Research Methods

CASA Writing Center

Ethnography

ethno-graphy

ethno = people graphy = writing

ethnography = writing about people

Defining ethnography

"the study and systematic recording of human cultures; also: a descriptive work produced from such research" (Merriam-Webster, 2012).

"a systematic study of a particular cultural group or phenomenon, based upon extensive fieldwork in one or more selected locales" (Reimer, 2011, p. 163).

What is the purpose of ethnography?"The ethnographer is interested in the

socio‑cultural contexts and processes in which people live their lives, as well as the meaning systems which motivate them... the actors and their corresponding actions, behaviors, and beliefs are examined within the cultural and societal context in which they take place" (Whitehead, 2004, p. 15).

Ethnography is...study of a particular group - in their natural

setting, doing everyday activities, practices, processes

embedding oneself into a culture to observe and describe patterns

cultural interpretation (Reimer, 2011)

cultural patterns or processes of a community

finding the inner workings of social settings

What is an ethnographer?the data collection instrument (Reimer, 2011)

gaining the "insider" perspective translating this perspective for outsiders

"We bring our cultural selves with us wherever we go, and even with the best of intentions, an ethnographer can never see life completely through another person's eyes... the ethnographer is never able to completely write him or herself out of the ethnography" (Reimer, 2011, p. 165).

An ethnographer is...a researcher - in and out of the field

an observer

a participant

an interviewer

an interpreter

What is the goal?• To gain an "insider's" perspective on a

community, culture, or group of individuals

• To develop a cultural interpretationo cultural constructions, values, norms,

processes, meanings

Dogtown and Z Boys (2001)

Examples of EthnographyCounter Culture (2009)

History of Ethnography• Foundations in anthropology, sociology, social

anthropology, cultural anthropologyo an interest in observing and understanding

the culture and processes of "the Other"o i.e. tribal, native, or indigenous cultures

• Ethnography has moved/moves beyond these foundations to explore cultures and communities in all areas of life.

Why ethnography? As a process, ethnographic research allows the

individual to observe, interact, experience, and participate in a community or culture.

As a product, ethnographic research - or an ethnography - translates and offers an “insider’s” perspective on the community or culture for outsiders.This allows others to understand the community or

culture more fully. Why might this be valuable?

Research MethodsQuantitativedata can be measured

deals with numbers

raw data is used to construct graphs or tables

fails to capture human experience

Qualitativedata can be observed, but not

measured

explores the experiences of participants

descriptive data

gathers information in a non-numerical forminterviews, diary accounts,

open-ended questionnaires, observations

Research MethodsEthnographic research methods include both

quantitative and qualitative research.

• quantitative: survey data, background research

• qualitative: observations, field notes, interviews, interactions, reflections

Research Question Before beginning any research project, it is

important to consider what you are researching and why.

What is your research question?

Please refer to your instructor’s assignment guidelines and/or develop your own research question as necessary.

Ethical Considerations“The need to protect research participants is

so critical that all ethnographers, even students conducting ethnographic research for a class, must abide by this code of conduct” (Reimer, 2011, p. 171).

Code of ConductPlease ask your professor or the Institutional

Review Board (IRB) for more information regarding ethical considerations in ethnographic research.

Code of Conduct, American Anthropological Association (1998)Your ethnographic research should not:

Harm or exploit its participantsYour ethnographic research should:

Seek informed consent from participantsRespect the anonymity or recognition of

participants

What are ethnographic research methods?“ethnographic reconnaissance” (Wolcott, 2008, p. 187).

fieldwork – researcher in “the field”

researcher as data instrument

observation of community

data collectionCompose fieldnotes through observation.Revise and add to fieldnotes through reflection.Conduct interviews (informal or structured) and/or

surveys with members of the community or group.Collect site documents and/or representative artifacts

of the community or group.

data analysis

report writing

"Ethnographic Reconnaissance"

• reconnaissance: a mission to survey, explore, and obtain information

• exploration of a community or field site to orient oneself

• Visit your site and check it out – it’s okay to feel like an outsider!

Wolcott (2008) argues that it allows the researcher "to make a better-informed decision as to whether or how to proceed with more thorough investigation" (p. 188).

Fieldwork• "the field" is the natural setting of the

community or culture being observedo For example, if researching the community of regular diners

at a cafe, one would observe this community at the cafe.

• Give yourself time to observe.o It is best to return to "the field" as often as possible to gain

an insider's perspective on the community and its processes, practices, and/or values.

• Fieldwork cannot be rushed. Don’t procrastinate! o "Certainly, the more time available for fieldwork the better"

(Wolcott, 2008, p. 190).

Researcher - EthnographerEthnographer as the data instrumentUsing your own experiences, observations,

and perceptions to observe and take note of a community or culture

In addition to observation and interviews, ethnographers conduct outside research to learn more about the community or culture they are researching. This helps them in the field and also in writing

their ethnographic reports.

ObservationThis takes time!Be sure to seek permission to observe a

community. Prepare a statement of purpose to explain your

reasons for being there.Return to your field site as often and as many

times as possible. This will depend on the time you have available

to conduct your own ethnographic research.

Types of Observation• Participant Observation

o The researcher becomes an active participant in the community while observing.

o Experiential observation

• Non-Participant Observationo The passive observero "fly on the wall"o The researcher does not become an active

participant in the community. o Focus on observation only - no interaction

Observation as Experience"Participant observation is founded on firsthand experience in naturally occurring events" (Wolcott, 2004, p. 49).

Using all five senses to observe, experience, and absorb.

Documenting these observations in field notes.

Data Collection - Field notesKeep a notebook with you to take notes

and/or make sketches.Outsider perspective / insider perspective Each time you sit down to observe, date your

notes.Some things you could consider are:

Observe WHO is present – what are their roles?WHAT they are doing?WHY are they doing this?Consider the focus and purpose of your research.

Writing Field Notes

“As quickly as possible, write up notes about what you learn, including first impressions, problems you anticipate, leads you might follow, analytical concepts you may later want to consider. Keep track as well of your emotional responses and information gained through all your senses, not just what you have ‘seen’” (Wolcott, 2008, p. 193).

Field Notes – What to write?First impressionsInformation gained through all your sensesProblems you anticipate Leads or interests you might followAnalytical concepts

i.e. discourse community theory Emotional responses

(Wolcott, 2008)

InterviewsSeeking permission – informed consentUsing a recording device

Interviews – sitting down face-to-face with an individual to discuss questionsFormal – structured Q&AInformal – more like a conversation

Guided by prepared questions, but flexible to discuss responses of interviewee(s)

SurveysSurveys – developing questions for

participants to respond to and return to the researcherAllow for a larger response populationCan offer numerical data and open-ended

responses

Collecting Site DocumentsHow are people communicating? How is information gathered and/or shared?Genres – newsletters, memos, formsMedia – images, web sources, videos

“…texts… are reflections of shared practice, societal norms, and public relationships, [and] they are potentially rich sources of data” (Reimer, 2011, p. 168).

Data AnalysisYou will analyze the data you have collected

according to the focus of your research.

Return to your Research Question.

Report Writing AbstractIntroduction Background – Review of the Literature

Informing your reader about the community or culture, its history, its construction, its importance, etc.

Methods Discussing your methods of ethnographic research

Results Analyzing the results Using the data you collected in your observations,

interviews, site documents, etc.

Discussion

How do I do ethnography?• Select a community or group of individuals that

you will study.

• Develop a focus or question for your study.o i.e. What are the goals and characteristics of this discourse

community?

• Set up a time to observe your community.o It is best to return to your field of study numerous times.

• Compose thorough field notes and return to reflect on them often.

• Interact with individuals within the community. o Seek interviews or distribute surveys.

• Organize your findings.

• Analyze your findings.

Ethnography activity - Step 1

Imagine you are asked to conduct ethnographic research to learn more about the goals and values of college freshmen.

• Create five (5) interview questions you could ask an "insider" of this community.

Ethnography Activity - Step 2

• Using the five (5) interview questions you created, travel to another table and interview an individual. o Be sure to take notes on their responses.

Ethnography ModelsIf you’d like to look at some examples of

ethnographic research and reports, see the Writing About Writing textbook: Mirabelli, T. “Learning to serve: The language and

literacy of food service workers” (p. 538) McCarthy, L. P. “A stranger in strange lands: A college

student writing across the curriculum” (p. 667) Branick, S. “Coaches can read, too: An ethnographic

study of a football coaching discourse community” (p. 557)

ReferencesAmerican Anthropological Association. (1998). Code of ethics of the American

Anthropological Association. Retrieved from

http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethcode.htm

Reimer, J. F. (2011). Ethnography research. In S. D. Lapan, M. T. Quartaroli, & F. J. Reimer (Eds.), Qualitative research: An introduction to methods and designs (pp. 163-188). Hoboken, NJ: Jossey Bass.

Wolcott, H. F. (2008). Ethnography as a way of seeing, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Alta Mira Press.

Whitehead, T. L. (2004). What is ethnography? Methodological, ontological, and

epistemological attributes. Cultural Ecology of Health and Change

(CEHC). Retrieved from http://www.cusag.umd.edu/documents/

WorkingPapers/EpiOntAttrib.pdf