LECTURE 3

Theory before Research

According to one major school of thought, theory should come first , to be followed by research ; this often referred to as the theory-then research strategy. The theory-then research strategy involves the following five steps.

1. Construct an explicit theory or model.

2. Select a proposition derived from the theory or model for empirical investigation.

3. Design a research project to test the proposition.

4. If the proposition derived from the theory is rejected by empirical data, make change in the theory or the research project.

5. If the proposition is not rejected, select other proposition for testing or

attempt to improve the theory.

Research before Theory

Robert Merton, a proponent of the research-then theory strategy argued that research plays an active role; it performs at least for major function which help shape the development of theory. It initiates, reformulate, deflects and clarifies theory.

The research-then-theory strategy consist of the followings.

1. Investigate a phenomena and delineate its attribute.

2. Measure the attribute in a variety of situations.

3. Analyze the resulting data to determine if there are systematic patterns of variations.

4. Once systematic patterns are discovered, construct theory.

Clearly, both strategies regard theory as a manifestation of scientific progress. The dilemma is over the place of theory in the research process. The social science have progressed in-spite of this controversy and scientific undertakings are being pursued under both strategies. In fact, theory and research interact continuously.

LECTURE 4

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

STEP 1 TO 3

Objectives of the Topic• To identify the steps in the research process.

• To identify problem areas that are likely to be studied in organizations.

• To discuss how problem areas can be identified in the work setting.

• To state research problems clearly and precisely.

• To develop relevant and comprehensive bibliography for any organization research area.

• To write a literature review on any given topic, documenting the reference in the prescribed manner.

• To apply all you have learned to a group project that might be assigned to you.

The Research Process for Applied and Basic Research

Observation          

Preliminary Data Gathering          

Problem definition

 TheoreticalFramework

VariablesIdentification

Generation of Hypothesis

Scientific

ResearchDesign

Data Collection,analysis & interpretation

Deduction

                     

 

 

Broad Problem Area

The broad problem area refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research and problem solving.Examples of broad problem areas that a manager could observe in the workplace as follows.

1. Training programmes are perhaps are not as effective as were anticipated.

2. The sale volume of a product is not picking up.

3. Minority groups are not making career progress in organizations.

4. The balancing of accounting ledgers is becoming a continuing concern.

5. The newly installed information system is not being used by the managers for whom it was primarily designed.

6. The introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems has it has solved in many companies.

7. The management of complex, multi-departmental projects is getting out of hand in a firm.

The broad problem area would be narrowed down to specific issues for investigation after some preliminary data are gathered by the researcher. This may take the form of interviews and library research.

Preliminary Data Collection

Nature of data to be collected

The nature of information that would be needed by the researcher for the purpose could be classified under three headings.

1. Background information of the organizations (secondary data) 2. Managerial philosophy, company policies, and other structural aspects

3. Perception, attitudes, and behavioral response of the organizational member and client systems (if applicable) - primary data.

Background Information on the Organization• The origin and history of the company - when it was started, rate of

growth, ownership and control and so on.

• Size, in terms of employees, or assets or both.

• Charter - purpose and ideology

• Location - regional, national or other.

• Resource - human and other.

• Interdependent relationships with other institutions and the external environment, financial position during the last five to ten years and other financial data.

Information on Management Philosophy and Structural Factors

• Roles and positions in the organization and number of employees at each job level.

• Extent of specialization.

• Communication channels.

• Control systems.

• Coordination and span of control.

• Reward systems.

• Workflow systems and the like.

Perception, Attitudes, and Behavioral Responses

• Nature of work.

• Workflow interdependence.

• Superiors in the organization.

• Participation in decision making.

• Client systems.

• Co-workers

• Rewards provided by the organization such as pay and fringe benefits.

• Opportunities for advancement in the organization.

• Family environment and relationship.

• Involvement in community, civic, and other social groups.

• Views on taking time off the job.

Literature Survey

- Literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher.

- The library is a rich storage base for secondary data, and researchers spend several weeks, and sometimes months, going through books, journals, newspapers, magazines, conference proceedings, doctoral dissertations, master's thesis, several government publications and financial marketing and other reports.

Reasons for Literature Survey

A good literature surveys ensures that:• Important variables that are likely to influence the problem are not left

out of the study.

• Literature survey helps the development of theoretical framework and hypotheses for testing.

• Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research are enhanced.

• The problem statement can be made with greater precision and clarity.

• One does not run the risk of “reinvesting the wheel” that is, wasting efforts on trying to rediscover something that is already known.

• The problem investigated is perceived by the scientific community as relevant and of significance.

Conducting the Literature Survey

It can be conducted in three steps.

1. Identifying the relevant sources.

2. Extracting the relevant information.

3. Writing up the literature survey

Identification of the Relevant Sources

Basically there are three forms of text database:

1. Bibliographic database: It displays only the bibliographic citations - i.e., the name of the author, the article, source of publication, year, volume, and page numbers.

2. Abstract database: it provides, in addition, an abstract or summary of

the article.

3. Full-text database: it also provides a full text of the article. Thus, entire articles can be retrieved on-line, if necessary.

Bibliographical Indexes: It list the articles published in periodicals, newspapers, books and so on are important sources of information easily accessible to the researcher.

Extracting the relevant information

The following information may be extracted form the article:

1. Problem

2. Variables

3. Sample

4. Data collection

5. Data analysis

6. Results

7. Conclusion

8. Any other information/comments

Writing up the Literature Review

The documentation of the relevant studies citing the author and the year of the study is called literature review or literature survey.

The literature survey is a clear and logical presentation of the research work done thus for in the area of investigation.

The purpose of literature survey is to identify and highlight the important variables, and to document the significant findings from earlier research that will serve as the foundation on which the subsequent theoretical framework for the current investigation can based and the hypothesis developed.

Problem Definition

Problem is defined as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal state.

Examples of well defined problems

1. To what extent do the structure of the organization and type of information systems installed account for the variance in the perceived effectiveness of managerial decisions?

2. What is the influence of information on price and quality on consumer

evaluation of competing brands?

3. Does the income statement in the balance sheet elicit the same kinds of reader reactions toward the company as the cash flow statement?

4. Is the effect of participative budgeting on performance moderated by the control system?

5. Does better automation lead to greater asset investment for dollar of output?

6. Does international expansion result in an increase in the firm’s value.

7. What are the effects of downsizing on the long range growth patterns of companies?

9. What are the components of “quality of life”?

Practice Project

Do the project assigned below, following the step-by-step process delineated therein:

1. Compile a bibliography on any one of the following topics, or any topic of interest to you from a business perspective: (a) day care (b) product development (C) information systems (d) manufacturing technology (e) assessment centers (f) transfer pricing.

2. From this bibliography, select ten references that include books, periodicals, and newspaper items.

3. Based on these ten articles, write a literature review using different forms.

4. Formulate a problem statement.