic and

analytical

holistic perspective

objective “outsider view”

distant from data

subjective “insider view”

and closeness to data

generalized by population

membership

generalization by comparison

of properties and contexts

of individual organism

• Although positivist approach attempts to

understand social phenomena through largely

quantitative means, and the interpretive

approach mainly through qualitative techniques.

• it is important not overemphasise the difference

between these methods.

• Commonly called “interpretive research”

…its methods rely heavily on “thick”

verbal descriptions of a particular

social context being studied

Qualitative research...


• It is useful for describing or answering questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices

…a helpful process for exploring a

complex research area about which

little is known

• Interpretation, as the core of qualitative research

focuses on the meaning of human experience.

• The focus is on understanding human experience

rather than explaining and predicting behaviour.

• It is acknowledged that meaning and behaviour

occurs within particular social, cultural and historical

contexts.


“Qualitative Research”a definition by Van Maanen (1979)

“An umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain naturally occurring phenomena in the social world”

“Qualitative Research”a definition by (Banister et al., 1994)

Qualitative research is “…the interpretive

study of a specified issue or problem in

which the researcher is central to the sense

that is made”

“Qualitative Research”a definition by (Banister et al., 1994)

“The goal of qualitative research is the development of concepts which help us to understand social phenomena in natural (rather than experimental) settings, giving due emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and views of all the participants.”

Essential Characteristics of Qualitative Research

• concerned with understanding a phenomenon

• assumes multiple realities

• data is in the form of rich verbal descriptions

• researcher is immersed and in direct contact during the data collection

• the data collection is highly interactive

• data collection methodology evolves and is flexible; a “tentative” approach to the methodology

Essential Characteristics of Qualitative Research

• emphasizes the holistic perspective

• research is context sensitive

• illuminate the invisibility of everyday life; “make the familiar strange”

• construct meaning from the participant’s point of view (“informants” rather than “subjects”)

• explores open questions rather than testing hypothesis

• employs purposive sampling and “gate keepers”

Appropriateness of Qualitative Research

• When variables cannot be quantified

• When variables are best understood in their

natural settings

• When variables are studied over time

• When studying roles, processes, and groups

• When the paramount objective is “understanding”

What to Observe or Study

• Behaviors or practices

• Episodes, common events (death, birth, etc.)

• Encounters –when groups or people interact

• Roles

• Relationship roles – mother/daughter; wife/husband, Therapist/disabled,… etc.

Qualifications of Investigators(Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

• Must have requisite knowledge and skills about methodology, setting and nature of the issue.

• Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions, expectations, and values.

• Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and interested in listening

• Must be open to embracing multiple realities.

• Must be prepared to produce detailed, comprehensive, and sometimes lengthy reports.

The Qualitative Research Design“a rough working frame” --(Whitt, 1991)

• An initial focus (problem, phenomenon, question)

• Phases of the study (background, entry, exploration, closure)

• Plan for identifying setting and data sources

• Plan and logistics for data collection and analysis

• Plan for ensuring trustworthiness

Phases in Qualitative

Research

Conceptualize and plan study

Use literature, formulate study

purpose or question, identify

study site, settings where/how

data collection will occur,

participants and entrée to setting

Start study with concurrent

data collection and analysis.

Analysis focused on

identifying themes and

categories-- similarities in

data. Question or purpose

may emerge and be refined.

Data collection strategies

may change

Sampling and data collection determined by

theoretical saturation. Analysis based on narrative

description

Goal: Access the participants

world & meanings. Researcher

is the instrument

Selecting participants...

• The goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied

• Requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied

Selecting participants...

• It is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied

• Utilizes purposive sampling

Random “Quantitative” Sampling

Select Representative individuals

To generalize from sample to population

To make claims about the population

To build/test “theories” that explain the pop‟n

Purposeful “Qualitative” Sampling

Select people/sites who can best help us understand our phenomenon

To develop detailed understanding

That might be “useful: information

That might help people “learn” about the phenomenon

That might give voice to “silenced” people

Differences Between Random &

Purposeful Sampling

• Sample size is always determined by the analysis. It is part of the design and so is influenced by the nature of the inquiry, quality of the informants, the quality of the data.

• The researcher is looking for saturation—the point at which there is no new cases coming from each new participant and redundant information keeps coming up.

• This must be differentiated from participant saturation where the researcher cannot drag anything new out of the umpteenth interview with that particular person.

Sampling in Qualitative Studies

Types of Data Collection(or “fieldwork”)

Observation

Interviewing

Focus Groups

Document Analysis

The Three-Interview Series(Seidman, 1998)

Interview One: Life History

Interview Two: Details of the Experience

Interview Three: Reflection on the Meaning

• Method to enhance the validity & reliability of qualitative research

• Enhances accuracy of interpretation

• Confirms that the data collected is not due to chance or circum-stances

Qualitative Research Methods:

Triangulation

Collect data from

multiple sources

Collect data in

multiple ways from

subjects

Collect different

kinds of data in

multiple ways from

multiple subjects

For example:

May interview teachers,

principals & parents

May interview &

observe students

May review student

records, interview

teachers, observe

students


Triangulation

Multiple data

sources

Multiple

kinds of data

Multiple data

collection strategies

Subjects

(data sources)

Data collection strategies

Kinds of data


Triangulation

Resources(Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

• Recording devices

• Transcribing equipment

• Software packages for analyzing

• Member checks participants

• Space

• Time

The Data

Generally collected in

the form of…

field notes,

diaries

audio & video tapes,

copies of documents,

narrative descriptions

Analysis

• Some form of

analysis usually

takes place at the

same time data is

being collected

• Researcher seeks

to identify patterns

or trends

Qualitative Research:

Data Analysis

Qualitative data may be analyzed by a 3-

part strategy:

reducing the data

coding the data

synthesizing the data


Data Analysis

• Read and re-read data, become engrossed in it.

• Identify themes: common, conflicting, minority

• Test themes across the data set, where are they common, under what circumstances are they found, not found. This sets the parameters on the interpretation and generalisation of data

• Get more than one person to analyse the data independently then together

• Demonstrate trustworthiness in data analysis


Data Analysis

Common Qualitative Research Approaches

• Case study

• Ethnography

• Grounded theory

• Phenomenology

• Historical

• Action Research

CHAPTER 9:

INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES

Objectives

1. Identify different types of interviewing

techniques & know when to use

2. Describe „basic rules‟ of successful

interviewing

3. Demonstrate skill in interviewing that

you will be able to apply in your policy

evaluations

Interviews

• At the most basic level, are conversations.

• That,

– attempt to understand points of view,

– unfold the meaning of experiences,

– uncover changes in individuals, groups and

communities.

Why Interview Be personal and

unobtrusive

Obtain direct feedback

Seek understanding

“dig deeper”

Observe behaviors and

reactions

Obtain rich, detailed data

To be flexible

Types of Interviews

1. Informal Conversation

2. Guided Interview

3. Structured Interview

Types of Interviews

Informal Conversation• May happen spontaneously in the course of

field work, and respondent may not even

know that an “interview” is taking place.

• Questions emerge from the immediate

context of the conversation and are often not

predetermined.

Informal Conversation

When to UseWhen the interviewer has:

Solid knowledge and experience with the subject

matter

Strong interpersonal skills to maintain the

conversation

The situation presents the opportunity

Ability to record data quickly


Situations Social gathering

School event

Before/after a public meeting

Whenever you have their attention and can engage the conversation

Types of Interviews

Guided Interview• Widely used. Interviewer has an established

outline of topics/questions to be covered.

• Wording and order of questions can vary to

an extent.

Guided Interview

When to UseWhen you have:

Solid knowledge and experience with the subject matter – you know what to ask

A set of questions you want everyone to answer

Questions that you want to compare or summarize across individuals

Guided Interview

Situations

Series of scheduled individual meetings

with local politicians

Types of Interviews

Structured Interviews• Adheres to a strict script with no variation

in the wording or order of the questions.

• Useful when interviewer does not have

experience or knowledge of the subject.

• The structure helps reduce interviewer

bias.

Structured Interviews

When to Use

To compare responses of different

respondents

You or other volunteers have limited

knowledge of the topic


Situations

Multiple volunteer interviewers are

used

Conducting Interviews


1. Establish Purpose

Why are you conducting the interview

What do you want to know

Who are you interviewing


2. Develop Questions:

– Related specifically to purpose

– Pilot them, are they clearly understood

by others‟


3. Collect the data

Who will conduct the interview(s)?

Do the interviewers need training?

When will interviews be conducted?

Where will interviews be conducted?

How will you record the interviews?

Questionnaire

Notes

Tape recorder


4. Analysis and reporting

– What will you do with the data?

– How will you analyze it?

– Who will you share the results with?

– How will it be shared?

– When will you share the results?

Interviewing Basic Rules

• Keep the purpose of

the interview in

mind…always

• Be yourself

• Be cordial,

appreciative and show

respect

• Dress appropriately

for the setting

Interviewing Basic Rules

• Conduct the interview

in a comfortable place

• Do not be afraid to

probe

• Demonstrate that you

are listening

• Be sensitive to cultural

nuances

• Practice, practice,

practice…

Interview Role-PlayInstructions

1. Read the scenarios.

2. Create ONE more question. The question must relate to the purpose of the interview.

3. Identify interviewee and interviewer(s).

4. Conduct interview with interviewer(s) documenting responses

5. Review and briefly analyze documented responses

Interview Role-PlayAfter conducting the interview, discuss within your

group the following:

• The type of interview introduced in the scenario

• A potential location for the interview

• Ethical standards considered

• Probing technique(s) used

• Brief summary of the data collected

• Did the interview meet the intended purpose

Disadvantages

May be time consuming and costly

Training - practice is necessary

Interviewer error and/or bias can creep

in

Analysis can be difficult

Interviewing takes skill

Advantages

Direct feedback from respondent

Yields rich, detailed data and new

insights

Probing is possible

Personal interaction with respondent

Flexible

Opportunity to explain or clarify


Advantages1. Highly individualized

2. Relevant to the

individual

3. May produce

information or

insights not

originally anticipated

Disadvantages1. It is not a systematic

method

2. Different information

may be collected

from different people

3. Analysis can

become difficult and

time-consuming

Guided Interview

Advantages1. Data are more

systematic and

comprehensive

2. Tone of the interview

is conversational,

informal

Disadvantages1. Sticking too much to

the outline may

prevent other topics

from being explored

2. Analysis can

become difficult and

time-consuming


Advantages1. Useful when interviewer

does not have

experience or knowledge

of the subject

2. May be best choice when

you must rely on

volunteers

3. Structure makes analysis

easier than other

interview techniques

Disadvantages1. Interviewer has little

flexibility within the

actual interview

2. If questions are not

clearly linked to the

purpose, there is no

guarantee the questions

tap into the issues that

are most relevant to the

respondent

Who are you?

We would like to get to know you

by knowing…

• Your name

• Where you work or who you are

representing

CHAPTER 10:

TOOLS FOR QUALITATIVE RESERCH

Focus Groups

A Focus Group Is . . .

What

• A carefully planned

discussion

• To obtain

perceptions of a

defined interest

area


Where

• In a permissive,

non-threatening

environment


Who

• Approximately seven

to ten people

• With common

characteristics

relating to discussion

topic


How

• Conducted by a

trained interviewer

(moderator,

facilitator).

• Three focus groups

are the minimum for

a study

Why Do Focus Groups?

• To collect qualitative data

• To determine feelings, perceptions and manner of thinking of participants regarding products, services, programs or opportunities

• Attitudes and perceptions are developed in part by interaction with other people

• To promote self-disclosure among participants

• It's dangerous to take "customers" for granted

When to Conduct

Focus Groups• Before a program begins, during a

program or after a program ends

• Focus groups are effective wheno People have something to share (motivations)

o The goal is to understand human behavior

• Focus groups are not effective wheno People are divided or angry

o The goal is to gather factual information

o Organization is trying to improve its image

Selecting Participants

• Participants are similar

• General selection rules:

– Set exact specification

– Maintain control of the selection process

– Use the resources of the sponsoring organization in recruiting

– Beware of bias

– Develop a pool of eligible participants and then randomly select

Selection Strategies

List

Piggyback

On location

Nominations

Random phone screening

Ads in newspapers and bulletin boards

Incentives for Participants

• Money ($20-$50)

• Food

• Gifts

• Positive, upbeat

invitation

Systematic Notification

Procedures

1. Set meeting times for interviews

2. Contact potential participants by phone

or in person (2 weeks before meeting

time)

3. Send a personalized invitation

4. Phone (or contact) each person the day

before the focus group

Moderator Skills Is mentally prepared

Selects appropriate location

Records the discussion

Uses purposeful small talk

Has a smooth & snappy introduction

Uses pauses and probes

Uses subtle group control

Controls reactions to participants

Selects the right moderator

Uses an assistant moderator

Uses appropriate conclusion

Beginning the Focus Group

Discussion

• The first few moments in focus group discussion are critical.

– Create a thoughtful, permissive atmosphere

– Provide the ground rules

– Set the tone

• Recommended introduction pattern: – Welcome

– Overview and topic

– Ground rules

– First question

Asking Questions That Yield Powerful Information

• Use open-ended questions

• Avoid dichotomous questions

• "Why?" is rarely asked

• Use "think back" questions

• Carefully prepare focus questions

• Ask uncued questions first, cued questions

second

• Consider standardized questions

Ending Questions

• Summary question

"Is this an adequate summary?"

• All things considered question

Ask participants to reflect on the entire discussion and

then offer their positions or opinions

• Final question

"Have we missed anything?

Systematic Analysis Process

• Start while still in the group

• Immediately after the focus group

• Soon after the focus group--within hours analyze individual focus group

• Later--within days analyze the series of focus groups

• Finally, prepare the report

Focus Group Analysis Tips

When analyzing focus group data, consider…

• Words

• Context

• Internal consistency

• Frequency or extensiveness of comments

• Intensity of the comments

• Specificity of responses

• Find the big ideas

Reporting Focus Group Results

• Use a communications strategy

• Use an appropriate reporting style that the client finds helpful and meets expectations

• Strive for enlightenment

• Make points memorable

• Use narrative or bulleted format

• Give thought to the oral report

Ethnography and

participant observation

Definitions

• Ethnography – an umbrella term for a family of qualitative research methods

• Often used interchangeably with „participant observation‟

• The ethnographer immerses herself in a chosen setting for a prolonged period of time

• Watching, participating, asking questions

• Ethnography is both the method and the outcome

• F.ex. An ethnography of a primary school/convent/nightclub etc.

Ethnography and fieldwork: getting „out there‟

1. Developing a research problem (what will you study and why?)

2. Choosing a setting (where?)

3. Participants (who?)

4. Access (how?)

5. Fieldwork: observation, field notes interviews, and focus groups (what?)

Access

Why it may be hard to get in:

• Personal attributes (age, gender, skin colour, nationality, class, sexual orientation)

• Research topic

• First impression

• Covert, overt, or semi-overt research?

Access (cont.)

• Adjusting to the field

• Power relations

• „Fairy Godmother‟ (O‟Reilly) – is it always a blessing?

• The power of neutral information

• Learning from own mistakes and trying again

• Official/unofficial route

• Time

• Learning the language

N.B. The process of gaining access never stops

Gaining access: an example

• Whyte (1955) Street Corner Society

• A study of young men in „Cornerville‟

• A public setting/difficulties getting in

• Whyte befriended Doc, who turned into his key informant and gatekeeper

Covert/overt research

• Most ethnography nowadays is semi-overt

• Covert – the ethnographer does not reveal their „true‟ identity

• Overt – the participants are aware of the researcher‟s motives and they grant their consent for the data to be used

Covert research: an example

• Humphreys, L. (1970) Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places. Chicago: Aldine

• Participant observation in public toilets

• Humphreys was a „watch queen‟

• Obtained the men‟s personal details and subsequently interviewed them

Doing fieldwork: the researcher‟s roles

• Feeling strange and insecure

I was afraid of everything at the beginning. It was just fear of imposing on people, of trying to maintain a completely different role than anyone else around you. […] Am I going to be rejected? Am I really getting the data I need?’ (Wintrob (1969) cited in Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995: 114)

Different roles (Gold, 1958)

• Complete participant (covert)

• Participant as observer (overt)

• Observer as participant (overt)

• Complete observer (overt)

This distinction is not always useful – you are never simply an observer

„Going native‟

• When the ethnographer becomes a member of the studied group/ loses the sense of being a researcher

• May be dangerous but it happens

• Religious conversion, romantic involvement with a research participant, taking on the views of the group studied

Hunter Thompson (1967) Hell‟s Angels

By the middle of summer (1965) I became so involved in the outlaw scene that I was no longer sure whether I was doing research on the Hell’s Angels or being slowly absorbed by them. I found myself spending two or three days each week in Angel bars, in their homes, and on runs and parties. In the beginning I kept them out of my own world, but after several months my friends grew accustomed to finding Hell’s Angels in my apartment at any hour of the day or night. Their arrivals and departures caused periodic alarm in the neighbourhood and sometimes drew crowds. (Thompson, 1967: 283)

Research bargains

• Fieldwork = constant interaction

• Impossible to sail through without any problems

• „Fronts‟ – what you say, how you dress etc.

• Mistakes and „close calls‟ are part of the process and your data – use them to learn and enhance your research experience

• Humility is the key

Examples of „uncomfortable research‟

• Fielding, N. (1981) The National Front

An ethnography: Fielding befriended several activists, conducted participant observation and analysed the ideology of the movement

• Patrick, J. (1973) A Glasgow Gang Observed. London: Eyre Methuen

Patrick joined a gang but left when the level of violence escalated

Ethnographic fieldnotes

• When? What? How?

• When? ASAP, best during an observation but not always possible

• How? Rushed and fragmented, key words, pictures and drawings, even elaborate notes need refining

CONSISTENCY! „If in doubt, write it down‟

Ethnographic fieldnotes (cont.)

What?

• Impossible to record everything

• Sophistication comes with time

• Detailed can be good

• Especially if we are dealing with conversations and emotional situations

Types of fieldnotes

• Jottings – brief phrases to be developed

• Description – everything you recall about the occasion (time, place, people, surroundings, animals, smells, sounds etc.)

• Analysis – what have you learned so far?

• Reflection – what was it like for you?

Sampling

• Whatever is available

or

• Convenience and snowball sampling

Or

• Theoretical sampling – gathering data in accordance with the emerging theory

• From a general research question to a hypothesis

When does the ethnographer stop?

• Data saturation OR the field disintegrates

• Can be difficult because:

a) Your participants do not wish you to leave

b) You find it hard to leave the setting

• You may feel relieved,

• Or sad,

• Or guilty…

Oritz, S. (2004) Leaving the Private World of Wives of Professional

Athletes, Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 33(4)

Hunter Thompson (1965) Hell‟s Angels

Aftermath

• Keeping in touch: a moral obligation?

• Feeding the data back to the participants

• Follow-up research

CHAPTER 11:

DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE

RESEARCH

What is data analysis?

• A complex process that involves moving back and forth – between concrete bits of data and abstract

concepts

– between inductive and deductive reasoning

– between description and interpretation

• Simply put: Data analysis is the process of making meaning from the data

Preliminary Exploratory Analysis

• Explore the data by reading through all of your information to obtain a general sense of the information

• Memo ideas while thinking about the organization of the data and considering whether more data are needed

– Jot memos in margins of fieldnotes, transcripts, documents, photos

Developing Descriptions & Themes from the Data (case study

approach)

• Coding data

• Developing a description from the data

• Defining themes from the data

• Connecting and interrelating themes

Coding Data

• Open Coding

– Assign a code word or phrase that accurately describes the meaning of the text segment

– Line-by-line coding is done first in theoretical research

– More general coding involving larger segments of text is adequate for practical research (action research)

Axial Coding

• The process of looking for categories that cut across all data sets

• After this type of coding, you have identified your themes

• You can‟t classify something as a theme unless it cuts across the preponderance of the data

Clustering

• After open coding an entire text, make a list of all code words

• Cluster together similar codes and look for redundant codes

• Objective: reduce the long list of codes to a smaller, more manageable number (25 or 30)

Preliminary organizing scheme

• Take this new list of codes and go back to the data

• Reduce this list to codes to get 5 to 7 themes or descriptions

• Themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea in the database

• Identify the 5-7 themes by constantly comparing the data (Constant Comparative Analysis)

Constant Comparative Analysis

• A process whereby the data gradually

evolve into a core of emerging theory

• This core is a theoretical framework that

further guides the collection of data

• Major modifications are lessened as

comparisons of the next incidents of a

category to its properties are carried out (Merriam, 1998).

Why themes?

It is best to write a qualitative report providing detailed information about a few themes rather than general information about many themes

Themes can also be referred to as Categories

Naming the Themes or Categories

• The names can come from at least three sources:

– The researcher

– The participants

– The literature

• Most common: when the researcher comes up with terms, concepts, and categories that reflect what he or she sees in the data

Themes should…

• Reflect the purpose of the research

• Be exhaustive--you must place all data in a category

• Be sensitizing--should be sensitive to what is in the data– i.e., “leadership” vs. “charismatic leadership”

• Be conceptually congruent--the same level of abstraction should characterize all categories at the same level– For instance, you wouldn’t have produce, canned

goods, and fruit

Types of themes

• Ordinary: themes a researcher expects

• Unexpected: themes that are surprises and not expected to surface

• Hard-to-classify: themes that contain ideas that do not easily fit into one theme or that overlap with several themes

• Major & minor themes: themes that represent the major ideas, or minor, secondary ideas in a database– Minor themes fit under major themes in the write up

A Description

• A detailed rendering of people, places, or events in a setting in qualitative research

• Codes such as “seating arrangements,” “teaching approach,” or “physical layout of the room,” might all be used to describe a classroom where instruction takes place

Narrative description

• From the coding and the themes, construct a narrative description and possibly a visual display of the findings for your research report

• Use the assigned format (see syllabus)

Constructing the narrative

• Identify dialogue that provides support for themes

• Look for dialogue in the participants’ own dialect

• Use metaphors and analogies

• Collect quotes from interview data or observations

• Locate multiple perspectives & contrary evidence

• Look for vivid detail

• Identify tensions and contradictions in individual experiences

Conveying personal reflectionsBecause qualitative researchers believe that personal views can never be kept separate from interpretations, personal reflections about the meaning of the data are included in the research study

– “David had been diagnosed with AD/HD and also with mild

Tourette Syndrome. He took medication for AD/HD. He was

selected to participate in the project as a confirming participant

because he was so involved with the project and so intense

during the first observation. Unaware that he had AD/HD and

Tourette Syndrome until I interviewed his mother during the

second year of the project, I was surprised because he was the

most focused student in the classroom.”(Terry, 2003)

Providing Visual Data Displays

• Qualitative researchers often display their findings visually

– Comparison table or matrix

– Hierarchical tree diagram that represents themes and their connections

– Boxes that show connections between themes

– Physical layout of the setting

– Personal or demographic information for each person or site

Enhances Commitment,

Attitudes,

and Student Development

Making comparisons with the Literature

Interpret the data in view of past research

Show how the findings both support and contradict prior studies◦ “These findings are consistent with other studies in regard to

duration. It has been found that the length or duration of service learning projects has an impact on student outcomes, with the longer duration projects having greater impacts. However, significant differences are not found in projects lasting over 18 weeks (Conrad & Hedin, 1981). The project on which this study focused was examined over a year and a half period of time; thus it is considered to be long in duration which helps to explain its impact on student outcomes.”

Limitations of the study

The researcher suggests possible limitations or weaknesses of the study– “This study focused on one rural middle school in an area

in Northeast Georgia, Hartwell. It documented the methodology used in the service learning project and the effect of a certain type of service learning model, Community Action. Therefore, the study provides an in-depth look at a service learning project carried out by gifted students in just one middle school in a rural area situated in a Southern state. Transferability may be limited as a result” (Terry, 2001).

Future Research Suggested

Researchers make recommendations for future research– “In addition, further research is needed to determine

outcomes for a diversified culture of students, including, but not limited to African-American students and students diagnosed with AD/HD. Research is also needed to examine and validate existing frameworks before professing any general claims concerning the outcomes for students engaged in service learning activities” (Terry, 2003).

Validating the Accuracy of Findings

At the end, the qualitative researcher validates the finding by determining the accuracy or credibility of the findings. Methods include:– Prolonged engagement & persistent observation in the

field

– Triangulation

– Peer Review

– Clarifying researcher bias

– Member Checking

– Rich, thick description

– External Audit

Addressing Research Bias

“I am not an impartial bystander when it comes to service learning so I knew I had to enhance internal validity at the outset of the study. I have been involved with Community Action service learning projects for over 16 years as a teacher. I have co-authored a book on how to facilitate Community Action service learning projects which I have used to implement service learning projects in my own classroom. My students have been featured in Reader‟s Digest and have been guests on the Phil Donahue Show because of their outstanding work in service learning. Being aware of this bias, I took extreme precautions to maintain objectivity during both the collection and analysis of the data thereby accurately representing the project fairly and accurately” (Terry, 2001).

Reliability or Dependability

• From a quantitative perspective, reliability refers to the

extent to which research findings can be replicated

• From a qualitative perspective, dependability, (reliability) in

qualitative research is not based on outsiders getting the

same results, but that outsiders concur that, given the data

collected, the results make sense. In other words, the

results are dependable and consistent (Lincoln & Guba,

1985).

External Validity

• Concerned with the extent to which the findings of one study can be applied to other situations

• Quantitative studies enhance external validity using a priori conditions which are limiting in conducting qualitative research

• External validity is problematic in qualitative research because “In qualitative research, a single case or small nonrandom sample is selected precisely because the researcher wishes to understand the particular in depth, not to find out what is generally true of the many” (Merriam, 1998, p. 208).

Applying external validity to qualitative research

Think in terms of the reader of the study

What is the extent to which a study’s findings can apply to other situations?

This is referred to as Representativeness or Transferability

Merriam (1998) suggests: rich, thick description and typicality, modal category, or multisite designs

“To enhance external validity in this study, these procedures were followed:

CHAPTER 11:

RESEARCH REPORT PREPARATION AND

PRESENTATION

RESEARCH REPORT

A research report is:

◦ a written document or oral presentation based on a written document that communicates the purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations and finally, recommendations of a research project to others.

◦ The last stage of a marketing research process.;

◦ It is more than a summary of findings; rather it is a record of the research process.

The researcher has to convince the client [and others who may read the report] that the research findings can be acted on for their own benefit.

Types of Research Report I

Any research report contains:◦ descriptions on methodology,

◦ results obtained,

◦ and recommendations made.

The basic orientation of a research report depends on its audience. Before writing the report◦ the researcher must know his or her audience;

◦ he/she may have to make assumptions about the composition, background and interests of the target readers.

Types of Research Report II

Two types of reports:-◦ Technical Report: suitable for a target audience of researchers, research managers or other people familiar with and

interested in the technicalities such as research design, sampling methods, statistical details etc.,

◦ Popular Report: suitable for: a more general audience, interested mainly in the research

findings as it is non-technical in nature.

◦ The writing style is designed to facilitate easy and rapid reading and understanding of the research findings and recommendations.

REPORT PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION PROCESS

Pre-report

Writing

Activities

Report

Writing

Activities

Post

Report

Writing

Problem Definition,Research Designand Methodology

DataAnalysis

Interpretation ofResearchfindings

ReportPreparation

OralPresentattion

Reading of theReport by the

client

RESEARCHFOLLOW-UP

The first step in the process involves..

the interpretation of the results of data analysis in light of:

◦ the marketing research problem investigated,

◦ and the research design and methodology followed.

The research report is a means of communication that can be understood, believed, trusted by everyone who are likely to be affected by the

research, and acted upon by the decision maker.

Before writing the report…

the researcher should discuss: the major findings, conclusions, and recommendations with the key decision makers. ◦ necessary to ensure that the report meets the client's

needs and is ultimately accepted.

The entire marketing research project:◦ should be summarized in a single written report or in

several reports addressed to different readers.

◦ should present the findings in such a way that they can be used directly as input into decision making.

Oral Presentation

• Generally, an oral presentation supplements the written report.

• The client should be given adequate time to

read the report.

– If necessary, the researcher should assist the client in understanding the report, implementing the findings, undertaking further research, and evaluating the research process in retrospect.

Report Format

No universally accepted standard format or style for research writing. Different researchers may prepare their reports differently.

◦ The personality, background, expertise, and responsibility of the researcher and those of the decision maker for whom the report is written interact to give each report a unique character.

◦ Report formats are likely to vary with the nature of the project itself. However, the research report closely resembles the steps of the marketing research process.

Most research reports include the following elements:

I. Title pageII. Letter of transmittalIII. Table of contentsIV. List of tablesV. List of graphsVI. List of appendicesVII. List of exhibitsVIII. Executive summary

a. Major findingsb. Conclusionsc. Recommendations

IX. Introductiona. Background to the

problemb. Statement of the problem

X. Approach to the problem

XI. Research design

a. Type of research designb. Information needsc. Data collection from secondary sourcesd. Data collection from primary sourcese. Scaling techniquesf. Questionnaire development and pretestingg. Sampling techniques

h. Field work

XII. Data analysisa. Methodologyb. Plan of data analysis

XIII. Results

XIV. Limitations and caveats

XV. Conclusions and recommendations

XVI. Appendixa. Questionnaires and forms

b. Statistical outputc. Lists

The results...

may be presented in several chapters of the report.

◦ For example, a Malaysian researcher conducting a national survey, may perform the data analysis in two stages.

First, he or she may analyze the overall national sample followed by nine separate analysis for each of the states.

The results may then be presented in ten chapters [ one overall plus nine state based] instead of one.

Report Writing I

Effective report writing is an art.

Some basic points to note in writing a report.◦ Readers: The report should take into account the level of readers'

technical sophistication, their interest in the project, ability to understand as well as the circumstances under which they will read the report and how they will use it..

◦ Adherence to study objectives: A research report must show that the research objectives have been accomplished..

◦ Easy to follow: The most basic characteristic of a good report is that it is easy to follow.

It should be well organized, logically structured, and clearly and lucidly written. Headings and sub-headings should be used for different topics and subtopics respectively..

Report Writing II

Objective: Report writing should always be guided by objectivity.

◦ Should accurately present the methodology, results, and conclusions of the project, without slanting the findings to conform to the expectations of management.

Selectivity: A researcher must use his or her discretion in deciding what should be included in the report.

Concise: A report should be concise. Yet brevity should not be achieved at the expense of completeness.

Presentation: The report should be professionally done with

quality paper, good typing, and attractive binding.

Report Writing III

Visual aids: Key information presented in the text of a research report should be reinforced with tables, graphs, pictures, maps, and other visual devices.

Guidelines for Tables: Statistical tables are a vital part of the report and deserve special attention.◦ Every table should have a number and brief but clear title.

◦ Basis or unit of measurement should be clearly stated to facilitate understanding.

◦ The arrangement of the data item should emphasize the most important aspect of the data being presented.

◦ If necessary, explanations, comments etc. should be provided as footnotes.

◦ If the table presents secondary data, the source(s) must be cited clearly.

Oral Presentation

Should be carefully prepared keeping the audience in mind.

A good presentation does not mean a lengthy presentation.

Carefully selected visual aids such as graphs, tables, charts, maps etc. help presentation.◦ However, Too many visual aids, particularly statistical tables,

could often be boring and may not serve any purpose.

During oral presentation, people may seek clarification.◦ The speaker must be patient and should not show signs of

anger or frustration. He or she should be natural, establish eye contact with the audience, and interact with them.

◦ Body language and descriptive gestures are also quite useful.

RESEARCH METHODS_MGS_2010-FULL

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